THE JOURNAL OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA
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AMERICAN
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JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY
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THE JOURNAL OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA
VOLUME XXIII
1919
CONCORD, N. H.
PUBLISHED FOR THE INSTITUTE BY
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NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
American Journal of Archaeology
SECOND SERIES
THE JOURNAL OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA
Vol. XXIII, 1919 C C
Cbttortal Jioarb /
Editor-in-Chief JAMES MORTON PATON I^OA , %•
V ->-*s Associate Editors
GEORGE H. CHASE (for the American School at Athens),
Professor in Harvard University.
ALLAN MARQUAND (for Mediaeval and Renaissance Archae- 'ology),
Professor in Princeton University.
FREDERICK H. STERNS (for American Archaeology),
Associate in Harvard University.
WILLIAM N. BATES,
Professor in the University of Pennsylvania.
Honorary Editors JAMES C. EGBERT (President of the Institute),
Professor in Columbia University.
EDWARD CAPPS (Chairman of the Managing Committee of the School at Athens),
Professor in Princeton University.
JAMES A. MONTGOMERY (Chairman of the Managing Committee of the School in Jerusalem),
Professor in the Philadelphia Divinity School.
Cbitorial Contributors
Professor CARROLL N. BROWN, Professor ARTHUR S. PEASE,
Classical Archaeology. Classical Archaeology.
Miss MARY H. BUCKINGHAM, Professor SAMUEL BALL PLATNER,
Classical Archaeology. Roman Archaeology.
Dr. THEODORE A. BUENGER, Professor JOHN C. ROLFE,
Classical Archaeology. Roman Archaeology.
Dr, LACEY D. CASKEY, Dr. JOHN SHAPLEY,
Classical Archaeology. Christian and Mediaeval
Professor HAROLD R. HASTINGS, Archaeology.
Classical Archaeology. Professor ARTHUR L. WHEELER, Professor ELMER T. MERRILL, Numismatics.
Numismatics. Professor LEWIS B. PATON.
Oriental Archaeology.
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CONTENTS \°/V^
ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA:
SAMUEL E. BASSETT — The Palace of Odysseus 288
Additional Note on the Palace of Odysseus . 413
JOSEPH BRECK — Two Carolingian Ivories 394
L. G. ELDRIDGE — An Archaic Greek Statue 270
ARTHUR FAIRBANKS — An Ionian Deinos in Boston . 279
ELLA SHARPLES HOGHTON — Two Marbles in the Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston 219
ROGER SHERMAN LOOMIS — The Allegorical Siege in the Art of the Mid- dle Ages 255
STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE — The Diphilos-Dromippos Lecythi and
their Relation to Mr. Beazley's Achilles
Master 19
Note on Etruscan Architectural Terra- cottas 161
EUGENE S. MCCARTNEY — Canting Puns on Ancient Monuments . . 59
C. R. MOREY — Pseudo-Gothic Ivories in the Hearn Collection ... 50
The Silver Casket of San Nazaro in Milan 101
PHILA CALDER NYE — The Oblong Caskets of the Byzantine Period . 401 BERTHA KNICKERBOCKER STRAIGHT — The Decorative Qualities of
Florentine Quattrocento Relief 126
E. DOUGLAS VAN BUREN — Terracotta Revetments from Etruria . . 157
MARGARET C. WAITES — The Meaning of the "Dokana" 1
OLIVER M. WASHBURN — The Origin of the Triglyph Frieze .... 33
Notice 312
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS :
L. R. DEAN — Latin Inscriptions from Corinth, II 163
KENDALL K. SMITH — Greek Inscriptions from Corinth, II 33l
ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS AND DISCUSSIONS (July, 1918- June, 1919).
—WILLIAM N. BATES, Editor
NOTES ON RECENT EXCAVATIONS AND DISCOVERIES; OTHER NEWS . . 75, 313
Oriental and Classical Archaeology: — General and Miscellaneous,
75, 313; Egypt, 77; Greece, 79, 314; Italy, 80, 315; Spain, 84, 318;
France, 84, 318; Holland, 85; Northern Africa, 85, 318; United
States, 86, 320.
Early Christian, Byzantine, Mediaeval, and Renaissance Art: — 'Palestine, 322; Greece, 88; Italy, 89, 323; Spain, 92, 325; France,
92, 325; Austria, 93; Great Britain and Ireland, 93, 326; Northern
Africa, 96; United States, 96, 328. American Archaeology: — General and Miscellaneous, 330.
SUMMARIES OF ORIGINAL ARTICLES CHIEFLY IN CURRENT PERIODICALS, 175, 415
Oriental and Classical Archaeology:— General and Miscellaneous, 175, 415; Egypt, 177, 417; Babylonia and Assyria, 179, 418; Syria and Palestine, 180, 420; Asia Minor, 420; Greece, 181, 420; (Sculpture, 181, 420; Vases, 182, 421; Inscriptions, 183, 423; Coins,
v
vi CONTENTS
425; General and Miscellaneous, 183, 425); Italy, 183, 427; (Sculp- ture, 183; Vases, 427; Inscriptions, 184, 427; Coins, 428; Gen- eral and Miscellaneous, 185, 429); Spain, 433; France, 185, 433; Northern Africa, 433.
Early Christian, Byzantine, and Mediaeval Art: — General and Mis- cellaneous, 186, 434; Italy, 189, 435; Spain, 190, 436; France, 191, 437; Belgium, 192, 437; Germany, 192; Sweden, 192; Great Britain, 193, 438.
Renaissance Art: — General and Miscellaneous, 195; Italy, 195, 438; Spain, 201, 443; France, 202, 445; Belgium and Holland, 203, 445; Germany, 204; Great Britain, 204.
American Archaeology: — General and Miscellaneous, 447.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL BOOKS: 1918
WILLIAM N. BATES, Editor 207
General and Miscellaneous . . . 207
Egyptian Archaeology 210
Oriental Archaeology 211
Classical Archaeology 212
Greek and Roman 212
Greek, 212 (I, General and Miscellaneous, 212; II, Architecture, 213; III, Sculpture, 213; IV, Vases, 213; V, Inscriptions, 213; VI, Coins, 214); Roman, 214 (I, General and Miscellaneous, 214; II, Vases, 214; III, Inscriptions, 215; IV, Coins, 215).
Christian Art 215
(I, General and Miscellaneous, 215; II, Early Christian, Byzantine, and Mediaeval, 216; III, Renaissance, 217). Abbreviations used in the News, Discussions and Bibliography .... 99
PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTIETH GENERAL MEETING OF THE ARCHAEO- LOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA AT COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, December 26, 27, 28, 1918 65
Preliminary Statement 65
Abstracts and Titles of Papers Read :
Principles of Greek Design as Illustrated by Pottery and
Bronzes in America. — JAY HAMBIDGE 65
Some Black-Figured Vases in the Stoddard Collection, Yale
University.— PAUL V. C. BAUR 66
Notes on the Technique of Greek Vases.
— GISELA M. A. RICHTER 67
The Erechtheum as a Christian Church. — JAMES M. PATON 67 Some Balkan and Danubian Connections of Troy.
—IDA C. THALLON 67
Study in the Mayence Languages. — WILLIAM GATES .... 68 The Bennington Pottery and the Early Red Ware of New
England. — FLORENCE PAUL BERGER 68
The Beginnings of Sculpture in Colonial America.
— FlSKE KlMBALL 69
CONTENTS vii
Two So-called Early Christian Monuments.
— CHARLES R. MOREY 69
Problems of Gothic Form. — JOHN SHAPLEY 69
The Transformation of the Classical Pediment in Roman- esque Architecture. — LEICESTER B. HOLLAND 70
The Decoration of the Ceppo Hospital at Pistoria.
— ALLAN MARQUAND 70 The Future Protection of the Historical Monuments of
Nearer Asia. — HOWARD CROSBY BUTLER 70
Some Art Treasures of Redeemed' Italy.
— CHARLES UPSON CLARK 70 The Nature of the Lares and their Representation in Roman
Art. — MARGARET C. WAITES 70
The Origin of the Triglyph Frieze. — OLIVER M. WASHBURN . 70 Architectural Refinements in Mediaeval French Cathedrals as Related to the Question of Repairs or Restoration in the
War Zone.— W. H. GOODYEAR 71
The Origin of the Roman Forum. — NORMAN W. DsWiTT . . 72 The Oblong Ivory Caskets of the Byzantine Period.
— PHILA C. NYE 72
Notes on Women in Attic Inscriptions. — HELEN McCLEES . . 73 Notes on the Portals of Santiago de Compostella.
— GEORGIANA GODDARD KING 73
PLATES
I. Bust of a Youth, Shaw Collection, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. II. Bust of a Youth, Shaw Collection, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: Full Front and Profile.
III. Bust of a Roman Emperor, Shaw Collection, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston.
IV. The Castle of Ladies. Tapestry of the Sixteenth Century.
ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT
Votive Relief of Argenidas : Verona
Relief in Sparta ' . •
Terracotta Relief : Tarentum . .
Cretan Ring with Shrine
Coin of Cyprus
Dioscuri Joined by Bar
Dioscuri Joined by Two Bars
Dioscuri with Heads Joined by Bar 7
Dioscuri and Thunderbolt 11
The Borelli Lecythus: Philadelphia 20
Lecythus in Athens, No. 1629 22
Lecythus in Athens, No. 1628 23
Palmette on Shoulder of Lecythus 24
The Spinelli Lecythus: Boston 25
The Lichas Lecythus : Boston 29
The Hygiainon Lecythus: Worcester 30
Church in Cochiti Pueblo 35
Origin of the Doric Frieze : von Reber . 38
The Primitive Doric Entablature: Choisy 39
Origin of the Doric Frieze : Durrn 40
Origin of the Doric Frieze : Noack 41
Church in Acoma Pueblo 43
Plan of Megaron and Temple : Tiryns 45
Origin of the Doric Frieze : Beam-Ends as Metopes 46
Triptych from the Hearn Collection: Providence 50
Ivory Diptych: Hearn Collection . 51
Coronation of the Virgin: A, Hearn Collection; B, Louvre 52
Virgin and Child: A, Hearn Collection; B, Villeneuve-les- Avignon ... 53
Virgin and Child: A, Hearn Collection; B, Chartreuse de Champmol . 54
Apollo and Daphne: Hearn Collection 55
Ivory Polyptych: A, Hearn Collection; B, Louvre 56
Pedestal of Polyptych, Figure 7, A 57
The Festival Hall of Amenhotep III . 78
Gold Vase from Nuri . 79
The Golden Fleece : Via Praenestina, Rome 82
Diadumenus : Via Labicana, Rome 83
Groom and Wounded Horse : Philadelphia 87
Wounded Horse: Philadelphia 88
Saint Stephen by Giotto 90
Cassone Panels by Cosimo Roselli (?) : A, Property of Mr. Chamberlain;
B, National Gallery, London 95
Christ Enthroned: Cover, Casket of San' Nazaro 102
Adoration of the Magi: Casket of San Nazaro 103
Judgment of Solomon: Casket of San Nazaro . . 103
Daniel and the Elders: Casket of San Nazaro 105
riii
CONTENTS ix
The Three Hebrews (?): Casket of San Nazaro 105
Casket of Projecta: British Museum 107
Hercules ascribed to Bertoldo : Berlin 117
Heraldic Figure: Morgan Collection 117
The Entombment: Plaquette, Bardini Collection 119
The Casket of Brivio : Louvre 121
Tomb of Ilaria del Carretto by Jacopo della Quercia (?) : Lucca .... 128
Saint George and the Dragon by Donatello : Orsanmichele, Florence . 132
Saint John on Patmos, Medallion by Donatello : San Lorenzo, Florence 133
Assumption of the Virgin by Donatello : Naples . . . ' 135
Angels by Luca della Robbia : Impruneta . . . . ' 138
Archangel Michael by Agostino di Duccio : San Bernardino, Perugia . 140 Chastity and Musical Angels by Agostino di Duccio: San Bernardino,
Perugia 141
Tomb of La Beata Villana by Bernardino Rossellino: Santa Maria
Novella, Florence . . 144
Wreath-Bearer, Marsuppini Tomb, by Desiderio: Santa Croce, Florence 147
Madonna Panciatichi by Desiderio 148
Eleanor of Aragon (?) by Laurana: Palermo . 149
Bust of Unknown Woman by Verrocchio : Florence 151
Tuscan Renaissance Ornament: Detail 154
Construction of Pent-Roof with Ridge Wall 162
Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 5 . 164
Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 6 167
Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 7 168
Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 8 . . . 168
Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 9 169
Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 10 169
Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 11 170
Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 12 170
Latin Inscriptions from Corinth: A, No. 13; B, No. 14 171
Latin Inscriptions from Corinth: A, No. 15; B, No. 16 173
Statuette of one of the "Souls of Pe" : New York Historical Society . . 176
Statuette of a Negro Captive : New York Historical Society 177
Greek Statue in the Style of Phidias : Ashmolean Museum, Oxford . . 181
Roman Bust: Milan 184
Madonna del Soccorso : Nicold da Foligno 187
Lunette in Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome 196
Madonna: Stroganoff Collection, Rome 197
Detail from the Madonna of the Bower: Perugia 198
Matteo Palmieri by A. Rossellino : Bargello 221
Pietro Mellini by Benedetto da Maiano : Bargello 222
Filippo Strozzi by Benedetto da Maiano : Louvre 224
Rinaldo della Luna by Mino da Fiesole: Bargello. 225
Giovanni dei Medici by Mino da Fiesole : Bargello 226
Piero dei Medici by Mino da Fiesole : Bargello 228
Bishop Salutati by Mino da Fiesole : Fiesole 229
San Giovannino by Desiderio : Widener Collection 232
Bust of Rinaldo della Luna and the Shaw Bust from behind . . . 233
x CONTENTS
Portrait of a Woman by Mino da Fiesole: Bargello 241
Aurelius Caesar by Mino da Fiesole : Bargello 242
Profile of Frame of the Shaw Relief of an Emperor 243
Caesar (?) by Desiderio da Settignano : Louvre 244
Madonna by Mino da Fiesole : Bargello 249
Madonna (Tondo) by Mino da Fiesole : Bargello . 250
Marcus Aurelius by Agostino di Duccio : Bargello 251
Siege of the Castle of Love : Ivory Casket : Victoria and Albert Museum 257
Surrender of the Castle of Love: Victoria and Albert Museum .... 258
Departure from the Castle of Love: Liverpool 259
The Castle of Love: Peterborough Psalter, Brussels 260
The Castle of Love: Lutterell Psalter, British Museum 261
The Castle of Love : De Officiis Regum, Christ Church College, Oxford . 262
Attack on the Castle of the Church by the World 263
The Tent of Venus and the Castle of the Virtues : Tapestry : Nuremberg 264
The Castle of the Virtues: Tapestry: Town Hall, Ratisbon 267
Stage Diagram for " The Castle of Perseverance " 268
Statue in New York: A, Front; B, Left Side 271
Statue in New York: A, Right Side; B, Back 273
Preparation of a Drink Offering: Ionian Deinos, Boston 280
Ritual Dance: Ionian Deinos, Boston 282
Fragments from Naucratis: A, No. 171; B, No. 172: Boston 284
The Palace at Tiryns 290
The Palace at Mycenae 291
The Palace at Gha 292
The Homeric Palace: Jebb 294
The Homeric Palace : Leaf 301
The Palace of Odysseus : Dickins 307
Proposed Plan of the Palace of Odysseus 309
Ivory Comb: Carthage 319
Poly clitan Hermes: Gyrene 319
Fragment of a Relief: Boston 320
Mosaic Pavement: Deir Dakleh 322
Byzantine Standard: Avellana 323
Holy Family by Pedro de Moya: Madrid 326
Thirteenth Century Embroidery: British Museum 327
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 61 334
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 62 337
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 63 341
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 65 343
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 8 347
Greek Inscriptions from Corinth: Nos. 67, 68 349
Greek Inscriptions from Corinth: Nos. 66, 69 353
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 70 . . . 354
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 71 358
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 72 359
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 73 :....-.-. 360
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 74 361
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 75, General View ... 362
CONTENTS xi
Top of No. 75 363
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 75, Inscribed Face 364
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 76 372
Top of No. 76 373
Greek Inscriptions from Corinth: Nos. 77, 78, 79 374
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 80 375
Greek Inscriptions from Corinth: Nos. 81, 83 376
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 82 . 377
Top of No. 82 377
Greek Inscription from Corinth : No. 85 379
Greek Inscriptions from Corinth: Nos. 86, 87 381
Greek Inscriptions from Corinth: Nos. 88, 91 382"
Greek Inscription from Corinth: No. 90 383
Greek Inscriptions from Corinth: Nos. 92, 94 386
Greek Inscriptions from Corinth: Nos. 93, 95 386
Greek Inscriptions from Corinth: Nos. 96, 97 388
Greek Inscriptions from Corinth: Nos. 98, 102 389
Greek Inscriptions from Corinth: Nos. 84, 99, 100 391
Greek Inscriptions from Corinth: Nos. 101, 11, 28-29 . 392
Christ Enthroned; Carohngian Ivory Plaque: Metropolitan Museum . 395 The Virgin and Child Enthroned; Carolingian Ivory Plaque: Metro- politan Museum 396
Back of Plaque, Figure 1 ; probably Coptic, VI-VII Centuries .... 398
Back of Plaque, Figure 2; probably Coptic, VI-VII Centuries .... 399
The Cranenburg Casket: Metropolitan Museum 402:
"Joshua" Panel: Metropolitan Museum 404
Second "Joshua" Panel: Metropolitan Museum 405
Third "Joshua" Panel: Metropolitan Museum 406
Morgan Casket, No. 3: Metropolitan Museum 407
The Hoentschel Casket : Metropolitan Museum 408
The Oppenheim Panel: Metropolitan Museum 409
Pulsky Panel: Metropolitan Museum 410
Second Pulsky Panel: Metropolitan Museum 410
The Sacred Casket: Metropolitan Museum 411
Bronze Statuette in its Mould 418
A Copy of the Athena Parthenos 421
Terracotta Funerary Mask: Sardinia 432
The Death of Actaeon: Italian Majolica 440
Relief by the Master of the Marble Madonnas 443
Paintings by Mayner and de Aquilis : Alhambra 444
Madonna and Child: Van Dyck 446
grcfjaeological
Dnstttutc of America
THE MEANING OF THE "DOKANA"
PLUTARCH introduces his discourse "On Brotherly Love" by the following statement:1 "The ancient models of the images of the Dioscuri the Spartans term 'doKava.' Now the dokana con- sists of two parallel beams joined by two others placed across them, and the common and undivided nature of the offering seems appropriately to express the brotherly love of the gods."
