TROBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES.
"A knowledge of the commonplace, at least, of Oriental literature, philo sophy, and religion is as necessary to the general reader of the present day as an acquaintance with the Latin and Greek classics was a generation or so ago. Immense strides have been made within the present century in these branches of learning ; Sanskrit has been brought within the range of accurate philology, and its invaluable ancient literature thoroughly investigated ; the language and sacred books of the Zoroastrians have been laid bare ; Egyptian, Assyrian, and other records of the remote past have been deciphered, and a group of scholars speak of still more recondite Accadian and Hittite monu ments ; but the results of all the scholarship that has been devoted to these subjects have been almost inaccessible to the public because they were con tained for the most part in learned or expensive works, or scattered through out the numbers of scientific periodicals. Messrs. TuiJBNER & Co., in a spirit of enterprise which does them infinite credit, have determined to supply the constantly-increasing want, and to give in a popular, or, at least, a compre hensive form, all this mass of knowledge to the world." — Times.
Second Edition, post 8vo, pp. xxxii. — 748, with Map, cloth, price 2is.
THE INDIAN EMPIRE : ITS PEOPLE, HISTORY, AND PRODUCTS.
By the HON. SIR W. W. HUNTER, K. C.S.I., C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D.,
Member of the Viceroy's Legislative Council, Director-Geueral of Statistics to the Government of India.
Being a Revised Edition, brought up to date, and incorporating the general results of the Census of 1881.
" It forms a volume of more than 700 pages, and is a marvellous combination of literary condensation and research. It gives a complete account of the Indian Empire, its history, peoples, and products, and forms the worthy outcome or' seventeen years of labour with exceptional opportunities for rendering that labour fruitful. Nothing could be more lucid than Sir William Hunter's expositions of the economic and political condition of India at the present time, or more interesting tnan his scholarly history of the India of the past." — The. Times.
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THE FOLLOWING WORKS HAVE ALREADY APPEARED:— Third Edition, post 8vo, cloth, pp. xvi.— 428, price i6s.
ESSAYS ON THE SACRED LANGUAGE, WRITINGS,
AND RELIGION OF THE PARSIS.
BY MARTIN HAUG, PH.D.,
Late of the Universities of Tubingen, Gottingen, and Bonn ; Superintendent of Sanskrit Studies, and Professor of Sanskrit in the Poona College.
EDITED AND ENLARGED BY DR. E. W. WEST. To which is added a Biographical Memoir of the late Dr. HAUG
by Prof. E. P. EVANS. I. History of the Researches into the Sacred Writings and Religion of the
Parsis, from the Earliest Times down to the Present. IT. Languages of the Parsi Scriptures.
III. The Zend-Avesta, or the Scripture of the Parsis.
IV. The Zorosistrian .Religion, as to its Origin and Development.
" ' Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings, and Religion of the Parsis,' by the late Dr. Martin Haug, edited by Dr. E. W. West. The author intended, on his return from India, to expand the materials contained in this work into a comprehensive account of the Zoroastrian religion, but the design was frustrated by his untimely death. We have, however, in a concise and readable form, a history of the researches into the sacred writings and religion of the Parsis from the earliest times down to the present — a dissertation on the languages of the Parsi Scriptures, a translation of the Zend-Avesta, or the Scripture of the Parsis, and a dissertation on the Zoroas- trian religion, with especial reference to its origin and development." — Times.
Post 8vo, cloth, pp. viii. — 176, price 75. 6d.
TEXTS FROM THE BUDDHIST CANON
COMMONLY KNOWN AS " DHAMMAPADA."
With Accompanying Narratives.
Translated from the Chinese by S. BEAL, B.A., Professor of Chinese, University College, London.
The Dhammapada, as hitherto known by the Pali Text Edition, as edited by Fausboll, by Max Mtiller's English, and Albrecht Weber's German translations, consists only of twenty-six chapters or sections, whilst the Chinese version, or rather recension, as now translated by Mr. Beal, con sists of thirty-nine sections. The students of Pali who possess Fausboll's text, or either of the above-named translations, will therefore needs want Mr. Beal's English rendering of the Chinese version ; the thirteen above- named additional sections not being accessible to them in any other form ; for, even if they understand Chinese, the Chinese original would be un obtainable by them.
"Mr. Beal's rendering of the Chinese translation is a most valuable aid to the critical study of the work. It contains authentic texts gathered from ancient canonical books, and generally connected with some incident in the history of Buddha. Their great interest, however, consists in the light which they throw upon everyday life in India at the remote period at which they were written, and upon the method of teaching adopted by the founder of the religion. The method employed was principally parable, and the simplicity of the tales and the excellence of the morals inculcated, as well as the strange hold which they have retained upon the minds of millions of people, make them a very remarkable study." — Times.
"Mr. Beal, by making it accessible in an English dress, has added to the great ser vices lie has already rendered to the comparative study of religious history."— Academy.
"Valuable as exhibiting the doctrine of the Buddhists in its purest, least adul terated form, it brings the modern reader face to face with that simple creed and rule of conduct which won its way over the minds of myriads, and which is now nominally professed by 145 millions, who have overlaid its austere simplicity with innumerable ceremonies, forgotten its maxims, perverted its teaching, and so inverted its leading principle that a religion whose founder denied a God, now worships that founder as a god himself. ' — Scotsman.
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Second Edition, post 8vo, cloth, pp. xxiv. — 360, price los. 6d.
THE HISTORY OF INDIAN LITERATURE.
BY ALBRECHT WEBER.
Translated from the Second German Edition by JOHN MANN, M.A., and THEODOU ZACHAKIAK, Ph.D., with the sanction of the Author.
»Dr. BUHLER, Inspector of Schools in India, writes: — "When I was Pro- ;ssor of Oriental Languages in Klphinstone College, I frequently felt the want of such a work to which I could refer the students."
Professor COWELL, of Cambridge, writes :— " It will be especially useful to the students in our Indian colleges and universities. I used to long for such a book when I was teaching in Calcutta. Hindu students are intensely interested in the history of Sanskrit literature, and this volume will supply them with all they want on the subject."
Professor WHITNEY, Yale College, Newhaven, Conn., U.S.A., writes :— " I was one of the class to whom the work was originally given in the form of academic lectures. At their first appearance they were by far the most learned and able treatment of their subject ; and with their recent additions they still maintain decidedly the same rank."
" Is perhaps the most comprehensive and lucid survey of Sanskrit literature extant. The essays contained iu the volume were originally delivered as academic- lectures, and at the time of their first publication were acknowledged to be by far the most learned and able treatment of the subject. They have now been brought up to date by the addition of all the most important results of recent research." — Times.
Post 8vo, cloth, pp. xii. — 198, accompanied by Two Language Maps, price ys. 6d.
A SKETCH OF THE MODERN LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES.
BY ROBERT N. GUST.
The Author has attempted to fill up a vacuum, the inconvenience of which pressed itself on his notice. Much had been written about the languages of the East Indies, but the extent of our present knowledge had not even been brought to a focus. It occurred to him that it might be of use to others to publish in an arranged form the notes which he had collected for his own edification.
" Supplies a deficiency which has long been felt." — Times.
" The book before us is then a valuable contribution to philological science. It passes under review a vast number of languages, and it gives, or professes to give, in every case the sum and substance of the opinions and judgments of the best-informed writers." — Saturday Review.
Second Corrected Edition, post 8vo, pp. xii. — 116, cloth, price 53.
THE BIRTH OF THE WAR-GOD.
A Poem. BY KALIDASA.
Translated from the Sanskrit into English Verse by RALPH T. H. GRIFFITH, M.A.
" A very spirited rendering of the Kumdraxambhava, which was first published twenty-six years ago, and which we are glad to see made once more accessible." — Times,
" Mr. Griffith's very spirited rendering is well known to most who arc at all interested in Indian literature, or enjoy the tenderness of feeling and rich creative imagination of its author." — Indian Antiquary.
" We are very glad to welcome a second edition of Professor Griffith's admirable translation. Few translations deserve a second edition better." — Athenaum.
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Post 8vo, pp. 432, cloth, price i6s.
A CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF HINDU MYTHOLOGY
AND RELIGION, GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, AND
LITERATURE.
BY JOHN DOWSON, M.R.A.S., Late Professor of Hindustani, Staff College.
"This not only forms an indispensable book of reference to students of Indian literature, but is also of great general interest, as it gives in a concise and easily accessible form all that need be known about the personages of Hindu mythology whose names are so familiar, but of whom so little is known outside the limited circle of savants."^- Times.
" It is HO slight gain when such subjects are treated fairly and fully in a moderate space ; and we need only add that the few wants which we may hope to see supplied in 3iew editions detract but little from the general excellence of Mr. Dowsou's work." — Saturday Review.
Post 8vo, with View of Mecca, pp. cxii. — 172, cloth, price gs. SELECTIONS FROM THE KORAN.
BY EDWARD WILLIAM LANE,
Translator of " The Thousand and One Nights ; " &c., &c. A New Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with an Introduction by
STANLEY LANE POOLE.
"... Has been Ion? esteemed in this country as the compilation of one of the greatest Arabic scholars of the time, the late Mr. Lane, the well-known translator of the 'Arabian Nights.' . . . The present editor has enhanced the value of his relative's work by divesting the text of a great deal of extraneous matter introduced by way of comment, and prefixing an introduction." — 'Times.
" Mr. Poole is both a generous and a learned biographer. . . . Mr. Poole tells us the facts ... so far as it is possible for industry and criticism to ascertain them, and for literary skill to present them in a condensed and readable form." — English man, Calcutta.
Post 8vo, pp. vi. — 368, cloth, price 143.
MODERN INDIA AND THE INDIANS,
BEING A SERIES OF IMPRESSIONS, NOTES, AND ESSAYS.
BY MONIER WILLIAMS, D.C.L., lldii. LL.D. of the University of Calcutta, Hon. Member of the Bombay Asiatic
Society, Boden Professor of Sanskrit iu the University of Oxford. Third Edition, revised and augmented by considerable Additions,
with Illustrations and a Map.
" In this volume we have the thoughtful impressions of a thoughtful man on some of the most important questions connected with our Indian Empire. . . . An en lightened observant man, travelling among an enlightened observant people, Professor Monier Williams has brought before the public in a pleasant form more of the manners and customs of the Queen's Indian subjects than we ever remember to have seen in any one work. He not only deserves the thanks of every Englishman for this able contribution to the study of Modern India— a subject with which we should be specially familiar — but he deserves the thanks of every Indian, Parsee or Hindu, Buddhist and Moslem, for his clear exposition of their manners, their creeds, and tludr necessities." — Times.
Post 8vo, pp. xliv. — 376. cloth, price 145.
METRICAL TRANSLATIONS FROM SANSKRIT WRITERS.
With an Introduction, many Prose Versions, and Parallel Passages from
Classical Authors.
BY J. MUIR, C.I.E., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D. "... An agreeable introduction to Hindu poetry." — Timrs.
"... A volume which may be taken as a fair illustration alike of the religious and moral sentiments and of the legendary lore of the best Sanskrit writers."— Edinburgh Daily Jieview.
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Second Edition, post 8vo, pp. xxvi. — 244, cloth, price ics. 6d.
THE GULISTAN; OR, HOSE GARDEN OF SHEKH MUSHLIU'D-DIN SADI OF SHIRAZ.
Translated for the First Time into Prose and Verse, with an Introductory Preface, and a Life of the Author, from the Atish Kadali,
BY EDWARD B. EASTWICK, C.B., M.A., F.R.S., M.R.A.S.
" It is a very fair rendering of the original." — Times.
" The new edition has long been desired, and will be welcomed by all who take any interest in Oriental poetry. The Gulistan is a typical Persian verse-book of the highest order. Mr. Eastwiek's rhymed translation . . . has long established itself in a secure position as the best version of Sadi's finest work." — Academy.
" It is both faithfully and gracefully executed." — Tablet.
In Two Volumes, post 8vo, pp. viii. — 408 and viii. — 348, cloth, price 283.
MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS RELATING TO INDIAN SUBJECTS.
BY BRIAN HOUGHTON HODGSON, ESQ., K.K.S.,
Late of the Bengal Civil Service ; Corresponding Member of the Institute ; Chevalier of the Legion of Honour ; late British Minister at the Court of Nepal, <kc., &c.
CONTENTS Ol- VOL. I.
SECTION I. — On the Kocch, B6do, and Dhimal Tribes. — Part I. Vocabulary. — Part II. Grammar. — Part III. Their Origin, Location, Numbers, Creed, Customs, Character, and Condition, with a General Description of the Climate they dwell in — Appendix.
SECTION II. — On Himalayan Ethnology. — I. Comparative Vocabulary of the Lan guages of the Broken Tribes of Ne*pal. — II. Vocabulary of the Dialects of the Kiranti Language. — III. Grammatical Analysis of the Vayu Language. The Viiyu Grammar. — IV. Analysis of the Balling Dialect of the Kiranti Language. The Balling Gram mar.— V. On the Vayu or Hayu Tribe of the Central Himalaya.— VI. On tne Kiranti Tribe of the Central Himalaya.
CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
SECTION III.— On the Aborigines of North-Eastern India. Comparative Vocabulary of the Tibetan, B6d6, and Garo Tongues.
SECTION IV. — Aborigines of the North-Eastern Frontier.
SECTION V. — Aborigines of the Eastern Frontier.
SECTION VI.— The Indo-Chinese Borderers, and their connection with the Hima- layaiis and Tibetans. Comparative Vocabulary of Indo-Chinese Borderers in Arakan. Comparative Vocabulary of Indo-Chinese Borderers in Tenasserim.
SECTION VII. — The Mongolian Affinities of the Caucasians. — Comparison and Ana lysis of Caucasian and Mongolian Words.
SECTION VIII.— Physical Type of Tibetans.
SECTION IX. — The Aborigines of Central India. — Comparative Vocabulary of the Aboriginal Languages of Central India. — Aborigines of the Eastern Ghats. — Vocabu lary of some of the Dialects of the Hill and Wandering Tribes in the Northern Sircars. — Aborigines of the Nilgiris, with Remarks on their Affinities. — Supplement to the Nilgirian Vocabularies. — The Aborigines of Southern India and Ceylon.
SECTION X. — Route of Nepalese Mission to Pekin, with Remarks on the Water- Shed and Plateau of Tibet.
SECTION XL— Route from Kathmandu, the Capital of Nepal, to Darjeeling iu Sikim.— Memorandum relative to the Seven Cosis of Nepal.
SECTION XII. — Some Accounts of the Systems of Law and Police as recognised in the State of Nepal.
SECTION XIII. — The Native Method of making the Paper denominated Hindustan, Nepalese.
SECTION XIV. — Pre-eminence of the Vernaculars; or, the Anglicists Answered ; Being Letters on the Education of the People of India.
" For the study of the less-known races of India Mr. Brian Hodgson's ' Miscellane ous Essays ' will be found very valuable both to the philologist and the ethnologist."
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Third Edition, Two Vols., post 8vo, pp. viii.— 268 and viii.— 326, cloth, price 2is.
THE LIFE OR LEGEND OF GAUDAMA,
THE BUDDHA OF THE BURMESE. With Annotations. The Ways to Neibban, and Notice on the Phongyies or Burmese Monks.
BY THE RIGHT REV. P. BIGANDET, Bishop of Ramatha, Vicar- Apostolic of Ava and Pegu.
"The work is furnished with copious notes, wnich not only illustrate the subject- matter, but form a perfect encyclopaedia of Buddhist lore." — Times.
"A work which will furnish European students of Buddhism with a most valuable help in the prosecution of their investigations." — Edinburgh Daily Review.
"Bishop Bigandet's invaluable work." — Indian Antiquary.
" Viewed in this light, its importance is sufficient to place students of the subject under a deep obligation to its author." — Calcutta Review.
" This work is one of the greatest authorities upon Buddhism." — Dublin Review.
Post 8vo, pp. xxiv.— 420, cloth, price i8s.
CHINESE BUDDHISM. A VOLUME OF SKETCHES, HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL.
BY J. EDKINS, D.D. Author of "China's Place in Philology," "Religion in China," &c., &c.
"It contains a vast deal of important information on the subject, such as is only to be gained by long-continued study on the spot. "— A t henceum.
"Upon the whole, we know of no work comparable to it for the extent of its oi-iginal research, and the simplicity with which this complicated system of philo sophy, religion, literature, and ritual is set forth." — British Quarterly Review.
" The whole volume is replete with learning. ... It deserves most careful study from all interested in the history of the religions of the world, and expressly of those who are concerned in the propagation of Christianity. Pr. Edkins notices in terms of just condemnation the exaggerated praise bestowed upon Buddhism by recent English writers. "—Record.
Post 8vp, pp. 496, cloth, price ics. 6d. LINGUISTIC AND ORIENTAL ESSAYS.
WRITTEN FROM THE YEAR 1846 TO 1878. BY ROBERT NEEDHAM CUST,
Late Member of Her Majesty's Indian Civil Service ; Hon. Secretary to
the Royal Asiatic Society; and Author of " The Modern Languages of the East Indies."
" We know none who has described Indian life, especially the life of the natives, with so much learning, sympathy, and literary talent." — Academy.
" They seem to us to be full of suggestive and original remarks."— 52. James's Gazette.
" His book contains a vast amount of information. The result of thirty-five years of inquiry, reflection, and speculation, and that on subjects as full of fascination as of food for thought." — Tablet.
" Exhibit such a thorough acquaintance with the history and antiquities of India as to entitle him to speak as one having authority. "—Edinburgh Daily Review.
" The author speaks with the constant association with the coi to many of the pages." — Athenwur
" The author speaks with the authority of personal experience It is this
constant association with the country and the people which gives such a vividness
4-rt w»r»mT rtf fl.rt -n.^rmr, " A */,„,.,
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BUDDHIST BIRTH STORIES; or, Jataka Tales.
The Oldest Collection of Folk-lore Extant :
BEING THE JATAK ATTHA VANN ANA,
For the first time Edited in the original Pali.
BY V. FAUSBOLL ;
And Translated by T. W. RHYS DAVIDS.
Translation. Volume I.
" These are tales supposed to have been told by the Buddha of what he liad seen and heard in his previous births. They are probably the nearest representatives of the original Aryan stories from which sprang the folk-lore of Europe as well as India. Tne introduction contains a most interesting disquisition on the migrations of these fables, tracing their reappearance in the various groups of folk-lore legends. Among other old friends, we meet with a version of the J udgment of Solomon. " — Times.
" It is now some years since Mr. Rhys Davids asserted his right to be heard on this subject by his able article on Buddhism in the new edition of the ' Encyclopaedia Britannica.' " — Leeds Mercury.
" All who are interested in Buddhist literature ought to feel deeply indebted to Mr. Rhys Davids. His well-established reputation as a Pali scholar is a sufficient guarantee for the fidelity of his version, and the style of his translations is deserving of high praise." — Academy.
" No more competent expositor of Buddhism could be found than Mr. Rhys Davids. In the Jataka book we have, then, a priceless record of the earliest imaginative literature of our race ; and ... it presents to us a nearly complete picture of tho social life and customs and popular beliefs of the common people ot Aryan tribes, closely related to ourselves, just as they were passing through the first stages of civilisation." — St. James's Gazette.
Post 8vo, pp. xxviii. — 362, cloth, price 143.
A TALMUDIC MISCELLANY; Oil, A THOUSAND AND ONE EXTRACTS FROM THE TALMUD,
THE MIDRASHIM, AND THE KABBALAH.
Compiled and Translated by PAUL ISAAC HERSHON,
Author of " Genesis According to the Talmud," &c.
With Notes and Copious Indexes.
" To obtain in so concise and handy a form as this volume a general idea of the Talmud is a boon to Christians at least." — Times.
" Its peculiar and popular character will make it attractive to general readers. Mr. Hershoii is a very competent scholar. . . . Contains samples of the good, bad, a7id indifferent, and especially extracts that throw light upon the Scriptures."' British Quarterly Review.
" Will convey to English readers a more complete and truthful notion of the Talmud than any other work that has yet appeared." — Daily News.
" Without overlooking in the slightest the several attractions of the previous volumes of the ' Oriental Series.' we have no hesitation in saying that this surpasses them all in interest." — Edinburgh Daily Review.
" Mr. Hershoii has . . . thus given English readers what is, we believe, a fair set of specimens which they can test for themselves." — The Record.
" This book is by far the best fitted in the present state of knowledge to enable the general reader to gain a fair and unbiassed conception of the multifarious contents of the wonderful miscellany which can only be truly understood — so Jewish prido asserts — by the life-long devotion of scholars of the Chosen People." — Inquirer.
" The value and importance of this volume consist in the fact that scarcely a single extract is given in its pages but throws some light, direct or refracted, upon those Scriptures which are the common heritage of Jew and Christian alike." — John Bun.
" It is a capital specimen of Hebrew scholarship ; a monument of learned, loving, light-giving labour." — Jewish Herald.
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Post 8vo, pp. xii. — 228, cloth, price ys. 6d. THE CLASSICAL POETRY OF THE JAPANESE.
BY BASIL HALL CHAMBERLAIN,
Author of " Yeigo Henkaku Shiran."
" A very curious volume. The author has manifestly devoted much labour to the task of studying the poetical literature of the Japanese, and rendering characteristic specimens into English verse." — Daily News.
" Mr. Chamberlain's volume is, so far as we are aware, the first attempt which has been made to interpret the literature of the Japanese to the Western world. It is to the classical poetry of Old Japan that we must turn for indigenous Japanese thought, and in the volume before us we have a selection from that poetry rendered into graceful English verse." — Tablet.
"It is undoubtedly one of the best translations of lyric literature which has appeared during the close of the last year."— Celestial Empire.
"Mr. Chamberlain set himself a difficult task when he undertook to reproduce Japanese poetry in an English form. But he has evidently laboured con amore, and his efforts are successful to a degree." — London and China Express.
Post 8vo, pp. xiL — 164, cloth, price IDS. 6d.
THE HISTORY OF ESARHADDON (Son of Sennacherib),
KING OF ASSYRIA, B.C. 681-668.
Translated from the Cuneiform Inscriptions upon Cylinders and Tablets in the British Museum Collection ; together with a Grammatical Analysis of each Word, Explanations of the Ideographs by Extracts from the Bi-Lingual Syllabaries, and List of Eponyms, &c.
BY ERNEST A. BUDGE, B.A., M.R.A.S.,
Assyrian Exhibitioner, Christ's College, Cambridge.
" Students of scriptural archseology will also appreciate the ' History of Esar- haddon.'"— Times.
" There is much to attract the scholar in this volume. It does not pretend to popularise studies which are yet in their infancy. Its primary object is to translate, but it does not assume to be more than tentative, and it offers both to the professed Assyriologist and to the ordinary non-Assyriological Semitic scholar the means of controlling its results."— Academy.
"Mr. Budge's book is, of course, mainly addressed to Assyrian scholars and students. They are not, it is to be feared, a very numerous class. But the more thanks are due to him on that account for the way in which he has acquitted himself in his laborious teak."— Tablet.
Post 8vo, pp. 448, cloth, price 2 is. THE MESNEVI
(Usually known as THE MESNEVIYI SHEHIF, or HOLY MESNEVI)
OF MEVLANA (OUK LORD) JELALU 'D-DIN MUHAMMED ER-RUMI.
Book the First. Together with some Account of the Life and Acts of the Author,
of his Ancestors, and of his Descendants. Illustrated by a Selection of Characteristic Anecdotes, as Collected
by their Historian, MEVLANA SHEMSU-'D-DIN AHMED, EL EFLAKI, EL 'ARIFI.
Translated, and the Poetry Versified, in English, BY JAMES W. REDHOUSE, M. R.A. S., &c. " A complete treasury of occult Oriental lore. "— Saturday Review "This book will be a very valuable help to the reader ignorant of Persia, who is desirous of obtaining an insight into a very important department of the literature extant in that language."— Tablet.
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Post 8vo, pp. xvi.— 280, cloth, price 6s.
EASTERN PROVERBS AND EMBLEMS
ILLUSTRATING OLD TUUTHS.
BY REV. J. LONG, Member of the Bengal Asiatic Society, F.R.G.S.
" We regard the book as valuable, and wish for it a wide circulation and attentive reading." — Record.
" Altogether, it is quite a feast of good things." — Globe. " It is full of interesting matter." — Antiquary.
Post 8vo, pp. viii. — 270, cloth, price 73. 6d. INDIAN POETRY;
Containing a New Edition of the "Indian Song of Songs," from the Sanscrit of the "Gita Govinda" of Jayadeva ; Two Books from "The Iliad of India" (Mahabharata), "Proverbial Wisdom " from the Shlokas of the Hitopadesa, and other Oriental Poems. BY EDWIN ARNOLD, C.S.I., Author of "The Light of Asia."
" In this new volume of Messrs. Triibner's Oriental Series, Mr. Edwin Arnold does good service by illustrating, through the medium of his musical English melodies, the power of Indian poetry to stir European emotions. The ' Indian Song of Songs ' is not unknown to scholars. Mr. Arnold will have introduced it among popular English poems. Nothing could be more graceful and delicate than the shades by which Krishna is portrayed in the gradual process of being weaned by the love of
' Beautiful Radha, jasmine-bosomed Hadha,'
from the allurements of the forest nymphs, in whom the five senses are typified." — Times.
" No other English poet has ever thrown his genius and his art so thoroughly into the work of translating Eastern ideas as Mr. Arnold has done in his splendid para phrases of language contained in these mighty epics." — Daily Telegraph.
" The poem abounds with imagery of Eastern luxunousness and sensuousnt ss; the air seems laden with the spicy odours of the tropics, and the verse has a richness and a melody sufficient to captivate the senses of the dullest." — &tand<ir<l.
" The translator, while producing a very enjoyable poem, has adhered with toler able fidelity to the original text."— Overland Mail.
"We certainly wish Mr. Arnold success in his attempt 'to popularise Indian classics,' that being, as his preface tells us, the goal towards which lie bends his efforts." — Alien's Indian Mail.
Post 8vo, pp. xvi. — 296, cloth, price los. 6d.
THE MIND OF MENCIUS ;
OK, POLITICAL ECONOMY FOUNDED UPON MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
A SYSTEMATIC DIGEST OF THE DOCTRINES OP THE CHINESE PHILOSOPHER MKNCIUS.
Translated from the Original Texlj and Classified, with Comments and Explanations,
By the REV. ERNST FABER, Rhenish Mission Society.
Translated from the German, with Additional Notes, By the REV. A. B. HUTCHINSON, C.M.S., Church Mission, Hong Kong.
" Mr. Faber is already well known in the field of Chinese studies by his digest of the doctrines of Confucius. The value of this work will be perceived when it is remembered that at no time since relations commenced between China and the West has the former been so powerful — we had almost said aggressive as now. For those who will give it careful study, Mr. Faber's work is one of the most valuable of the excellent series to which it belongs." — Nature.
A 2
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Post 8vo, pp. 336, cloth, price 163.
THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA.
BY A. EARTH.
Translated from the French with the authority and assistance of the Author,
The author has, at the request of the publishers, considerably enlarged the work for the translator, and has added the literature of the subject to date ; che translation may, therefore, be looked upon as an equivalent of J» new and improved edition of the original.
" Is not only a valuable manual of the religions of India, which marks a distinct step in the treatment of the subject, but also a useful work of reference." — Academy.
"This volume is a reproduction, with corrections and additions, of an article contributed by the learned author two years ago to the ' Encyclopedic des Sciences Religieuses.' It attracted much notice when it first appeared, and is generally admitted to present the best summary extant of the vast subject with which it deals." — Tablet.
' ' This is not only on the whole the best but the only manual of the religions of India, apart from Buddhism, which we have in English. The present work . . . shows not only great knowledge of the facts and power of clear exposition, but also great insight into the inner history and the deeper meaning of the great religion, for it is in reality only one, which it proposes to describe." — Modern Review.
" The merit of the work has been emphatically recognised by the most authoritative Orientalists, both in this country and on the continent of Europe, But probably there are few Indianists (if we may use the word) who would not derive a good deal of information from it, and especially from the extensive bibliography provided in the notes." — Dublin Revieic.
" Such a sketch M. Earth has drawn with a master-hand."— Critic (New York).
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HINDU PHILOSOPHY. THE SANKHYA KARIKA OF IS'WARA KRISHNA.
An Exposition of the System of Kapila, with an Appendix on the Nyaya and Vais'eshika Systems.
BY JOHN DAVIES, M.A. (Cantab.), M.R.A.S.
The system of Kapila contains nearly all that India has produced in the department of pure philosophy.
"The non-Orientalist . . . finds in Mr. Davies a patient and learned guide who leads him into the intricacies of the philosophy of India, and supplies him with a clue that he may not be lost in them. In the preface he states that the system of Kapila is the ' earliest attempt on record to give an answer, from reason alone, to the mysterious questions which arise in every thoughtful mind about the origin of the world, the nature and relations of man and his future destiny,' and in his learned and able notes lie exhibits ' the connection of the Sankhya system with the philo sophy of Spinoza,' and ' the connection of the system of Kapila with that of Schopen hauer and Von Hartinann.' "—Foreign Church Chronicle.
" Mr. Davies's volume on Hindu Philosophy is an undoubted gain to all students of the development of thought. The system of Kapila, which is here given in a trans lation from the Sankhya Karika, is the only contribution of India to pure philosophy . . . Presents many points of deep interest to the student of comparative philo sophy, and without Mr. Davies's lucid interpretation it would be difficult to appre ciate these points in any adequate manner." — Saturday Review.
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A MANUAL OF HINDU PANTHEISM. VEDANTASARA,
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The design of this little work is to provide for missionaries, and for others who, like them, have little leisure for original research, an accurate summary of the doctrines of the Vedanta.
" The modest title of Major Jacob's work conveys but an inadequate idea of the vast amount of re>eurch embodied in his notes to the text of the Vedantasara. So copious, indeed, are these, and so much collateral matter do they bring to bear on the subject., that the diligent student will rise from their perusal with a fairly adequate view of Hindu philosophy generally. His work ... is one of the best of its kind that we have seen."— Calcutta Review.
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THE BHAGAVAD-GITA.
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THE QUATRAINS OF OMAR KHAYYAM.
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THE QUATRAINS OF OMAR KHAYYAM.
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THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE UPANISHADS AND ANCIENT INDIAN METAPHYSICS.
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A COMPARATIVE HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIAN AND MESOPOTAMIAN RELIGIONS.
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Vol. I. — HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIAN RELIGION. Translated from the Dutch with the Assistance of the Author.
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YUSUF AND ZULAIKHA.
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" Mr. Griffith, who has done already good service as translator into verse from the Sanskrit, has done further good work in this translation from the Persian, and he has evidently shown not a little skill in his rendering the quaint and very oriental style of his author into our more prosaic, less figurative, language. . . . The work, besides its intrinsic merits, is of importance as being one of the most popular and famous poems of Persia, and that which is read in all the independent native schools of India where Persian is taught." — Scotsman.
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LINGUISTIC ESSAYS.
BY CARL ABEL.
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Post 8vo, pp. ix. — 281, cloth, price IDS. 6d. THE SARV A - DARSANA - SAMGRAHA ;
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Translated by E. B. CO WELL, M. A., Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Cambridge, and A. E. GOUGH, M.A., Professor of Philosophy
in the Presidency College, Calcutta.
This work is an interesting specimen of Hindu critical ability. The author successively passes in review the sixteen philosophical systems current in the fourteenth century in the South of India ; and he gives what appears to him to be their most important tenets.
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TIBETAN TALES DERIVED FROM INDIAN SOURCES.
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Done into English from the German, with an Introduction, BY W. R. S. RALSTON, M.A.
"Mr. Ralston, whose name is so familiar to all lovers of Russian folk-lore, has supplied some interesting Western analogies and parallels, drawn, for the most, part, from Slavonic sources, to the Eastern folk-tales, culled from the Kahgyur, one of the divisions of the Tibetan sacred books."— Academy.
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UDANAVARGA.
A COLLECTION OF VERSES FROM THE BUDDHIST CANON.
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Translated from the Tibetan of Bkah-hgyur, with Notes, and Extracts from the Commentary of Pradjuavarman,
By W. WOODVILLE ROCKHILL.
" Mr. Rockhill's present work is the first from which assistance will be gained for a more accurate understanding of the Pali text ; it is, in fact, as yet the only term of comparison available to us. The ' Udanavarga,' the Thibetan version, was originally discovered by the late M. Schiefner, who published the Tibetan text, and had intended adding a translation, an intention frustrated by his death, but which has been carried out by Mr. Rockhill. . . . Mr. Rockhill may be congratulated for having well accomplished a difficult task." — Saturday Review.
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A SKETCH OF THE MODERN LANGUAGES OF AFRICA.
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OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY OF RELIGION TO THE
SPREAD OF THE UNIVERSAL RELIGIONS.
BY C. P. TIELE,
Doctor of Theology, Professor of the History of Religions in the University of Leyden.
Translated from the Dutch by J. ESTLIN CARPENTER, M.A.
" Few books of its size contain the result of so much wide thinking, able and labo rious study, or enable the reader to gain a better bird's-eye view of the latest results of investigations into the religious history of nations. As Professor Tiele modestly says, ' In this little book are outlines — pencil sketches, I might say — nothing more.' But there are some men whose sketches from a thumb-nail are of far more worth than an enormous canvas covered with the crude painting of others, and it is easy to sec that these pages, full of information, these sentences, cut and perhaps also dry, short and clear, condense the fruits of long and thorough research. "—Scotsman.
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A HISTORY OF BURMA.
Including Burma Proper, Pegu, Taungu, Tenasserim, and Arakan. From the Earliest Time to the End of the First War with British India.
BY LIEUT.-GEN. SIR ARTHUR P. PHAYRE, G.C.M.G., K.C.S.I., and C.B.,
Membre Correspondant de la Societe Academique Indo-Chinoise de France.
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RELIGION IN CHINA.
By JOSEPH EDKINS, D.D., PEKING.
Containing a Brief Account of the Three Religions of the Chinese, with Observations on the Prospects of Christian Conversion amongst that People.
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" Dr. Edkins' valuable work, of which this is a second and revised edition, has, from the time that it was published, been the standard authority upon the subject of which it treats." — Nonconformist.
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA AND THE EARLY HISTORY OF HIS ORDER.
Derived from Tibetan "Works in the Bkah-hgyur and Bstan-hgyur. Followed by notices on the Early History of Tibet and Khoten.
Translated by W. W. ROCKHILL, Second Secretary U.S. Legation in China.
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" Will be appreciated by those who devote themselves to those Buddhist studies which have of late years taken in these Western regions so remarkable a develop ment. Its matter possesses a special interest as being derived from ancient Tibetan works, some portions of which, here analysed and translated, have not yet attracted the attention of scholars. The volume is rich in ancient stories bearing upon the world's renovation and the origin of castes, as recorded in these venerable autho rities."— /tatty News.
Third Edition. Post 8vo, pp. viii.~464, cloth, price 163. THE SANKHYA APHORISMS OF KAPILA,
With Illustrative Extracts from the Commentaries.
Translated by J. R. BALL ANT YNE, LL.D., late Principal of the Benares
College.
Edited by FITZEDWARD HALL.
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BUDDHIST RECORDS OF THE WESTERN WORLD,
Translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang (A.D. 629). BY SAMUEL BEAL, B.A.,
(Trin. Coll., Camb.) ; R.N. (Retired Chaplain and N.I.) ; Professor of Chinese, University College, London ; Rector of Wark, Northumberland, &c.
An eminent Indian authority writes respecting this work : — " Nothing more can be done in elucidating the History of India until Mr. Beal's trans lation of the 'Si-yu-ki' appears."
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THE ORDINANCES OF MANU.
Translated from the Sanskrit, with an Introduction. By the late A. C. BURNELL, Ph.D., C.I.E.
Completed and Edited by E. W. HOPKINS, Ph.D., of Columbia College, N.Y.
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"Few men were more competent than Burnell to give us a really good translation of this well-known law book, first rendered into English by Sir William Jones. Burnell was not only an independent Sanskrit scholar, but an experienced lawyer, and he joined to these two important qualifications the rare faculty of being able to express his thoughts in clear and trenchant English. . . . We ought to feel very grateful to Dr. Hopkins for having given us all that could be published of the trans lation left by Burnell." — F. MAX MULLER in the Academy.
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THE LIFE AND WORKS OF ALEXANDER CSOMA DE KOROS,
Between 1819 and 1842. With a Short Notice of all his Published and Un published Works and Essays. From Original and for most part Unpub lished Documents.
By THEODORE DUKA, M.D., F.R.C.S. (Eng.), Surgeon-Major H.M.'s Bengal Medical Service, Retired, &c.
"Not too soon have Messrs. Triibner added to their valuable Oriental Series a history of the life and works of one of the most gifted and devoted of Oriental students, Alexander Csoma de Koros. It is forty-three years since his death, and though an account of his career was demanded soon after his decease, it has only now appeared in the important memoir of his compatriot, Dr. Duka."— Bookseller.
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MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO INDO-CHINA.
Reprinted from "Dalrymple's Oriental Repertory," "Asiatic Researches," and the "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal."
CONTENTS OF VOL. I.
I.— Some Accounts of Qucdah. By Michael Topping.
II. — Report made to the Chief and Council of Balambangan, by Lieut. James Barton, of his several Surveys. ,
III. —Substance of a Letter to the Court of Directors from Mr. John Jesse, dated July 20, 1775, at Borneo Proper.
IV. — Formation of the Establishment of Poolo Feenang.
V. — The Gold of Limong. By John Macdonald.
VI. — On Three Natural Productions of Sumatra. By John Macdonald.
VII. — On the Traces of the Hindu Language and Literature extant amongst the Malays. By William Marsden.
VIII. — Some Account of the Elastic Gum Vine of Prince-Wales Island. By James Howison.
IX. --.V Botanical Description of Urceola Elastica, or Caoutchouc Vine of Sumatra and Pulo-Pinang. By William Roxburgh, M.D.
X.— An Account of the Inhabitants of the Poggy, or Nassau Islands, lying off Sumatra. By John Crisp.
XL— Remarks 011 the Species of Pepper which are found on Prince-Wales Island By William Hunter, M.D.
XII.— On the Languages and Literature of the Indo-Chinese Nations. By J. Levden, M.l>.
XIII. — Some Account of an Orang-Outang of remarkable height found on the Island of Sumatra. By Clarke Abel, M.D.
XIV. — Observations on the Geological Appearances and General Features of Por tions of the Malayan Peninsula. By Captain James Low.
XV.— Short Sketch of the Geology of Pulo-Pinaug and the Neighbouring Islands. By T. Ware.
XVI.— Climate of Singapore.
XVII. —Inscription on the Jetty at Singapore.
XVIII.— Extract of a Letter from Colonel J. Low.
XIX.— Inscription at Singapore.
XX. — An Account of Several Inscriptions found in Province Wellesley. By Lieut. - Col. James Low.
XXI. — Note on the Inscriptions from Singapore and Province Wellesley. By J. W. Laidlay.
XXII. — On an Inscription from Keddah. By Lieut.-Col. Low.
XXIII.— A Notice of the Alphabets of the Philippine Islands.
X XIV. — Succinct Review of the Observations of the Tides in the Indian Archipelago.
XXV.— Report on the Tin of the Province of Mergui. By Capt. G. B Tremenheere.
XXVI.— Keport on the Manganese of Mergui Province. Ky Capt. G. B. Tremeuheere.
XXVII.— Paragraphs to be added to Capt. G. B. Trenienheere's Report.
XXVIII.--Second Report on the Tin of Mergui. By Capt. G. B. Tremenheere.
XXIX. — Analysis of Iron Ores from Tavoy and Mergui, and of Limestone from Mergui. By Dr. A. Ure.
XXX. — Report of a Visit to the Pakchan River, and of seme Tin Localities in the Southern Portion of the Tenasserim Provinces. By Capt. G. 13. Tremenheere.
XXXI.— Report on a Route from the Mouth of the Pakchan to Kr.-m, and thence across the Isthmus of Krau to the Gulf of Siam. By Capt. Al. Fraser and Capt J. G. Furlong.
XXXII.— Report, <fec., from Capt. G. B. Tremenheere on the Price of Mergui Tin Ore.
XXXIII.— Remarks on the Different Species of Orang-utan. By V.. Blyth.
XXXIV.— Further Remarks. By E. Blyth.
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CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
XXXV.— Catalogue of Mammalia inhabiting the Malayan Peninsula and Islands. By Theodore Cantor, M.D.
XXXVI.— On the Local and Relative Geology of Singapore. By J. R. Logan.
XXX VII. — Catalogue of Reptiles inhabiting the Malayan Peninsula and Islands. By Theodore Cantor, M.D.
XXX VI 1 1. —Some Account of the Botanical Collection brought from the Eastward, in 1841, by Dr. Cantor. By the late W. Griffith.
XXXIX.— On the Flat-Horucd Taurine Cattle of S.E. Asia. By E. Blyth.
XL. — Note, by Major-General G. B. Tremenheere.
General Index.
Index of Vernacular Terms.
Index of Zoological Genera and Sub-Genera occurring in Vol. II.
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THE SATAKAS OF BHARTRIHARI.
Translated from the Sanskrit
By the KEY. B. HALE WOKTHAM, M.R.A.S.,
Rector of Eggesford, North Devon.
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ANCIENT PROVERBS AND MAXIMS FROM BURMESE
SOURCES ;
OR, THE NITI LITERATURE OF BURMA. BY JAMES GRAY,
Author of "Elements of Pali Grammar," "Translation of the Dhammapada," &c.
The Sanscrit-Pali word Nlti is equivalent to "conduct" in its abstract, and "guide" in its concrete signification. As applied to books, it is a general term for a treatise which includes maxims, pithy sayings, and didactic stories, intended as a guide to such matters of every-day life as form the character of an individual and influence him in his relations to his fellow-men. Treatises of this kind have been popular in all ages, and have served as a most effective medium of instruction.
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MANAVA-DHARMA-CASTRA: THE CODE OF MANU.
ORIGINAL SANSKRIT TEXT, WITH CRITICAL NOTES. BY J. JOLLY, Ph.D.,
Professor of Sanskrit in the University of "Wurzburg ; late Tagore Professor of Law in the University of Calcutta.
The date assigned by Sir AVilliam Jones to this Code — the well-known Great Law Book of the Hindus — is 1250-500 B.C., although the rules and precepts contained in it had probably existed as tradition for countless ages before. There has been no reliable edition of the Text for Students for many years past, and it is believed, therefore, that Prof. Jolly's work will supply a want long felt.
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LEAVES FROM MY CHINESE SCRAP-BOOK. BY FREDERIC HENRY BALFOUR.
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LINGUISTIC AND ORIENTAL ESSAYS.
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MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO INDO-CHINA.
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FOLK-TALES OF KASHMIR. By the REV. J. HINTON KNOWLES, F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S, &c.
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ALBERUNI'S INDIA:
AN ACCOUNT OF ITS RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY, LITERATURE GEOGRAPHY, CHRONOLOGY, ASTRONOMY. CUSTOMS, LAW^ AND ASTROLOGY (ABOUT A.D. 1031).
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%* The Arabic Original, with an Index of the Sanskrit Words, Edited by Professor SACHAU, is in the press.
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THE LIFE OF HIUEN TSIANG.
BY THE SHAMANS HWUI LI AND YEN-TSUNG. With a Preface containing an account of the Works of I-TsiNG.
BY SAMUEL BEAL, B.A. (Triu. Coll., Camb.); Professor of Chinese, University College, London;
Rector of Wark, Northumberland, &c. Author of " Buddhist Records of the Western World," " The Romantic
Legend of Sakya Budda," &c.
When the Pilgrim Hiueu Tsiang returned from his travels in India, he took up his abode in the Temple of "Great Benevolence ; " this convent had been constructed by the Emperor in honour of the Empress, Wen-te-hau. After Hiuen Tsiang's death, his disciple, Hwui Li, composed a work which gave an account of his illustrious Master's travels ; this work when he com pleted he buried, and refused to discover its place of concealment. But previous to his death he revealed its whereabouts to Yen-tsung, by whom it was finally revised and published. This is " The Life of Hiuen Tsiang." It is a valuable sequel to the Si-yu-ki, correcting and illustrating it iif 'many particulars.
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A SKETCH OF THE MODERN LANGUAGES OF OCEANIA.
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TRUBNER'S
ORIENTAL SERIES.
CLASSICAL DICTIONARY 1 1
OF
HINDU MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGION,
GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, AND
LITERATURE.
BY
JOHN 'DOW'SO'NJ M.RA.S.
LATE PROFESSOR OF HINDUSTANI, STAFF COLLEGE.
(Eftitfcn.
LONDON: TKUBNER & CO., LUDGATE HILL.
1888.
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PREFACE.
IN this work an endeavour has been made to supply the long-felt want of a Hindu Classical Dictionary. The late Professor Wilson projected such a work, and forty years ago announced his intention of preparing one for the Oriental Translation Fund, but he never accomplished his design. This is not the first attempt to supply the void. Mr. Garrett, Director of Public Instruction in Mysore, published in India a few years ago a " Classical Dic tionary of India," but it is of a very miscellaneous char acter, and embraces a good deal of matter relating to the manners and customs of the present time. It has not obtained favour in Europe, and it cannot be considered as any obstacle in the way of a more complete and systematic work.