FIGURE 1. — VOTIVE RELIEF OF ARGENIDAS: VERONA.
In the Etymologicum Magnum, p. 282, 52 dokana are described as "certain tombs in Lacedaemon." The writer derives the term from Se£ao-0cu, "because they received the sons of Tynda- reus," and adds that they looked like open tombs.
This definition not unnaturally led Ernst Curtius3 to conjec- ture that the dokana were the doors of the shrine of the Dioscuri
1 De Fraterno Amore, p. 478 A. rd TraXcud T&V Atoa/copwi' &<t>i&pv/j.a.Ta Sirap- Tiarat 56/cava' /caXoun' em. 5£ 8vo £uXa irapaXXrjXa dvai irXaylots tTre^evy/j.kva, KO.I 5o/ceT T$ 0iXa5eX0C{j rdv 6edv oUelov elvai, TOV d^a^^uaros r6 KOIVOV KCLI
2 Ao/caj'a: rd^oi TW« kv A.aKt8ai/j.oviq.' -jrapa TO 8e£aadcu TOVS (llbri rds) pldas, (fravTaaiav ?xoj/7"« (libri ex°^-ra5> Petersen %xot/Ta) rafa
3 Peloponnesos, II, 316.42
American Journal of Archaeology, Second Series. Journal of the Archaeological Institute of America, Vol. XXIII, (1919), No. 1.
2 MARGARET C. WAITES
which might to ancient thought appear at once as a temple and as a grave.
The hypothesis has met with considerable opposition.1 Never- theless, as I shall hope to show, Curtius was quite right in recog- nizing the importance of the statement in the Etymologicum with its hint that the dokana might have a chthonic significance. The dokana which Plutarch saw, however, could not have looked like open tombs. The erection must have resembled rather an h with a double crossbar, H,2 a figure which at once reminds one of the zodiacal sign of the Gemini.3
The same symbol, though with a single crossbar, is repeated (H H) on the great votive relief of Argenidas4 in Verona (Fig. 1) which Furtwangler5 assigns to some Laconian coast-city and dates tentatively in the second century B.C.
Other varieties of the dokana agree rather with the description in the Etymologicum than with the symbols on the offering of Argenidas. For example a relief of bluish marble in the Sparta Museum (Fig. 2)6 shows "two broad parallel vertical beams on each
FIGURE 2.— RELIEF side of wnich is a snake curling upwards. IN SPARTA. These are joined at the top by a broad
horizontal beam whose rounded ends over- hang, and are decorated with a hand-like floral ornament : in its centre is a lotus-bud. At half their height the vertical beams are
1 Perhaps most forcibly expressed by Bethe in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Ency- clopadie, s.v. 'Dioskuren,' p. 1089.
2 Or possibly H, as on the Spartan reliefs.
8 For the various ancient forms of this sign see BoucheVLeclercq, L'Astrologie grecque, p. 135; Winckelmann, Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums (ed. 1882) p. 19.
4 The repetition of the sign may be due merely to symmetry. Perhaps the artist felt that, corresponding to the two amphorae, each brother should have his H-symbol. See W. H. Ward, Seal-Cylinders of Western Asia, p. 87.
6 Roscher, Lexikon, s.v. 'Dioskuren,' p. 1170. Tod and Wace^ Catalogue of the Sparta Museum, pp. 113 ff., fig. 14, give the shape as TT TT. With this Welcker, Aeschylische Trilogie, pp. 224 f., n. 389, agrees. Rendel Harris, however, publishes in his Cult of the Heavenly Twins a photograph, here re- produced, evidently taken directly from the original as it bears the museum number. The relief is broken at this corner, but it seems fairly clear that the figures had no bar across the top and so Harris interprets them (p. 145)
6 Tod and Wace, op. cit. p. 193, no. 588.
THE MEANING OF THE "DOKANA"
joined by a narrow horizontal crossbeam. From this spring two parallel and equidistant narrow vertical beams joining the top horizontal beam either side of the lotus."
The ball-players who erected a votive relief to the Dioscuri1 were familiar with this shape. "A tall amphora with a conical lid stands on a square base between them (the Dioscuri), while above it, and apparently resting on its handles, are the OOKCLVCL. These consist of two vertical joined by two horizontal beams in the middle and at the top. The uppermost horizontal beam, which projects beyond the vertical ones, is decorated with an egg between two snakes."
Sometimes the central crossbeam could be omitted. So on terra-cotta votives found at Tarentum2 the Dioscuri are rep- resented as standing on either side of a table-like object inter- preted by Petersen3 as a develop- ment of the dokana. I reproduce perhaps the best example (Fig. 3) , showing the brethren riding in their chariot past the dokana on which stand two amphorae.
This shape, more than those previously discussed, resembles an open gate or doorway,4 and re- minds one not only of the Etymo- logicum but of the TruXcu KaaropLdes
at Gythium.5 of the fact that a shrine of the Dioscuri was called "The chambers" (?) (at Thalamae the Dioscuri were
FIGURE 3.-
-TERRA-COTTA RELIEF: TARENTUM.
1 Wace, B.S.A. XIII, 1906-7, pp. 213 ff.
2 See Petersen, 'Dioskuren in Tarent,' Rom. Mitt., XV, 1900, pp. 7 f., Section A, Abb. I, 2, and II, 3, with which compare the table with altar before it and amphorae upon it in the Argenidas relief.
3 Op. cit. pp. 42 ff.
4 Professor Frothingham calls my attention to the resemblance between the dokana and the city-gate, comparing an urn from Volterra with the scene of the Attack on Thebes (Alinari, photo- 8734). "Here note the uprights and crossbar of the city door inside the arched gate— and, above, one of the Dioscuri heads. . . .
6 Pausanias, III, 21, 9.
6 Cf. Photius: eaXajueu* al /earaSfoms ' eaXajtiai (0aXA/xai ?) 6* r67roj lepts T&V
MARGARET C. WAITES
born),1 and^that according to tradition the twins had possessed a " house" in Sparta.2
The gateway form suggests many parallels, best collected by A. B. Cook in his interesting discussion of the dokana in connec- tion with Etruscan mirrors3. A sacred tree is often provided with a door-shaped shrine consisting of pillars placed on either side of the trunk and connected by an arch or epistyle.4
Cretan art affords many examples5 of shrines both of the TT variety (Fig. 4) and of a type resembling the Tf form of the dokana. They protect trees, pillars or other sacred objects, such as the "horns of consecration."
Further analogies may be drawn on the one hand from mega- lithic trilithons, on the other from the first gate of the temple at
Jerusalem described in the Wars of the Jews as having no doors, "for it symbolized the heavens, every way open and everywhere visible."6 One may compare also the gate-ways of the Indian topes or relic- shrines, for instance the north gateway of the tope at Sanchi which is largely devoted to tree- worship.7
Paus., Ill, 1, 4; 26, 2.
Paus., Ill, 16, 2.
Zeus, A Study in Ancient Religion, p. 7671.
Botticher, Baumkultus der Hellenen, p. 155.
Evans, Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult (=J.H.S. XXI, 1901, pp. 99 ff.), figs. 53, 55, 56, 58. Cf. Evans, p. 83 ( = 181): "To this day the traveller in the Caucasus may see outside the Ossete houses a rude arch or gateway placed beside the stump which represents the ancestral tree of the household."
6 Josephus, Wars of the Jews V, 5, 4, translated in Fergusson, The Temples of the Jews, p. 151. The Talmud, Middoth of the Mishna, 3, 7 and 8, explains the structure of the gate: "The Gates of the propylon were forty cubits in height and twenty cubits broad, and above these were five richly carved beams of ash or oak. . . . Between each beam there was a row or course of stones. Transverse beams of cedar were carried from the wall of the Temple to this portico or propylon to support it. ... A golden vine was spread over this gateway of the Temple, and was carried upon the supporting beams." (Translation in Fergusson, op. cit. pp. 151 and 152.)
7 Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, I, pi. 38.
FIGURE 4. — CRETAN RING WITH SHRINE.
FIGURE 5. — COIN OF CYPRUS.
THE MEANING OF THE "DOKANA" 5
Similar gate-ways are found in Korea, China, and Japan. As Fergusson explains,1 although in India they have lost their original sepulchral meaning, in China they are still used^as honorific monuments for the dead.
Suggestive of the H-type of dokana are the representations on Cyprian coins of the temple of Aphrodite at Paphos (Fig. 5).2 Here the central portion of the edifice has the H-shape.3
Still simpler than the dokana as a symbolical gateway would be the erec- tion of two pillars without the crossbar.4 In Brit. Mus. Catal. of Coins, Phoenicia, pi. XXXIII, 15, are represented the " Ambrosial Rocks" with the sacred olive-tree of the Tyrian Melkart between them. In front of the altar of Zeus Lycaeus, Pausanias saw two pillars upon
which were gilded eagles.5 A pair of pillars wreathed with ser- pents enclose the busts of Tanit and Ba'al-hamman on a silver diadem from Batna in Algeria.6 Two large brick columns stood on either side of the gateway into the court outside the temple area of Nippur.7 In this connection, too, one recalls the pil- lars Jachin and Boaz set up by Solomon in the porch of the
1 History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, II, p. 476.
2 Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. 'Aphrodite/ fig. 361. A simpler type appears on a bronze coin of Vespasian, Brit. Mus. Catal. of Coins, Cyprus, pi. XV, 4. The coin is thus described: " Temple of Aphrodite at Paphos; garland hanging above the two crossbeams; at sides, slender columns (candelabra); in front semicircular court enclosed by lattice fence; the cone has a double flat top and a star on each side."
3 Mr. A. B. Cook very courteously permits me to refer to his unpublished theory that such gateways or arches as the dokana seem to represent "at first denoted the sky itself resting on its side-supports." The dokana "are seen
to be sirrply the 'beans' cf tre world— its pillars and ceiling." Such an hypothesis would explain shape TT, but not shape H where the side posts are higher than the central bar.
4 When the sacred pillars had become deified, the actual gateway shape, H, may have seemed more appropriate than this simpler form as the symbol of the Dioscuri, because, as Plutarch points out, the crossbeam would empha- size the close connection between the twins. See Usener in Strena Helbigiana, p. 319.
5 Paus., VIII, 38, 7.
6 Cook, Zeus, pi. XXVI.
7 Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 624.
6 MARGARET C. WAITES
temple,1 the pairs of obelisks in front of the colossi at the entrance of Egyptian temples, and the limestone obelisks placed with apotropaic purpose to right and left of the stelae at the entrance of Egyptian tombs as early as the end of the Third Dynasty.2 The shrine of Aphrodite at Paphos contained free-standing columns in the side- wings. Of similar construction was the dove-shrine represented on a gold plaque from Mycenae.3 A sardonyx in Berlin shows two pillars, each surmounted by a globe with a star above it. Between them is a tripod with a crescent over it, and on each pillar hang a sword and lance.4 At Edessa twin pillars represented the assessors of Helios.5 Finally one may mention the pillars set up by Tiberius at Antioch before the temple of Dionysus in honor of the twins Zethus and Amphion.6
Sometimes sacred posts are connected, though not by an actual crossbeam, in such a way as to suggest the dokana. On bronze Oscan coins of Capua stand two sacred stones with a fillet above.7 The coins of Magnesia on the Maeander show two conical stones wound with snakes which incline toward one another in the space between and hold a garland.8 Here also belong various gems, such as the chalcedony scaraboid figured by Furtwangler9 show- ing two pillars connected by a loosely hanging garland.
If the interpretation of the dokana implied in the foregoing paragraphs is correct, the Dioscuri at an early stage of their
1 1 Kings, VII, 21.
2 Maspero, Manual of Egyptian Archaeology (1914), pp. 121 f. Of the tomb- obelisks Maspero says: (They) "were regarded as possessing magic powers that enabled them to protect the building before which they were placed from all evil. ..."
3 Cf . also on Carthaginian stelae the obelisk flanked by two smaller pillars, sacred to Tanit. Evans, Tree and Pillar Cult, fig. 22.
4 Furtwangler, Die antiken Gemmen, pi. XXIX, 44. In all these examples, beside the thought of a symbolical gateway, considerations of symmetry were doubtless influential.
6 According to Harris, Boanerges, ch. 24 and Dioscuri in Christian Legends, ch. 2. Cf . the twin phalli said to have been erected by Dionysus in the vesti- bule of the temple at Hierapolis, Lucian, De dea Syria, 16 and 28.
• John Malalas (Corpus Scrip. Hist. Byz., Vol. XIV, Bonn, 1831) Bk. 10, V, 99 B.
T Brit. Mus. Catal. of Coins, Italy, p. 83, no. 15.
8Usener, Strena Helbigiana, p. 319; Imhoof-Blumer, Choix de monnaies grecques, pi. IV, no. 123.
9 Furtwangler, Ant. Gem., I, pi. XIII, 29; cf. Id. Beschreibung der geschnit- tenen Steinen im Antiquarium, Nos. 6464, pi. 45, and 305, pi. 6.
THE MEANING OF THE "DOKANA
FIGURE 6. — DIOSCURI JOINED BY ONE BAR.
FIGURE 7. — DIOSCURI JOINED BY Two BARS.
complicated development were the uprights of a sacred door or gateway. This hypothesis receives confirmation from a series of Etruscan mirrors on which the Dioscuri appear in human form, but so connected by crossbars as to represent each of the three main types of the dokana, TT, TT, and .H. Out of a great number of exam- ples, I reproduce one of each class (Figs. 6, 7, and 8). Fig. 8 is particularly inter- esting, as it presents the twins leaning upon the sacred posts from which they were developed.
That the Dioscuri were par- allel posts, guardians of some shrine, sacred tree, or pillar, ex- plains their subordinate char- acter,— the fact that they are
often merely assessors to a
J FIGURE 8. — DIOSCURI WITH HEADS
more important deity or deities. JOINED BY BAR.
8 MARGARET C. WAITES
It explains too their frequent use at the entrances of temples1 and at city gates.
The nature of the central deity to whom the twin gods2 were assessors can also be determined. Several mirrors present evi- dence of the cult of a sacred plant in connection with the Dioscuri. In Gerhard's Etruskische Spiegel, pi. 48, 4 and 5, the brothers stand in their usual stiff position, forming supporters for the central feature, a highly simplified and conventionalized plant. Between the twins of pi. 46, 8 rises a curious palm-like stalk on top of which perches a small bird. A pediment with a star in the middle connects the heads of the twins and below this are two larger stars. On pi. 47, 1, the Dioscuri lean against their ancient pillars, with their shields behind them. Between the pillars grows a low plant naturalistically rendered by the artist. Above are two parallel dokana- beams and the space between them is decorated with a pattern perhaps derived from the sacred plant.
In connection with this evidence, mention should be made of late coins from Gythium showing a tree between the Dioscuri,3 of the plane-tree in Sparta consecrated to Helen by the inscrip- tion: o-ej8ou //'• 'EXej/as $vrbv €t/u4, and of Helen Dendritis, wor- shipped in Rhodes.5
Intermediate between a sacred tree and a sacred pillar is the lotus-column which rises between its assessors on pi. 46, 9. On pi. 46, 4 a pillar supports the table-like crossbeams of the dokana. The thighs of the Dioscuri are joined by the crossbeams in pi. 253A, no. 3. Upon the beams rests a banded column and upon that again a pediment.6
Various coins offer comparisons. On a coin issued at Sagalas- sus in Caracalla's reign,7 the two circular altars of the Dioscuri,
1 Pliny, N. H., XX^IV, 79; Suetonius Caligula, 22; Dio Cassius, LIX, 28, and compare the twins feunmuz and Gishzida who keep the gates of the Baby- lonian heaven, Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 546 ff. The Dioscuri were found in front of the temple in the forum of Assisi. As guard- ians of gateways, they appeared on the jambs of the city gate at Thessalonica; they flank Jupiter over theNPorta Marzia at Perugia, Frothingham, Roman Cities in Italy and Dalmatia, pV 137, 182.