The main portion of this work consists of mythology, but religion is bound up with mythology, and in many points the two are quite inseparable. Of history, in the true sense, Sanskrit possesses nothing, or next to nothing, but what little has been discovered here finds its place. The chief geographical names of the old writers also have received notice, and their localities and identifications are described so far as present knowledge extends. Lastly, short descriptions have been given of the most frequently mentioned Sanskrit books, but only of such books as
b
d PREFACE.
are likely to be found named in the works of European writers.
It must be understood from the first that this work is derived entirely from the publications of European scholars. I have not resorted to original Sanskrit autho rities. My remaining span of life would at the best be quite insufficient for an investigation of their manifold and lengthy volumes. But I have gleaned from many European writers, and have sought to present a summary of the present condition of our knowledge of the religion and mythology of Ancient India.
The work is no doubt very defective. The full harvest of Sanskrit learning has not yet been gathered in, but the knowledge which has been stored by former labourers ought to be made readily available for the service of their successors, to lighten their labours and strengthen them for onward progress. There is nothing in this book for which authority is not to be found in some one or more of the many works upon Hindu literature and religion, but the aim has been to condense and bring together in a compact form that information which lies scattered in many volumes. Hindu mythology is so extensive, and the authorities are often so at variance with each other, that I cannot but feel diffident of the success of my labours. I have worked diligently and carefully, I hope also intelligently, but mistakes have no doubt been made, and it may be that matters have been passed over which ought to have been recorded, and others have been printed which might well have been left unnoticed. But while I have no expectation of any near approach to perfection, I do hope that a good beginning has been made, and that a basis has been laid on which a greater and more worthy structure may hereafter be raised. If the work is
PREFACE. vii
received with anything like favour, I shall be constantly on the watch to improve it, and honest criticism will be welcomed and carefully considered.
The book would be more valuable and interesting were it well illustrated with plates and cuts, but the work is a speculative one, and does not directly appeal to a large field of students and readers. The expense of befitting illustrations would be heavy, too great to be at once ventured upon. But if the work is approved, and illus trations are desired, an attempt will be made to supply the want by a series of plates containing a selection of subjects from the stores of our museums and from other sources.
It is unnecessary to specify all the works that have been used in the compilation of this book. Some have been referred to occasionally, but the mainstays through out have been the " Original Sanskrit Texts " of Dr. Muir and the works of the late Professor H. H. Wilson, includ ing his translation of the .Zfo'g-veda, and more especially that of the Vislmu Pura^a, republished with additional notes by Dr. FitzEdward Hall. I have also levied numerous contributions from the writings of Williams, Max Miiller, Roth, Bohthlingk, Lassen, Weber, Whitney, Wollheim da Fonseca, and many others too numerous to mention.
INTRODUCTION.
THE Aryan settlers on the banks of the Indus and in the land of the Five Rivers were possessors of a large number of hymns addressed to the elements and powers of nature. Some of these hymns they no doubt brought from their earlier homes in the West, but others were composed after they had reached the land of their adoption. These ancient hymns cover a long period, the length and the era of which can only be conjectured, but fifteen hundred years before Christ is about the mean of the various ages assigned to them. The hymns form what is called the Tfrg-veda Sanhita, a collection which embraces all the extant compositions of the early Aryans. It is the 2&g-veda which is of primary importance in Hindu religion and mytho logy; the other Yedas are later in date, and the second and third Yedas consist almost exclusively of hymns derived from the Rig, but specially arranged for religious purposes. The fourth or Atharva-veda borrows less from the ^'g-veda, but it is considerably later in date, and is of a different character.
The Aryan hymns of the Veda embody the ideas of the Indian immigrants. These ideas were inherited from their forefathers. They were originally the property of the united progenitors of the Aryan races, and the offshoots of this great human stock have spread their primitive ideas over a large por tion of the earth. In the Vedic hymns the ideas and myths appear in their simplest and freshest forms, directly connected with the sources from which they sprang by clear ties of lan guage. Comparative philology and mythology go hand in hand ; and as the language of the Vedas has proved the great critical instrument in the construction of the science of philology, so the
K INTRODUCTION.
simple myths of the Yedic hymns furnish many clues for un ravelling the science of mythology. For where the etymology of a mythic name or term yields a distinct sense of its mean ing, the origin of the myth is not far to seek. The language of the Vedas has in many instances supplied this clue, and led to a definite comprehension of what was previously hidden and obscure. The Vedic hymns have preserved the myths in their primitive forms, and, says Max Miiller, " Nowhere is the wide distance which separates the ancient poems of India from the most ancient literature of Greece more clearly felt than when we compare the growing myths of the Yeda with the full-grown and decayed myths on which the poetry of Homer is founded. The Veda is the real Theogony of the Aryan races, while that of Hesiod is a distorted caricature of the original image."
The Aryan settlers were a pastoral and agricultural people, and they were keenly alive to those influences which affected their prosperity and comfort. They knew the effects of heat and cold, rain and drought, upon their crops and herds, and they marked the influence of warmth and cold, sunshine and rain, wind and storm, upon their own personal comfort. They invested these benign and evil influences with a personality; and behind the fire, the sun, the cloud, and the other powers of nature, they saw beings who directed them in their beneficent and evil operations. To these imaginary beings they addressed their praises, and to them they put up their prayers for temporal blessings. They observed also the movements of the sun and moon, the constant succession of day and night, the intervening periods of morn and eve, and to these also they gave personali ties, which they invested with poetical clothing and attributes. Thus observant of nature in its various changes and operations, alive to its influences upon themselves, and perceptive of its beauties, they formed for themselves deities in whose glory and honour they exerted their poetic faculty. They had no one god in particular, no superior deity guiding and controlling the rest, but they paid the tribute of their praise to the deity whose bounties they enjoyed, or whose favours they desired for bodily comfort. They lauded also in glowing language the personifica tions of those beauties of nature which filled their minds with
INTRODUCTION. xi
delight and kindled the poetic fire. So each of the deities in turn received his meed of praise, and each in his turn was the powerful god, able to accomplish the desires of his votary or to excite a feeling of awe or admiration.
Thus there were many distinct deities, and each of them had some general distinctive powers and attributes ; but their attri butes and characters were frequently confounded, and there was a constant tendency to elevate now this one now that one to the supremacy, and to look upon him as the Great Power. In course of time a pre-eminence was given to a triad of deities, foreshadowing the Tri-murti or Trinity of later days. In this triad Agni (Fire) and Surya (the Sun) held a place, and the third place was assigned either to Vayu (the Wind) or to Indra (god of the sky). Towards the end of the jR/g-veda Sanhita, in the hymns of the latest date, the idea of one Supreme Being assumed a more definite shape, and the Hindu mind was per ceiving, even if it had not distinctly realised, the great con ception.
As the Yedic hymns grew ancient, ritual developed and theological inquiry awoke. Then arose what is called the Brah- marza portion of the Veda. This consists of a variety of com positions, chiefly in prose, and attached to the different Mantras. Ritual and liturgy were the chief objects of these writings, but traditions were cited to enforce and illustrate, and speculation was set at work to explain, the allusions of the hymns. The simplicity of the Vedic myths gradually became obscured, the deities grew more personal, and speculations as to the origin of the world and of the human race invested them with new attributes. Later on, in the Aranyakaa and Upanishads, which form part of the collective Brahmawa, a further development took place, but principally in a philosophical direction.
Between the times of the Sanhita and of the Brahma?za the conception of a Supreme Being had become established. The Biahmanap recognise one Great Being as the Soul of the Uni verse, and abound with philosophical speculations as to the work of creation and the origin of man. A golden egg was produced in the universal waters, from which in course of time came forth Prajapati, the progenitor — or, the quiescent Universal Soul,
xii INTRODUCTION.
Brahma, took a creative form as Brahma the Prajapati. From the Prajapati, or great progenitor, there was produced a daughter, and by her he was the father of the human race. The explana tions and details of this connection vary, but there is a general accord that the Prajapati was the progenitor of all mankind by a female produced from himself. Before the times of the Brah- marcas some of the old myths of the hymns had crystallised, the personifications had become more distinct, and the ideas from which they had been developed had grown hazy or were quite forgotten. Philosophy speculated as to the origin of the world, theories were founded upon etymologies, and legends were in vented to illustrate them. These speculations and illustrations in course of time hardened into shape, and became realities when the ideas which gave them birth were no longer remem bered and understood. The priestly order had advanced in power, and had taken a more prominent and important position, but the Kshatriya or second class held a high place, and asserted something like an equality with the Brahmans even in matters of learning.
Another interval elapsed between the days of the Brahmarca and of Manu. The theory of the golden egg is held by Manu, and he calls the active creator who was produced from it Brahma and Narayana, the latter name being one which was afterwards exclusively appropriated by Vishrai. But the most remarkable change observable in Manu is in the condition of the people, in the great advancement of the Brahmanical caste, the establish ment of the four great castes, and the rise of a number of mixed castes from cross intercourse of these four. In a hymn called Purusha-sukta, one of the latest hymns of the Tfrg-veda, there is a distinct recognition of three classes, Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas, and these appear more distinctly in the Brahma?za, but no mention of the Siidras and mixed castes has been found before the work of Manu.
The Ramayarca and Maha-bharata are poems of the heroic age, and though they are full of marvels, they deal more with the actions of mortal men and romantic creations than the might and majesty of the gods. The old deities of the Vedas have retired into the background, .and some have disappeared alto
INTRODUCTION. xiii
gether. Indra retains a place of some dignity; but Brahma, $iva, and Vishnu have, in the Epics, risen to the chief place. Even of these three, the first is comparatively insignificant. His work of creation "was over, and if he was ever an object of great adoration, he had ceased to be so. Vishnu and /Siva both appear in these poems; and although Vishnu is the god who holds the most prominent place, still there are many passages in which /Siva is elevated to the supreme dignity. The Vishnu who, in the Vedas, was the friend and companion of Indra and strode over the universe, has become the great deity of preserva tion, and the terrible and howling Kudra is now /Siva, the deity of destruction and renovation. Each of these two gods in his turn contends with and subdues the other ; now this, now that, receives the homage of his rival, and each in turn is lauded and honoured as the chief and greatest of gods.
The Avataras or incarnations of Vishnu assume a prominent place in the poems, and still more so in the Puranas. The first three, the Fish, the Tortoise, and the Boar, have a cosmical cha racter, and are foreshadowed in the hymns of the Vedas. The fourth, or Man-lion, seems to belong to a later age, when the worship of Vishnu had become established. The fifth, or Dwarf, whose three strides deprived the Asuras of the dominion of heaven and earth, is in its character anterior to the fourth Avatara, and the three strides are attributed to Vishnu in the Veda, The fifth, sixth, and seventh, Parasu-rama, Rama- chandra, and Knshna, are mortal heroes, whose exploits are celebrated in these poems so fervently as to raise the heroes to the rank of gods. The ninth Avatara, Buddha, is manifestly and avowedly the offspring of the preaching of Buddha ; and the tenth, Kalki, is yet to come.
When we reach the Puranas there is found a very different condition of things. The true meaning of the Vedic myths is entirely lost, their origin is forgotten, and the signification and composition of many of the mythic names are unknown. Mar vellous legends have gathered round the favourite divinities, and many more have been built upon fanciful etymologies of the old names. The simple primitive fancies suggested by the opera tions of nature have disappeared, and have been supplanted by
xiv IN TROD UCT10N.
the wild imaginings of a more advanced civilisation, but of a more corrupt state of society and religion. The Tri-murti or triad of deities has assumed a distinct shape, and while Brahma has quite fallen into obscurity, Vishrai and /Siva have each become supreme in the belief of their respective followers. Vishmi, in his youthful form Krishna, is the object of a sensuous and joyous worship. The gloomy and disgusting worship of $iva, in his terrible forms, has grown side by side with it. The worship of his fierce consort, Devi, has become established, and the foundation has been laid of the obscene and bloody rites afterwards developed in the Tantras.
The Veda, in modern Hinduism, is a mere name, — a name of high authority, often invoked and highly reverenced, — but its language is unintelligible, and its gods and rites are things of the past. The modern system is quite at variance with the Vedic writings out of which it grew, and the descendant bears but few marks of resemblance to its remote ancestor.
The Pura?2as and later writings are the great authorities of modern Hinduism ; their mythology and legends fill the popular mind and mould its thoughts. The wonderful tales of the great poems also exercise a great influence. The heroes of these poems are heroes still ; their exploits, with many embellishments and sectarial additions, are recounted in prose and verse, and the tales of Kama and the PtwcZavas, of Hanumat and Eavana, are still read and listened to with wonder and delight. A host of legends has grown up around the hero Krishna -} they attend him from his cradle to his pyre ; but the stories of his infancy and his youth are those which are most popular, and interest all classes, especially women and young people. The mild and gentle Rama, " the husband of one wife," pure in thought and noble in action, is in many places held in the highest honour, and the worship paid to him and his faithful wife Sita is the purest and least degrading of the many forms of Hindu worship.
This later mythology, with its wonders and marvels, and its equally marvellous explanations of them, is the key to modern Hinduism. It is curious to trace its descent, to contrast such legends as are traceable with their simple beginnings in the Yedic hymns, and so to follow the workings of the mind of a
INTRODUCTION. xv
great people through many centuries. Such a survey supplies important and interesting matter for the history of religion, and gives a clear and complete view of the degradation of a mythology. But for the purposes of comparative mythology the Pauranik legends are of trifling importance. The stories of the Epic poems even are of no great value. It may be, as has been maintained, that they " are simply different versions of one and the same story, and that this story has its origin in the phenomena of the natural world and the course of the day and the year ; " but still they are of later date, and afford no direct clue for unravelling the mythology of the Aryan nations.
The most ancient hymns of the ^'g-veda are the basis upon which comparative mythology rests, and they have already sup plied the means of unfolding the real source and signification of several Greek and Zoroastrian myths. The science is young, and has a wide field before it. Some of its results are beyond doubt, but there are other deductions which have not advanced as yet beyond conjecture and speculation. In the present work some of the more obvious identifications, or proposed identifica tions, have been mentioned as occasion offered ; in a work of reference like this it would be out of place to have done more. The reader who wishes to pursue the study must consult the writings of Max Miiller and the " Aryan Mythology " of the Kev. Sir George Cox. In them and in the books to which they refer he will find ample information, and plenty of materials for investigation and comparison.
TRANSLITERATION AND PRONUNCIATION.
IF tliis work answers the purpose for which it is intended, it will be used by students who are acquainted with the alphabet in which Sanskrit is written, and by readers to whom that alphabet is unknown. Its system of transliteration ought then to be such as to enable a student to restore any word to its original letters, but the ordinary reader ought not to be em barrassed with unnecessary diacritical points and distinctions. The alphabet of the Sanskrit is represented on the following plan : — •
VOWELS.
SHORT. LONG.
a as in America. a as in last,
i ,, pin. I ,, police,
u ,, put. u ,, rule.
ri ,, rill. rl ,, chagrin.
The vowel Iri will not be met with.
Guttural
Palatal
Cerebral
Dental
Labial
Semi- vow els y
Sibilants s
|
DIPHTHONGS. |
|
|
e as in ere or fe"te. |
|
|
ai ,, aisle. |
|
|
o ,, so. |
|
|
au as ou in house. |
|
|
CONSONANTS. |
|
|
kh g |
gh |
|
chh j |
jh |
|
th d |
dh |
|
th d |
dh |
|
ph b |
bh |
|
r 1 |
v, w |
|
sh, s Aspirate h V |
isarga h |
u
n n n in
Anuswara u
xviii TRANSLITERATION AND PRONUNCIATION.
To the uninitiated Englishman the chief difficulty lies in the short ' a,' the primary inherent vowel of the Sanskrit, pro nounced as in the word 'America.' The English alphabet has no distinct letter for this sound, but uses every one of its vowels in turn, and some even of its double vowels to represent it ; so it is the ' a ' and ' e ' in ' servant,' the ' i ' in ' bird,' the ' o ' in ' word,' the ' u ' in ' curd,' the ' y ' in ' myrtle,' and the ' ea ' in 'heard.' The Sanskrit short 'a' has this sound invariably, and unaffected by any combination of consonants ; so Sanskrit ' barn ' must be pronounced not as the English 'barn' but as 'burn.' The pronunciation of the other vowels is sufficiently obvious. The vowel trit is represented in italics to distinguish it from the consonants 'r' and 'i.'
Of the consonants, the cerebral letters ' /,' ' th,} ' d,} ' dh,' and 'w,'the palatal sibilant '5,' and thevisarga 'A,' are represented in italics. Practically these are the only distinctions necessary. The guttural nasal is used only in combination with a guttural letter (' nk ' or ' ng ') ; the palatal nasal is used only with palatals (' nch ' and ' nj '), and no other nasal can be combined with these letters. The anuswara, and the anuswara only, is used before the sibilants and ' h,' so in ' ns,' ' nsh,' ' ns,' and ' nh,' the nasal is the anuswara. The letter m before a semi- vowel may be represented either by m or anuswara. In all these instances the combinations distinctly indicate the proper nasal, and no discriminative sign is necessary.
Of the pronunciation of the nasals it is only necessary to notice the anuswara. This, with a sibilant, is a simple n, but before h it is like ng or the French n in Ion; so the Sanskrit Sinha, in the modern derivative tongues, is written and pro nounced Singh.
The aspirates are simple aspirations of their respective con sonants, and make no other change of their sounds ; so ' th ' is to be pronounced as in the words ' at home,' and ' ph ' as in ' up hill,' never as in 'thine 'and in 'physic.' The letter *g' is always hard as in 'gift.' The palatals are the simple English
TRANSLITERATION AND PRONUNCIATION, xix
sounds of ' ch ' and ' j ' as in ' church ' and 'just.' The cerebrals and the dentals are similar letters, but the former are drawn from the roof of the mouth and the latter from the tips of the teeth. In 'train' and 'drain' we have cerebrals; in 'tin' and 'due' we have dentals, or an approach to them. The ordinary English ' t ' and ' d ' are more cerebral than dental, and the natives of India in transcribing English names use the cerebrals for our 't' and ' d.' The palatal sibilant ls' has a sound intermediate between *s' and 'sh,' resembling the double 'ss' in 'session.' The visarga, the final ' h,' has no distinct enunciation, but it is nevertheless a real letter, and changes in certain positions into ' s' and 'r.' Thus the name $unaAsephas is sometimes written $unassephas.
[In French the palatal ' ch ' is represented by ' tch ' and the ' j ' by ' dj.' In German the 'ch' is expressed by 'tsch' and the ' j ' by ' dsch.' These very awkward combinations have induced Max Miiller and others to use an italic ' k ' and ' g ' instead of them.]
Some words will be found with varying terminations, as ' Hanumat' and 'Hanuman,' 'Sikharaftn' and 'Sikha^L' The explanation of this is that Sanskrit nouns have what is called a crude form or stem independent of case termination, and the nominative case very frequently differs from it. So ' Hanumat' and ' SikhaTztZin ' are crude forms ; ' Hanuman ' and ' Sikhawdi ' are their nominative cases. There are other such variations which need not be noticed.
The letters b and v are often interchanged, so words not found under the one letter should be sought for under the other.
HINDU CLASSICAL DICTIONARY.
ABHASWAKAS. A class of deities, sixty-four in number, of whose nature little is known.
ABHIDHANA. A dictionary or vocabulary. There aro many such works. One of the oldest of them is the Abhidhdna ratna-mdld of Halayudha Bha/ta (circa yth cent.), and one of the best is the Abhidhdna Chintd-mam of Hema-chandra, a Jaina writer of celebrity (i3th cent.). The former has been edited by Aufrecht ; the latter by Colebrooke and by Bohtlingk and Rieu.
ABHIMANI. Agni, the eldest son of Brahma, By his wife Swaha he had three sons, Pavaka, Pavamana, and /Suchi. " They had forty-five sons, who, with the original son of Brahma and his three descendants, constitute the forty-nine fires." See Agni.
ABHIMANYU. Son of Arjuna by his wife Su-bhadra, and knowrn by the metronymic Saubhadra. He killed Lakshmawa, the son of Dur-yodhana, on the second day of the great battle of the Maha-bharata, but on the thirteenth day he himself fell fighting heroically against fearful odds. He was very hand some. His wife was Uttara, daughter of the Raja of Virata. His son, Parikshit, succeeded to the throne of Hastinapura.
ABHIRA, ABHlRA. A cowherd ; according to Manu the offspring of a Brahman by a woman of the Ambash/ha or medical tribe. A people located in the north of India along the Indus. There has been a good deal of misapprehension respecting this people. Hindu writers have described them as living in the north and in the west, the quarter varying accord ing to the locality of the writer, and translators have mixed
A *
2 ABHIRAMA-MANI—ADHYATMA RAMAYANA.
them up with a neighbouring people, the Sudras, sometimes called /Suras, with whom they are generally associated, and have called them Surabhiras. Their modern representatives are the Ahirs, and perhaps there is something more than identity of locality in their association with the /Sftdras. It has been suggested that the country or city of the Abhiras is the Ophir of the Bible.
ABHIRAMA-MA./VT. A drama in seven acts on the history of Kama, written by Sundara Misra in 1599 A.D. "The com position possesses little dramatic interest, although it has some literary merit." — Wilson.
ACHARA. 'Rule, custom, usage.' The rules of practice of castes, orders, or religion. There are many books of rules which have this word for the first member of their titles, as Achdra- chandrikd, ' moonlight of customs,' on the customs of the £udras ; Achdrddarsa, 'looking-glass of customs;' Achdra-dipa, 'lamp of customs,' &c., &c.
ACHARYA. A spiritual teacher or guide. A title of Drona, the teacher of the Pawcfevas.
ACHYUTA. 'Unf alien;' a name of Vishnu or Knsh?2a. It has been variously interpreted as signifying " he who does not perish with created things," in the Maha-bharata as " he who is not distinct from final emancipation," and in the Skanda Purafta as "he who never declines (or varies) from his proper nature."
ADBHUTA-BRAHMAM. 'The Brahma?ia of miracles. A Brahmawa of the Sama-veda which treats of auguries and marvels. It has been published by Weber.
ADHARMA. Unrighteousness, vice; personified as a son of Brahma, and called "the destroyer of all beings."
ADHIRATHA. A charioteer. The foster-father of Kama , according to some he was king of Anga, and according to others the charioteer of King Dhritarash/ra : perhaps he was both.
ADHWARYU. A priest whose business it is to recite tho prayers of the Yajur-veda.
ADHYATMAjST. The supreme spirit, the soul of the uni verse.
ADHYATMA RAMAYANA. A very popular work, which is considered to be a part of the Brahmamfa Purawa. It has been printed in India. See Ramaya/za.
ADI-PURANA—ADITYA. 3
ADI-PUKAA'A. 'The first Pura??a,' a title generally con ceded to tlie Brahma Pura?ia.