2 Not necessarily the DioscuriVbut of similar character.
3 J.H.S. VII, 1886, p. 66 (Getk
4 Theocritus, XVIII, 48. \ 6 Paus., Ill, 19, 10.
6 Cf. also pi. 253A, no. 2.
7 Brit. Mus. Catal of Coins, Lycia, Pamp^lia and Pisidia, p. 243, no. 20 and cf. nos. 23 and 24.
THE MEANING OF THE "DOKANA" 9
each adorned with a crescent and surmounted by a star, stand under an arch supported by columns. Between them rises a tall Corinthian column on a base.
It is not a far cry from this tree-pillar to the pillar-like goddess- who often appears between twin supporters.1 So on a gable- topped stele in the museum at Sparta2 a female figure clad in a long, stiff chiton stands facing the spectator. ".On her head she wears a kind of basket, broader at the top than the bottom, and decorated with horizontal lines." In each hand she holds a fillet wreath. Flanking her stand the Dioscuri in profile, each wearing pileus and chlamys. Coins of Acalissus3 figure a like idol, veiled, with a crescent on her head, standing between the Dioscuri who are armed with spears and accompanied by their horses. In another instance'1 a crescent alone appears between the twins whose pilei are surmounted by stars.
The goddess between the twin supporters is a lady of many names. Worshipped at Sparta as Helen, adored under the name of Cybele at Pergamum, Pessinus, Metroon in Bithynia, Tomi, and Callatis,5 she appears at Tripolis in Phoenicia and elsewhere as Astarte, "queen of the heavens."6 Twins also escort Hera Urania seated on her lion.7 Here perhaps belongs the curious passage in Apuleius's description of the mime representing the Judgment of Paris where the Dioscuri are the companions of Juno.*
But twins were also, as Harris has proved,9 universally re- garded as Sons of Thunder, and they became therefore naturally
1 Most of the examples are given by Petersen, 'Dioskuren auf Monte. Cav- allo,' Rom. Mitt. XV, 1900, pp. 337 f.
2 Tod and Wace, Catalogue, no. 201, and cf. 202 and 203.
3 Brit. Mus. Catal. of Coins, Lycia, etc., p. 40, 1 (Gordian III); cf. p. 211 for similar coins of Codrula (Caracalla). For Termessus Major, cf. p. 270, no. 24 (Antonines).
4 Ibid., p. 234, 1, a coin of Pednelissus (Antoninus Pius).
5 GraiUot, 'Les dieux tout-puissants Cybele et Attis,' R. Arch. 1904, 1, pp. 345 ff.
6 Brit. Mus. Catal. of Coins, Phoenicia, 213, 215, 218 f. The twins and Astarte are found also in Orthosia (Caria), Berytus, Tyre, Laodicea (Phrygia), Aelia Capitolina (Judaea), and Philadelphia. See Lajard, Recherches sur le culte de Mithra, pp. 627 ff. Of course there were other reasons for the association of the Dioscuri and similar twins with deities like Astarte. I argue only that one reason for such a combination may be found in my interpretation of the dokana.
7 Furtwangler, Ant. Gemmen, pi. LXV, no. 54, and vol. II, p. 303; GraiUot, I.e., p. 347.
8 Apuleius, Metam. X, 31.
9 Boanerges, passim.
10 MARGARET C. WAITES
assessors of thundering Jove. They guarded the entrance of the temple of Jupiter Tonans at Rome1; on a paste of late Roman work2 they flank the figure of Zeus who leans against the pillar which in more primitive days had itself received worship; they are found with Zeus Sabazius in Phrygia,3 with Ba'al-samin, Lord of Heaven, at Setif in Africa4; their caps represent them beside the figure of Zeus Adad.5
That the connection between the goddess and her twin guard- ians and the god with his assessors was not remote we may infer from coins representing an androgynous Zeus apparently worshipped in Caria.6 His emblem, the double axe, carries us back again to Crete and reminds us that7 "on the reverse of the coins of Tenedos, as on so many Carian types, the old double axe form of the divinity is still preserved, while on the obverse ap- pears its anthropomorphic equivalent in the shape of a janiform head, which has been identified with Dionysus and Ariadne."8 On some of these coins the pilei of the Dioscuri appear with the axe.9
Here I think I can add another to Harris's series of reasons for associating the twins with the thunder-god. I have tried to adduce evidence that such a symbol as the dokana proves the Dioscuri and similar pairs to have been the posts of a sacred doorway. Now
iR.Num., 1838, p. 13.
2 Cook, Zeus, p. 356, fig. 8.
3 Zeus, pi. XXVII.
4 C.I.L. VIII, 8443, 8444, 8451, 8453; Graillot, I.e. p. 347. On coins of Tarsus the Dioscuri or similar figures support a canopy covering the pyre of Sandan, Brit. Mus. Catal. of Coins, Lycaonia, Isauria, and Cilicia, p. 221, no. 293. Cf. Milani, Studi e Materiali, II, p. 56, fig. 213a and b; I, p. 48, figs. 16, 17. The arch here doubtless represents the vault of heaven (so Milani, p. 49, and cf. Cook's theory, p. 5, note 2.)
6 Cook, Zeus, fig. 451.
6 Cf. Foucart, Des associations religieuses chez les Grecs, p. 106 f . on a coin of Mylasa of the time of Geta, representing Zeus Labraundos in a tetrastyle temple: "II est barbu et coiff6 du modius; son corps se termine par une galne couverte de bandelettes, au-dessus desquelles on voit deux mamelles; de ses bras descendent des chalnes qui paraissent scellees dans le sol; comme d' ordi- naire, la main droite tient une bipenne, et la gauche une haste."
7 Evans, Tree and Pillar Cult, p. 10.
8 In the Orphic Hymn, f rg. 238, 5, Zeus is called wTpoirarup. On a vase from Vulci (Mon. dell' Inst. VIII, p. 24) he bears an androgynous sceptre. See Usener, Strena Helbigiana, p. 329; Num. Chron., 1887, pi. II, no. 25.
9 Brit. Mus. Catal. of Coins, Troas, Aeolis, and Lesbos, p. 93, nos. 25, 26, 29; and Imhoof-Blumer, Monn. gr., p. 269, nos. 206 and 203.
THE MEANING OF THE "DOKANA
11
the thunder-stone, celt, or double axe, being very important as a charm against lightning, is often placed at the door of a dwelling. So Blinkenberg1 tells us that in Snedsted parish, Denmark, thun- der-stones are still placed in stable-windows and over stable- doors. While in East Prussia they are hurled against the door to keep off thunder, in Poland they are laid under the threshold and in Scotland over the door for good luck.2 The £lavs call stone axes sky-arrows,3 and in this connection it is interesting to note that on one side of a bone arrow-head from Vimose the swastika and the figure H are carved.4 That the axe-symbol was used in very ancient days in association with the door, the greai prehistoric palace at Cnossus proves. Evans says of it5: "It was itself the 'House of the Double Axe,' and the Palace was at the same time a sanctu- ary. The chief corner-stones and door-jambs, made of huge gyp- sum blocks, -are incised with the double axe sign, implying con- secration to the Cretan Zeus." One of the Etruscan mirrors (Fig. 9) illustrates the worship
of the thunderbolt with the twins as its assessors. The inter- pretation of this mirror I owe to Cook.6
Perhaps a trace of the ancient belief in the effectiveness of twins as guardians of dwellings is evinced in the selection at Ath- ens of a common priest for the Anakes and the hero Epitegios (" protector of the house -roof "?).7
But if the structure of the dokana was derived from a sacred gateway, why to the writer of the definition in the Elymologicum
1 The Thunder-Weapon in Religion and. Folklore, p. 74.
2 Blinkenberg, pp. 96 ff.
3 Blinkenberg, p. 100.
4 Blinkenberg, p. 85.
5 Tree and Pillar Cult, p. 12.
6 Zeus, p. 770.
7 C.I. A., Ill, 290; cf. 195, and Pauly-Wissowa, s. v. 'Epitegios.'
FIGURE 9. — DIOSCURI AND THUNDERBOLT.
12 MARGARET C. WAITES
had it a chthonic significance, so that it suggested open tombs?1 The tomb of Adonis at Byblos, of Aphrodite at Paphos, of Zeus in Crete, the omphalos at Delphi, which became the tomb of Dionysus, are all proofs of the transition in popular belief by which the aniconic image of a god became his burial-place.2
An image shaped like a gateway, however, was particularly likely to be connected with the underworld. We have already seen the use of the gate in China as an honorific monument to the dead. In ancient fancy, the doorway of the house was the boundary between the safe, firelit world of home and the vague "Outside" where spirits lurked.3
The Greeks, believing that " white thorn or buckthorn fastened to a door had power . . .to exclude spirits,"4 hung branches- before the doors when the dead received sacrifice. Pythagoras recommended the hanging of sea-leeks over the door contra mal- orum medicamentorum introitum.5 To exclude striges threshold and doorposts must be struck three times with arbute-branches and the entrance sprinkled with water.6
1 The use of the plural rd^oi is noteworthy. Unless we suppose that the duplication H H which occurs on the relief of Argenidas was common in Laconia, an idea contradicted by the other reliefs on which the dokana appears, I think we must assume the definition to describe not any one particular structure, for instance near Therapne as Bethe suggests (Pauly-Wissowas.v. 'Dioskuren/ §9), but symbols commonly to be seen in Lacedaemon, d<£i5oi»Aiara of an original, as Plutarch tells us. In favor of the duplication might perhaps be cited the passage (V. 75) in which Herodotus remarks that one of the Tyndarids and one king must be left behind when the army marches forth from Sparta. It is of course possible as Dr. Paton suggests to me, that the "tomb" or under- ground dwelling of the Dioscuri at Therapne may have had the form of the dokana. As, however, the evidence I have previously given has, I hope, shown that the origins of the dokana must be sought in the sacred door or gateway whose sideposts are the Dioscuri themselves, we must, if Dr. Paton's con- jecture be correct, carry our question one step further back, and ask : "Why at Therapne had this sacred door or gateway a chthonic significance so that it could tye described as the tomb of the Dioscuri?"
2 Evans, Tree and Pillar Cult, pp. 21 ff. '
3 See M. B. Ogle, 'House-Door in Greek and Roman Religion and Folk- Lore,' AJ. Ph. XXXII, 1911, pp. 251 ff. Cf. Frazer, Golden Bough, XI, pp. 175 f. In Borneo after a funeral, the mourners creep through a "gate" made of a V-shaped stick to rid themselves of the ghost. Meanwhile they say a few words to a cross which has been erected near the "gate." This cross they call "the wall which separates the living from the dead."
4 Frazer, Golden Bough, II, p. 191.
5 Pliny, N. H., XX, 101; cf. XXX, 82, and see Ogle, op. cit., for many addi- tional references.
6 Ovid, Fasti, VI, 155 ff.
THE MEANING OF THE "DOKANA" 13
In Jerusalem evil spirits haunt "the threshold of the house, and indeed all doorways and entrances."1 According to German belief, a door must not be slammed, "denn das wurde dem Gdste, der dazw. sitzt wehe tun."2 In the Asturias it is not right to slam doors or windows for fear of disturbing some soul doing penance which might tarry there. Care too must be taken in throwing water from the door, for fear of drenching the spirits hovering near by. In upper Franconia one must not step on the threshold of a new house, because the act hurts the "poor souls" beneath. To cure fever in the Upper Palatinate, a magi- cian lifted the threshold and banished the spirit hiding under it.3
Often it is considered unlucky to step on a threshold.4 "He who strikes his foot against the threshold should turn back" says the Pythagorean precept.5 So the Roman bride was lifted over the threshold of her new dwelling and required to smear the doorposts with oil and fat and bind them with woolen fillets.6 At Erdely in Hungary the mother spits upon the newborn child to protect it when she carries it across the threshold.
In fact the door or gate is a dangerous spot. Among certain African tribes,7 "to stand upright in the doorway or inside is unlucky, and will bring cattle thieves." At the other end of the world, in Worcestershire, "to say goodbye at a gate foretells that you will be parted from your friend. To go back over your doorstep for anything forgotten is unlucky; you should sit down to break the spell."8
1 A. Goodrich-Freer, 'Powers of Evil in Jerusalem/ Folklore, XVIII, 1907. p. 58.
2 Samter, Geburt, Hochzeit und Tod, p. 141. The following references are also taken from Samter, I.e.
3 Many classical cures are connected with the threshold. To cure porrigo, e.g., the patient is to stand on the threshold to take his medicine, 'idque triduo Jaciat,' Marcellus Empiricus, IV, 27. Cf. Ps. Apul. de medic, herb, 7, where, as Ogle remarks, the presence of spirits at the threshold is indicated by the warning "Look not behind you."
4 H. C. Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant, pp. 10 ff., contains numerous examples.
6 Frg. Gr. Phil. (Mullach) I, p. 510.
6 The Hindoo bride must step across, not on, the threshold. The custom, as Trumbull shows (Covenant, pp. 37 ff.), is widespread.
'Review of M. W. H. Beech, The Suk: Their Language and Folklore, in Folklore, XXIII, 1912, p. 401.
8 S. O. Addy, 'Scraps of English Folklore, III (Worcestershire)/ Folklore, XX, 1909, p. 346.
14 MARGARET C. WAITES
Often the perilous boundary must be avoided at any cost. Diarmuid O'Duibhne was forbidden to pass through a wicket- gate and leaped over rather than break his geasa.1 An interest- ing parallel is the tale of the Marquesan chief who with all his family " scorned to pass a gateway which is ever closed, or a house with a door. . . . Often have I seen him walk the whole length of our barrier, in preference to passing between our watercasks; and at the risk of his life scramble over the loose stones of a wall, rather than go through the gateway."2
Sometimes men try by a clever deception to avoid the unde- sired presence of the dead about the door. One such invention was the " corpse-door," a special opening made through the wall, just large enough to admit the passage of a coffin. As soon as the procession had started for church, this opening was bricked up to prevent the spirit of the dead from finding its way back to the house.3 This curious custom is widespread. It was prac- ticed by the Ojibway Indians; it appears in Swabia, Iceland, Greenland, Denmark, Italy, among the Slavs in Russia, among the Siamese, East Indians, Chinese, Hottentots, and Caribees.
On the other hand, a man falsely declared to have died in a for- eign land, says Plutarch,4 must not on his return home enter through the door, but through the roof.
The thunder-stone, or the axe which represented it, was not only a charm against lightning but a protection against invading ghosts. In Masuria in East Prussia, at the boundary of a peasant's dwelling toward the street, two axes were laid cross- wise and over these the corpse must be carried. Elsewhere in Masuria an axe was laid for a similar purpose on the threshold. In China men beat on the ground with a hammer to drive away spirits.5 Trolls and nightmare are avoided by the use of the thunder-stone.6 One recalls also the three guardians who pro- tected mother and newborn child from Silvanus by patrolling
*E. Hull, 'Old Irish Tabus,' Folklore, XII, 1901, p. 61.
2 D. Porter, Journal of a Cruise made to the Pacific Ocean, II, 65, quoted by Frazer, Golden Bough, III, 254 f .
3H. F. Feilberg, 'The Corpse-Door: A Danish Survival/ Folklore, XVIII, 1907, pp. 364 ff.; see Threshold Covenant, pp. 23 ff.
4 Quaestiones Romanae, 5. In primitive Scandinavia the inmates of the house of an enemy must be attacked through the roof, not through the door, Threshold Covenant, p. 7.
6 Samter, op. cit. p. 45.
6 Blinkenberg, op. cit. p. 122.
THE MEANING OF THE "DOKANA" 15
the house at night, beating on the threshold with axe and pestle and sweeping it with a broom.1
If then a gate or doorway was regarded as actually the abiding- place of the spirits of the dead, the sacred symbols representing such an entrance might naturally be associated with the under- world.2
In conclusion I should like, in view of my hypothesis concern- ing the dokana, to discuss a few possible parallels.
Horatius, in expiation of the murder of his sister, was led be- neath the tigillum sororium. The analogy between this structure and the dokana has been already noted.3 Most writers describe it as a single beam supported on either side by the street walls,4 although Festus (p. 297) speaks of its construction as duo tigilla tertio superiecto. At any rate it served the purpose of a gateway, for beneath it Horatius was driven as a symbolical offering to the shades below.5
I may quote a parallel from the Middle Ages, probably refer- ring to an ordeal. "The suspected person was to swallow a mouthful of consecrated bread. If he could not do so, he was to be dragged out alive under the doorstep and then put to death."6
1 Augustine, De Civ. Dei, 6, 9.
2 Perhaps a modern representative of the dokana exists in the lich-gate of an English churchyard, through which the corpse must be carried. I owe this suggestion to Professor Neilson of Mt. Holyoke College.
3 Cook, Zeus, p. 767i.
4 Livy, I, 26; Dion. Hal. Ill, 22; Schol. Bob. ad Cic. pro Milone, 3, p. 277, Orelli.
6 According to Fowler, Cl. R. 1913, pp. 48-51, andFrazer, Golden Bough, XI, pp. 193 ff., the object of the ceremony was to cleanse Horatius of guilt and to enable him to escape the ghost of his sister, just as in their view the passage of a con- quered enemy beneath the iugum was intended "to rid the foe of some uncanny powers," or meant as a kindness, to enable him to escape the angry ghosts of slaughtered Romans. Is it not much more probable that the ceremony rep- resents a symbolical death or deliverance to the world of ghosts, whereas in older, more cruel days an actual execution was the only fate of captive or mur- derer? Compare the devotio, involving the burial of an image of the devoted person in case he did not fall in battle. As to the triumphal arch, I should agree with Frazer and Fowler that the passage beneath it was intended to rid conquering troops of the ghosts of foemen. In that case the arch faces the other way, as it were, to the world of the living, from the world of the dead. The porta triumphalis at Rome is, moreover, apparently the only instance in point, as most so-called "triumphal arches" were not erected as part of a triumph. Cf. Curtis, 'Roman Monumental Arches/ Supplementary Papers of the American School in Rome, II, p. 29.
6 Feilberg, I.e. p. 373.
16 MARGARET C. WAITES
Beneath the tigillum were erected the altars of Janus Curiatius ^nd Juno Sororia. So at many a gate was to be seen the image of Janus set up between the posts. We have noted the double " thunder-axe " in the same position and at times in its place a double-headed, double-sexed image. Have we not here the explanation cf the two heads of Janus?1
Under the tigillum, however, in lieu of the two-headed god appeared his altar with that of his other (perhaps not better (!)) half, his " sister" Juno.2 Cook3 connects the tigillum, provided with its two side-posts and its horizontal bar, with the triple- headed Janus.4 More natural would be the derivation of such a triple deity from the original thunder-god and his twin supporters, raised at last to virtual equality with the greater divinity. Com- pare Cautes and Cautopates, the twin torch-bearers of Mithras, whose names are also found as mere epithets of the greater god worshipped as Mithras triplasios.5
1 Since completing this paper, I note that Milani, Studi e Materiali di Arch- eologia e Numismatica, I, pt. 2, pp. 197 ff. has also conjectured the derivation of Janus from the double axe.
2 The fact that the double axe, though originally regarded as androgynous, had come to be considered especially the symbol of the thunder-god would lead to the duplication of the male element. Perhaps we may see a similar emphasis on the female half of the combination in the double female heads on coins of Rhegium (Brit. Mus. Catal. of Coins, Italy, pp. 381 f., Nos. 89-94). For other examples cf. Lampsacus (ibid. Mysia, pp. 79 f., nos. 10-22; pi. XVIII, nos. 9-12; pp. 82 f., nos. 32-45, 50-2; pi. XIX, nos. 10, 13) and Ath- ens (ibid. Attica, p. 5). See also the as of Thessalonica (ibid. Macedonia, p. 112, Thessalonica, no. 32) after 88 B.C., on the obverse of which appears the head of Janus, while the reverse is occupied by the Dioscuri on horseback. In connection with Juno Sororia, the association of the Dioscuri with Juturna, wife of Janus, should not be forgotten, Arnobius, adv. nat. Ill, 29. The gate- shrine once established for the axe-god who was also the sky- or thunder-god, may have been specially perpetuated because some of its forms suggested the
.arch of heaven.
3 Cl. R. 1904, p. 369.
4 Represented e.g. on a "middle brass of Hadrian." Cook, I.e.
6 Cumont, Textes.et Monuments figures relatifs aux mysteres de Mithra, p. 208. Cf. the visit of the three angels to Abraham (Genesis 18), a story which Harris has shown to be full of "Dioscuric" features. One wonders in fact whether the triplets of the tigillum-stoTy may not originally have been twins. An interesting feature of the legend concerns the close relationship of the con- tending parties. Dionysius, III, 13 and Zonaras, VII, 6, report that the moth- ers of the triplets were twin sisters. Columella's account, III, 8, 1 (eximiae fecunditatis Albanas Curiatiae familiae trigeminorum matres) would imply a tradition deriving both families from Alba.
THE MEANING OF THE "DOKANA" 17
To Harris's investigations we owe the proof of the interest of the Heavenly Twins in ploughs and yokes.1 Even without the tale of the Tigillum we should suspect a relation between the dokana and the iugum beneath which conquered troops passed.2
Not only at gates and doors but at crossroads men feared the spirits of the dead. In Greece an offering for the soul was made at crossroads3; in Germany, when the funeral arrived at a cross- road, a heap of straw was laid down that the dead when he re- turned might rest there.4 In German East Africa "lost spirits" receive sacrifice at crossroads5; elsewhere in Africa twins are buried at crossroads, " like . . . a man struck by lightning."6 To deceive the dead the implements which he used are broken at the crossroads to hinder his return. In the Middle Ages, one called upon the devil at crossroads, and evil spirits were there most likely to be met.7 Can we find at crossroads any structure analogous to the dokanaf
Since in this paper I prefer to avoid the vexed question of a possible connection between the Dioscuri and the Lares, to which at some time I hope to devote a separate discussion, I should like merely to make, without drawing inferences, the following state- ments :
I. The Tigillum Sororium was placed over or near a crossroad, for the calendar of the Arval Brothers describes it as ad com- pitum Acili.
II. Diana, worshipped at crossroads, is, like Juno and Juturna, a feminine counterpart of Janus.8
III. The compita or shrines of the Lares Compitales at cross- roads, are said by the scholiast on Persius (4, 28) to resemble towers, pertusa, quia per omnes quattuor paries pateant. Here, he explains, farmers place broken plough-yokes.
IV. The Lares Compitales were twins and were assessors of the Genius of the Emperor.
1 Boanerges, ch. XXIII and p. 341. To the legends of warriors armed for battle with ploughshares or yokes, add an Etruscan relief on an urn in the Museum at Volterra, Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (Everyman Edition), II, p. 155.
2 See p. 15.6
3 Samter, op. cit. p. 145; cf. Schol ad Aeschyl. Choeph. 97.
4 Samter, p. 145.
5 Samter, p. 146.
6 Boanerges, p. 97.
7 Maury, La Magie et VAstrologie dans VAntiq. et au Moyen Age, p. 177.2
8 Cf. Cook's equation, Cl. R. 1904, p. 368.
3
18 MARGARET C. WAITES
V. To propitiate Tacita, mother of the Lares, an old woman places with three fingers three dabs of incense beneath the threshold.1
I have tried to connect the sanctity of the dokana with the sanctity of the gateway and to show how, like the posts of the gateway, the Dioscuri or human side-posts may have stood as guardians between two worlds, — protectors of the living, com- panions also of the dead.
Innumerable links connect this symbol of the Heavenly Twins with other features of their worship. To such features I have been able only briefly to refer. The main interest of the dokana lies in the glimpse the symbol gives us of a very primitive stage in human thinking.
MAEGARET C. WAITES.
MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE, SOUTH HADLEY, MASS.
1 Ovid, Fasti, II, 573.
Archaeological 3fo*tttute of America
THE DIPHILOS-DROMIPPOS LECYTHI, AND THEIR
RELATION TO MR. BEAZLEY'S "ACHILLES
MASTER."
IN 1916, the University Museum in Philadelphia acquired a very important Attic white lecythus, Inv. no., MS. 5463 (Fig.
1) bearing the inscription * ^ *s tn^s vase tnat *s
the subject of this paper, as it seems to me to be a " missing link" that binds the Diphilos group to the other white lecythi correctly assigned by Mr. J. D. Beazley to his "Achilles Master."1
This vase, before coming to Philadelphia, was in the Borelli Bey collection, which was dispersed in Paris in 1913; in the sale catalogue of that collection it was given the number 223. In referring to it, therefore, I shall speak of it as "the Borelli lecy- thus."2 It is 0.385 m. in height. The mouth, handle, upper part of the neck, and lower part of the body are covered with the black glaze; the foot and upper end of the lip are left in the color of the clay; while the rest of the body is covered with the firm, hard, cream-colored slip, characteristic of the earlier white lecythi. It is said to have been found in Athens.
In another place3 1 have described the subject of this vase, and shall take the liberty of quoting from that description.
."The subject is of great beauty, simplicity, and restraint. At the left sits a woman (Fig. 1, A) with a circle of beads in her hands; she is evidently stringing them for use as a necklace. The chair in which she sits is of a graceful and beautiful design, and is drawn in a black wash on the cream-colored background. Her hair is rendered in the same manner. She is wearing two garments, a chiton and a himation, the chiton being the under-garment. This is rendered in a chalky white, much of which has flaked off,
1 J.H.S. XXXIV, 1914, pp. 179-226, and especially pp. 219-222.
2 It is published in the sale catalogue, pi. XXIII, and also in the Museum Journal of the University Museum, VIII, 1917, pp. 21-25, and figs. 3 and 4.
3 Museum Journal, 1. c. p. 22.
American Journal of Archaeology, Second Series. Journal of the 1 Q
Archaeological Institute of America, Vol. XXIII (1919), No. 1.
20
STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE
A B
FIGURE 1. — THE BORELLI LECYTHUS: PHILADELPHIA.
the idea being in this manner, perhaps, naturalistically to show the brilliant white of clean linen. The himation, being a shawl- like wrap of a heavier material, was rendered in the color of the background. Flesh parts are in this same chalky white, in a manner which, as will be shown, is peculiar to the maker of this
THE DIPHILOS-DROMIPPOS LECYTHI 21
vase. Above her, in the field, are hanging a mirror, and a long pouch, drawn together with strings, called by archaeologists a 'sakkos.'
"In front of her stands another woman (Fig. 1, B), in a long, simple chiton, without sleeves. In her left hand she carries a large tray or basket, from which hang three fillets of white, and two longer ones of red, and which is filled with offerings of vari- ous sorts. Her right arm and hand hang at her side, and are most beautifully rendered. Above her, in the field, hangs an exquisite little pitcher. Between the two women is inscribed the dedicatory inscription, AI4>IAO£ KAAOC."
The existence of a group of vases with the KaAos-name Diph- ilos, and all by the same hand, was first definitely shown by Mr. R. C. Bosanquet.1 In an able article he grouped together twelve vases as being by the same master, four of which have the name Diphilos, three Glaucon, two Dromippos, and one each, Lichas; Alcimedes, and Axiopeithes. This last is the famous "Spinelli" lecythus (Fig. 5), now in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, and a very important vase in the theory which it is my hope to prove in this article. Another vase with the name of Lichas, also in Boston, should be included with these vases of Bosan- quet's (Fig. 6)2.
Mr. Bosanquet proves, with what seems to me absolute cer- tainty, that this group of vases should be dated at about 465 B.C. This date he obtains both on grounds of technique, and because it seems possible to link one of the /caXos-names (Lichas) with an historical character.3
It is not my intention to furnish a complete list of Diphilos vases, but it will be worth while to see what new ones have come to light since Bosanquet's article. Klein4 adds one (in the Museo Artistico Industriale at Rome) to Mr. Bosanquet's list, and Mr. Bosanquet's No. 7, which was in the trade in Paris when he wrote his article, is located by Klein in the Tyszkiewicz collection.5
1 J.H.S. XVI, 1896, pp. 164-177, and pis. IV-VII. See also Weisshauepl, Ath. Mitt. XV, 1890, pp. 49 f.
2 J.H.S. I. c. pp. 167-168, footnote 6.
3 J. H. S. I c. p. 167.
1 Lieblingsinschriften, s. v. 'Diphilos/ pp. 159-160.
5 1 was at first tempted to believe that ihe Borelli vase might be the same as the Tyszkiewicz vase; but a reference to Fairbanks (see next note) proves that they are different.
22
STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE
Dr. Fairbanks1 adds no new vases to the regular Diphilos group, but he cites a vase with this name, of a technique which he considers later, now in the Museum of Berlin.2 He says that this is perhaps a different Diphilos from the one referred to above, although he is inclined to believe that it is the same, as the
FIGURE 2. — LECYTHUS IN ATHENS, No. 1629.
vases are almost contemporaneous. This vase has since been as- signed by Mr. Beazley to his Achilles master.3
Mr. R. C. McMahon, writing in 1907, almost at the same time as Dr. Fairbanks, declares that he has seen eleven lecythi with the /caXos-name Diphilos.4 Most of these must have been in
1 Athenian White Lekythoi, vol. I (Univ. of Mich. Humanistic Series, vol. VI), pp. 161-164. I shall in future refer to Fairbanks, vol. I or vol. II as the case may be, not to the numbers of the volumes in the Michigan series.
2 L. c. pp. 222-23, no. 44, Berlin, Inv. 3970.
3 J.H.S. XXXIV, 1914, p. 221, no. 7 bis.
4 A. J.A. XI, 1907, p. 18, footnote 1.
THE DIPHILOS-DROMIPPOS LECYTHI
23
Athens, as Nicole's supplementary catalogue gives us six new Diphilos vases, and two new ones with Dromippos.1
The best place to study the Diphilos-Dromippos group is now in Riezler's Weissgrundige Attische Lekythen, the plates of which admirably reproduce the salient features of these vases.2 It was to these plates and the article of Bosanquet that I turned in trying to identify the Borelli lecythus in Philadelphia as a bona fide member of the Diphilos-Dromippos group.
FIGURE 3. — LECYTHUS IN ATHENS, No. 1628.
Although there are certain differences that make it a variant from the normal Diphilos type, I shall try to prove that this vase is a work of the same hand as the regular vases of the group. The two most important differences are that the palmette design on the shoulder seems to be of a slightly different order from most of the vases in Bosanquet 's list, and that the patronymic MEAANOPO is omitted from the /caXos-name. I shall return to the palmette-design later; about the patronymic, it is sufficient to say that many other Diphilos vases also omit it.
1 Diphilos, nos. 986-991; Dromippos, 992, 993. No. 990 is published in •E0. *APX. 1906, pi. I; no. 991, ibid. pi. II.
2 Pis. II-IX. Plates X and XII seem to me also to belong in this group, al- though they have no /caX6s-names.
24
STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE
Turning now to points of similarity, I would refer, for an earlier and almost exact, although artistically not as beautiful, replica of the Borelli vase, to a lecythus in Athens (Fig. 2).1 The resemblance there is so close that they can only be by the same hand. If further proof be needed, another lecythus in Athens will provide it (Fig. 3).2 The figure on the right is almost identical with the corresponding figure on the Borelli vase (Fig. 1, B).
When we add that practically the same color schemes as well as artistic technique are employed, particularly the same use of white overcolor for flesh parts and details of drapery, it seems to make the attribution indisputable. When we add further that
on the shoulder of the Philadel- phia vase is painted a palmette- design identical with one repro- duced by Mr. Bosanquet (Fig. 4),3 it seems to add a finishing touch, although we have noticed that this shoulder-design is also a point of divergence. On a later page I shall discuss this matter at some length. Suffice it to say at this point that Mr. Bosan- quet considers it the latest of the three designs that he copies, and thinks that it came at the end
of the period of " white flesh technique" already mentioned as a peculiarity of this group of vases.
I have now shown, and, I trust, without question, what, after all, would be the natural conclusion to reach; namely, that the Borelli lecythus in Philadelphia is by the same hand as the rest of the Diphilos-Dromippos group. The harder task remains; i.e., to attempt to prove that this group is by the so-called " Achilles master," so successfully identified by Mr. Beazley.4 I should
1 Collignon-Couve, 1629, Inv. 1923. Illustration from Riezler, pi. VII. Fairbanks, I, p. 162, no. 12, where a bibliography will be found. Bosanquet, I c. p. 165, no. 6.
2 Collignon-Couve, 1628, Inv. 1963. Illustration from Riezler, pi. IV. For a reproduction in colors, see ibid. pi. IV a. Fairbanks, 1. c. p. 161, no. 10. Bosanquet, 1. c. p. 165, no. 5.
3 L. c. pp. 174-177, and especially fig. 5, form C, here reproduced. « J.H.S. XXXIV, 1914, pp. 179-226.
FIGURE 4. — PALMETTE ON SHOULD- ER OF LECYTHUS.
THE DIPHILOS-DROMIPPOS LECYTHI
25
add, in support of my attempt, that Mr. Beazley himself has already granted that "many of the other lecythi with Diphilos bear a strong resemblance to our group" (that of the Achilles painter).1 I believe that this is because they are actually by the same hand.
In 1899, Mr. Bosanquet published2 a second article on the sub- ject of white lecythi, in which he groups together twenty-one vases as by the same hand. These he calls the "Hygiainon
FIGURE 5. — THE SPINELLI LECYTHUS: BOSTON.
group," from the leading KaXos-name found among them. Among these vases he includes the "Spinelli" lecythus,3 and therefore, as he considers them of later date, removes it from the Diphilos-Dromippos group, although he declares that it forms a connecting link between the two types. Mr. Beazley includes
1 L. c. p. 220, footnote 35. The reason for the word "other" is because he believes the vase in Berlin with the name of Diphilos to be by the Achilles painter. See p. 22, and footnote 3 above.