ADITI. Tree, unbounded.' Infinity; the boundless heaven as compared with the finite earth ; or, according to M. Miiller, "the visible infinite, visible by the naked eye; the endless expanse beyond the earth, beyond the clouds, beyond the sky.:) In the Tti'g-veda she is frequently implored " for blessings on children and cattle, for protection and for forgiveness." Aditi is called Deva-matri, ' mother of the gods,' and is represented as being the mother of Daksha and the daughter of Daksha. On this statement Yaska remarks in the Nirukta : — " How can this be possible 1 They may have had the same origin ; or, according to the nature of the gods, they may have been born from each other, have derived their substance from one another." "Eight sons were born from the body of Aditi ; she approached the gods with seven but cast away the eighth, Marttarzda (the sun)." These seven were the Adityas. In the Yajur-veda Aditi is addressed as " Supporter of the sky, sustainer of the earth, sovereign of this world, wife of Vishmi ; " but in the Maha- bharata and Kamayarca, as well as in the Puranas, Vishmi is called the son of Aditi. In the Vishmi Purana she is said to be the daughter of Daksha and wife of Kasyapa, by whom she was mother of Vish?iu, in his dwarf incarnation (wherefore he is sometimes called Aditya), and also of Indra, and she is called "the mother of the gods" and "the mother of the world'' Indra acknowledged her as mother, and Vishmi, after receiving the adoration of Aditi, addressed her in these words : " Mother, goddess, do thou show favour unto me and grant me thy bless ing." According to the Matsya Purarca a pair of ear-rings was produced at the churning of the ocean, which Indra gave to Aditi, and several of the Pura?2as tell a story of these ear-rings being stolen and carried off to the city of Prag-jyotisha by the Asura king ISTaraka, from whence they were brought back and restored to her by Krishna. Devaki, the mother of Krishna, is represented as being a new birth or manifestation of Aditi. See Max Miiller's Rig Veda, i. 230; Muir's Texts, iv. n, v. 35.
ADITYA. In the early Yedic times the Adityas were six, or more frequently seven, celestial deities, of whom Tarawa was chief, consequently he was the Aditya. They were sons of Aditi, who had eight sons, but she approached the gods with
4 ADITYA—AGASTYA.
seven, having cast away the eighth, MarttaWa (the sun). In after-times the number was increased to twelve, as representing the sun in the twelve months of the year. Aditya is one of the names of the sun. Dr. Muir quotes the following from Professor Eoth : — " There (in the highest heaven) dwell and reign those gods who bear in common the name of Adityas. "We must, however, if we would discover their earliest character, abandon the conceptions which in a later age, and even in that of the heroic poems, were entertained regarding these deities. According to this conception they were twelve sun-gods, bearing evident reference to the twelve months. But for the most ancient period we must hold fast the primary signification of their name. They are the inviolable, imperishable, eternal beings. Aditi, eternity, or the eternal, is the element which sustains or is sustained by them. . . . The eternal and inviol able element in which the Adityas dwell, and which forms their essence, is the celestial light. The Adityas, the gods of this light, do not therefore by any means coincide with any of the forms in which light is manifested in the universe. They are neither sun, nor moon, nor stars, nor dawn, but the eternal sustainers of this luminous life, which exists, as it were, behind all these phenomena."
The names of the six Adityas are Mitra, Aryaman, Bhaga, Yaru?za, Daksha, and An.sa. Daksha is frequently excluded, and Indra, Savitri (the sun), and Dhatn are added. Those of the twelve Adityas are variously given, but many of them are names of the sun.
ADITYA PUEAJVA. One of the eighteen Upa-pura?zas.
AGASTI, AGASTYA. A Bishi, the reputed author of several hymns in the Jtzg-veda, and a very celebrated personage in Hindu story. He and Yasish/ha are said in the T^ig-veda to be the offspring of Mitra and Yaruwa, whose seed fell from them at the sight of Urvasi; and the commentator Sayawa adds that Agastya was born in a water-jar as "a fish of great lustre," whence he was called Kalasi-suta, Kumbha -sambhava, and Ghafodbhava. From his parentage he was called Maitra-vanmi and Aurvasiya ; and as he was very small when he was born, not more than a span in length, he was called Mima. Though he is thus associated in his birth with Yasish/ha, he is evidently later in date, and he is not one of the Prajapatis. His name.
AGASTYA. 5
Agastya, is derived by a forced etymology from a fable which represents him as having commanded the Vindhya mountains to prostrate themselves before him, through which they lost their primeval altitude; or rather, perhaps, the fable has been invented to account for his name. This miracle has obtained for him the epithet Vindhya-kufa; and he acquired another name, Pltabdhi, or Samudra-chuluka, ' Ocean drinker/ from another fable, according to which he drank up the ocean because it had offended him, and because he wished to help the gods in their wars with the Daityas when the latter had hidden themselves in the waters. He was afterwards made regent of the star Canopus, which bears his name. The Purawas represent him as being the son of Pulastya, the sage from whom the Rakshasas sprang. He was one of the narrators of the Brahma Purima and also a writer on medicine.
The Maha-bharata relates a legend respecting the creation of his wife. It says that Agastya saw his ancestors suspended by their heels in a pit, and was told by them that they could be rescued only by his begetting a son. Thereupon he formed a girl out of the most graceful parts of different animals and passed her secretly into the palace of the king of Vidarbha, There the child grew up as a daughter of the king, and was demanded in marriage by Agastya. Much against his will the king was constrained to consent, and she became the wife of the sage. She was named Lopa-mudra, because the animals had been subjected to loss (lopa) by her engrossing their distinctive beauties, as the eyes of the deer, &c. She was also called Kausitakl and Yara-prada. The same poem also tells a story exhibiting his superhuman power, by which he turned King Kahusha into a serpent and afterwards restored him to his proper form. See Kahusha.
It is in the Kamaya?2a that Agastya makes the most distin guished figure. He dwelt in a hermitage on Mount Kunjara, situated in a most beautiful country to the south of the Vindhya mountains, and was chief of the hermits of the south. He kept the Eakshasas who infested the south under control, so that the country was "only gazed upon and not possessed by them." His power over them is illustrated by a legend which represents him as eating up a Rakshasa named Yatapi who assumed the form of a ram, and as destroying by a flash of his eye the
6 AGIlASURA—AGNI.
Rakshasa's brother, Ilvala, who attempted to avenge him. (See Vatapi.) Rama in his exile wandered to the hermitage of Agastya with Sita and Lakshma?ia. The sage received him with the greatest kindness, and became his friend, adviser, and pro tector. He gave him the bow of Vishmi ; and when Rama was restored to his kingdom, the sage accompanied him to Ayodhya.
The name of Agastya holds a great place also in Tamil litera ture, and he is " venerated in the south as the first teacher of science and literature to the primitive Dravicfaan tribes;" so says Dr. Caldwell, who thinks " we shall not greatly err in placing the era of Agastya in the seventh, or at least in the sixth cen tury B.C." Wilson also had previously testified to the same effect: "The traditions of the south of India ascribe to Agastya a principal share in the formation of the Tamil language and literature, and the general tenor of the legends relating to him denotes his having been instrumental in the introduction of the Hindu religion and literature into the Peninsula."
AGHASURA. (Agha the Asura.) An Asura who was Kansa's general. He assumed the form of a vast serpent, and Krishna's companions, the cowherds, entered its mouth, mistaking it for a mountain cavern : but Kn'shna rescued them.
AGXAYI. Wife of Agni. She is seldom alluded to in the Yeda and is not of any importance.
AGNEYA. Son of Agni, a name of Karttikeya or Mars ; also an appellation of the Muni Agastya and others.
AGNEYASTRA. < The weapon of fire.' Given by Bharad- waja to Agnivesa, the son of Agni, and by him to Drowa. A similar weapon was, according to the Vishmi Purawa, given by the sage Aurva to his pupil King Sagara, and with it "he conquered the tribes of barbarians who had invaded his patri monial possessions."
AGNEYA PURA^A. See Agni Purawa.
AGK1. fN"om. Agnis = Ignis.) Fire, one of the most ancient and most sacred objects of Hindu worship. He appears in three phases — in heaven as the sun, in mid-air as lightning, on earth as ordinary fire. Agni is one of the chief deities of the Vedas, and great numbers of the hymns are addressed to him, more indeed than to any other god. He is one of the three great deities — Agni, Vayu (or Indra), and Surya — who respectively preside over earth, air, and sky, and are all equal in dignity. " He is
AGNI. 7
considered as the mediator between men and gods, as protector of men an 1 their homes, and as witness of their actions ; hence his invocation at all solemn occasions, at the nuptial ceremony, &c. Fire has ceased to be an object of worship, but is held in honour for the part it performs in sacrifices." Agni is repre sented as having seven tongues, each of which has a distinct name, for licking up the butter used in sacrifices. He is guardian of the south-east quarter, being one of the eight loka- palas (q.v.), and his region is called Pura-jyotis.
In a celebrated hymn of the Tiig-veda attributed to Yasishflia, Indra and other gods are called upon to destroy the Kravyads ' the flesh-eaters,' or Rakshas enemies of the gods. Agni himself is also a Kravyad, and as such he takes an entirely different character. He is represented under a form as hideous as the beings he is invoked to devour. He sharpens his two iron tusks, puts his enemies into his mouth and swallows them. He heats the edges of his shafts and sends them into the hearts of the Rakshas.
"He appears in the progress of mythological personifica tion as a son of Angiras, as a king of the Pitns or Manes, as a Marut, as a grandson of Sandila, as one of the seven sages or Ttishis, during the reign of Tamasa the fourth Manu," and as a star. In the Maha-bharata Agni is represented as hav ing exhausted his vigour by devouring too many oblations, and desiring to consume the whole Khawdava forest as a means of recruiting his strength. He was prevented by Indra, but having obtained the assistance of Krishna and Arjuna, he baffled Indra and accomplished his object. In the Vishwu Purana he is called Abhimani, and the eldest son of Brahma, His wife was Swuha; by her he had three sons, Pavaka, Pavamana, and $uchi, and these had forty-five sons; altogether forty-nine persons, identical with the forty-nine fires, which forty-nine fires the Vayu Pura/za endeavours to discriminate. He is described in the Hari-vansa as clothed in black, having smoke for his stan dard and head-piece, and carrying a flaming javelin. He has four hands, and is borne in a chariot drawn by red horses, and the seven winds are the wheels of his car. He is accompanied by a ram, and sometimes he is represented riding on that animal. The representations of him vary.
The names and epithets of Agni are many — Vahni. Anala, Pavaka, Vuiswanara, son of Yiswanara, the sun; Abja-hasta,
8 AGNI-DAGDHAS—AHALYA.
1 lotus in hand ; ' Dhuma-ketu, ' whose sign is smoke ; ' Hutasa or Huta-bhuj, < devourer of offerings ; ' £uchi or $ukra, ' the bright ; ' Rohitaswa, ' having red horses ; ' Chhaga-ratha, ' ram- rider; ' Jatavedas (q.v.); Sapta-jihva, 'seven-tongued;' Tomara- dhara, ' j avelin-bearer. '
AGNI-DAGDHAS. Pitn's, or Manes, who when alive kept up the household flame and presented oblations with fire. Those who did not do so were called An-agni dagdhas. See Pitn's.
AGISTI PURA7VA, This Purawa derives its name from its having been communicated originally by Agni, the deity of fire, to the Muni Yasishftia, for the purpose of instructing him in the twofold knowledge of Brahma. Its contents are variously specified as " sixteen thousand, fifteen thousand, and fourteen thousand stanzas." This work is devoted to the glorification of $iva, but its contents are of a very varied and cyclopaedical character. It has portions on ritual and mystic worship, cosmical descriptions, chapters on the duties of kings and the art of war, which have the appearance of being extracted from some older work, a chapter on law from the text-book of Yajnawalkya, some chapters on medicine from the Susruta, and some treatises on rhetoric, prosody, and grammar according to the rules of Pingala and Pawini. Its motley contents " exclude it from any legitimate claims to be regarded as a Purarca, and prove that its origin cannot be very remote." The text of this Pura?za is now in course of publication in the Bibliotheca Indica, edited by Rajendra Lai Mitra.
AG!NTISHWATTAS. Pit?is or Manes of the gods, who when living upon earth did not maintain their domestic fires or offer burnt-sacrifices. According to some authorities they were descendants of Maiichi. They are also identified with the seasons. See Pitris.
AGNIYE^A. A sage, the son of Agni, and an early writer on medicine.
AHALYA. Wife of the Piishi Gautama, and a very beautiful woman. In the Ramayawa it is stated that she was the first woman made by Brahma, and that he gave her to Gautama. She was seduced by Indra, who had to suffer for his adultery. One version of the Ramayawa represents her as knowing the god and being flattered by his condescension ; but another ver sion states that the god assumed the form of her husband, and
AHI—AJA. 9
so deceived her. Another story is that Indra secured the help of the moon, who assumed the form of a cock and crowed at midnight. This roused Gautama to his morning's devotions, when Indra went in and took his place. Gautama expelled Ahalyii from his hermitage, and deprived her of her prerogative of being the most beautiful woman in the world, or, according to another statement, he rendered her invisible. She was restored to her natural state by Kama and reconciled to her husband. This seduction is explained mythically by Kumarila Bha^/a as Indra (the sun's) carrying away the shades of night — the name Ahalyii, by a strained etymology, being made to signify 'night.'
AHI. A serpent. A name of Vn'tra, the Vedic demon of drought : but Ahi and Vn'tra are sometimes " distinct, and mean, most probably, differently formed clouds." — Wilson.
AHI-CHHATRA, AHI-KSHETRA. A city mentioned in the Maha-bharata as lying north of the Ganges, and as being the capital of Northern Panchala. It is apparently the Adisadra of Ptolemy, and its remains are visible near Ram-nagar.
ALNDRI. 'Son of Indra.' An appellation of Arjuna.
AIR AY ATA. 'A fine elephant.' An elephant produced at the churning of the ocean, and appropriated by the god Indra. The derivation of this name is referred to the word Iravat, signifying 'produced from water.' He is guardian of one of the points of the compass. See Loka-pala.
AITAREYA. The name of a Brahma??a, an Arawyaka, and an Upanishad of the 7^/g-veda. The Brahmawa has been edited and translated by Dr. Haug ; the text of the Arawyaka has been published in the Bibliotheca Indica by Rajenclra Lala, and there is another edition. The Upanishad has been translated by Dr. Roer in the same series. " The Aitareya Arawyaka consists of five books, each of which is called Ara?zyaka. The second and third books form a separate Upanishad, and a still further subdivision here takes place, inasmuch as the four last sections of the second book, which are particularly consonant with the doctrines of the Vedanta system, pass as the Aitareyopanishad." — Weber.
AJA. 'Unborn.' An epithet applied to many of the gods. A prince of the Solar race, sometimes said to be the son of Raghu, at others the son of Dilipa, son of Raghu. He was the husband chosen at her swayam-vara by Indumati, daughter of the Raja of Vidarbha, and was the father of Dasaratha and
io AJ AGAVA— ALAKA.
grandfather of Kama. The Raghu-vansa relates how on his way to the swayam-vara ho was annoyed by a wild elephant and ordered it to be shot. When the elephant was mortally wounded, a beautiful figure issued from it, which declared itself a gand- harva who had been transformed into a mad elephant for derid ing a holy man. The gandharva was delivered, as it had been foretold to him, by Aja, and he gave the prince some arrows which enabled him to excel in the contest at the swayam-vara. When Dasaratha grew up, Aja ascended to Indra's heaven.
AJ AGAVA. The ' primitive bow ' of £iva, which fell from heaven at the birth of Pn'thtL
A JAMIL A. A Brahman of Kanauj, who married a slave and had children, of whom he was very fond.
AJATA-/SA.TRU. 'One whose enemy is unborn.' i. A king of Kasi, mentioned in the Upanishads, who was very learned, and, although a Kshatriya, instructed the Brahman Gargya-balaki. 2. A name of $iva. 3. Of Yudhi-shftdra. 4. A king of Mathura who reigned in the time of Buddha.
AJAYA-PALA. Author of a Sanskrit vocabulary of some repute.
AJlGARTTA. A Brahman Hisbi who sold his son /Suna/i- sephas to be a sacrifice.
A JIT A. ' Unconquered.' A title given to Vishmi, $iva, and many others. There were classes of gods bearing this name in several Manwantaras.
AKRURA. A Yadava and uncle of Kn'shrca. He was son of /Swa-phalka and Gandini. It was he who took Kn'shwa and Rama to Mathura when the former broke the great bow. He is chiefly noted as being the holder of the Syamantaka gem.
AKSHA. The eldest son of Ravawa, slain by Hanuman. Also a name of GarucZa.
AK SHAM ALA. A name of Arundhati (q.v.).
AKULI. An Asura priest. See Kilatakuli.
AKUPARA. A tortoise or turtle. The tortoise on which the earth rests.
AKUTI. A daughter of Manu Swayambhuva and 5ata-rupa, whom he gave to the patriarch Ruchi. She bore twins, Yajna and Dakshina, who became husband and wife and had twelve sons, the deities called Yamas.
ALAKA. The capital of Kuvera and the abode of the
ALAKA-NANDA—A MARU-SA TAKA. 1 1
gandharvas on Mount Mcru. It is also called Yasu-dliara^ Vasu-sthali, and Prabha.
ALAKA-NANDA. One of the four brandies of the river Gangii, which flows south to the country of Bharata, This is said by the Vaishwavas to be the terrestrial Ganga which $iva received upon his head.
ALAMEUSHA. A great Rakshasa worsted by Satyaki in the great war of the Maha-bharata, and finally killed by Gha/ot- kacha. He is said to be a son of .Stshyamnga.
ALAYUDHA. A Rakshasa killed after a fierce combat by Gha/otkacha in the war of the Maha-bharata (Fauche, ix. 278).
AMARA-KANTAKA. 'Peak of the immortals.' A place of pilgrimage in the table-land east of the Vindhyas.
AMARA-KOSHA. This title may be read in two ways — 'the immortal vocabulary,' or, more appropriately, * the vocabulary of Amara or Amara Sinha.' " The oldest vocabulary hitherto known, and one of the most celebrated vocabularies of the classical Sanskrit" It has been the subject of a great number of com mentaries. The text has been often printed. There is an edition published in India with an English interpretation and annotations by Colebrooke, and the text with a French transla tion has been printed by Deslongchamps.
AMARA SINHA. The author of the vocabulary called Amara-kosha. He was one of the nine gems of the court of Vikrama. (See Xava-ratna.) "Wilson inclines to place him in the first century B.C. Lassen places him about the middle of the third century A.D., and others incline to bring him down later.
AMARAVATI. The capital of Indra's heaven, renowned for its greatness and splendour. It is situated somewhere in the vicinity of Meru. It is sometimes called Deva-pura, ' city of the gods,' and Pusha-bhasa, 'sun-splendour.'
AMARESWARA. 'Lord of the immortals.' A title of Vishnu, $iva, and Indra, Kame of one of the twelve great Hugos. See Linga.
AMARU-&ATAKA. A poem consisting of a hundred stanzas written by a king named Amaru, but by some attributed to the philosopher /Sankara, who assumed the dead form of that king for the purpose of conversing with his widow. The verses are of an erotic character, but, like many others of the same kind, a religious or philosophical interpretation has been found for them.
1 2 A MBA—AMRITA.
There is a translation in French by Apudy with the text, and a translation in German by Kiickert.
AMBA. ' Mother/ i. A name of Durga. 2. The eldest daughter of a king of Kasi. She and her sisters Ambika and Ambalika were carried off by Bhishma to be the wives of Yichitra- virya. Amba had been previously betrothed to a Eaja of /Salwa, and Bhishma sent her to him, but the Eaja rejected her because she had been in another man's house. She retired to the forest and engaged in devotion to obtain revenge of Bhishma. Siva, favoured her, and promised her the desired vengeance in another birth. Then she ascended the pile and was born again as $ik- ha?zcfon, who slew Bhishma.
AMBALIKA. The younger widow of Yichitra-virya and mother of Pandn by Yyasa. See Maha-bharata.
AMBAEISHA. i. A king of Ayodhya, twenty-eighth in descent from Ikshwaku. (See $unaAsephas.) 2. An appellation of Siva. 3. Name of one of the eighteen hells.
AMBASHTHA. A military people inhabiting a country of the same name in the middle of the Panjab ; probably the ' Afi.(3a,<rrai of Ptolemy. 2. The medical tribe in Manu.
AMBIKA. i. A sister of Eudra, but in later times identified with UmiL 2. Elder widow of Yichitra-virya and mother of Dhn'ta-rashfra by Yyasa. See Maha-bharata.
AMBIKEYA. A metronymic applicable to Ganesa, Skanda, and Dhnta-rash/ra.
AMNAYA. Sacred tradition. The Yedas in the aggregate.
AM^/TA. « Immortal.' A god. The water of life. The term was known to the Yedas, and seems to have been applied to various things offered in sacrifice, but more especially to the Soma juice. It is also called IsTir-jara and Piyusha. In later times it was the water of life produced at the churning of the ocean by the gods and demons, the legend of which is told with some variations in the Eamayawa, the Maha-bharata, and the Purawas. The gods, feeling their weakness, having been worsted by the demons, and being, according to one authority, under the ban of a holy sage, repaired to Yishwu, beseeching him for renewed vigour and the gift of immortality. He directed them to churn the ocean for the Amnta and other precious things which had been lost. The story as told in the Yish?iu Purawa has been rendered into verse by Professor Williams thus : — •
AMRITA. 13
The gods addressed the mighty Vislmu thus —
' Conquered in battle by the evil demons,
We fly to thee for succour, soul of all ;
Pity, and by thy might deliver us ! '
Hari, the lord, creator of the world,
Thus by the gods implored, all graciously
Eeplied — ' Your strength shall be restored, ye gods ;
Only accomplish what I now command.
Unite yourselves in peaceful combination
With these your foes ; collect all plants and herbs
Of diverse kinds from every quarter ; cast them
Into the sea of milk ; take Mandara,
The mountain, for a churning stick, and Vasuki,
The serpent, for a rope ; together churn
The ocean to produce the beverage —
Source of all strength and immortality —
Then reckon on my aid ; I will take care
Your foes shall share your toil, but not partake
In its reward, or drink. th' immortal draught.3
Thus by the god of gods advised, the host
United in alliance with the demons.
Straightway they gathered various herbs and cast them
Into the waters, then they took the mountain
To serve as churning-staff, and next the snake
To serve as cord, and in the ocean's midst
Hari himself, present in tortoise-form,
Became a pivot for the churning-staff.