2 J.H.S. XIX, 1899, pp. 169-184, and especially pp. 178-181.
3 L. c. p. 180, vase B.
26 STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE
nineteen of Mr. Bosanquet's list in his catalogue of white lecythi by the Achilles master,1 among them the Spinelli lecythus.2
It is plain that the points of resemblance between the Spinelli vase and the Diphilos-Dromippos group, as well as the points of divergence, are just as obvious now as when Mr. Bosanquet wrote his first article. I would, therefore, suggest that he is right in grouping it with this class of vases, and at the same time not wrong in assigning it to the Hygiainon group, which, in turn, is, as we have seen, given by Mr. Beazley to his Achilles master. In other words, I believe that the vases of the Diphilos- Dromippos group are early works of the Achilles master, and that the lecythus in Philadelphia is the missing link that binds them together.
Through the courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, I am enabled at this point to insert photographs of the Spinelli lecythus (Fig. 5), which has already been published and de- scribed many times.3 This vase, acquired by Boston in 1913, has the inventory number 13.187. It is justly regarded as one of the finest white lecythi that has come down to us.
A hint that we are dealing with the same man who produced the Diphilos-Dromippos group, is afforded by the /caX6s-name, where we find, as in that group of vases, the rather unusual addition of the patronymic, written aroLxridov, in letters of almost , identical form. A comparison of these various KO\OS- inscriptions will be found below.4
In the Borelli lecythus in Philadelphia, the patronymic is omitted, but the inscription is otherwise written exactly as in
the other Diphilos-Dromippos vases, i.e., KAAOC > even
1 Two of them, Bosanquet J and T, he does not include, and Bosanquet P (Beazley 37) he includes "with some hesitation" (1. c. p. 222, footnote 36).
2 This vase is Beazley 36.
3 Fairbanks, I, p. 215, no. 32; II, p. 249, no. 32, pi. XL; Rom. Mitt. 1887, pi. XII, 5, etc.
4 Spinelli Usual Diphilos, Usual Dromippos,
vase: e.g., Riezler, pi. V. e.g., Riezler, pi. II.
AEIOrEI[0H]S AI4HAOS APOMinPO^
KAAOC KAAOC KAAO^
AAKIMA+[0] MEAANOrO APOMOK A E I AO
For other icaX6s-names in this group see Bosanquet, J.H.S. XVI, 1896, p. 165. A white lecythus with the name Alcimachus, father of Axiopeithes, and probably by the same hand, is in Athens (Riezler, pi. Ill); see also Klein, Lieblingsinschr., pp. 165-166.
THE DIPHILOS-DROMIPPOS LECYTHI 27
including the quasi-lunate sigma in /ca\6s, common to many of the Diphilos vases and to the Spinelli lecythus,1 and to another lecythus with the name of Axiopeithes, also in Boston.2 On epigraphical grounds, therefore, it is very tempting to assume that all of these vases are by the same hand ; but this is extremely unsafe, as the hand that painted the inscriptions may not have been the hand that actually painted the designs on the vases. We can only say that it proves at most that the inscriptions must have been done by one man, and that, therefore, the " white- flesh technique" of the Diphilos-Dromippos group is contempo- raneous with the different technique of the Hygiainon class. In any case, however, the epigraphy would point to all of these vases coming from the same workshop.
Another reason to think this to be true has already been touched upon. We have seen that there is a lecythus with the name Diphilos, in Berlin, which has been assigned by Dr. Fairbanks to the Hygiainon group, and by Mr. Beazley to the Achilles master. Dr. Fairbanks considers that it is highly probable that the Diph- ilos on this vase may refer to the same Diphilos as the other vases, and it seems to me that this is almost surely the case.3
Coming now to questions of technique, let us compare the seated figures on the Borelli lecythus in Philadelphia (Fig. 1, A) and the Spinelli lecythus in Boston (Fig. 5). With the exception of the fact that the Philadelphia vase employs the " white-flesh technique," there is very little difference between the two. They are, indeed, identical, even in the manner of the treatment of the drapery, the pose of the arms and hands, the dressing of the hair, the position of the feet, and the slight flare of the chiton at the ankles. The chair, too, is painted in exactly the same manner, with the cross-pieces of the seat indicated by groups of three lines placed at equal distances from each other. It is perhaps a little more carefully rendered in the Philadelphia lecythus, which, indeed, is the more carefully painted of the two, although the excellent preservation of the colors and the rich texture of the white slip on the Boston vase make it the more pleasing today.
iE.g., Nicole, 994; 'E0. 'Apx- 1905, pi. I; Riezler, pis. V, VII, and perhaps IX.
2 Beazley, 35. Fairbanks, I c. II, p. 249, no. 32 a, pi. XLI.
3 Fairbanks, I, pp. 222-223, no. 44. Beazley, 1. c. p. 221, no. 7 bis. Unfor- tunately, this vase is unpublished, and I have not seen it. There seems to be no way under present conditions of securing a photograph of it.
28 STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE
In the field, in each vase, is hung a mirror, an oenochoe, and a sakkos. In the Borelli lecythus, the mirror and sakkos are over the seated figure, the oenochoe above the standing; in the Spin- elli, it is the mirror and oenochoe which are at the left, and the sakkos at the right.
I think that anybody who, with an open mind, compares these two seated figures carefully, will agree with me that only one hand could have produced them both. In the face, I have only to call attention to the profile of the lips, and the firm, round chin of both figures, to prove this. It is unfortunate that in the Philadelphia specimen the " white flesh technique" was employed; for, when it flaked off, it took with it many details that I am con- vinced would have shown the same method of treatment which we see in the Spinelli vase, as, for instance, the treatment of the eyes — a most important item, as all students of Greek vases know — and of the mouth. Still, it seems to me that enough is left to make my attribution absolutely certain.
It will, however, be said in objection, "But your right-hand figure in the Spinelli vase (Fig. 5) is superior to anything in the Diphilos-Dromippos group." This is true; in the freedom of the pose, and in such details as the drawing of the feet, for in- stance, a great advance has been made. But it is also true that we can see this advance in the seated figure on the Borelli vase, where the feet are properly drawn, and we have shown that this Borelli vase must be classed with the other Diphilos-Dromippos specimens.1 On the other hand, a glance at some of the plates and figures of "Achilles" vases in Beazley's article2 shows that this master was very uneven, and that his treatment of the foot can be just as bad as on some of the Diphilos-Dromippos vases, so that this is not a good criterion. Furthermore, he always draws the foot in full front exactly as it is drawn in the Diphilos vases. Moreover, apart from the increased freedom of pose, the profile and other details show the same tendencies in this right-hand figure in the Boston lecythus that we find in the Diphilos specimens.
Two vases that can be compared with each other to supple- ment and confirm this theory of mine, are the lecythus in Bos-
1 For the drawing of the feet on the Diphilos-Dromippos vases, compare the illustrations from Riezler reproduced above (Figs. 2 and 3).
2 L. c., especially pis. XIII and XIV, and figs. 3, 4, 5, 8 a, 13, 14, 15, and 23.
THE DIPHILOS-DROMIPPCrS LECYTHI
FIGURE 6. — THE LICHAS LECYTHUS: BOSTON.
ton already referred to, with the /caXos-name Lichas (Fig. 6),1 a work of the Diphilos-Dromippos group, and the beautiful Hygiainon lecythus in the Art Museum of Worcester, Mass. (Fig. 7),2 already assigned by Mr. Beazley to his Achilles
1 Published, Riezler, text, p. 18, fig. H; Fairbanks, I, p. 165, no. 15.
2 Published, Fairbanks, I, p. 217, no. 35, and pi. IX, 1. •
30
STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE
master.1 Here again, I think that the Boston vase is an early work by the same hand.2
A small detail, but one that adds cumulative evidence that brings with it a weight of its own to prove all this, is the fact that
FIGURE 7.— THE HYGIAINON LECYTHUS: WORCESTER.
the decorative patterns above the designs on these vases are strikingly alike in nearly every case. They are identical on the
1 L. c. p. 221, no. 24.
2 An even better example is British Museum, D50, published by Bosanquet J.H.S. XVI, 1896, pi. VI, also a Lichas vase.
THE DIPHILOS-DROMIPPOS LECYTHI 31
Borelli and Spinelli vases, and also on the Worcester vase and the Lichas lecythus in Boston. This is, of course, a small point, but of a very special importance, as the patterns used on the Borelli and Lichas vases seem to be favorites of the Achilles master.
Another significant feature is the palmette-design on the shoulder (Fig. 4). Mr. Bosanquet, in his first article, says he is ignorant of any of the Diphilos-Dromippos vases with this design. His exact words1 are as follows: — "Of Form C (Fig. 4 of this article) I cannot give an instance among the twelve vases of our series. On No. II,2 where we should expect to find it, the shoulder pattern is obliterated; on No. 12 (the Spinelli vase) I have no information. We find it for the first time on the Boston Lichas- vase (Fig. 6 of this article) . . . which is among the latest instances of the use of white for women's flesh. Broadly speaking, Form A3 disappeared at the same time as this white- flesh technique, and was replaced by Form C."
Now we find that the Borelli vase in Philadelphia has this Form C, that it has the /caAos-name Diphilos, the "white-flesh technique," and is obviously by the same hand as the other vases of the Diphilos-Dromippos group, and that not only on grounds of technique, but on the cumulative evidence offered by the decoration, it should be put late in that group. Furthermore, the Hygiainon vases collected by Mr. Bosanquet in his second arti- cle all seem to have this shoulder design,4 and since the acquisition of the Spinelli lecythus by the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, it has become clear that it, too, has the same arrangement of palmettes, thereby helping to prove that the Borelli lecythus in Philadelphia is a "missing link" that binds the two groups (Diphilos-Dromippos and Hygiainon) together, and points to all being works of the "Achilles master."
We have now approached the problem from three points of view. First of all, there was the epigraphy of the vases, in which we saw that the nature of the inscriptions, the manner of their writing, and the forms of the letters were identical in both groups, suggesting that they all came from the same workshop. In the
1 J.H.S. XVI, 1896, p. 175.
2 This is Oxford, 266, P. Gardner, Catalogue of Ashmolean Museum, pi. XX, and Bosanquet, 1. c. p. 165. It has the inscription AAKIM(H)AH3 KAAOS AI3+YAIAO.
3 Bosanquet, 1. c. p. 175, fig. 3.
< J.H.S. XIX, 1899, p. 179, fig. 5.
32 STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE
second place, and most important of all, we took up the subject of artistic technique, and tried to show that, from that angle, both groups were works of the same hand. Finally, we have studied the decorative patterns, such as the borders and shoulder- decorations, and found that the borders used are found in the known works of the Achilles painter, and that the palmette- design on the shoulder of the Borelli vase is of great importance, as it provides the link that binds the two groups together. From all these points of view, I can arrive at but one conclusion: namely, that in future, among the works of the Achilles master, we must include, as early works, the white lecythi of the Diphilos- Dromippos group. The large number of vases already known to be by his hand indicates that his work extended over a long period, and therefore this conclusion is entirely justifiable.1
STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE. UNIVERSITY MUSEUM, PHILADELPHIA, PA.
1 1 wish to thank several people at this point for various kindnesses for which I am extremely grateful. First of all, I want to thank my old teacher, Pro- fessor George H. Chase, of Harvard University, without whose encourage- ment I should probably not have written this paper. To Dr. G. B. Gordon, my chief in the University Museum, I am inde bted for permission to publish the lecythus in Philadelphia, and for many other courtesies. To Dr. Arthur Fairbanks and Dr. Lacey D. Caskey, of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, I am indebted for permission to republish the Spinelli vase, and for a generous collection of photographs of vases in their possession of, which they permitted me to make any use I pleased. I owe the same debt to Miss Gisela M. A. Richter of the Metropolitan Museum in New York. To the authorities of the Worcester Art Museum I am greatly indebted for photographs of the Hygiai- non lecythus in their possession.
grtimeological institute of America
THE ORIGIN OF THE 'TRIGLYPH FRIEZE
SINCE the days of Vitruvius at least it has been the belief of most of those who have given attention to the matter that the triglyph frieze in Doric architecture arose from construction in wood. On this assumption our histories of architecture well nigh universally maintain that the triglyph represents the sheathed beam end of such primitive buildings, and that the metopes represent filling of what were originally openings through the frieze. I have elsewhere1 sought to show how insecure is our ground for the belief in open friezes and I now presume to ques- tion the accuracy of the belief that the triglyph represents the original beam end.
The source and the chief sponsor of the prevailing theory is Vitruvius, who sets forth his argument for the identification of the triglyphs as beam ends in his De Architecture,, IV, 2, 4: non enim quemadmodum nonnulli errantes dixerunt fenestrarum ima- gines esse triglyphos, ita potest esse, quod in angulis contraque te- trantes columnarum triglyphi constituuntur, quibus in locis omnino non patitur res fenestras fieri, dissolvuntur enim angulorum in aedificiis iuncturae, si in is fenestrarum fuerint lumina relicta. etiamque ubi nunc triglyphi constituuntur, si ibi luminum spatia fuisse iudicabuntur, isdem rationibus denticuli in ionicis fenes- trarum occupavisse loca videbuntur. utraque enim, et inter denticu- los et inter triglyphos quae sunt intervalla, metopae nominantur. oTras enim Graed tignorum cubicula et asserum appellant, uti nostri ea cava columbaria, ita quod inter duas opas est intertignium, id jueroTn? est apud eos nominata. [Krohn.]
This passage is usually accepted with implicit confidence as the final word on the subject. No one, so far as I am aware, has ever seen fit to inquire into the possibility of Vitruvius having chosen the wrong side of the argument, even though it is perfectly clear that he is here debating a matter in which he found some real difference of opinion among his sources. Let us therefore order a review of the case and see if errors of fact and of method do not
1 A. J.A. XXII, 1918, pp. 434 ff.
American Journal of Archaeology, Second Series. Journal of the oo
Archaeological Institute of America, Vol. XXIII (1919), No. 1. 4
34 OLIVER M. WASHBURN
exist in sufficient numbers to justify grave doubts as to the cor- rectness of his conclusions.
We notice first of all that, in his discussion of the theory he re- jects, Vitruvius assumes that the frieze developed in the perip- teral temple or, at least, that it was used const ructionally in it. In this he shows his fallibility, for we now know that buildings of the type which, in all probability, gave rise to the Greek temple existed at Troy and perhaps at Dimini and Sesklo some 1500 to 2000 years before the first peripteral temple.
It would simplify matters for us if we knew just what our author is attempting to translate from his Greek sources by fenes- trarum imagines. He apparently uses fenestra in a literal sense as "a permanent opening to admit light," for only a real opening of some sort would justify his argument as to the weakening of the corners ; and we may at once concede our approval of his con- clusion that, in the finished building the frieze was never left open.1 But the word he found may not have meant a permanent opening, although Guadet and Holland take it so and proceed to the reconstruction of an elaborate open frieze in which the roof is supported on pillars, the later triglyphs.2 It seems on the whole simpler to assume that some of the authors on whom Vitruvius draws asserted that the metopes represented the beam ends and that in consequence the triglyphs must have been " spaces" (K€J>CI, OTTO!, irapadvpidia) . Such an expression need not have meant that the spaces were functional, but Vitruvius evidently so understood and he chose the very best word to convey his meaning. It is true that we have no contemporary examples of OTTCU in the sense of "fenestrae," but the word is so used in the days of Constantine' and these are in no case ordinary windows.
Another possibility to be reckoned with is that the term is merely a late deduction from the word jueroTnj, for one might argue that if a ^rbirt] is a " surface between openings," the tri- glyphs must represent the openings. This leads, of course, to the possibility that the "nonnulli" were nothing more than ety- mologists of the type of Varro. Some importance attaches to this possibility by reason of the esteem in which Varro was held by Vitruvius and by the fondness of the age for such explanations.
1 Cf. Noack, Jb. Kl. Alt. I, 1898, pp. 656 ff.
2 They assume that the rptyX60ovs of the source had reference to the whole frieze, as in Bacchae 1214.
THE ORIGIN OF THE TRIGLYPH FRIEZE
35
Vitruvius argues that triglyphs cannot represent openings be- cause they come at the corner of a building and, in that case, there could be no " joints" at that point. Aside from the fact that one cannot argue origins from peripteral temples, it is some- what surprising that our author, who is so fond of citing parallels, should have overlooked the obvious parallel of the Ionic dentils. What he apparently does is to assume that in every case the open- ing must go clear through the frieze. There is, nevertheless, an intervallum if not a fenestra at the corner of the Ionic moulding, and some such solution as the Ionic architect devised for turning the corner, when he did face the construction of the peripteral
FIGURE 1. — CHURCH IN COCHITI PUEBLO.
temple, must have been adopted for that purpose in the Doric frieze. Since, however, in our earliest extant remains the frieze is purely decorative and no longer constructional, we have to reckon with the fact that it may never have been more than decorative in any stone example.
In connection with the primitive temple, attention is called to the accompanying drawing (Fig. 1) of the Spanish-Indian church in Cochiti Pueblo, New Mexico. Save for its balcony and its round turrets this church represents far better than the well- known " Peasant's House in Persia" of Dieulafoy the probable appearance of the primitive megaron of sun-dried brick and wood. It will be seen that the beams of the portico of the church
36 OLIVER M. WASHBURN
do not come at the corners, but at those points are "voids" filled with clay. Still, no one would be likely to call this construction weak.
The second item which Vitruvius adduces against our theory has to do with the placing of the triglyph directly over the centre of its supporting column (contra tetr antes columnarum). Our illustration may again serve to show how this is possible for, although there are five columns in the Cochiti fagade, in no in- stance does a ceiling beam centre with a column ; in fact, in three of the five examples, a "void" appears above the column.
The final argument of Vitruvius is somewhat more compli- cated : he tells us that the Greeks called the beds of timbers and of beams OTTGLS, for which the Latin equivalent is columbaria. The filling (intertignium) they called jueroTras, and this is true of both the Doric frieze and the Ionic dentils. In regard to the latter he observes that the theory he combats would make open- ings of the denticuli. Vitruvius is not altogether consistent in his use of terms, for he first says that the spaces (intervalla) between the dentils are called metopae and then it is the filling between the dentils (intertignium) which receives that name, while in III, 5, 11 he uses intersectio of the same element in the moulding. It would be superfluous to introduce an argument to show that a void can- not be referred to in Greek as a jueroTn?, although it would be easy to find many recent examples of the barbarism. It is probably true that the face of the filling did receive that name, so that inter- tignium is the correct Latin equivalent.1 But it does not follow that openings are necessary in order to have a facing, even with the word pero-in).
A good example of what I have in mind is the ukruirov of classical writers and architects. This word, if it means "space above the eyes," "forehead," is evidently a compound derived from Hera and o>^, but it is used, without implication of eyes, of the face of a wall (Thuc. III. 21); of the exposed surface of the riser in a stairway ('E<£. 'Apx- 1900, p. 94, line 47) ; of the face of a pyramid (Herodotus, II. 124). Now in the famous arsenal of Philon we have a n'eruirov which has a doorway on either side,2
1 The definition of intertignium as a "space between beams" in Harper's Dictionary is incorrect, for the word cannot mean a "space" or "void" in this, the only passage cited, " quod inter duas opas est intertignium."
2 Caskey and Hill, AJ.A. XII, 1908, p. 192, err in deriving ^Tuirov = " the space between the eyes" from /zerd, 071-17, and they force the Greek too far in
THE ORIGIN OF THE TRIGLYPH FRIEZE 37
but the doorway is not necessary to the term,1 although we might so infer had we only the last cited instance of it. It is in this sense of "facing" that I understand ^roirrj used of the filling between the dentils of the Ionic moulding.2 We are unfortunate in that the word is found only in the De Architecture,, and that we are deprived of means of verifying Vitruvius' use of it, as we are of knowing what other shades of meaning it may have had.
But we are not reduced to conjecture to show that our author's explanation is untenable: it forces us to believe that the metope got its name only when the frieze came to be made of stone, for surely no one would think that in simple construction of sun-dried brick and wood the filling was put in place upon the architrave before the ceiling beams were laid. Doer pf eld has shown that the names of other details of the temple, such as irXivdot, and bpdoffrarai, originated with the humblest materials. Is it then likely that the metope was rechristened when stone supplanted wood and when the triglyph frieze had become purely decorative? Indeed, at this time the ceiling beams were placed at a higher level than the. frieze; there were no longer OTTCU out of which jueroTTcu could be made.
If "metope" means a filling between openings it must be a name growing out of a purely temporary condition in the process of temple construction. Once the frieze was done we should have in the word the best possible example of a lucus a non lucendo, as Keil has so aptly suggested.3
It may not be out of place at this point to call attention to the fact that should we, in spite of all these difficulties, adhere to Vitruvius' explanation, we must give up Winckelmann's theory of the open frieze based on Iphigenia Taurica 113 f. It is my be- lief that both views are wrong but, at any rate, we cannot have them both, for one excludes the other.
insisting that ra HI-TWITO, (1.59) must include the walls marked M' M" in their figure 3. Cf. Keil, Hermes, XIX, 1884, pp. 159 if. It may be possible that the use of the term HCTUTTOV in military matters influenced the connotation of the word even in architecture. If ds ukruirov arrival (Xen. Cyr. II, 4, 2-4) means "to stand in line" may not the metopon of the arsenal have received its name because it was to stand in line with the main walls?
1 In spite of Ebert, Fachausdrucke des griechischen Bauhandwerks, p. 30.
2 The best authenticated term for our "metope" is neither ukruvov nor
but utTbwv (I.G. II, 1054b, p. 227, 31, 39; cf. also Hesychius, s.v.
3 Hermes, XIX, 1884, p. 159, note 2.
38
OLIVER M. WASHBURN
Of modern theories regarding the origin of the Doric frieze nearly all assume that the triglyph is sheathing for an original beam end. Chipiez1 based his reconstruction largely on an ala- baster slab which was discovered many years ago in Tiryns. Since, however, Frickenhaus has shown2 that the slab had nothing to do with any part of the superstructure, this attempt need not detain us.
Another reconstruction is that of von Reber,3 which is repro- duced herewith (Fig. 2) . It assumes a pitched roof, ceiling beams all running across the building in the same direction, and rather useless duplication of beams in the epistyle. Von Reber also
FIGURE 2. — ORIGIN OF HE DORIC FRIEZE: VON REBER.
makes use of the alabaster slab of Tiryns as an element in the- construction of the triglyph. The spaces between the ceiling beams he leaves open to supply light to the interior of the building.
There are numerous interesting items in Choisy's reconstruc- tion (Fig. 3).4 In it the frieze is apparently developed along the side of the peripteral temple, since the drawing shows a column and, above it, a pitched roof. On the architrave are placed at intervals transverse planks that project both at front and rear;
1 Perrot and Chipiez, Art in Primitive Greece, II, pp. 146 ff.
2 Tiryns I, p. 37.
*Abh. bayr. Akad. Hist. CL, XXI, 1898, pp. 475 ff.
4 Histoire de I' architecture, I, pp. 287 ff. I know this reconstruction only at secondhand.
THE ORIGIN OF THE TRIGLYPH FRIEZE
39
then come the heavy ceiling beams, resting upon the planks. The beams are faced with slabs, the trigylphs, which are held in place at the top by mortises cut in a heavy beam that parallels the architrave, while at the bottom they are pegged through the planks. The rafters are heavy planks which are set fairly close and are joined on the under side by short, transverse pieces that later become the mutules. Questionable in this reconstruction are: (1) the planks on which the ceiling beams rest, since they serve so far as one can see, only to motivate the triglyphs, regulae, and guttae, and have no real constructional purpose; even in a wall of sun-dried brick such pieces would serve no useful purpose, as
FIGURE 3. — THE PRIMITIVE DORIC ENTABLATURE: CHOISY.
would a continuous plank running with the wall and distributing the weight of the roof evenly upon its top; (2) there is no justifi- cation for facing the ends of the ceiling beams; (3) the reconstruc- tion fails to account for taeniae above and below the frieze and for the abacus of metopes and triglyphs; and finally (4) the use of material is, as has been pointed out] extravagant for the purpose illustrated.
Guadet's reconstruction1 is so arbitrary and fanciful as to need little comment. It is based on the pitched roof and de- velops the triglyph, not from a ceiling beam, but from short posts which resemble a portion of a child's outfit of building blocks.
1 Elements et theorie de I' architecture, I,"pp. 342 ff. Cf. A.J.A. XXI, 1917, p. 140, Fig. 9.
40
OLIVER M. WASHBURN
The frieze is left open, and nearly all its details, as also those of the cornice, appear as pure ornament rather than as organic parts of the construction.
Holland,1 after showing that we are not to seek the details of the frieze in Minoan-Mycenaean construction, endeavors by a painstaking study of the proportions of extant early Doric build- ings to derive the frieze from a combination of small pieces of wood and sun-dried brick. The result is ingenious but not con- vincing. He has failed to take account of the finds in Troy,
FIGURE 4. — ORIGIN OF THE DORIC FRIEZE: DURM.
Dimini, and Sesklo, and overlooks the invaluable work of Noack cited below. Furthermore, the construction appears unsound in that the slender piers of sun-dried brick which form the triglyphs would be unable to bear the weight that is laid upon them, es- pecially in a land of earthquakes which were violent enough to throw down even sturdy buildings of stone;2 and, finally, it de- velops the frieze along the side of the building where it almost never appears in the non-peripteral temple.
1 AJ.A. XXI, 1917, pp. 117-158, Plate VII.
2 It is true that construction somewhat like that which Holland proposes was in use in the walls of Athens (cf. Caskey, AJ.A. XIV, 1910, pp. 298-309) but the size of the supporting piers of the walls is unknown and, in any case, the span covered by the roof need not have been more than ten feet.
THE ORIGIN OF THE TRIGLYPH FRIEZE
41
Durm,1 basing his work on Vitruvius, the vase paintings, and the necessities of construction, has given us a valuable conception of a primitive temple (Fig. 4). He is commendably cautious, but fails to explain how it happens that we have no tiles from these primitive buildings, or why it should be necessary to face the beam ends. Nevertheless, his work commands our respect and, granted that Vitruvius is right and the vase paintings trustworthy, it is about as satisfactory as we can find among the more conservative writers.
Most satisfactory of all suggested reconstructions is, however, that of Noack.2 After commenting on von Reber's proposals,
FIGURE 5.— ORIGIN OF THE DORIC FRIEZE: NOACK.
Noack presents us with an illustration of his own reconstruction (Fig. 5). He assumes, first of all, a flat roof of clay, which is necessary to justify the large dimensions of triglyphs and metopes. The beams of the fagade he places parallel to the long axis of the building, thereby removing certain complications in von Reber's work. As facing for the beam ends to produce the triglyph he uses a modified form of the alabaster slab already mentioned, stating, however, that the slab was not the original facing, but itself copied from an earlier form in wood. The facing is held in place at the bottom by pegs driven thiough a regula and a plank that serves as motive for the later taenia. A mortised plank resting along the top of the ceiling beam explains the upper border of the triglyph. The general conception of place of development, flat roof, and dimensions of parts is correct. Noack fails to justify the facing of beam ends
1 Baukunst der GriecJien,3 p. 375.
2 Jb. kl. Alt. I, 1898, pp. 654-668.
42 OLIVER M. WASHBURN
and he gives no theory of development of the cornice, but his work is throughly done and clearly and convincingly stated.
It is now time to inquire whether it may not be possible to suggest a reconstruction which will obviate the difficulties of previous attempts and, at the same time, give due credit to the sources on which reconstructions must be based as well as to the necessities of the technique of sun-dried brick and wood. It will not be possible to settle definitely the question of flat roof versus pitched roof, although the finds in Troy II, the absence of early roof tiles, and the presence of a horizontal as well as' a raking cornice in historic architecture are strong evidence in favor of the former. The vase paintings, et dona ferentes, are contradictory and, in the nature of things, sketchy and altogether untrust- worthy as regards detail. Vitruvius, who lived in the Age of Augustus, must not be overlooked but, in view of his distance from the beginnings as well as of the methods of research practised in his time as against the careful studies that have, in our own day, been made of the extant remains, it will not be justifiable to look upon him as an oracle or, in fact, to give him more credence than is due a conscientious modern authority. Vitruvius un- doubtedly had some sources that fail us, but no one, probably, ever wrote a history of architecture before the fourth century B.C. Aside from that, a man is not infallible simply because it was 2,000 years ago when he took sides in an argument in which we are interested.
An attempt will be made to do away with the unnecessary facing of beam ends and with the breaking up of one panel, the beam end, only to immediately construct a similar one beside it. Our reconstruction also makes it clear why, in historic times, the triglyph was gradually narrowed at the expense of the metope. All the ornament of the historic entablature will be accounted for on constructional grounds, although it would be foolish to insist that in a matter which must needs be so largely speculative there are no errors of detail.
We may begin our proposed reconstruction by assuming an embryonic stage in which our building was of the type of the church in Cochiti Pueblo (Fig. 1). This church is built of sun- dried brick and wood, and has a flat roof of clay supported by heavy beams which extend from side wall to side wall, both ends being in plain view from without. In a new building of this type the beam ends are flush with the face of the wall; they are cut
THE ORIGIN OF THE TRIGLYPH FRIEZE
43
square off and are not supplied with any sheathing. To cover the portico, however, the roof beams are laid parallel to the long axis of the church. They are supported in the fagade by an
FIGURE 6. — CHURCH IN ACOMA PUEBLO.
architrave, which runs from wall to wall and is further held up by two columns in antis (the third column in our illustration being added to remedy a break). Upon the roof beams and at right angles to them smaller timbers of wood are laid in close order, as is shown in the drawing of the interior of a similar church at
44 OLIVER M. WASHBURN
Acoma Pueblo (Fig. 6). Next above the ancient Greeks may have placed a bed of reeds, straw, or the like; such a bed would help protect the timbers from moisture and decay, and would, further, make an even coating for the heavy layer of clay which topped the whole.
Now there is a serious drawback to a roof of the type described, and it is not that it demands constant attention and repair, for it is a simple matter to carry up a few buckets of clay after a heavy rain to replace what has inevitably washed away, just as it is no hardship to repair in a similar way the washing of the side walls;1 but even the heaviest and firmest roof beams draw moisture from the walls in which they are bedded and inevitably decay. When this occurs the necessity arises of removing all the roof and replacing the beams with others, or of building over the roof and one lateral wall so as to make use of the sounder por- tions of the beams. This latter solution necessitates a reduction in the width of the church, but our illustration of the Cochiti church shows that it is one which is actually adopted. In fact we may see in it a possible explanation of the change in Greece from walls constructed of sun-dried brick to walls constructed throughout of stone.
If such be the case, the old temple at Tiryns, whose scanty re- mains Frickenhaus has so admirably published,2 may assume great importance in the history of architecture. We can now account for the shifting of its longitudinal axis so far to one side (Fig. 7), for at least the foundation along the east side of the megaron could be utilized in the new building and possibly some of the ceiling beams could be used again. Frickenhaus seems to imply that the later temple had no interior columns supporting the roof, but the evidence for the reconstruction of everything save the plan is very slender and uncertain. It is, however, surprising that two columns of the cella as well as
1 The pleasing, rounded contours of the new building of the School of Amer- ican Archaeology at Santa Fe are said to be due to imitation of Spanish-Indian construction of the neighborhood, and to go back ultimately to the effect pro- duced by years of weathering of the adobe coupled with years of continued repair. The repairs are conducted largely or altogether by women, who apply the soft adobe by hand to such cracks and crevices as have developed in the roof and walls. A good deal of the material falls to the ground and piles up there, but the rain is, of course, responsible for the rounding of roof edges and piers.
2 Tiryns I, pp. 2-13.
THE ORIGIN OF THE TRIGLYPH FRIEZE
45
one of the fagade of the old megaron should be found precisely in the axis of the building. The walls of the later temple are thought to be too frail to support a flat roof, and this is prob- ably true if there were no interior supports, but these walls were two feet thick and presumably of stone, so that with the help of interior columns they would do very nicely. If the building had a continuous history of several centuries, the fragments of terra-cotta and the stone capital, which was found near by, may well be assigned to a still later restoration when a pitched roof was employed.
Should the above surmise not seem too hazardous we may as- sume that interior columns, such as are indicated for the temple
FIGURE 7. — PLAN OF MEGARON AND TEMPLE: TIRYNS.
of Artemis Orthia at Sparta and the temple in Thermos, are evi- dence for a flat roof of clay, rather than for a pitched roof of wood and tile. The change from a double row of columns to a single row would be easily accounted for, since in every case where the single row occurs the narrowness of the building is marked. I cannot believe that the Greek architect was so helpless as to re- sort to interior columns to support the peak of his pitched roof, unless the columns were already in position when he began his remodeling.