Then did they churn the sea of milk ; and first
Out of the waters rose the sacred Cow,
God- worshipped Surabhi, eternal fountain
Of milk and offerings of butter ; next,
While holy Siddhas wondered at the sight,
With eyes all rolling, Varmil uprose,
Goddess of wine. Then from the whirlpool sprang
Fair Parijata, tree of Paradise, delight
Of heavenly maidens, with its fragrant blossoms
Perfuming the whole world. Th' Apsarasas,
Troop of celestial nymphs, matchless in grace,
Perfect in loveliness, were next produced.
Then from the sea uprose the cool-rayed moon,
Which Maha-deva seized ; terrific poison
Next issued from the waters ; this the snake-gods
Claimed as their own. Then, seated on a lotus,
Beauty's bright goddess, peerless /Sri, arose
Out of the waves ; and with her, robed in white,
Came forth Dhanwantari, the gods' physician.
14 ANADHRISHTI-ANARGHA RAGHAVA.
High in his hand lie bore the cup of nectar — Life-giving draught — longed for by gods and demons. Then had the demons forcibly borne off The cup, and drained the precious beverage^ Had not the mighty Vishnu interposed. Bewildering them, he gave it to the gods ; Whereat, incensed, the demon troops assailed The host of heaven, but they with strength renewed, Quaffing the draught, struck down their foes, who fell Headlong through space to lowest depths of hell ! " There is an elaborate article on the subject in Goldstucker'a Dictionary. In after-times, Vishwu's bird Garuda is said to have stolen the Amnta, but it was recovered by Indra.
ANADKRISHTI. A son of Ugrasena and general of the Yadavas.
ANAKA-DIJKDUBHI. 'Drams.' A name of Yasu-deva, who was so called because the drums of heaven resounded at his birth. AN AND A. 'Joy, happiness.' An appellation of /Siva, also of Bala-rama.
ANANDA GIRL A follower of $ankaracharya, and a teacher and expositor of his doctrines. He was the author of a Sankara-vijaya, and lived about the tenth century.
ANANDA-LAHARI. 'The wave of joy.' A poem attributed to $ankaracharya. It is a hymn of praise addressed to Parvati, consort of $iva, mixed up with mystical doctrine. It has been translated into French by Troyer as L'Onde de Beatitude.
ANANGA. 'The bodiless.' A name of Kama, god of love. ANANTA. 'The infinite.' A name of the serpent £esha. The term is also applied to Vishnu and other deities.
ANARAJVYA. A descendant of Ikshwaku and king of Ayodhya. According to the Ramayawa, many kings submitted to Rava?za without fighting, but when Anara?iya was summoned to fight or submit, he preferred to fight. His army was over come and he was thrown from his chariot. Ravawa triumphed over his prostrate foe, who retorted that he had been beaten by fate, not by Rayawa, and predicted the death of Rava?2a at the hands of Rama, a descendant of Anararcya.
ANARGHA RAGHAVA. A drama in seven acts by Murari Misra, possibly written in the thirteenth or fourteenth century. Raghava or Rama is the hero of the piece. " It has no dramatic merit, being deficient in character, action, situation, and interest
AN-ARYA—ANGADA. 15
As a poem it presents occasionally poetic thoughts, but they are very few, and are lost amid pages of flat commonplace, quaint conceit, hyperbolical extravagance, and obscure mythology." — Wilson. It is also called, after its author, Murari Xa/aka,
AX-AEYA. ' Unworthy, vile.' People who were not Aryans, barbarians of other races and religion.
AXASUYA. < Charity.' Wife of the Tfrshi Atri. In the Ramayana she appears living with her husband in a hermitage in the forest south of Chitra-kufo. She was very pious and given to austere devotion, through which she had obtained miraculous powers. When Sita visited her and her husband, she was very attentive and kind, and gave Sita an ointment which was to keep her beautiful for ever. She was mother of the irascible sage Durvasas. A friend of $akuntala.
AXDHAKA. i. A demon, son of Kasyapa and Diti, with a thousand arms and heads, two thousand eyes and feet, and called Andhaka because he walked like a blind man, although he saw very well. He was slain by $iva when he attempted to carry off the Parijata tree from Swarga. From this feat £iva obtained the appellation Andhaka-ripu, ' foe of Andhaka.' 2. A grand son of Krosh^n and son of Yudhajit, of the Yadava race, who, together with his brother Vnshwi, is the ancestor of the celebrated family of Andhaka- Vrishnis. 3. The name was borne by many others of less note.
AXDHKA, AXDHEA. Xame of a country and people in the south of India, the country of Telingana. It was the seat of a powerful dynasty, and the people were known to Pliny as gens Andarce.
AXDHEA-BILR/TYA. A dynasty of kings that reigned in Magadha somewhere about the beginning of the Christian era. The name seems to indicate that its founder was a native of Andhra, now Telingana.
ANGA. i. The country of Bengal proper about Bhagalpur. Its capital was Champa, or Champa-purL (See Anu.) 2. A sup plement to the Yedas. See Yedanga.
AXGADA. i. Son of Lakshma?za and king of Angadi, capital of a country near the Himalaya. 2. Son of Gada (brother of Kn'shwa) by VriliatL 3. Son of Bali, the monkey king of Kish- kindhya. He was protected by EFuna and fought on his sido against Eavaua.
16 ANGIRAS— ANGIRASAS.
AXGIRAS. A Bishi to whom many hymns of the Tiig-veda are attributed. He was one of the seven Maharshis or great Tt/shis, and also one of the ten Prajapatis or progenitors of man kind. In later times Angiras was one of the inspired lawgivers, and also a writer on astronomy. As an astronomical personifica tion he is Bn'haspati, the regent of the planet Jupiter, or the planet itself. He was also called " the priest of the gods," and "the lord of sacrifice." There is much ambiguity about the name. It comes from the same root as agni, ' fire,' and resembles that word in sound. This may be the reason why the name Angiras is used as an epithet or synonyme of Agni. The name is also employed as an epithet for the father of Agni, and it is found more especially connected with the hymns addressed to Agni, Indra, and the luminous deities. According to one state ment, Angiras was the son of Uru by Agneyi, the daughter of Agni, although, as above stated, the name is sometimes given to the father of Agni. Another account represents that he was born from the mouth of Brahma. His wives were Smnti, ' memory, ' daughter of Daksha ; $raddha , ' faith,' daughter of Ivardama • and Swadha ' oblation,' and Sati, ' truth,' two other daughters of Daksha. His daughters were the Delias or Vaidik hymns, and his sons were the Manes called Havishmats. But he had other sons and daughters, and among the former were Utathya, Brihaspati, and Markawc?eya. According to the Bhaga- vata Pura?ia " he begot sons possessing Brahmanical glory on the wife of Rathi-tara, a Kshatriya who was childless, and these persons were afterwards called descendants of Angiras."
AXGIRASAS, ANGIRASES. Descendants of Angiras. " They share in the nature of the legends attributed to Angiras. Angiras being the father of Agni, they are considered as descendants of Agni himself, who is also called the first of the Angirasas. Like Angiras, they occur in hymns addressed to the luminous deities, and, at a later period, they become for the most part personifications of light, of luminous bodies, of divi sions of time, of celestial phenomena, and fires adapted to peculiar occasions, as the full and change of the moon, or to particular rites, as the Aswa-medha, Raja-siiya, &c." — Goldstiicker. In the Satapatha Bralimawa they and the Adityas are said to have descended from Prajiipati, and that " they strove together for the priority in ascending to heaven."
AXGIRASAS—ANSUMA T. 17
Some descendants of Angiras by the Kshatriya wife of a cliildless king are mentioned in the Purimas as two tribes of Angirasas who were Brahmans as well as Kshatriyas.
The hymns of the Atharva-veda are called Angirasas, and the descendants of Angiras were specially charged with the protec tion of sacrifices performed in accordance with the Atharva-veda. ]-Yom this cause, or from their being associated with the descen dants of Atharvan, they were called distinctively Atharvangirasas.
AXGIRASAS. A class of Pitm (q.v.).
AXILA. < The wind.' See Vayu.
ANILAS. A ga?ia or class of deities, forty-nine in number, connected with Anila, the wind.
AXIMISHA. 'AYho does not wink.' A general epithet of all gods.
ANIRUDDHA. 'Uncontrolled.' Son of Pradyumna and grandson of K?-2'sh?m. He married his cousin, Su-bhadra, A Daitya princess named Usha, daughter of Btma, fell in love with him, and had him brought by magic influence to her apartments in her father's city of Sonita-pura. Barca sent some guards to seize him, but the valiant youth, taking an iron club, slew his assailants. Ba?ia then brought his magic powers to bear and secured him. On discovering whither Aniruddha had been carried, K?v'sh?2a, Bala-rama, and Pradyumna went to rescue him. A great battle wras fought ; Bawa was aided by /Siva and by Skanda, god of war, the former of whom was overcome by Kn'sh?2a, and the latter was wounded by Garuda and Pradyumna. Ba/za was defeated, but his life was spared at the intercession of iSlva, and Aniruddha was carried home to DwTaraka with Usha as his wife. He is also called Jhashanka and Usha-pati. He had a son named Yajra.
AXJAXA. i. The elephant of the west or south-west quarter. 2. A serpent with many heads descended from Kadru.
AXJAXA. Mother of Hanumat by Vayu, god of the wind.
AXXA-PUR ArA. ' Full of food. ' A form of Durga, worshipped for her power of giving food Cf. the Eoman Anna Perenna.
AX-SUMAT, AX/SUMAIST. Son of Asamanjas and grandson of Sagara. He brought back to earth the horse which had been carried off from Sagara's Aswa-medha sacrifice, and he discovered the remains of that king's sixty thousand sons, who had been killed by the lire of the wrath of Kapila.
1 8 ANTAKA—APARNA.
AXT AK A. ' The ender. ' A name of Yama, judge of the dead.
ANTARIKSHA. The atmosphere or firmament between heaven and earth, the sphere of the Gandharvas, Apsarases, and Yakshas.
AXTARYEDI. The Doab or country "between the Ganges and the Jumna.
ANU. Son of King Yayati by his wife Sarmish/ha, a Daitya princess. He refused to exchange his youthful vigour for the curse of decrepitude passed upon his father, and in consequence his father cursed him that his posterity should not possess dominion. Notwithstanding this, he had a long series of de scendants, and among them were Anga, Banga, Kalinga, &c., who gave their names to the countries they dwelt in.
ANUKRAMA^I, ANUKEAMA^IKA. An index or table of contents, particularly of a Yeda. The Anukrama?ds of the Vedas follow the order of each Sanhita, and assign a poet, a metre, and a deity to each hymn or prayer. There are several extant.
ANUMATI. The moon on its fifteenth day, when just short of its full. In this stage it is personified and worshipped as a goddess.
AXU$ARA. A Rakshasa or other demon.
ANUYINDA. A king of Ujjayim. See Yinda.
APARANTA. ' On the western border.' A country which is named in the Yish?m Pura??a in association with countries in the north; and the Yiiyu Pura?za reads the name as Aparita, which Wilson says is a northern nation. The Hari-vansa, how ever, mentions it as "a country conquered by Parasu-rama from the ocean," and upon this the translator Langlois observes : " Tradition records that Parasu-rama besought Yaruwa, god of the sea, to grant him a land which he might bestow upon the Lrahmans in expiation of the blood of the Kshatriyas. Yaru^a withdrew his waves from the heights of Gokar?za (near Mangalorc) down to Cape Comorin" (As. Researches, v. i). This agrees with the traditions concerning Parasu-rama and Malabar, but it is not at all clear how a gift of territory to Bralimans could expiate the slaughter of the Kshatriyas by a Brahman and in behalf of Brahmans.
APAR7VA. According to the Hari-vansa, the eldest daughter of Himavat and Mcna. She and her two sisters, Eka-parwa and
APASTAMBA—APSARAS. 19
Eka-pu/ala, gave themselves up to austerity and practised extraordinary abstinence ; but while her sisters lived, as their names denote, upon one leaf or on one paMa (Bignonia) re spectively, Aparwa managed to subsist upon nothing, and even lived without a leaf (a-parna). This so distressed her mother that she cried out in deprecation, ' U-ma,' ' Oh, don't.' Aparwa thus became the beautiful Uma, the wife of $iva.
APASTAMBA. An ancient writer on ritual and law, author of Sutras connected with the Black Yajur-veda and of a Dharma-sastra. He is often quoted in law-books. Two recen sions of the Taittiriya Sanhita are ascribed to him or his school. The Sutras have been translated by Biihler, and are being re printed in the Sacred Books of the East by Max Miiller.
APAVA. 'Who sports in the waters.' A name of the same import as Karayawa, and having a similar though not an identical application. According to the Brahma Pura?*a and the Hari-vansa, Apava performed the office of the creator Brahma, and divided himself into two parts, male and female, the former begetting offspring upon the latter. The result was the produc tion of Vislwu, who created Viraj, who brought the first man into the world. According to the Maha-bharata, Apava is a name of the Prajapati Vasish/ha. The name of Apava is of late intro duction and has been vaguely used. Wilson says : " According to the commentator, the first stage was the creation of Apava or Vasishftia or Viraj by Vishwu, through the agency of Brahma, and the next was that of the creation of Manu by Viraj."
APSAKAS. The Apsarases are the celebrated nymphs of Indra's heaven. The name, which signifies ' moving in the water,' has some analogy to that of Aphrodite. They are not prominent in the Vedas, but Urvasi and a few others are mentioned. In Manu they are said to be the creations of the seven Manns. In the epic poems they become prominent, and the Kamayawa and the Purawas attribute their origin to the churning of the ocean. (See Amrzta.) It is said that when they came forth from the waters neither the gods nor the Asuras would have them for wives, so they became common to all They have the appella tions of Suranganas, 'wives of the gods,' and Sumad-atmajas, * daughters of pleasure.'
" Then from the agitated deep up sprung The legion of Apsarases, so named
20 APSARAS—ARANYAKA.
That to the watery element they owed Their being. Myriads were they born, and all In vesture heavenly clad, and heavenly gems : Yet more divine their native semblance, rich With all the gifts of grace, of youth and beauty. A train innumerous followed ; yet thus fair, Nor god nor demon sought their wedded love : Thus Eaghava ! they still remain — their charms The common treasure of the host of heaven."
— (Mdmdyana) WILSON.
In the Pura?zas various ga?ias or classes of them are mentioned with distinctive names. The Yayu Pura??,a enumerates fourteen, the Hari-vansa seven classes. They are again distinguished as being daivik^ 'divine,' oilauklka, 'worldly.' The former are said to be ten in number and the latter thirty-four, and these are the heavenly charmers who fascinated heroes, as Urvasi, and allured austere sages from their devotions and penances, as Menaka and Eambha, The Kasi-khaneia says " there are thirty-five millions of them, but only one thousand and sixty are the principal." The Apsarases, then, are fairylike beings, beautiful and volup tuous. They are the wives or the mistresses of the Gandharvas, and are not prudish in the dispensation of their favours. Theii amours on earth have been numerous, and they are the rewards in Indra's paradise held out to heroes who fall in battle. They have the power of changing their forms ; they are fond of dice, and give luck to whom they favour. In the Atharva-veda they are not so amiable ; they are supposed to produce madness (love's madness1?), and so there are charms and incantations for use against them. There is a long and exhaustive article on the Apsarases in Goldstiicker's Dictionary, from which much of the above has been adapted. As regards their origin he makes the following speculative observations : — " Originally these divinities seem to have been personifications of the vapours which are attracted by the sun and form into mist or clouds ; their character may be thus interpreted in the few hymns of the jR'ig-veda where mention is made of them. At a subsequent period . . . (their attributes expanding with those of their associates the Gandharvas), they became divinities which repre sent phenomena or objects both of a physical and ethical kind closely associated with that life " (the elementary life of heaven).
AKA^VYAKA. 'Belonging to the forest.' Certain religious
ARANYANI—ARJUNA. 21
and philosophical writings which expound the mystical sense of the ceremonies, discuss the nature of God, &c. They are attached to the Brahma??as, and intended for study in the forest by Brahmans who have retired from the distractions of the wi.rld. There are four of them extant : i. Bn'liad ;_2. Taittirlya; 3. Aitareya ; and 4. Kauslritaki Arawyaka. The Ara?*yakas are closely connected with the Upanishads, and the names are occasionally used interchangeably : thus the jBnliad is called indifferently Bn'had Arawyaka or Bnhad Aranyaka Upani- shad ; it is attached to the /S'atapatha Brahmawa, The Aitareya Upanishad is a part of the Aitareya Brahmawa, and the Kaushl taki Ara?iyaka consists of three chapters, of which the third is the Kaushltaki Upanishad. "Traces of modern ideas (says Max Miiller) are not wanting in the Arawyakas, and the very fact that they are destined for a class of men who had retired from the world in order to give themselves up to the contemplation of the highest problems, shows an advanced and already declining and decaying society, not unlike the monastic age of the Christian world." " In one sense the Ara?iyakas are old, for they reflect the very dawn of thought ; in another they are modern, for they speak of that dawn with all the experience of a past day. There are passages in these works unequalled in any language for grandeur, boldness, and simplicity. These passages are the relics of a better age. But the generation which became the chronicler of those Titanic wars of thought was a small race ; they were dwarfs, measuring the footsteps of departed giants."
ARANYAATI. In the 7?ig-veda, the goddess of woods and forests.
ARBUDA. Mount Abu. Xame of the people living in the vicinity of that mountain.
ARBUDA, * A serpent.' ISTame of an Asura slain by Indra.
ARDHA-NARI. 'Half-woman.' A form in which $iva is represented as half-male and half-female, typifying the male and female energies. There are several stories accounting for this form. It is called also Ardhanarlsa and Parangada.
A KISHIA. A Daitya, and son of Bali, who attacked Kr/slma in the form of a savage bull, and was slain by him.
ARJUNA. ' White.' The name of the third Pandu prince. All the five brothers were of divine paternity, and Arjuna's father was Indra, hence he is called Aindri. A brave warrior,
22 ARJUNA.
high-minded, generous, upright, and handsome, the most pro minent and the most amiable and interesting of the five brothers. He was taught the use of arms by Diona, and was his favourite pupiL By his skill in arms he won Draupadi at her Swayam- vara. For an involuntary transgression he imposed upon him self twelve years' exile from his family, and during that time he visited Parasu-rama, who gave him instruction in the use of arms. He at this period formed a connection with Ulupi, a Naga princess, and by her had a son named Iravat. He also married Chitrangada, the daughter of the king of Mawipura, by whom he had a son named Babhru-vahana. He visited ~K.rish.na at Dwaraka, and there he married Su-bhadra, the sister of Krishna. (See Su-bhadra.) By her he had a son named Abhimanyu. Afterwards he obtained the bow Ga?icftva from the god Agni, with which to fight against Indra, and he assisted Agni in burning the Khawrfava forest. "When Yudhi-sh/hira lost the kingdom by gambling, and the five brothers went into exile for thirteen years, Arjuna proceeded on a pilgrimage to the Himalayas to propitiate the gods, and to obtain from them celestial weapons for use in the contemplated war against the Kauravas. There he fought with /Siva, who appeared in the guise of a Kirata or mountaineer ; but Arjuna, having found out the true character of his adversary, worshipped him, and /Siva gave him the pasupata, one of his most powerful weapons. Indra, Vanma, Yama, and Kuvera came to him, and also pre sented him with their own peculiar weapons. Indra, his father, carried him in his car to his heaven and to his capital Amaravati, where Arjuna spent some years in the practice of arms. Indra sent him against the Daityas of the sea, whom he vanquished, and then returned victorious to Indra, who " presented him with a chain of gold and a diadem, and with a war-shell which sounded like thunder." In the thirteenth year of exile he entered the service of Eaja Virata, disguised as a eunuch, and acted as music and dancing master, but in the end he took a leading part in defeating the king's enemies, the king of Trigarta and the Kaurava princes, many of whose leading warriors he vanquished in single combat. Preparations for the great struggle with the Kauravas now began. Arjuna obtained the personal assistance of Krishna, who acted as his charioteer, and, before the great battle began, related to him the Bhagavad-glta. On
ARJUNA—ARUNA. 23
the tenth day of the battle he mortally wounded Bhishma , on the twelfth he defeated Susarman and his four brothers, on the fourteenth he killed Jayadratha ; on the seventeenth, he was so stung by some reproaches of his brother, Yudhi-shfliira, that he would have killed him had not Kn'slma interposed. On the same day he fought with Kama, who had made a vow to slay him. He was near being vanquished when an accident to Kama's chariot gave Arjuna the opportunity of killing him. After the defeat of the Kauravas, Aswatthaman, son of Drowa, and two others, who were the sole survivors, made a night attack on the camp of the Pawc/avas, and murdered their children. Arjuna pursued Aswatthaman, and made him give up the precious jewel which he wore upon his head as an amulet. When the horse intended for Yudhi-shfliira's Aswa-medha sac rifice was let loose, Arjuna, with his army, followed it through many cities and countries, and fought with many Rajas. He entered the country of Trigarta, and had to fight his way through. He fought also against Yajradatta, who had a famous elephant, and against the Saindhavas. At the city of Mampura he fought with his own son, Babhru-vahana, and was killed ; but he was restored to life by a Kaga charm supplied by his wife Ulupi. Afterwards he penetrated into the Dakshiwa or south country, and fought with the Nishadas and Dravirfians : then went westwards to Gujarat, and finally conducted the horse back to Hastinapura, where the great sacrifice was performed. He was subsequently called to Dwaraka by Krishna, amid the internecine struggles of the Yadavas, and there he performed the funeral ceremonies of Yasudeva and of Krishna. Soon after this he retired from the world to the Himalayas. (See Maha-bharata.) He had a son named Ira vat by the serpent nymph Ulupi ; Babhru-vahana, by the daughter of the king of Manipura, became king of that country ; Abhimanyu, born of his wife Su-bhadra, was killed in the great battle, but the kingdom of Hastinapura descended to his son Paiikshit. Arjuna has many appellations : Blbhatsu, Guda-kesa, Dhananjaya, Jislmu, Kirl/in, Piika-sasani, Phalgima, Savya-sachin, $weta-vahana, and Partha.
ARJUXA. Son of Knta-vlrya, king of the Haihayas. He is better known under his patronymic Kiirta-vlrya (q.v.).
ARTHA-SASTRA. The useful arts. Mechanical science.
AKILYA. ' Red, rosy.' The dawn, personified as the charioteer
24 ARUNDHA TI—ARYAVARTA.
of the sun. This is of later origin than the Vedic Uslias (q.v.). He is said to be the son of Kasyapa and Kadru. He is also called Kumra, ( tawny,' and by two epithets of which the mean ing is not obvious, An-uru, ' thighless,' and Asmana, ' stony.'
ARUNDHATl. The morning star, personified as the wife of the Rlshi Yasish/ha, and a model of conjugal excellence.
ARUSHA, ARUSHL ' Ked.' < A red horse.' In the Eig. veda the red horses or mares of the sun or of fire. The rising sun.
ARYAN", ARYA. 'A horse.' One of the horses of the moon. A fabulous animal, half-horse, half-bird, on which the Daityas are supposed to ride.
ARYAYASU. See Raibhya.
ARYA, ARYAN". ' Loyal, faithful.' The name of the im migrant race from •which, all that is Hindu originated. The name by which the people of the Ji/zg-veda " called men of their own stock and religion, in contradistinction to the Dasyus (or Dasas), a term by which we either understand hostile demons or the rude aboriginal tribes " of India, who were An-aryas.
ARYA-BHAIA. The earliest known Hindu writer on alge bra, and, according to Colebrooke, " if not the inventor, the improver of that analysis," which has made but little advance in India since. He was born, according to his own account, at Kusuma-pura (Patna), in A.D. 476, and composed his first astro nomical work at the early age of twenty-three. His larger work, the A rya Siddhdnta, was produced at a riper age. He is pro bably the Andubarius (Ardubarius ?) of the Chronichon Paschale, and the Arjabahr of the Arabs. Two of his works, the Dasaglti- sutra and Arydshtasata, have been edited by Kern under the title of Aryabha/iya. See "Whitney in Jour. Amer. Or. Society for 1860, Dr. Bhau Dajl in /. E. A. S. for 1865, and Earth in Revue Critique for 1875. There is another and later astronomer of the same name, distinguished as Laghu Arya-bha/a, i.e., Arya- bha/a the Less.
AKYAMAN. ' A bosom friend.' i. Chief of the Pitn's. 2. One of the Adityas. 3. One of the Yiswe-devas.
ARYA SIDDHANTA. The system of astronomy founded by Arya-bha^a in his work bearing this name.
ARYAYARTA. 'The land of the Aryas.' The tract between the Himalaya and the Yindhya ranges, from the eastern to tlia western sea. — Maim.
ASAMANJAS—ASHTAVAKRA. 25
ASAMAXJAS. Son of Sagara and Kesini. lie was a wild and wicked young man, and was abandoned by his father, but he succeeded him as king, and, according to the Hari-vansa, ho was afterwards famous for valour under the name of Panchajana.
ASAXGA. Author of some verses in the AVg-veda. Ho was son of Playoga, but was changed into a woman by the curse of the gods. He recovered his male form by repentance and the favour of the fiishi Medhatithi, to whom he gave abundant wealth, and addressed the verses preserved in the Veda.
A»SARA. A Riikshasa or other demon.
ASHTAVAKRA. A Brahman, the son of Kahoc/a, whose story is told in the Maha-bharata, KaliofZa married a daughter of his preceptor, Uddalaka, but he was so devoted to study that he neglected his wife. When she was far advanced in her pregnancy, the unborn son was provoked at his father's neglect of her, and rebuked him for it. Kaho<:?a was angry at the child's impertinence, and condemned him to be born crooked ; so he came forth with his eight (ashia) limbs crooked (vakra) ; hence his name. Kahoc/a went to a great sacrifice at the court of Janaka, king of Mithila. There was present there a great Buddhist sage, who challenged disputations, upon the under standing that whoever was overcome in argument should be thrown into the river. This was the fate of many, and among them of Kahorfa, who was drowned. In his twelfth year Ash- tavakra learned the manner of his father's death, and set out to avenge him. The lad was possessed of great ability and wisdom. He got the better of the sage who had worsted his father, and insisted that the sage should be thrown into the water. The sage then declared himself to be a son of VaiTma, god of the waters, who had sent him to obtain Brahmans for officiating at a sacrifice by overpowering them in argument and throwing them into the water. When all was explained and set right, KahocZa directed his son to bathe in the Samanga river, on doing which the lad became perfectly straight. A story is told in the Yislmu Puriiwa that Ashtavakra was standing in water perform ing penances when he was seen by some celestial nymphs and worshipped by them. He was pleased, and told them to ask a b^on. They asked for the best of men as a husband. lie came out of the water and offered himself. When they saw him, ugly and crooked in eight places, they laughed in derision. lie
26 A SIKNf—A SOKA .
was angry, and as he could not recall his blessing, he said that, after obtaining it, they should fall into the hands of thieves.
ASIKNI. The Vedic name of the Chinab, and probably the origin of the classic Akesines.
A-ASTKAS. ' Headless.' Spirits or beings without heads.
A$MAKA. Son of Madayanti, the wife of Kalmasha-puda or Saudasa. See Kalmasha-pada,
A£OKA. A celebrated king of the Maurya dynasty of Magadha, and grandson of its founder, Chandra-gupta. " This king is the most celebrated of any in the annals of the Buddhists. In the commencement of his reign he followed the Brahmanical faith, but became a convert to that of Buddha, and a zealous encourager of it. He is said to have maintained in his palace 64,000 Buddhist priests, and to have erected 84,000 columns (or topes) throughout India. A great convocation of Buddhist priests was held in the eighteenth year of his reign, which was followed by missions to Ceylon and other places." He reigned thirty-six years, from about 234 to 198 B.C., and exercised authority more or less direct from Afghanistan to Ceylon. This fact is attested by a number of very curious Pali inscriptions found engraven upon rocks and pillars, all of them of the same purport, and some of them almost identical in words, the variations showing little more than dialectic differences. That found at Kapur-di-giri, in Afghanistan, is in the Bactrian Pali character, written from right to left ; all the others are in the India Pali character, written from left to right. The latter is the oldest known form of the character now in use in India, but the modern letters have departed so far from their proto types that it required all the acumen and diligence of James Prinsep to decipher the ancient forms. These inscriptions show a great tenderness for animal life, and are Buddhist in their character, but they do not enter upon the distinctive peculiarities of that religion. The name of Asoka never occurs in them ; the king who set them up is called Piyadasi (Sans. Priya-darsi), ' the beautiful,' and he is entitled Devanam-piya, * the beloved of the gods.' Buddhist writings identify this Piyadasi with Asoka, and little or no doubt is entertained of the two names represent ing the same person. One of the most curious passages in these inscriptions refers to the Greek king Antiochus, calling him and three others " Turamayo, Antakana, Mako, and A:ika-
ASRA MA— A S URA. 27
sunari," which represent Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, and Alex ander. " The date of Asoka is not exactly that of Antiochus the Great, but it is not very far different ; and the corrections required to make it correspond are no more than the inexact manner in which both Brahmanical and Buddhist chronology is preserved may well be expected to render necessary." See Wilson's note in the Vishmi Purawa, his article in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. xii., Max Miiller's Ancient Sanskrit Literature, and an article by Sir E. Perry in vol. iii. of the Journal of the Bombay Asiatic Society.
A£RAMA. There are four stages in the life of a Brahman which are called by this name. See Brahman.
ASTlKA. An ancient sage, son of Jarat-karu by a sister of the great serpent Vasuki. He saved the life of the serpent Taksliaka when Janamejaya made his great sacrifice of serpents, and induced that king to forego his persecution of the serpent race.
ASURA. ' Spiritual, divine.' In the oldest parts of the Jt/'g- veda this term is used for the supreme spirit, and is the same as the Ahura of the Zoroastrians. In the sense of ' god ' it was applied to several of the chief deities, as to Indra, Agni, and Vanwza, It afterwards acquired an entirely opposite meaning, and came to signify, as now, a demon or enemy of the gods. The word is found with this signification in the later parts of the Jtz'g-veda, particularly in the last book, and also in the Atharva- veda. The Brahmarcas attach the same meaning to it, and record many contests between the Asuras and the gods. Accord ing to the Taittirlya Brahma?ia, the breath (asu) of Prajapati became alive, and "with that breath he created the Asuras." In another part of the same work it is said that Prajapati " be came pregnant. He created Asuras from his abdomen." The Satapatha Brahma?za accords with the former statement, and states that " he created Asuras from his lower breath." The Taittirlya Aranyaka represents that Prajapati created "gods, men, fathers, Gandharvas, and Apsarases " from water, and that the Asuras, Rakshasas, and Pisachas sprang from the drops which were spilt. Manu's statement is that they were created by the Prajapatis. According to the Vishmi Pura?2a, they were produced from the groin of Brahma (Prajapati). The account of the Yayu Pura??a is : " Asuras were first produced as sons from his (Prajapati's) groin. Asu is declared by Bmhmans to
28 ASURI—ASWA-MEDHA.
mean breath. From it these beings were produced ; hence they are Asuras." The word has long been used as a general name for the enemies of the gods, including the Daityas and Dfmavas and other descendants of Kasyapa, but not including the Eakshasas descended from Pulastya. In this sense a different derivation has been found for it : the source is no longer asu, ' breath,' but the initial a is taken as the negative prefix, and a-sura signifies ' not a god ; ' hence, according to some, arose the word sura, commonly used for 'a god.' See Sura.
ASUEL One of the earliest professors of the Sankhya philosophy.
ASWALAYANA A celebrated writer of antiquity. He was pupil of $aunaka, and was author of ySrauta-sutras, Gnhya- siitras, and other works upon ritual, as well as founder of a £ukha of the 72/g-veda. The Sutras have been published by Dr. Stenzler, and also in the Bibliotheca Indica.
ASWA-MEDHA. ' The sacrifice of a horse.' This is a sacri fice which, in Yedic times, was performed by kings desirous of offspring. The horse was killed with certain ceremonies, and the wives of the king had to pass the night by its carcase. Upon the chief wife fell the duty of going through a revolting formality which can only be hinted at. Subsequently, as in the time of the Maha-bharata, the sacrifice obtained a high, import ance and significance. It was performed only by kings, and implied that he who instituted it was a conqueror and king of kings. It was believed that the performance of one hundred such sacrifices would enable a mortal king to overthrow the throne of Indra, and to become the ruler of the universe and sovereign of the gods. A horse of a particular colour was con secrated by the performance of certain ceremonies, and was then turned loose to wander at will for a year. The king, or his representative, followed the horse with an army, and when the animal entered a foreign country, the ruler of that country was bound either to fight or to submit. If the liberator of the horse succeeded in obtaining or enforcing the submission of all the countries over which it passed, he returned in triumph with the vanquished Eajas in his train ; but if he failed, he was dis graced and his pretensions ridiculed. After the successful return a great festival was held, at which the horse was sacri ficed, either really or figuratively.
ASWA-MUKHA—ASWINS. 29
ASWA-MUKHA. 'Horse faced.' See Kinnnra.
ASWA-P ATI. ' Lord of horses. ' An appellation of many k in gs.
A5WATTHAMAN". Son of Drowa and Kripii, and one of the generals of the Kauravas. Also called by his patronymic •Draiwayana. After the last great battle, in which Dur-yodhana was mortally wounded, Aswatthaman with two other warriors, Ivr/pa and Krita-varman, were the sole survivors of the Kaurava host that were left effective. Aswatthaman was made the com mander. He was fierce in his hostility to the Pa?zc?avas, and craved for revenge upon Dhnshfa-dyumna, who had slain his father, Drowa. These three surviving Kauravas entered the Pfi//(/ava camp at night. They found Dhrish/a-dyumna asleep, and Aswa//haman stamped him to death as he lay. He then killed /S'ikhandin, the other son of Drupada, and he also killed the five young sons of the Piuzrfavas and carried their heads to the dying Dur-yodhana. He killed Parikshit, while yet unborn in the womb of his mother, with his celestial weapon Brahmastra, by which he incurred the curse of Kn'shwa, who restored Parikshit to life. On the next morning he and his comrades fled, but DraupadI clamoured for revenge upon the murderer of her children. Yudhi-sh/hira represented that Aswatthaman was a Brahman, and pleaded for his life. She then consented to forego her demand for his blood if the precious and protective jewel which he wore on his head were brought to her. BhTma, Arjuna, and Knsh??a then went in pursuit of him. Arjuna and Krishna overtook him, and compelled him to give up the jewel. They carried it to DraupadI, and she gave it to Yudhi-sh/hira, who afterwards wore it on his head.
AS'WIXS, ASWIXAU (dual), ASWINI KUMARAS. ' Horsemen.' Dioskouroi. Two Vedic deities, twin sons of the sun or the sky. They are ever young and handsome, bright, and of golden brilliancy, agile, swift as falcons, and possessed of many forms ; and they ride in a golden car drawn by horses or birds, us harbingers of Ushas, the dawn. " They are the earliest bringera of light in the morning sky, who in their chariot hasten onwards before the dawn and prepare the way for her." — Roth. As personifications of the morning twilight, they are said to be children of the sun by a nymph who concealed herself in the form of a mare ; hence she was called AswinI and her sons Aswins. But inasmuch as they precede the rise of the sun,
30 AS WINS.
they arc called his parents in his form Pushan. Mythically they are the parents of the Piwdu princes Nakula and Sahadeva. Their attributes are numerous, but relate mostly to youth and beauty, light and speed, duality, the curative power, and active benevolence. The number of hymns addressed to them testify to the enthusiastic worship they received. They were the physicians of Swarga, and in this character are called Dasras and Xasatyas, Gadagadau and Swar-vaidyau ; or one was Dasra and the other uSTasatya. Other of their appellations are Abdhi- jau, < ocean born;' Pushkara-srajau, ' wreathed with lotuses;' Badaveyau, sons of the submarine fire, BaY/ava, Many instances are recorded of their benevolence and their power of healing. They restored the sage Chyavana to youth, and prolonged his life when he had become old and decrepit, and through his instrumentality they were admitted to partake of the libations of soma, like the other gods, although Indra strongly opposed them. (See Chyavana.) The Aswins, says Muir, "have been a puzzle to the oldest commentators," who have differed widely in their explanations. According to different interpretations quoted in the Nirukta, they were " heaven and earth," " day and night," " two kings, performers of holy acts." The follow ing is the view taken of them by the late Professor Goldstiicker, as printed in Muir's Texts, voL v. : —
" The myth of the Aswins is, in my opinion, one of that class of myths in which two distinct elements, the cosmical and the human or historical, have gradually become blended into one. It seems necessary, therefore, to separate these two elements in order to arrive at an understanding of the myth. The historical or human element in it, I believe, is represented by those legends which refer to the wonderful cures effected by the Aswins, and to their performances of a kindred sort ; the cos mical element is that relating to their luminous nature. The link which connects both seems to be the mysteriousness of the nature and effects of the phenomena of light and of the healing art at a remote antiquity. That there might have been some horsemen or warriors of great renown, wrho inspired their con temporaries with awe by their wonderful deeds, and more especially by their medical skill, appears to have been also the opinion of some old commentators mentioned by Yaska [in the Kirukta], for some ' legendary writers,' he says, took them for
AS WINS— A THARVANGIRASAS. 31
* two kings, performers of holy acts/ and this view seems like wise borne out by the legend in which it is narrated that the gods refused the Aswins admittance to a sacrifice on the ground that they had been on too familiar terms with men. It would appear, then, that these Aswins, like the TZibhus, were originally renowned mortals, who, in the course of time, were translated into the companionship of the gods. . . .
" The luminous character of the Aswins can scarcely be matter of doubt, for the view of some commentators, recorded by Yaska, according to which they are identified with ' heaven and earth,' appears not to be countenanced by any of the passages known to us. Their very name, it would seem, settles this point, since Aswa, the horse, literally ' the pervader,' is always the symbol of the luminous deities, especially of the sun. . . .
" It seems to be the opinion of Yaska that the Aswins repre sent the transition from darkness to light, when the intermin gling of both produces that inseparable duality expressed by the twin nature of these deities. And this interpretation, I hold, is the best that can be given of the character of the cosmical Aswins. It agrees with the epithets by which they are invoked, and with the relationship in which they are placed. They are young, yet also ancient, beautiful, bright, swift, &c. ; and their negative character, the result of the alliance of light with dark ness, is, I believe, expressed by dasra, the destroyer, and also by the two negatives in the compound ndsatyci (na + a-satya) ; though their positive character is again redeemed by the ellipsis of ' enemies, or diseases ' to dasra, and by the sense of nasatya, not untrue, i.e., truthful."
ATHAKVA, ATHARYAK The fourth Yeda. See Yeda.
ATHARYAN. Name of a priest mentioned in the Big- veda, where he is represented as having " drawn forth" fire and to have " offered sacrifice in early times." He is mythologically represented as the eldest son of Brahma, to whom that god revealed the Brahma-vidya (knowledge of God), as a Prajapati, and as the inspired author of the fourth Yeda. At a later period he is identified with Angiras. His descendants are called Atharvanas, and are often associated with the Angirasas.
ATHARYAXGIRASAS. This name belongs to the descen dants of Atharvan and Angiras, or to the Angirasas alone, who are especially connected with the Atharva-veda, and these
32 ATMA-BODHA—A URVA.
names are probably given to the hymns of that Veda to confer on them greater authority and holiness.
ATMA-BODHA. 'Knowledge of the soul.' A short work attributed to $ankaracharya. It has been printed, and a translation of it was published in 1812 by Taylor. There is a French version by Neve and an English translation by Kearns in the Indian Antiquary, vol. v.
ATMAX, ATMA. The soul. The principle of life. The supreme soul.
ATREYA. A patronymic from Atri. A son or descendant of Atri ; a people so called.
ATRI. ' An eater.' A Bishi, and author of many Yedic hymns. " A Maharshi or great saint, who in the Yedas occurs especially in hymns composed for the praise of Agni, Indra, the Aswins, and the Viswa-devas. In the epic period he is con sidered as one of the ten Prajapatis or lords of creation engen dered by Manu for the purpose of creating the universe ; at a later period he appears as a mind-born son of Brahma, and as one of the seven Jt/shis who preside over the reign of Swayam- bhuva, the first Manu, or, according to others, of Swarochisha, the second, or of Vaivaswata, the seventh. He married Anasuya, daughter of Daksha, and their son was Durvasas." — Goldstiicker. In the Ramayam an account is given of the visit paid by Rama and Sita to Atri and Anasuya in their hermitage south of Chitra- kufci. In the Purawas he was also father of Soma, the moon, and the ascetic Dattatreya by his wife Anasuya. As a Ttishi he is one of the stars of the Great Bear.
AURVA. A Ttishi, son of Urva and grandson of Bhn'gu. He is described in the Maha-bharata as son of the sage Chyavana by his wife Arushl. From his race he is called Bhargava. The Maha-bharata relates that a king named Knta-virya was very liberal to his priests of the race of Bhn'gu, and that they grew rich upon his munificence. After his death, his descendants, who had fallen into poverty, begged help from the Bhrigus, and met with no liberal response. Some of them buried their money, and when this was discovered the impoverished Kshatriyas were 80 exasperated that they slew all the Bhn'gus down to the chil dren in the womb. One woman concealed her unborn child in her thigh, and the Kshatriyas being informed of this, sought the child to kill it, but the child " issued forth from its mother's
A UR VA—A VA TAR A. 33
thigh with lustre and "blinded the persecutors. From being produced from the thigh (uru), the child received the name of Aurva, The sage's austerities alarmed both gods and men, .11 id he for a long time refused to mitigate his wrath against the Kshatriyas, but at the persuasion of the Pitns, he cast the lire of his anger into the sea, where it became a being with the face of a horse called Haya-siras. While he was living in the forest he prevented the wife of King Bahu from burning herself with her husband's corpse. Thus he saved the life of her son, with whom she had been pregnant seven years. "When the child was born he was called Sagara (ocean) ; Aurva was his preceptor, and bestowed on him the Agneyastra,. or fiery weapon with which he conquered the barbarians who invaded his country.. Aurva had a son named //ichlka, who was father of Jamadagni. The Hari-vansa gives another version, of the legend, about the oil- spring of Aurva. The sage was urged by his friends to beget children. He consented, but he foretold that his progeny would live by the destruction of. others. Then he produced from his thigh a devouring fire, which cried out with, a loud voice, " I am hungry; let me consume the world." The various regions were soon in flames, when Brahma interfered to save his creation, and promised the son of Aurva a suitable abode and maintenance. The abode was to.be at Bac?ava-mukha, the mouth of the ocean ; for Brahma was born and rests in the ocean, and he and the newly produced fire were to • consume the world together at the end of each age, and at the end of time to devour all things with the gods, Asuras, and Rakshasas. The name Aurva thus signifies,, shortly, the submarine fire.. It is also called Ba^avanala and Samvarttaka. It is represented as a flame with a horse's head, and is also called Kaka-dhwaja, from carrying a banner on which there is a crow.
AUSAXA, or AUSANASA PURA^VA. See Pmana.
AUTTAMI. The third Manu, See Maim..
AVANTl, AVANTIKA. A name of UjjayinI, one of the seven sacred cities.
AVATAR A. 'A descent.' The incarnation of a deity, espe cially of Yislmu. The first indication, not of an Avatara, but of what subsequently developed into an Avatara, is found in the 72/g-veda in the " three steps " of " Yislwu, the unconquer able preserver," who "strode over this (universe)," and "in
C
34 A VA TARA.
three places planted his step." The early commentators under stood the " three places " to be the earth, the atmosphere, and the sky ; that in the earth Vishmi was fire, in the air lightning, and in the sky the solar light. One commentator, Aumavabhn, whose name deserves mention, took a more philosophical view of the matter, and interpreted " the three steps " as being " the different positions of the sun at his rising, culmination, and setting." Sayawa, the great commentator, who lived in days when the god Vishwu had obtained pre-eminence, understood "the three steps" to be "the three steps" taken by that god in his incarnation of Yamana the dwarf, to be presently noticed. Another reference to "three strides" and to a sort of Avatara is made in the Taittiriya Sanhita, where it is said, " Indra, assuming -the form of a she-jackal, stepped all round the earth in three (strides). Thus the gods ob tained it."
Boar Incarnation. — In the Taittiriya Sanhita and Brahmawa, and also in the $atapatha Brahmawa, the creator Prajapati, afterwards known as Brahma, took the form of a boar for the purpose of raising the earth out of the boundless waters. The Sanhita says, " This universe was formerly waters, fluid. On it Prajapati, becoming wind, moved. He saw this (earth). Be coming a boar, he took her up. Becoming Viswakarman, he wiped (the moisture from) her. She extended. She became the extended one (Pnthvi). From this the earth derives her designation as 'the extended one.' " The Brahmawa is in accord as to the illimitable waters, and adds, "Prajapati practised arduous devotion (saying), How shall this universe be (de veloped) 1 He beheld a lotus leaf standing. He thought, There is somewhat on which this (lotus leaf) rests. He, as a boar — having assumed that form — plunged beneath towards it. He found the earth down below. Breaking off (a portion of her), he rose to the surface. He then extended it on the lotus leaf. Inasmuch as he extended it, that is the extension of the extended one (the earth). This became (abhut). From this the earth derives its name of Bhumi." Further, in the Tait tiriya Aranyaka it is said that the earth was " raised by a black boar with a hundred arms." The $atapatha Brahmawa states, " She (the earth) was only so large, of the size of a span. A boar called Eniuslia raised her up. Her lord, Prajapati, in
AVATAR A. 35
consequence prospers him with this pair and makes him com plete." In the Ramayana also it is stated that Brahma "be- became a boar and raised up the earth."