We have seen that the greatest defect in a flat roof of the New Mexican type lies in the certainty of unventilated beams decaying at the ends where they rest in the wall. The climate of Greece differs but slightly from that of our southwest and the tendency to decay is presumably about the same in both countries. To avoid this I assume that the Greek architect sought to ventilate his beams and timbers, and make my proposed reconstruction of
46 OLIVER M. WASHBURN
the prehistoric megaron-temple as illustrated in the accompany- ing drawing (Fig. 8). What is represented is a portion of the anterior fa$ade of such a building. The architrave rests upon the walls and upon columns. Next comes planking upon which rest the heavy ceiling beams, or, if one prefers, a rail, pegged fast to the upper edge of the architrave.1 This planking or rail is represented in later stone construction by the taenia; the ends of
FIGURE 8. — ORIGIN OF THE DORIC FRIEZE: BEAM-EISIDS AS METOPES.
the ceiling beams become metopes. Above the beams, and pro- jecting slightly, is one of two or more narrow planks, the edge of which supplies the ground for a maeander band in later periods. Then comes a series of transverse pieces projecting sufficiently to protect the facade from the drip and tilted forward for the same purpose. The whole is surmounted by a heavy beam which runs along the edge of the roof and serves to keep in place the
1 Holland's remarks (I.e. p. 147) on the difficulty of producing planks in antiquity seem to be thoroughly sound.
THE ORIGIN OF THE TRIGLYPH FRIEZE 47
thick bed of clay at its back. To prevent this ridge beam from being crowded out of place it is pegged securely from below, the heads of the pegs being the prototype of the historic guttae, just as the planks through which the pegs pass reappear as mutules. To fill the spaces between the ceiling beams the builder employed for each space three pieces of wood with chamfered edges, form- ing the triglyph. The triglyph is no longer a useless covering for the beam end, but even in its details it shows a constructional pur- pose, for it is made in three pieces rather than in one in order to prevent its warping and because such pieces are far easier to pro- duce than a single broad member would be. A notch at the top of each slab receives the decorative band, as is shown in the lower, left-hand example. This band may have originally passed across a similar band upon the metope, in which case the upper end of the triglyph slabs could easily be fastened to it. Just as simple a way would be to make the band for both triglyphs and metopes of a single, properly mortised, and continuous piece. The lower ends of the triglyph were fastened through the regulae and taenia from below, the heads of the pegs appearing as guttae. The reason for six of these beneath each triglyph is at once ap- parent.
Objection may be raised to the size of the ceiling beams in our conjectural restoration, and to one who is not familar with the flat roof they do seem unreasonable. But when one realizes that such beams must sometimes carry twenty or twenty-five inches of clay, the necessity of strength begins to be realized. It will not do for those who believe in the triglyph as representing the end of the ceiling beam to raise this objection, however, since it is a disputed question whether metope or triglyph was wider in the primitive building, the evidence inclining even toward the triglyph, for as one traces proportions of triglyph and metope backward from the fourth century temple in Epidaurus to the sixth century temple D in Selinus he finds them change from 11 :16 to 14:16. How much farther need one go to find them equal? Holland (I.e. p. 146) deduces the width of the triglyphs in the Heraeum to have been 0.77 m. on centres of 1.50 m., — that is to say they may have been even larger than the metopes. In the early vase paintings the two members appear of about equal width.
The changes required in adapting the entablature to stone were few and slight. Although in the earlier periods there was
48 OLIVER M. WASHBURN
no regularity in centring beam ends or " voids " above the columns, it now becomes the rule, for aesthetic and other reasons, to place the triglyph above columns and in the centres of intercolumnia- tions. That exceptions were made is suggested by the vases and proved by the early round building in Delphi.2 The triglyph was set back slightly and became somewhat narrower as time went on, for, with the abandonment of the triglyph and metope as constructional parts of the building, the architect was free to change their proportions, and this he would be led to do by the fact that, to the eye, the triglyph " picks up" the vertical lines of the column which were interrupted by the horizontal lines of the architrave. Now there are much larger spaces occupied by the intercolumniations than by the columns, and to match these pro- portions the metopes must be broadened at the expense of the triglyphs. It is not surprising that this change came, but that it came so slowly. The mutules also were spaced and their guttae increased in number, and, finally, the introduction of a pitched roof of tile gave a different appearance to the upper edge of the cornice.
The frieze was developed in our reconstruction on the fagade of a templum . in antis. Similar construction may have been employed along the sides of the cella, although it seems more likely that only the heads of the beams appeared there or a con- tinuous sheathing of beam ends and spaces. It is known that in historic buildings of stone the ceiling beams always came at a higher level than the frieze. This was because the invention of roof tile and the introduction of the pitched roof made it possible to save material and labor by placing them on the wall rather than in it. The reason for this change has not heretofore been sufficiently emphasized.
The peripteral temple was probably a later development than the pitched roof; it need not have been much later, but that it came after it rather than before it is indicated by the negative evidence of its absence from Mycenaean construction, by the presence of a frieze in the pteron of peripteral temples, and by the difficulties of spacing the triglyphs with regard to the corner columns. Had the frieze been truly constructional in the perip- teral building the inconsistences of spacing, while just as marked, would not have been so keenly felt. The same argument may be used with regard to a flat-roofed building to indicate that the
lLaum, Jb. Kl. Alt. XXIX, 1912, p. 638, note 1.
THE ORIGIN OF THE TRIGLYPH FRIEZE 49
frieze did not develop on all sides of the building at once but at most on but two opposite faces.
The difficulties of adapting the Doric frieze to peripteral tem- ples ended with the general abandonment of the order in such buildings. Had the difficulties existed from the beginning, we may be sure that the type of frieze we know would not have come into being.
OLIVER M. WASHBURN.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA.
clrrljarologtcal 3to$tttute of America
PSEUDO-GOTHIC IVORIES IN THE HEARN COLLECTION
WERE it not for the fact that one of the ivories of the former Hearn Collection achieved publication in the last issue of the JOURNAL (pp. 428-433), this note would probably have never seen the light, but in view of the erroneous conclusions which might be drawn from such monuments when they are given char- acter by publication, it may be useful to point out the dubious authenticity of this and other ivories in the collection which pur- port to be mediaeval originals.
I am sure that enough evidence was produced by the writer who published the ivory (Fig. 1) to convince most students of
FIGURE 1. — TRIPTYCH FROM THE HEARN COLLECTION : PROVIDENCE.
mediaeval art that it was not done in the Middle Ages, It was pointed out, for instance, that the reliefs were very unintelligent imitations of two well-known monuments of different dates, — the tympanum of the Virgin Portal of Notre Dame at Paris, and the choir reliefs of the same cathedral. I say unintelligent imi- tations, because the iconography is confused in a manner in- conceivable on the part of a mediaeval copyist, who would scarcely have omitted two of the figures in the Appearance to the
American Journal of Archaeology, Second Series. Journal of the Archaeological Institute of America, Vol. XXIII (1919), No. 1. ' 50
PSEUDO-GOTHIC IVORIES 51
Holy Women, or reduced the apostles to five in the Resurrection of the Virgin. And it is quite too much to ask us to suppose that a Gothic artist of the fourteenth century would have turned an Incoronata into God the Father, and would have added a beard to a candelabrum-bearing angel !
The ivory is suspicious on its face for the awkward faire of the architectural detail, the superficial incision of the draperies, the squat proportions of the figures, and the air of niggling hesitancy which pervades it as a whole. Something of the same uncon- vincing style and iconography can be found in its companion piece in the sale (No. 13 of the catalogue of 1908; No. 1002 of the sale catalogue) , where we have a pair of Magi added to an already
FIGURE 2. — IVORY DIPTYCH: HEARN COLLECTION.
complete Epiphany in the central panel, and a wholly un-Gothic figure in the boy with a lamb in the lower panel of the right wing. The ivory published in the JOURNAL is not the only one to copy well-known monuments. One or two of these imitations are noted in the catalogues, such as the " reduction" of the ivory panel in the British Museum representing the " Apotheosis of Marcus Aurelius" (Cat. 1908, No. 1; sale cat., No. 892). There is a very attractive, but hardly mediaeval, replica of one of the Virtues on Strassburg cathedral in the statuette listed as No. 924 in the sale catalogue (Cat. 1908, No. 34). The most amusing pasticcio in the collection is perhaps the diptych (Fig. 2; Cat. 1908, No. 14; sale cat., No. 1046), in which a complicated frame of no consistent style incloses four scenes, one of them a Noli Me Tangere with the Dove (!) descending from above, another an imitation of some Franco-Flemish Annunciation, and still
52
C. R. MOREY
another an abbreviation to three figures of no less a composition than Raphael's Transfiguration. The diptych is ascribed in the catalogue to the fourteenth century !
Several pieces in the collection may I think be ascribed to a single modern carver, who is perhaps the worst sculptor that ever desecrated ivory. He was a copyist pure and simple, and worked mainly in the Louvre and the Trocadero, to judge from his models. His " Coronation of the Virgin" (Fig. 3, A, Cat. 1908,
PSEUDO-GOTHIC IVORIES
53
No. 29b; sale cat., No. 953) reduces to a single piece the well- known ivory figures of the Louvre (Fig. 3, B), and purports to be of the " thirteenth century." Suspicion is aroused at once by
the unusual preservation of the color in the ornaments on the robes, and this impression is not remedied by the evident lack
FIGURE 4. — VIRGIN AND CHILD : A. HEARN COLLECTION ; B, VILLENEUVE-
LES- AVIGNON.
of ease with which the workman tries to adapt his group to the dimensions of his block, or by the awkward postures and the impossible proportions. The same hand is evidently responsi- ble for the imitation (Fig. 4, A; Cat. 1908, No. 29a; sale cat.,
54
C. R. MOREY
No. 952) of the beautiful Virgin of Villeneuve-les-Avignon (Fig. 4, B) which Molinier dates toward the end of the thirteenth century.1 Its style is far more developed than that of the Louvre 'Coronation, but our copyist reflects little trace of the difference, mishandling the graceful rhythm of the later figure
A B
FIGURE 5. — VIRGIN AND CHILD: A, HEARN COLLECTION; B, CHARTREUSE
DE CHAMPMOL.
with the same raideur which marks his imitation of the Corona- tion, with whose Romanesque stiffness his own limitations have a faraway affinity. But he is no blind worshipper of the High Gothic; we find him next attacking a work of a hundred years later (Fig. 5, A; Cat. 1908, No. 29, c; sale cat., No. 996), and confining to his block in the same awkward manner the ample iMoliaier: Hist, des Arts appliques: Ivoires, p. 187.
PSEUDO-GOTHIC IVORIES
55
proportions of Jean de Marville's Madonna which stands over the portal of the Chartreuse de Champmol at Dijon (Fig. 5, B). To her he gives again the slit eyes, long neck, and sharp feat- ures which belong to the thirteenth century, and retains in the Child the stiffness with which he rendered Him in the copy of the Virgin of Villeneuve. One needs but to compare the lower profile and the creased neck of the Virgins in all three of his productions to see that the same hand is responsi- ble for the ugliness of the head in every case. The Madonna of Dijon is dated in the closing years of the fourteenth century; if our sculptor were a real Gothic artist, he could have worked no earlier than 1400. Can one believe that an artist of the fifteenth century executed the Hearn Coronation and the copy of the Virgin of Villeneuve? The one essential feature of his style, if style it can be called, is timidity of handling; if we assume that he is a mediaeval work- man, this characteristic would point to the thirteenth century, rather than a later date.
The reader will probably find such considerations rather academic, for one attributes with difficulty to a fifteenth century hand such impartial copying as this. It is quite in character with a modern imitator, however, and I think that our sculptor went even further afield in his search for models, since it seems to me very likely that we can hold him responsible for that
awful parody on Bernini which appeared in the sale as " Apollo and Daphne" (Fig. 6; Cat. 1908, No. 155; sale cat., No. 847), and possibly also for the " Diana and Bacchus" (Cat. 1908, No. 165; sale cat., No. 1063).
I hesitate somewhat to add to the ceuvre of our dubious genius the imposing polyptych (Fig. 7, A) figured in the sale catalogue
FIGURE 6. — APOLLO AND DAPHNE: HEARN COLLEC- TION.
56
C. R. MOREY
.» Vm vi Mlai > \> * mm -• ^V* : iSL ^ J-* iw^~~ -^-- v- • «
It^^iKSMi a
PSEUDO-GOTHIC IVORIES
57
as No. 959 (Cat. 1908, No. 53), partly because I have not seen the original, which may bely the poor reproduction given in the catalogue, and partly because the general appearance of the poly- ptych is fairly good. But even from the reproduction one gets a distinct impression that the Child in the central panel is a replica of that in the copy of the Villeneuve Virgin; the pose of head, body, legs, and foot is almost exactly the same in each case, and the same formula is followed for the drapery. Similar folds are found in the lower drapery of both Madonnas, and the Virgin of the triptych seems to have the creased throat that appears as a mannerism of our copyist when he is engaged with Gothic models. Otherwise the polyptych seems to be drawn largely from a well-known example of the fourteenth century in the Louvre (Fig. 7, s)1. From' this our carver has taken four panels and reduced them to two, thus achieving a very crowded Nativity in the upper right panel of the left wing, and a similarly awkward Presentation in the lower right panel of the right wing. Left to his own resources in the other pan- els, he becomes quite un- Gothic in his iconography; in the left upper panel of
the right wing the second Magus is uncrowned and does not conform in pose and gesture with the usual type, which requires that he should turn his face in profile to the Magus behind him, and that his arm should cross his body with the hand pointing upward. In the panel next to the right, what was apparently meant for a Coronation of the Virgin is upset by the introduction of a female figure. Elsewhere the subjects are incoherent, as in the two lower panels of the left wing. Lastly, assuming that the base (Fig. 8) belongs to the polyptych, the artist has used in the Pieta which adorns it a type that is a hundred years later than his style.
I shall leave to others better versed than I in this regard the question of the paintings on the back of this polyptych. It
lMusee du Louvre: Cat. des Ivoires (Molinier), No. 66.
FIGURE 8. — PEDESTAL OF POLYPTYCH, FIGURE 7, A.
58 C. R. MOREY
would be interesting, but hardly profitable, to investigate the other doubtful-looking ivories of the mediaeval section; as I have had to deal only with reproductions, and these other pieces are not so patently imitations, it has seemed best to limit this note to the ivories discussed above.
C. R. MOREY. PRINCETON UNIVERSITY.
&rci)aeological
institute of America
CANTING PUNS ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS
PUNS are so predominantly verbal in their character that one is apt to forget that they may be pictorial as well, and hence make their appeal through the eye rather than the ear. Illustrated puns may still be seen on concrete remains of ancient life, such as coins, vases, benches, and gravestones. Literary sources inform us of the existence of still others on monuments which have long since perished. Such plays, which are restricted to the names of persons and places, may be aptly described by the heraldic term " canting."
An extremely clever use of this type of pun is recorded by Pliny, H.N. xxxvi, 42. When Saura and Batrachus, the architects of the Porticus Octaviae, were denied the privilege of commemorat- ing their names in an inscription, they resorted to the subterfuge of carving on the columns a lizard (<ravpa) and a frog (jSdrpaxos). Among the many ancient columns preserved in the church of San Lorenzo outside the walls of Rome is one of the Ionic order on the volutes of which are sculptured a lizard and a frog. One writer believes that the in spiris of Pliny's description refers to volutes, and concludes that the column was the work of Saura and Batrachus.1
Puns of this type are employed in miscellaneous ways. On a certain occasion Cicero made a votive offering of a silver cup. He had his praenomen and nomen inscribed in the usual fashion, but for his cognomen he substituted in repousse an epe&ivdos, i.e., a cicer.2 In the Naples Museum there are three benches decorated with heads and hoofs of vaccae. Upon the benches is the inscrip- tion, M. NIGIDIUS VACCULA P. S.3 One is tempted to regard as an instance of the punning instinct the selection of Tyche by the sculptor Euty chides as a subject for his chisel.
On the central slab of the eastern frieze of the Parthenon is
1 See Winckelmann, Mon. Ant. Ined. II, p. 269 and text.
2 Plutarch, Moralia, p. 204 f. (Apoph. Cic. 2).
3 See II Real Museo Borbonico, II, PL 54.
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60 EUGENE S. McCARTNEY
sculptured a priestess facing two attendants, each of whom bears on her head a four-legged stool or table. The attendants may. perhaps, be symbolic of a ritualistic KOO-^O-LS rijs rpciTre^s, Miss Jane Harrison,1 however, relying on Harpocration's explana- tion of the word Tpaire£o<f>6pos2 is inclined to call them TpaTre^cb and Kofffi&j Table and Adornment.
Grave monuments, although they are the last place to look for intentional levity, afford a fine opportunity for illustrated puns. Many of the ancients had names derived from those of animals, and it happens naturally that most of the sculptured punning figures on graves are those of animals. The best known Roman example is the cippus of the mensor aedificiorum, T. Statilius Aper, now in the Capitoline Museum.3 At the feet of the de- ceased rests a boar. Two mice are represented on the tombstone of P. DECVMIVS M. P. V. L. PHILOMVSVS MVS (C.I.L. VI, 16771). In like manner a bull is depicted on the urn of a certain P. AELIVS AVG. LIB. TAVRVS.4
The most elaborate cippus is that of Tiberius Octavius Diadu- menus in the Vatican. "The principal relief exhibits a decora- tive reproduction of the famous Diadumenos of Polycleitos, representing a youth binding a fillet round his head. The selec- tion of this subject was probably dictated by the fact that the person to whom the tombstone was erected bore the cognomen of Diadumenos. The inscription AD PINVM, on the right side, and the pine-tree on the left side, indicate the region in which Diadumenos dwelt, a region named after a pine-tree to be found there."5
Beside Christian epitaphs, too, such puns are to be found. Upon the slab recording the name of Pontius Leo is cut the figure of a lion,6 on that of Porcella a pig,7 on that of the illiterate Nabira
1 'The Central Slab of the E. Parthenon Frieze/ Cl. R. Ill, p. 378.