Karma or Tortoise. — In the /Satapatha Brahmana it is said that "Prajapati, having assumed the form of a tortoise (kurma), created offspring. That which he created he made (akarot) • hence the word Kurma."
Fish Incarnation. — The earliest mention of the fish AvatFira occurs in the /Satapatha Biahmana, in connection with the Hindu legend of the deluge. Manu found, in the water which was brought to him for his ablutions, a small fish, which spoke to him and said, " I will save thee " from a flood which shall sweep away all creatures. This fish grew to a large size, and had to be consigned to the ocean, when he directed Manu to construct a ship and to resort to him when the flood should rise. The deluge came, and Manu embarked in the ship. The fish then swam to Manu, who fastened the vessel to the fish's horn, and was conducted to safety. The Maha-bharata repeats this story with some variations.
The incarnations of the boar, the tortoise, and the fish are thus in the earlier writings represented as manifestations of Prajapati or Brahma. The " three steps " which form the germ of the dwarf incarnation are ascribed to Vishmi, but even these appear to be of an astronomical or mythical character rather than glorifications of a particular deity. In the Maha-bharata Vishnu has become the most prominent of the gods, and some of his incarnations are more or less distinctly noticed ; but it is in the Puranas that they receive their full development. Ac cording to the generally received account, the incarnations of Vishmi are ten iii number, each of them being assumed by Vishmi, the great preserving power, to save the world from some great danger or trouble.
i. Matsya. 'The fish.' This is an appropriation to Vishmi of the ancient legend of the fish and the deluge, as related in the Satapatha Brahmawa, and quoted above. The details of this Avatura vary slightly in different Purawas. The object of the incarnation was to save Vaivaswata, the seventh Manu, and progenitor of the human race, from destruction by a deluge. A small fish came into the hands of Manu and besought his protection. Ho carefully guarded it, and it grew rapidly until
36 AVATAR A.
nothing but the ocean could contain it. Mann then recognised its divinity, and worshipped the deity Vishmi thus incarnate. The god apprised Manu of the approaching cataclysm, and bade him prepare for it. When it came, Manu embarked in a ship with the fiishis, and with the seeds of all existing things. Vishmi then appeared as the fish with a most stupendous horn. The ship was bound to this horn with the great serpent as with a rope, and was secured in safety until the waters had subsided. The Bhagavata Purarca introduces a new feature. In one of the nights of Brahma, and during his repose, the earth and the other worlds were submerged in the ocean. Then the demon Haya-grlva drew near, and carried off the Veda which had issued from Brahma's mouth. To recover the Yeda thus lost, Vishwi assumed the form of a fish, and saved Manu as above related. But this Purawa adds, that the fish instructed Manu and the Tfe'shis in "the true doctrine of the soul of the eternal Brahma;" and, when Brahma awoke at the end of this dis solution of the universe, Vishmi slew Haya-griva and restored the Yeda to Brahma.
2. Kurma. 'The tortoise.' The germ of this Avatara is found in the $atapatha Brahmawa, as above noticed. In its later and developed form, Vislmu appeared in the form of a tortoise in the Satya-yuga, or first age, to recover some things of value which had been lost in the deluge. In the form of a tortoise he placed himself at the bottom of the sea of milk, and made his back the base or pivot of the mountain Mandara. The gods and demons twisted the great serpent Vasuki round the moun tain, and, dividing into two parties, each took an end of the snake as a rope, and thus churned the sea until they recovered the desired objects. These were — (i.) Amnta, the water of life; (2.) Dhanwantari, the physician of the gods and bearer of the cup of Anm'ta; (3.) Lakshmi, goddess of fortune and beauty, and consort of Vish?iu; (4.) Sura, goddess of wine; (5.) Chandra, the moon; (6.) Eambha, a nymph, and pattern of a lovely and amiable woman ; (7.) Uchchai/i-sravas, a won derful and model horse; (8.) Kaustubha, a celebrated jewel ; (9.) Parijata, a celestial tree; (10.) Surabhi, the cow of plenty; (IT.) Airavata, a wonderful model elephant; (12.) $ankha, a shell, the conch of victory; (13.) Dhanus, a famous bow; and (14.) Yisha, poison.
AVATAR A. 37
3. Variiha. 'The boar.' The old legend of the Brahmanaa concerning the boar which raised the earth from the waters has been appropriated to Vishnu. A demon named Hiranyaksha had dragged the earth to the bottom of the sea. To recover it Vishnu assumed the form of a boar, and after a contest of a thousand years he slew the demon and raised up the earth.
4. Xara-sinha, or ]SYi-sinha. * The man-lion.' Vislmu assumed this form to deliver the world from the tyranny of Hiranya- kasipu, a demon who, by the favour of Brahma, had become invulnerable, and was secure from gods, men, and animals. This demon's son, named Prahlada, worshipped Vishnu, which so incensed his father that he tried to kill him, but his efforts were all in vain. Contending with his son as to the omnipotence and omnipresence of Vishnu, Hiranya-kasipu demanded to know if Vishnu was present in a stone pillar of the hall, and struck it violently. To avenge Prahlada, and to vindicate his own offended majesty, Vishnu came forth from the pillar as the Xara-sinha, half -man and half -lion, and tore the arrogant Daitya king to pieces.
These four incarnations are supposed to have appeared in the Satya-yuga, or first age of the world.
5. Vamana. ' The dwarf.' The origin of this incarnation is " the three strides of Vishnu," spoken of in the jfa'g-veda, as before explained. In the Treta-yuga, or second age, the Daitya king Bali had, by his devotions and austerities, acquired the domi nion of the three worlds, and the gods were shorn of their power and dignity. To remedy this, Vishnu was born as a diminutive son of Kasyapa and Aditi. The dwarf appeared before Bali, and begged of him as much land as he could step over in three paces. The generous monarch complied with the request. Vishnu took two strides over heaven and earth ; but respecting the virtues of Bali, he then stopped, leaving the dominion of ITiiala, or the infernal regions, to Bali.
The first five incarnations are thus purely mythological ; in the next three we have the heroic element, and in the ninth the religious.
6. Parasu-rama. ' Eama with the axe.' Born in the Treta, or second age, as son of the Brahman Jamadagni, to deliver thu Biiilnnans from the arrogant dominion of the Kshatriyas. See Parasu-Rama.
38 A VA TAR A— A YODIl YA.
7. Kama or Rama-chandra. ' The moon-like or gentle Rama, the hero of the Ramiiyafta, He was the son of Da^aratha, king of Ayodhya, of the Solar race, and was born in the Treta-yuga, or second age, for the purpose of destroying the demon Ravana,
8. Krishna. ' The black or dark coloured.' This is the most popular of all the later deities, and has • obtained such pre eminence, that his votaries look upon him not simply as an incarnation, but as a perfect manifestation of Vishwu. When Kr/shwa is thus exalted to the full godhead, his elder brother, Bala-rama takes his place as the eighth Avatara. See Kn'shwa and Bala-rama.
9. Buddha. The great success of Buddha as a religious teacher seems to have induced the Brahmans to adopt him as their own, rather than to recognise him as an adversary. So Yislmu is said to have appeared as Buddha to encourage demons and wicked men to despise the Yedas, reject caste, and deny the existence of the gods, and thus to effect their own destruction.
10. Kalki or Kalkin. 'The white horse.' This incarnation of Vishnu is to appear at the end of the Kali or Iron Age, seated on a white horse, with a drawn sword blazing like a comet, for the final destruction of the wicked, the renovation of creation, and the restoration of purity.
The above are the usually recognised Avataras, but the number is sometimes extended, and the Bhagavata Purawa, which is the most fervid of all the PuraT&as in its glorification of Yishwu, enumerates twenty-two incarnations: — (i.) Purusha, the male, 'the progenitor; (2.) Varaha, the boar; (3.) Narada, the great sage; (4.) Kara and Karayawa (q.v.); (5.) Kapila, the great sage; (6.) Dattatreya, a sage; (7.) Yajna, sacrifice; (8.) jR/shabha, a righteous king, father of Bharata; (9.) Pn'thu, a king; (10.) Matsya, the fish; (n.) Knrma, the tortoise; (12 and 13.) Dhanwantari, the physician of the gods; (14.) Xara-sinha, the man-lion; (15.) Yamana, the dwarf; (16.) Parasu-rama; (17.) Yeda-Yyasa; (18.) Rama; (19.) Bala-rama; (20.) Krishna; (21.) Buddha; (22.) Kalki. But after this it adds — "The incarna tions of Yishmi are innumerable, like the rivulets flowing from an inexhaustible lake. 7&shis, Manns, gods, sons of Manns, Prajapatis, are all portions of him."
AVATARAJVA. An abode of the Rakshasas.
AYODHYA. The modern Oiulc. The capital of Ikshwaku,
A YUR- VEDA— BAH U. 39
the founder of the Solar race, and afterwards the capital of Kama. It is one of the seven sacred cities. The exact site lia.s not been discovered.
AYUR-VEDA. 'The Veda of life.' A work on medicine, attributed to Dhanwantari, and sometimes regarded as a supple ment to the Atharva-veda.
AYUS. The first-born son of Puriiravas and Urvasi, and the father of Xahusha, Kshattra-v?iddha, Rambha, Raji, and Anenas.
BABHRU-VAIIAXA. Son of Arjuna by his wife Chitran- gada. He was adopted as the son of his maternal grandfather, and reigned at Mampura as his successor. He dwelt there in a palace of great splendour, surrounded with wealth and signs of power. When Arjuna went to Mawipura with the horse intended for the Aswa-medha, there was a quarrel between Arjuna and King Babhru-vahana, and the latter killed his father with an arrow. Repenting of his deed, he determined to kill himself, but he obtained from his step-mother, the Xaga princess UlupT, a gem which restored Arjuna to life. He returned with his father to Hastinapura. The description of this combat has been translated from the Maha-bharata by Troyer in his Raja Taranginl, tome i. p. 57 8.
BADARAYAJVA. A name of Yeda Yyasa, especially used for him as the reputed author of the Vedanta philosophy. He was the author of the Brahma Sutras, published in the Biblwtheca Indica.
BADARI, BADARlKAtfRAMA. A place sacred to Vishmi, near the Ganges in the Himalayas, particularly in Vishnu's dual form of Nara-Narayatia, Thus, in the Maha-bharata, /Siva, addressing Arjuna, says, " Thou wast Xara in a former body, and, with Xarfiya-na for thy companion, didst perform dreadful austerity at Badarl for many myriads of years." It is now known as Badarl-natha, though this is properly a title of Vishnu as lord of Badarl.
BADAVA. ' A mare, the submarine fire.' In mythology it is a flame with the head of a horse, called also Ilaya-siras, 'horse-head.' See Aurva.
BAHlKAS. People of the Panjab, so called in Pfi?zini and the Maha-bharata. They are spoken of as being impure and out of the law.
BATIU, BAIIUKA. A king of the Solar race, who was van-
40 BAHUKA— BALA-RAMA.
quished and driven out of his country by the tribes of Haihayas and Talajanghas. He was father of Sagara.
BAHUKA. The name of Nala when he was transformed into a dwarf.
BAHULAS. The K?ittikas or Pleiades.
BAHV72/CHA. A priest or theologian of the 7i%-ved£u
BALA-BHADEA. See Bala-rama.
BALA-GOPALA. The boy Krishna.
BALA-EAMA. (Bala-bhadra and Bala-deva are other forms of this name.) The elder brother of Krishna. When Krishna is regarded as a full manifestation of Vishnu, Bala-rama is recognised as the seventh Avatara or incarnation in his place. According to this view, which is the favourite one of the Vaishnavas, Krishna is a full divinity and Bala-rama an incar nation ; but the story of their birth, as told in the Maha-bharata, places them more upon an equality. It says that Vishnu took two hairs, a white and a black one, and that these became Bala- rama and Krishna, 'the children of Devaki. Bala-rama was of fair complexion, Krishna was very dark. As soon as Bala-rama was born, he was carried away to Gokula to preserve his life from the tyrant Kansa, and he was there nurtured by Nan da as a child of Eohinl. He and Krishna grew up together, and he took part in many of Krishna's boyish freaks and adventures. His earliest exploit was the killing of the great Asura Dhenuka, who had the form of an ass. This demon attacked him, but Bala-rama seized his assailant, whirled him round by his legs till he was dead, and cast his carcase into a tree. Another Asura attempted to carry off Bala-rama on his shoulders, but the boy .beat out the demon's brains with his fists. When Knslma went to Mathura, Bala-rama accompanied him, and manfully supported him till Kansa was killed. Once, when Bala-rama was intoxicated, he called upon the Yamuna river to come to him, that he might bathe ; but his command not being heeded, he plunged his ploughshare into the river, and dragged the waters whithersoever he went, until they were obliged to assume a human form and beseech his forgiveness. This action gained for him the title Yamuna-bhid and Kalindi-karsha?2a, breaker or dragger of the Yamuna. He killed Eukmin in a gambling brawl. When $amba, son of Krishna, was detained as a prisoner at Hastinapur by Dur-yodhana, Bala-rama demanded his release, and, being
BALA-RAMA— BALHJ. 41
refused, he thrust his ploughshare under the ramparts of the city, and drew them towards him, thus compelling the Kaura- vas to give up their prisoner. Lastly, he killed the great ape Dwivida, who had stolen his weapons and derided him.
Such are some of the chief incidents of the life of Bala-rama, as related in the Purfmas, and as popular among the votaries of Kr/shwa. In the Maha-blmrata he has more of a human cha racter, lie taught both Dur-yodhana and Bhima the use of the mace. Though inclining to the side of the Paw/a vas, he refused to take an active part either with them or .the Kauravas. Ho witnessed the combat between Dur-yodhana and Bhima, and beheld the foul blow struck by the latter, which made him so indignant that he seized his weapons, and was with difficulty restrained by Kr/shna from falling upon the Pawc?avas. He died just before K?'/shna, as he sat under a banyan tree in the outskirts of Dwaraka.
Another view is 'held as to the origin of Bala-rama. Accord ing to this he was an incarnation of the great serpent $esha, and when he died the serpent is said to have issued from his mouth.
The " wine-loving " Bala-rama (Madhu-priya or Priya-madhu) was as much addicted 'to wine as his brother Krishna was devoted to the fair sex. He was also irascible in temper, and sometimes quarrelled even with Krishna : the Purawas represent them as having a serious difference about the Syamantaka jewel He had but one wife, Kevati, daughter of King Kaivata, and was faithful to her. By her he had two sons, Nisa/ha and Ulmuka. He is represented as of fair complexion, and, as Nila- vastra, ' clad in a dark-blue vest.' His especial weapons are a club (khetaka or saunanda), the ploughshare (halo), and the pestle (musala), from which he is called Phala and Hala, also Hala- yudha, 'plough-armed;' Hala-bhnt, * plough-bearer ;' Langali and Sarikarshawa, 'ploughman;' and Musali, 'pestle-holder.' As he has a palm for a banner, he is called Tala-dhwaja. Other of his appellations are Gupta-chara, 'who goes secretly;' Kam pala and Samvartaka.
1 > A L A-R AMAYAJVA. A drama by Kaja-sekhara. It has been printed.
BALEYA. A descendant of Bali, a Daitya.
BALHL A northern country, Balkh. Said in the Maha- bharata to be famous for its horses, as Balkh is to the present time.
42 B A LIU K AS— BARBARA S.
BALHIKAS, BAHLIKAS. "Always associated with th« people of the north, west, and ultra-Indian provinces, and usually considered to represent the Bactrians or people of Balkh." — Wilson.
BALI. A good and virtuous Daitya king. He was son of Yirochana, son of Prahlada, son of Hiraftya-kasipu. His wife was Vindhyavali. Through his devotion and penance he defeated Iiidra, humbled the gods, and extended his authority over the three worlds. The gods appealed to Vishrai for protection, and he be came manifest in his Dwarf Avatara for the purpose of restrain ing Bali. This dwarf craved from Bali the boon of three steps of ground, and, having obtained it, he stepped over heaven and earth in two strides ; but then, out of respect to Bali's kindness and his grandson Prahlada's virtues, he stopped short, and left to him Patala, the infernal regions. Bali is also called Maha-bali, and his capital was Maha-bali-pura. The germ of the legend of the three steps is found in the Jtig-veda, where Vishmi is represented as taking three steps over earth, heaven, and the lower regions, typifying perhaps the rising, culmination, and setting of the sun. _
BALI, BALIIST. The monkey king of Kishkindhya, who was slain by Kama, and whose kingdom was given to his brother Su-griva, the friend and ally of Kama. He was supposed to be the son of Indra, and to have been born from the hair (bdla) of his mother, whence his name. His wife's name was Tara, and his sons Angada and Tara.
BAA^A. A Daitya, eldest son of Bali, who had a thousand arms. He was a friend of Siva, and enemy of Vishwu. His daughter Usha fell in love with Aniruddha, the grandson of Knshwa, and had him conveyed to her by magic art. Kn'shwa, Bala-rama, and Pradyumna went to the rescue, and were resisted by BaTia, who was assisted by $iva and Skanda, god of Avar. $iva was overpowered by Ivn'slma ; Skanda was wounded ; and the many arms of Bawa were cut off by the missile weapons of Krishwa. $iva then interceded for the life of Ba?za, and Krishna granted it. He is called also Yairochi.
BAXGA. Bengal, but not in the modern application. In ancient times Banga meant the districts north of the Bhagirathi — Jessore, Ivn'shwagar, &c. See Aim.
BARBARAS. Name of a people. " The analogy to ' bar barians ' is not in sound only, but in all the authorities these are
BARHISHADS—BHAGA VAD-GITA. 43
classed with borderers and foreigners and nations not Hindu." — Wilson.
BAEHISIIADS. A class of Pitr/s, who, when alive, kept up the household flame, and presented offerings with fire. Some authorities identify them with the months. Their dwelling is Vaibhraja-loka. See Pit?*is.
BAUDIIAYANA. A writer on Dharma-sfistra or law. He was also the author of a Sutra work.
BHADEA. Wife of Utathya (q.v.).
BIIADEACHAEU. A son of Krishna and EukminL
BIIADEA-KALI. Name of a goddess. In modern times it applies to Durgil
BILVDEA6WA. i. A region lying to the east of Meru. 2. A celebrated horse, son of Uchchai/i-sravas.
I'lFAGA. A deity mentioned in the Vedas, but of very indistinct personality and powers. He is supposed to bestow wealth and to preside over marriage, and he is classed among the Adityas and Viswedevas.
BHAGA-NETEA-GHNA (or -HAN). < Destroyer of the eyes of Bhaga.' An appellation of Siva,
BHAGAVAD-GITA. 'The song of the Divine One.' A celebrated episode of the Maha-bharata, in the form of a metrical dialogue, in which the divine "Krishna, is the chief speaker, and expounds to Arjuna his philosophical doctrines. The author of the work is unknown, but he " was probably a Brahman, and nominally a Vaishrcava, but really a philosopher and thinker, whose mind was cast in a broad mould." This poem has been interpolated in the Maha-bharata, for it is of much later date than the body of that epic ; it is later also than the six Darsawas or philosophical schools, for it has received inspiration from them all, especially from the Sankhya, Yoga, and Vedanta. The second or third century A.D. has been proposed as the probable time of its appearance. Krishna, as a god, is a manifestation of Vishmi; but in this song, and in other places, he is held to be the supreme being. As man, he was related to both the lYmrfavas and the Kauravas, and in the great war between these two families he refused to take up arms on either side. But he consented to act as the Pant?ava Arjuna's charioteer. When the opposing hosts were drawn up in array against each other, Arjuna, touched with compunction for the approaching slaughter
44 BHAGAVAD-G~nA—BHAGAVATA PURAXA.
of kindred and friends, appeals to KHshwa for guidance. This gives the occasion for the philosophical teaching. " The poem is divided into three sections, each containing six chapters, the philosophical teaching in each being somewhat distinct," but "undoubtedly the main design of the poem, the sentiments expressed in which have exerted a powerful influence throughout India for the last 'i6oo years, is to inculcate the doctrine of Bhakti (faith), and to exalt the duties of caste above all other obligations, including those of friendship and kindred." So Arjuna is told 'to do his duty as^a soldier without heeding the slaughter of friends. " In the second division of the poem the Pantheistic doctrines of the Vedanta are more directly inculcated than in the other sections. Knshf&a here, in the plainest lan guage, claims adoration as one with the great universal spirit pervading and constituting the universe." The language of this poem is exceedingly beautiful, and its tone and sentiment of a very lofty character, so that they have a striking effect even in the prose translation. It was one of the earliest Sanskrit works translated into English by Wilkins ; but a much more perfect translation, with an excellent introduction, has since been pub lished by Mr. J. Cockburn Thompson, from which much of the above has been borrowed. There are several other translations in French, German, &c.
BHAGAVATA PUKA7VA. The Purarca "in which ample details of duty are described, and which opens with (an extract from) the Gayatri ; that in which the death of the Asura V?itra is told, and in which the mortals and immortals of the Saraswata Kalpa, with the events that then happened to them in the world, are related, that is celebrated as the Bhagavata, and consists of 18,000 verses." Such is the Hindu description of this work. " The Bhagavata," says Wilson, " is a' work of great celebrity in India, and exercises a more direct and powerful influence upon the opinions and feelings of the people than perhaps any other of the Ptirawas. It is placed .fifth in all the lists, but the Padma ranks it as the eighteenth, as the extracted substance of all the rest. According to the usual specification, it consists of 18,000 slokas, distributed amongst 332 chapters, divided into twelve skandhas or books. It is named Bhagavata from its being dedicated to the glorification of Bhagavata or Vislmu." The most popular and characteristic part of this
B HAG IRA THJ—BHARADIVAJA. 45
is tlic tenth book, which narrates in detail tlie liistory of K?ishwa, and has been translated into perhaps all the ver nacular languages of India. Colebrooke concurs in the opinion of many learned Hindus that this Purawa is the composition of the grammarian Vopadeva, who lived about six or seven cen turies ago at the court of Hemadri, Raja of Deva-giri (Deogurh or Daulatabad), and Wilson sees no reason for calling in question the tradition which assigns the work to this writer. This Purfwa has been translated into French by Burnouf, and has been published with the text in three volumes folio, and in other forms..
BHAGIRATHI. The Ganges. The name is derived from Pihaglratha, a descendant of Sagara, whose austerities induced /Siva to allow the sacred river to descend to the earth for the purpose of bathing the ashes of Sagara's sons, who had been consumed by the wrath of the sage Kapila. Bhagiratha named the river Sagara, and after leading it over the earth to the sea, he conducted it. to Patala, where the ashes of his ancestors were laved with its waters and purified.
BHAIRAVA (mas.), BHAIRAYI (fern.). 'The terrible.' Xames of $iva and his wife Devi. The Bhairavas are eight in ferior forms or manifestations of £iva, all of them of a terrible character: — (i.) Asitanga, black limbed;. (2.) Sanhara, destruc tion; (3.) Ruru,adog; (4.) Kala, black; (5.) Ivrodha, anger; (6.) Tamra-chuY/a, red crested; (7.) Chandra-chu^a, moon crested ; (8.) Mahii, great. Other names are met with as variants : Ka- piila, Rudra, Bhlshana, Un-matta, Ku-pati, &c. In these forms $iva often rides upon a dog, wherefore he is called <SwaV\va, 'whose horse is a dog.'
BHAMATl. A gloss on /S'ankara's commentary upon the Brahma Sutras by Yachaspati Mkra. It is in course of publi cation in the Bibliotheca Indica.
BHANTJMAlL Daughter of Bhanu, a Yadava chief, who was abducted from her home in Dwaraka, during the absence of lici- father, by the, demon Kikumbha.
B1IARADAYAJA. A JKishi to whom many Yedic lij'mns are attributed. He was the son of Br/haspati and father of Dro-/«a, the preceptor of the Pfwrfavas. The Taittirlya BralimaTza says that " he lived through three lives " (probably meaning a life of great length), and that " he became immortal and ascended to
45 BEAR AD WAJA—BHARA TA.
the heavenly world, to union with the sun." In the Maha- bharata he is represented as living at Hard war ; in the Eamayawa he received Kama and Sita in his hermitage at Prayaga, which was then and afterwards much celebrated. According to some of the Pura?ias and the Hari-vansa, he became by gift or adop tion the son of King Bharata, and an absurd story is told about his birth to account for his name : His mother, the wife of Utathya, was pregnant by her husband and by Brihaspati. Dlrgha-tamas, the son by her husband, kicked his half-brother out of the womb before his time, when Brihaspati said to his mother, ' Bhara-dwa-jam,' 'Cherish this child of two fathers.'
BHAEADWAJA. i. Drowa. 2. Any descendant of Bharad- waja or follower of his teaching. 3. Kame of a grammarian and author of Sutras.
BHAEATA. i. A hero and king from whom the warlike people called Bharatas, frequently mentioned in the .Z^g-veda, were descended. The name is mixed up with that of Viswami- tra. Bharata's sons were called Viswamitras and Viswamitra's sons were called Bharatas.
2. An ancient king of the first Manwantara. He was devoted to Vishwu, and abdicated his throne that he might continue constant in meditation upon him. While at his hermitage, he went to bathe in the river, and there saw a doe big with young frightened by a lion. Her fawn, which was brought forth suddenly, fell into the water, and the sage rescued it. He brought the animal up, and becoming excessively fond of it, his abstraction was interrupted. " In the course of time he died, watched by the deer with tears in its eyes, like a son mourning for his father ; and he himself, as he expired, cast his eyes upon the deer and thought of nothing else, being wholly occupied with one idea." For this misapplied devotion he was born again as a deer with the faculty of recollecting his former life. In this form he lived an austere retired life, and having atoned for his former error, was born again as a Brahman. But his person was ungainly, and he looked like a crazy idiot. He discharged servile offices, and was a palankin bearer; but he had true wisdom, and discoursed deeply upon philosophy and the power of Vishmi. Finally he obtained exemption from future birth. This legend is " a sectarial graft upon a Pauramk stem."
BHARA TA—BHARGA VA. 47
3. Son of Dasaratlia by his wife Kaikeyi, and half-brother of Rama-chandra. He was educated by his mother's father, Aswa-pati, king of Kekaya, and married Mawrfavi, the cousin of Sita. His mother, through maternal fondness, brought about the exile of Kama, and endeavoured to secure her own son's succession to the throne, but Bharata refused to supplant his elder brother. On the death of his father Eharata per- formed the funeral rites, and went after Rama with a complete army to bring him back to Ayodhya and place him on the throne. He found Kama at Chitra-ku/a, and there was a generous con tention between them as to which should reign. Kama refused to return until the period of his exile was completed, and Bharata declined to be king; but he returned to Ayodhya as Kama's representative, and setting up a pair of Kama's shoes as a mark of his authority, Bharata ruled the country in his brother's name. " He destroyed thirty millions of terribla gandharvas " and made himself master of their country.
4. A prince of the Puru branch of the Lunar race. Bharata was son of Dushyanta and /Sakuntala. Ninth in descent from him came Kuril, and fourteenth from Kuru came Santanu. This king had a son named Vichitra-virya, who died child less, leaving two widows. Knshwa DwaipFiyana was natural brother to Vichitra-virya. Under the law he raised up seed to his brother from the widows, whose sons were Dlmta-rash/ra and PMu, between whose descendants, the Kauravas and Kfldavas, the great war of the Maha-bharata was fought. Through their descent from Bharata, these princes, but more especially the PMavas, were called Bharatas.
5. A sage who is the reputed inventor of dramatic entertain ments.
6. A name borne by several others of less note than the above.
BIIARATA. A descendant of Bharata, especially one of the T\\ml\\ princes.
BHAKATA-VARSHA. India, as having been the kingdom of Bharata. It is divided into nine Khaw/as or parts : Indra- dwlpri, Kaserumat, Tamra-varwa, Gabhastimat, Kaga-dwlpa, 8;niinyn, Gandharva, Vanma.
BHARATl A name of Saraswatl
BIIAKGAYA. A descendant of Bhr/gu, as Chyavana, >Sau-
43 BHA R TRI-HA RI—BHA TTI-KA VYA.
naka, Jamad-agni, but more especially used for the latter and Parasu-rama.
BHARTjR/-HARI. A celebrated poet and grammarian, who is said to have been the brother of Vikramaditya. He wrote three /Satakas or Centuries of verses, called — (i.) /SY/ngara-sataka, on amatory matters; (2.) Mti-sataka, on polity and ethics; (3.) Vairagya-sataka, on religious austerity. These maxims are said to have been written when he had taken to a religious life after a licentious youth. He was also author of a grammatical work of high repute called Yakya-padiya, and the poem called Bha//i- kavya is by some attributed to him.. The moral verses were translated into French so long ago • as 1670. A note at the end of that translation says, "Trad, par le Brahmine Padmanaba en flamand et du flamand en frangais par Th. La Grue." The text with a Latin translation was printed by Schiefner and Weber. There is a translation in German by Bohlen and Schiitz, in French by Fauche, and of the erotic verses by Regnaud; in English by Professor Tawney in* the Indian Antiquary..
BHASHA-PARICHCHHEDA. An exposition of the Nyaya philosophy. There are several editions.
BHASKARACHARYA. (Bhaskara + Acharya.) A cele brated mathematician and astronomer, who was born early in the eleventh century A.D. He was author of the Bija-gawita on arithmetic, the LllavatI on algebra, and the Siddhanta /Slromawi on astronomy. It has been claimed for Bhaskara that he "was fully acquainted with the principle of the Differential Calculus." This claim Dr. Spottiswoode considers to be overstated, but he observes of Bhaskara : " It must be admitted that the penetration shown by Bhaskara in; his analysis is in the highest degree remarkable ; that the formula which he establishes, and his method of establishing it, bear more than a mere resemblance — they bear a strong analogy — to the corresponding process in modern astronomy ; and that the majority of scientific persons will learn with surprise the existence of such a method in the writings of so distant a period and so distant a region." — Jour. E. A. S., 1859.
BHA7TACHARYA. See Kumarila Bhatfa.
BHAriT-KAYYA. A poem on the actions of Rama by Bha//i. It is of a very artificial character, and is designed to illustrate the laws of grammar and the figures of poetry and
!
BHA UMA—BHIKSHU. 49
rhetoric. The text has been printed with a commentary, and part has been translated into German by Schlitz.
BHAUMA. Son of Bhumi (the earth). A metronymic of the Daitya Xiiraka.
BHAUTYA. The fourteenth Manu. See Manu.
BHAVA. i. A Yedic deity often mentioned in connection with iS'arva the destroyer. 2. A name of Kudra or >Siva, or of a manifestation of that god. See Rudra.
BHAVA-BHUTI. A celebrated dramatist, the author of three of the best extant Sanskrit dramas, the Maha-vlra Charita, Uttara Rama Charita, and MalatI Madhava. He was also known as >SrI-kan/ha, or 'throat of eloquence.' He was a Brah man, and was a native either of Beder or Berar, but Ujjayini or its neighbourhood would seem, from his vivid descriptions of the scenery, to have been the place of his residence. The eighth century is the period at which he flourished. His three plays have been translated by Wilson in blank verse, who says of MalatI Madhava, " The author is fond of an unreasonable display of learning, and occasionally substitutes the phraseology of logic or metaphysics for the language of poetry and nature. At the same time the beauties predominate over the defects, and the language of the drama is in general of extraordinary beauty and power."
BHAYISHYA PURAJVA. "This Purawa, as its name im plies, should be a book of prophecies foretelling what will be." The copies discovered contain about 7000 stanzas. The work is far from agreeing with the declared character of a Purarai, and is principally a manual of rites and ceremonies. Its deity is /Siva, There is another work, containing also about 7000 verses, called the Bhavishyottara Purima, a name which would imply that " it was a continuation or supplement of the former," and its contents are of a similar character. — Wilson.
BHAYISIIYOTTARA PURA^A. See Bhavishya Purawa.
BHAWANI. One of the names of the wife of Siva. See Devi.
BHELA. An ancient sage who wrote upon medicine.
BHIKSHU. A mendicant. The Brahman in the fourth and last stage of his religious life. See Brahman.
Any mendicant, especially, in its Pali form, Bhikkhu, a Bud dhist mendicant.
50 BHIMA.
BHIMA, BHIMA-SENA. 'The terrible.' The second of the five ParaZu princes, and mythically son of Vayu, ' the god of the wind.' He was a man of vast size, and had great strength. He was wrathful in temper, and given to abuse, a brave warrior, but a fierce and cruel foe, coarse in taste and manners, and a great feeder, so that he was called Vnkodara, * wolfs belly.' Half of the food of the family was allotted to him, and the other half sufficed for his four brothers and their mother. The weapon he generally used was a club, which suited his gigantic strength, and he had been trained in the use of it by Drowa and Bala- rama. His great strength excited the envy of his cousin Dur- yodhana, who poisoned him and threw his body into the Ganges ; but it sank to the realm of the serpents, where it was restored to health and vigour, and Bhima returned to Hastina- pura. At the passage of arms at Hastinapura, he and Dur- yodhana engaged each other with clubs ; but the mimic combat soon turned into a fierce personal conflict, which Drowa had to put an end to by force. It was at this same meeting that he reviled Kama, and heaped contempt upon him, increasing and converting into bitter hatred the enmity which Kama had pre viously entertained against the Para?avas. When he and his brothers were in exile, and an attempt was made, at the instiga tion of Dur-yodhana, to burn them in their house, it was he who barricaded the house of Purochana, the director of the plot, and burnt him as he had intended to burn them. Soon after this he met the Asura Hi^imba, whom he killed, and then married his sister Hi(iimba. He also slew another Asura named Vaka, whom he seized by the legs and tore asunder ; afterwards he killed his brother, Kirmira, and other Asuras. This brought the Asuras to submission, and they engaged to refrain from molest ing mankind. After the PMu princes were established at Indraprastha, Bhima fought in single combat with Jarasandha, king of Magadha, who had refused to recognise their supremacy. As ' son of the wind,' Bhima was brother of Hanuman, and was able to fly with great speed. By this power of flight, and with the help of Hanuman, he made his way to Kuvera's heaven, high up in the Himalayas. When Jayadratha failed in his attempt to carry off Draupadi, he was pursued by Arjuna and Bhima. The latter overtook him, dragged him by the hair from his chariot to the ground, and kicked him till he became sense-
SHIM A. 51
less. At Arj una's remonstrance Bhima refrained from killing him ; but he cut off all his hair except five locks, and compelled him to acknowledge publicly that he was the slave of the Pari^avas. Bhima refused to listen to his brother's plea for Jayadratha's release, but at Draupadi's intercession he let him go free. In the second exile of the Parafavas, they went to the Raja of Vira/a, whose service they entered. Bhima, holding a ladle in one hand and a sword in the other, undertook the duties of cook ; but he soon exhibited his prowess by fighting with and killing a famous wrestler named Jlmuta. Draupadi had entered into the service of the queen as a waiting-maid, and attracted the admiration of the king's brother-in-law, Kichaka. When she rejected his advances, he insulted and brutally assaulted her. Her husbands did not seem disposed to avenge her, so she appealed to Bhima, as she was wont when she sought revenge. Draupadi made an assignation with Kichaka, which Bhima kept, and after a sharp struggle with the disappointed gallant, he broke his bones to atoms, and made his body into a large ball of flesh, so that no one could tell how he had been killed or who had killed him. Draupadi was judged to have had a share in his death, and was condemned to be burnt alive ; but Bhima drew his hair over his face, so that no one could recognise him, and, tearing up a large tree for a club, he rushed to the rescue. He was taken for a mighty Gandharva, the crowd fled, and Draupadi was released. Kichaka had been the general of the forces of Yira/a and the mainstay of the king. After his death, Su-sarman, king of Trigartta, aided and abetted by the Kauravas and others, determined to attack Vira/a. The Raja of Vira/a was defeated and made prisoner, but Bhima pursued Su-sarman and overcame him, rescued the prisoner, and made the conqueror captive. In the great battle between the Kauravas and Pawrfa- vas, Bhima took a very prominent part. On the first day he fought against Bhishma ; on the second he slew the two sons of the Raja of Magadha, and after them their father, killing him and his elephant at a single blow. In the night between the fourteenth and fifteenth day of the battle, Bhima fought with Drowa until the rising of the sun ; but that redoubted warrior fell by the hand of Dh?ish/a-dyumna, who continued the combat till noonday. On the seventeenth day he killed Duh-sasana, and drank his blood, as he had long before vowed to do, in
52 BH1MA.
retaliation of the insults Duh-sasana had offered to Dranpadu On the eighteenth and last day of the battle Dur-yodhana fled and hid himself in a lake. "When he was discovered, he would not come out until he had received a promise that he should not have to fight with more than one man at a time. Even then he delayed until he was irritated by the abuse and the taunts of the Pawrfavas. Bhima and Dur-yodhana fought as usual with clubs. The battle was long and furious ; the parties were equally matched, and Bhima was getting the worst of it, when he struck an unfair blow which smashed Dur-yodhana's thigh, and brought him to the ground. Thus he fulfilled his vow and avenged DraupadL In his fury Bhima kicked his prostrate foe on the head, and acted so brutally that his brother Yudhi- sh/hira struck him in the face with his fist, and directed Arjuna to take him away. Bala-rama was greatly incensed at the foul play to which Bhima had resorted, and would have attacked the Pam/avas had he not been mollified by K>ishwa. He de clared that Bhima should thenceforward be called Jihma-yodhin, 'the unfair fighter.' After the conclusion of the war, the old king, Dhn'ta-rash/ra, asked that Bhima might be brought to him. Krishna, who knew the blind old man's sorrow for his son, whom Bhima had killed, and suspecting his intention, placed before him an iron statue, which Dh?ita-rashfra crushed in his embrace. Dh?'ita-rashfra never forgave Bhima, and he returned the ill feeling with insults, which ended in the old king's retir ing into the forest. Bhima's last public feat was the slaughter of the horse in the sacrifice which followed Yudhi-sh/hira's accession to the throne. Apart from his mythological attributes, the character of Bhima is natural and distinct. A man of burly form, prodigious strength, and great animal courage, with coarse tastes, a gluttonous appetite, and an irascible temper; jo vial and jocular when in good humour, but abusive, truculent, and brutal when his passions were roused. His repartees were forcible though coarse, and he held his own even against Krishwa when the latter made personal remarks upon him. See Maha-bharata.
By his Asura wife HkZimba he had a son named Ghafotkacha ; and by his wife Balandhara, princess of Kasi, he also had a son named Sarvatraga or Sarvaga. Other appellations of Bhima are Bhima-sena, Bahu-salin, ' the large armed,' Jarasandha-jit, < van quisher of Jarasandha.'
BH1MA —BHISHMA . 5 3
BIIlMA. Kame of the father of DamayantL A name of Kudra or of one of his personifications. See Rudra.
BHIMA SANKARA, BHLMEtf \VARA. Same of one of the twelve great Lingas. See Linga.
BHIMA-SENA. A name of Bhima.
BHISHMA. < The terrible.' Son of King £antami by the holy river goddess Ganga, and hence called iSantanava, Gangeya, and Xadi-ja, 'the river-born.' When King $antanu was very old he desired to marry a young and beautiful wife. His son £antanava or Bhishma found a suitable damsel, but her parents objected to the marriage because Bhishma was heir to the throne, and if she bore sons they could not succeed. To gratify his father's desires, he made a vow to the girl's parents that he would never accept the throne, nor marry a wife, nor become the father of children. /Santanu then married the damsel, whose name was Satyavati, and she bore him two sons. At the death of his father, Bhishma placed the elder son upon the throne, but he was headstrong and was soon killed in battle. The other son, named Yichitra-viryya, then succeeded, and Bhishma acted as his protector and adviser. By force of arms Bhishma obtained two daughters of the king of Kasi and married them to Vichitra- viryya, and when that prince died young and childless, Bhishma acted as guardian of his widows. By Bhlshma's arrangement, Krishna Dwaipayana, who was born of Satyavati before her marriage, raised up seed to his half-brother. The two children were Pa«c?u and Dlm'ta-rashfra, Bhishma brought them up and acted for them as regent of Hastina-pura. He also directed the training of their respective children, the Pa?ie?avas and Kauravas. On the rupture taking place between the rival families, Bhishma counselled moderation and peace. When the war began ho took the side of the Kauravas, the sons of Drmta-rash/ra, and he was made commander-in-chief of their army. He laid down some rules for mitigating the horrors of war, and he stipulated that he should not be called upon to fight against Arjuna, Goaded by the reproaches of Dur-yodhana, he attacked Arjuna on the tenth day of the battle. He was unfairly wounded by /Sikhandin, and was pierced with innumerable arrows from the hands of Arjuna, so that there was not a space of two fingers' breadth left unwounded in his whole body, and when he fell from his chariot he was upheld from the ground by the arrows and lay as on a couch of darts. He was mortally
54 BHISHMAKA—BHRIGU.
wounded, but he had obtained the power of fixing the period of his death, so he survived fifty-eight days, and delivered several long didactic discourses. Bhishma exhibited through out his life a self-denial, devotion, and fidelity which remained unsullied to the last. He is also known by the appellation Tarpawechchhu, and as Tala-ketu, 'palm banner.' See Maha- bharata.
BHISHMAKA. i. An appellation of Siva. 2. King of Yidarbha, father of Eukmin and of Eukmini, the chief wife of "Krishna.
BHOGAYATI. ' The voluptuous.' The subterranean capital of the Nagas in the Naga-loka portion of Patala. Another name is Put-kari.
BHOJA. A name borne by many kings. Most conspicuous among them was Bhoja or Bhoja-deva, king of Dhar, who is said to have been a great patron of literature, and probably died before 1082 A. D. 2. A prince of the Yadava race who reigned at Mnttikavatl on the Pamasa river in Malwa; he is called also Maha-bhoja. 3. A tribe living in the Yindhya mountains. 4. A country ; the modern Bhojpur, Bhagalpur, &c.
BHOJA-PKABA?sTDHA. A coUection of literary anecdotes relating to King Bhoja of Dhar, written by Ballala. The text has been lithographed by Pavie.
BH72/GU. A Yedic sage. He is one of the Prajapatis and great Eishis, and is regarded as the founder of the race of the Bhngus or Bhargavas, in which was born Jamad-agni and Parasu Rama. Manu calls him son, and says that he confides to him his Institutes. According to the Maha-bharata he officiated at Daksha's celebrated sacrifice, and had his beard pulled out by Siva, The same authority also tells the following story : — It is related of Bhn'gu that he rescued the sage Agastya from the tyranny of King Nahusha, who had obtained superhuman power. Bhngu crept into Agastya's hair to avoid the potent glance of Xahusha, and when that tyrant attached Agastya to his chariot and kicked him on the head to make him move, Bhngu cursed Nahusha, and he was turned into a serpent. Bhngu, on Nahusha's supplication, limited the duration of his curse.
In the Padma Purfrna it is related that the Bishis, assembled at a sacrifice, disputed as to which deity was best entitled to the
BHRIGU—BHUTA. 55
homage of a Brahman. Being unable to agree, they resolved to send Bhrigu to test the characters of the various gods, and he accordingly went. He could not obtain access to $iva because that deity was engaged with his wife ; " finding him, therefore, to consist of the property of darkness, Blirigu sentenced him to take the form of the Linga, and pronounced that he should have no offerings presented to him, nor receive the worship of the pious and respectable. His next visit was to Brahma, whom he beheld surrounded by sages, and so much inflated with his own importance as to treat Bhn'gu with great inattention, betraying his being made up of foulness. The Muni therefore excluded him from the worship of the Brahmans. Repairing next to Vishnu, he found the deity asleep, and, indignant at his seeming sloth, Blmgu stamped upon his breast with his left foot and awoke him ; instead of being offended, Vishnu gently pressed the Brahman's foot and expressed himself honoured and made happy by its contact ; and Bhngu, highly pleased by his humi lity, and satisfied of his being impersonated goodness, proclaimed Vishnu as the only being to be worshipped by men or gods, in which decision the Munis, upon Bhrigu's report, concurred. "- Wilson.
BHTt/GUS. 'Roasters, consumers.' "A class of mythical beings who belonged to the middle or aerial class of gods." — Roth. They are connected with Agni, and are spoken of as producers and nourishers of fire, and as makers of chariots. They are associated with the Angirasas, the Atharvans, Bib- hus, &c.
BHU, BHUMI. The earth. See Pnthivl.
BHUR. See Vyalmti.
BHURI-SRAVAS. A prince of the Balhlkas and an ally of the Kauravas, who was killed in the great battle of the Maha- bharata,
BHUR-LOKA. See Loka.
BHUTA. A ghost, imp, goblin. Malignant spirits which haunt cemeteries, lurk in trees, animate d^ad bodies, and delude and devour human beings. According to the Vishnu Purana they are " fierce beings and eaters of flesh," who were created by the Creator when he was incensed. In the Vayu Parana their mother is said to have been Krodha, 'anger.' The Bhutas are attendants of Siva, and he is held to be their king.
56 BHUTESA —BRA HMA.
BHUTESA, BIIUTESWAEA. 'Lord of beings or of created things.' A name applied to Vishwu, Brahma, and Knshrat; as 'lord of the Bhutas or goblins,7 it is applied to Siva.
BHUVANESWAEA. A ruined city in Orissa, sacred to the worship of Siva, and containing the remains of several temples. It was formerly called Ekanira-kanana.