8 A.VKOVPJOS Iv T$ irepl rfjs lcpdas- 6rt hpoavvw ovon& icmv 17 rpaTrefo^opos- Sri abrr) re nai -fj Koer^ucb crvvditirovat, iravra rfj rrjs 'Adrjvas lepeia aitros re 6 prjT&p kv T(f a.i)Ti$ \6y<p 5e5^Xco/C€ /cai -I<7Tcos kv iyr TU>V 'ArrtKuv crvvaycdy&v.
3 Catalogue of the Ancient Sculptures of the Museo Capitohno, plate XV. For the inscription see C.I.L. VI, 1975, and Buecheler, Anthol Lat. No. 441.
4 W. Altmann, Die Romischen Grabaltare der Kaiserzeit,. p. 244.
6 W. Helbig, Guide to the Public Collections of Classical Antiquities in Rome (1895), I, p. 77. See C.I.L. VI, 10035.
«Marucchi, Epigrafia Cristiana, PI. V, fig. 2; Northcote, Epitaphs of the Catacombs, p. 156.
7 Northcote, I.e.
CANTING PUNS ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS 61
(i.e. Navira) a boat.1 The dedication to Nabira is worth quot- ing, since it expressly states that the ship is her signum, her badge or emblem: NABIRA IN PACE ANIMA DVLCIS QVI BIXIT ANOS XVI. M. V. ANIMA MELEIEA TITVLV FACTV A PARENTES. SIGNVM NABE.
The Greeks were as fond of such sepulchral embellishments as were the Romans. A stele dedicated to Leon and representing a lion in relief is shown in Gardner, Sculptured Tombs of Hellas, p. 130. Simonides commemorated a lion reclining upon the grave of a man named Leon:
ev KapTiffTos ey&, dvaT&v 5' ov eyco vvv
'AXX' el M Ov/jLovye' A&oi/ k^bv ovvopa r' OVK av €70; rvfjifiu) ro)6' eireOijKCi 7r65as.2
Some scholars would associate this epigram with the tomb of Leonidas of which Herodotus (VII, 225, 2) writes: 6 dt KO\UVOS eoTi ev TT? ecroSo), OKOV vvv 6 \lQivos Xeoop ecrrrjKe eirl AeowSfl.
"A lioness without a tongue is said also to have stood on the tomb of Leaena, the Athenian courtezan who was a friend of Harmodius and Aristogeiton, and refused to betray the con- spirators against the Tyrants."3 A heifer was placed upon the tomb of Boidion, concubine of Chares.4
At the death of Diodotus, the rhetorician, Metellus Pius, a pupil, set up in his honor a stone crow, Kopa£ \Wi,vos, evidently an allusion to Corax, the founder of the art of rhetoric5.
On seals and signet rings also one might expect to find canting puns, since figures of animals are frequently engraved upon them. In the absence of the owner's name, however, it is impossible to prove in any particular instance that we have a canting pun. A ridiculous passage in Aristophanes (Eq. 951-4) is sufficient evi- dence as to " canting heraldry" on rings. Demus says: " It can't be that this ring is mine, since the device seems different, or can't I see?" On being asked what the device was, A^juos replied: SrjjuoD fioelov Qplov k^irr^iJ.kvov.
In the case of coins the situation is different. Moneyers fre- quently placed upon them their symboles parlants or canting
1 Northcote, op. cit., p. 175.
2 Anthol. Pal. VII, 344.
3 Gardner, op. cit., p. 131.
4 Anthol. Pal. VII, 169.
6 Plutarch, Moralia, 205 a (Apoph. Cic. 7).
62 EUGENE S. McCARTNEY
badges. Thus we see the hammer of C. Publicius Malleolus, the adze of L. Valerius Acisculus, the deformed foot of P. Furius Crassipes, the squilla of L. Licinius Squillus, the todillus of the gens Todilia, and the musca of the Sempronia, some of whom bore the cognomen Musca.1 In the same way, at a later date, "Sir Martin Bowes, master of the mint under Henry VIII and Edward VI, sometimes placed a bow as a symbol on the coins for which he was responsible."2
Instances of canting types are very numerous. " These types parlants, to which the Romans were specially partial, and which the nature of the coinage favored, begin to show themselves at quite an early period, and they are fairly constant throughout the whole series even down to the time of the moneyers who served under Augustus. One of the earliest instances is that of L. Ap- puleius Saturninus, who depicts Saturn in a quadriga, L. Thorius Balbus gives a bull, C. Vibius Pansa, the mask of Pan, L. Lucre- tius Trio, a crescent moon, surrounded by seven stars (septem triones), L. Plaetorius Cestianus, an athlete holding a cestus, and Q. Pomponius Musa, representations of Hercules Musagetes and the nine Muses. Of those which occur at a later period may be mentioned the calf, vitulus, on the coins of Q. Voconius Vitulus and the flower on those of L. Aquillius Florus."3
There is an interesting coin of Julius Caesar representing an elephant trampling upon a dragon. One suspects that the beast is symbolic of Africa, but the coin is worth citing on account of a passage in Spartianus (Ael. Ver. II). He gives four etymologies of the word Caesar one of which is that it signified elephant in the language of the Mauri, and that it was bestowed as a surname upon one of the Julii who had killed an elephant.4
On the coins of the Greeks " speaking types" are apparently limited to names of places. The following list illustrates how they employed representations of animals and objects in general to suggest names:5 ayKvpa, Ancyra; CLJK&V (represented by a bent arm), Ancona; cu£, Aegae, Aegira, Aegosthena, Aegospotami; , Alopeconnesus; "Apre/us, Artemidorus; dcrra/cos, Astacus;
1 See Coins of the Roman Republic in the British Museum, I, Ixxxv.
2 Macdonald, Coin Types, p. 237.
3 Coins of the Roman Republic in the British Museum, I, xcii. *0p.cit. II, 390-1.
6 Some numismatists would attach a religious significance to a few of these examples.
CANTING PUNS ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS 63
Cetis; Kpidf), Crithote; Kv^e\Tj, Cypsela; Xecoi/, Leontini; , Melitaea; iJLf)\ov, Melos; Hdv (head of the god), Panti- capaeum; 7rp6£, Proconnesus; podov, Rhodes; 0-1617, Side; Aspendus; ravpos, Tauromenium ; rpcnre^a, Trapezus; Phaselis.1 " At Laodicea in Phrygia the rivers Kapros and Lykos are represented by a boar and a wolf."2
Even canting arms, the armoires parlants of the French, were not unknown in antiquity. Professor Chase notes a cylix found at Corneto which shows a swan (KVKVOS) as a device on a shield belonging to a warrior named Cycnus. He is inclined to believe that we have here an echo of a common practice in the ornamen- tation of shields.3
Julius Caesar had a legion called by the Gallic name Alauda, which was composed of men from Transalpine Gaul.4 Pliny (XI, 121) informs us that the alauda was a crested lark. The alauda of the legionaries was a decoration placed, in all probability, upon the helmet.
What seems to be the clearest evidence that the Romans had armoires parlants5 in the strict sense of the expression is a passage in Suetonius (Calig. 35, 1), which states that Caligula took from the noblest families their time-honored insignia, from Torquatus the torques, and from Cincinnatus the crines (i.e. cincinni).
Among us a verbal pun upon a proper name is, to say the least, tactless. A pictorial pun is at times used as a trademark,6 or as an emblem,7 but on anything so formal as a gravestone would be entirely out of place, and is unthinkable upon the coinage of a
1 This list was compiled from Head, Historia Numorum and Macdonald> Coin Types, p. 17-19.
2 Macdonald, op. cit. p. 39.
3 G. H. Chase, 'The Shield Devices of the Greeks,' Harvard Studies, xiii, p. 90.
4 Suetonius, Jul. 24, 2; cf. Cicero, ad Ait. XVI, 8, 2.
6 Armoires parlants are extremely common in heraldry since knights and prominent families and cities seemed to prefer for their arms an object whose name bore some resemblance to their own: e.g., the colonna of Colonna, the orso of Orsini, the pignatte of Pignatelli, the lupo of Lupicini, the scala of the Scaligers, the fiore of Fiorenza (Florence), the lion of Leon and Louvain, the pomegranate of Granada, the castle of Castile, the bear of Berne, the monk of Munich, the arondel (martlet) for the Duke of Arundel, three fountains for Wells, the whirlpool (gurges) for Gorges, the calf for Vele.
6 An instance that will occur to everybody is the bell of the Bell Telephone Company.
7 The banners of colleges frequently depict emblems suggested by their nick- names: e.g., Yale Bulldogs, Princeton Tigers, Rice Owls, Texas Longhorns, etc.
64 EUGENE S. McCARTNEY
nation which recalled the Lincoln pennies inscribed with the ini- tials of the designer. Among the ancients, however, the very frequency of these canting puns proves that they were in good taste, and no doubt the possessor of a name that could be so punned upon regarded himself fortunate.
EUGENE S. MCCARTNEY. UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS, AUSTIN, TEXAS.
Archaeological Institute of America
GENERAL MEETING OF THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA
DECEMBER 26-28, 1918
The Archaeological Institute of America held its twentieth meeting for the reading and discussion of papers at Columbia University, New York, December 26, 27, and 28, 1918, in con- junction with the American Philological Association and the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis. Three sessions for the reading of papers were held and there were two joint sessions with the American Philological Association. With one exception the abstracts which follow were furnished by the authors.
THURSDAY, DECEMBER 26. 3.00 P.M.
1. Mr. Jay Hambidge, of New York, Principles of Greek Design as Illustrated by Pottery and Bronzes in America.
The investigation of the principles of symmetry disclosed the fact that there are, in nature, two types of proportion which may be useful to design. These are termed dynamic and static. The latter, probably, is but a special case of the former, as the circle is a special case of the ellipse. The double classifica- tion, however, is analytically useful. Static symmetry is spontaneous, no design whatever being possible without its presence in some degree. It has been consciously used several times during history, books having been written upon the subject. It is observable in nature in crystals, radiolaria, certain flowers, cross-sections of seed pods, etc. The presence of this type in art is usually 'apparent by inspection.
Dynamic symmetry is based upon shell growth and the law of leaf distribu- tion in plants. Its chief function seems to be the determination of the asym- metrical balance necessary to the inter-relation of elements in growth. It is a proportion of movement. This type produces a series of rectangles possessing curious and fascinating properties. If these rectangles are used intelligently in an artistic composition the result is a product of design possessing the quali- ties of a growing organism. After this type of symmetry had been worked out and the properties of the rectangles developed, it was found that classic Greek art and Egyptian art furnished the only products of design in which this symmetry appeared.
It would require too much space to discuss the situation in detail but it may be said that very early in Egyptian history an empirical method of land survey was developed. This rule of thumb method of measurement was later
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66 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA
used in temple construction and its presence is detected in the pictorial com- positions of the bas-reliefs. Knowledge of this method of measurement was obtained by the Greeks sometime during the seventh or sixth century B.C. In Greece one aspect of the idea became highly developed and has come down to us as Euclidean Geometry. The other aspect was as highly developed artistically but was later lost. The evidence that this is roughly the situation is furnished by the history of geometrical development in Greece and the remains of classic art. For example: the ground plan of the Parthenon is a simple rectangle. If the width of this plan, overall, and not the top step or the middle step but everything including the levelling course, is divided into the total length, a ratio is obtained. This ratio is recognizable as belonging to dynamic symmetry. Moreover, the rectangle divides itself in such a man- ner that all the details of the plan, column and angle column spacing, cella arrangement, also the elevation of the building and all its details are simply and logically established. Other Greek ground plans corroborate this.
Further corroboration is furnished by Greek bronzes, pottery, and units of decoration. For two hundred or two hundred and fifty years it would seem that the designs of Greek pottery were laid out with the same care and in accord- ance with the same scheme as the plans of the temples. There exists over- whelming proof that this was so. So far over four hundred examples of good Greek pottery have been examined and the fact fixed that over ninety-five per cent, run true, i.e., ninety-five per cent, of Greek pottery is as architectural as the best Greek buildings. Moreover, a fairly consistent history of the development of Greek design is being obtained from the numerous examples of pottery. Thanks to the alertness of Dr. L. D. Caskey of the Boston Mu- seum of Fine Arts and Miss G. M. A. Richter of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the labor of investigation has recently been much facili- tated. Last summer Dr. Caskey began a personal investigation of the pottery in his care and found that the situation was as described. The Metropolitan Museum is now following Dr. Caskey's lead, using a checking system so that absolutely reliable material may be obtained. The results so far corroborate completely not only the writer's work but Dr. Caskey's labor as well.
2. Professor Paul V. C. Baur, of Yale University, Some Black- Figured Vases in the Stoddard Collection, Yale University.
In this paper four black-figured vases were discussed.
No. 111. A lecythus from Tarentum of Attic fabric dating from the end of the sixth century B.C. On the body is depicted the story of Admetus and the chariot drawn by four wild beasts, a lion, a panther, a boar, and probably a wolf. It is the earliest known representation of the subject.
No. 230. An amphora of coarse brown clay. On the obverse, a lion, on the reverse, a fallow deer. Clay and technique so closely resemble the Clazo- menian sarcophagi that the writer is inclined to consider this vase a rare ex- ample of Clazomenian fabric, though Pharmakowski (Arch. Anz. 1912 pp 334 f., fig. 21) calls this fabric late Milesian.
No. 231. An amphora with cover. This is a typical example of Halo-Ionic, fabric of the sixth century B.C. On the obverse a triton-like monster swim- ming in water indicated by a wavy line and three fish is attacked by a nude,
GENERAL MEETING, DECEMBER 26-28, 1918 67
bearded man, perhaps Heracles. On the reverse a deer is attacked from either side by a wolf or jackal in a thicket. At this early period wolves are rarely depicted in Greek art.
No. 232. An amphora of genuine Ionic workmanship. Encircling the body are athletic contests, a boxing-match, and a warrior, with loin-cloth, shield, and crested helmet, hurling a spear at a target. Two examples of this rare fabric are in the Metropolitan Museum, New York; elsewhere the writer knows of no other vases of this style.
3. Miss G. M. A. Richter, of the Metropolitan Museum, New York, Notes on the Technique of Greek Vases.
The first part of this paper discussed the theory of the addition of red ochre to Athenian clay to deepen the color. Practical experiments have shown that the addition of ochre to the clay did not have the desired result, but that the effect could be obtained by subjecting the vases to a higher temperature. Pliny's and Suidas's accounts, therefore, of the addition of ochre must refer to the red wash spread, after firing, over the surface of Athenian vases. In the second part of the paper the endeavor was made to show that Athenian vases were manufactured for practical use, and to disprove the arguments advanced at various times against this view. Finally, in support of the theory recently proposed by Mr. Jay Hambidge that Athenian pottery was designed on certain geometrical principles, stress was again laid on the fact that these vases were "jiggered" as well as "thrown," and could, therefore, be made to very exact measurements.
4. Dr. James M. Paton, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, The Erechtheum as a Christian Church.
It has long been agreed that the Erechtheum was at one time transformed into a Christian church and that this church had the typical form of a small basilica with narthex and apse. A close examination of the evidence makes possible a somewhat more detailed restoration. It seems probable that the nave and aisles were separated by low walls on which stood columns, and that the intercolumniations were filled by slabs which at the same time provided a barrier to communication and a back for the seat in the nave formed by the low wall. The remaining slab of the iconostasis bears a geometric decoration which finds its best parallels in such buildings as Santa Sophia at Constan- tinople, San Vitale and Sant' Apollinare at Ravenna, and St. Demetrius at Salonica. The crude execution, however, indicates that this slab is later than these churches, probably belonging to the late sixth or even the seventh cen- tury. It is by no means impossible that the little basilica represents a second stage in the destruction of the Greek temple, and that the first stage was its transformation into a simple "hall church" or perhaps a secular building.
5. Miss Ida C. Thallon, of Vassar College, Some Balkan and Danubian Connections of Troy.
As early as the neolithic period there existed in the Near East four culture areas: (1) Aegean, (2) Thessalian, (3) Upper Balkan and Danubian, (4) South
68 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA
Russian and allied. The fourth, which is distinguished by polychrome painted pottery with spiral motives, included the Dnieper and Dniester valleys and the districts drained by the northern tributaries of the Danube as far as Austria, and was separated from the Aegean area by the broad diagonal line of the Balkan-Danubian group which extended from Bosnia to Troy and beyond. The third area came into contact with the fourth in Bulgaria, but with the first only sporadically and very late in the Bronze Age. Although both recti- linear and spiral motives characterize this group the painted technique is practically non-existent, and a close family resemblance can be traced from Bosnia through Serbia and southern Bulgaria into Troy and past there via Yortan, southern Pisidia, and Lycia even to Cyprus. The archaeological connections between Troy and the Balkan-Danubian district coincide with Homer's statements about the Thracian and Paeonian allies of the Trojans who came from the valleys of the Hebrus (Maritza), Strymon, and Axius (Vardar). Connection with the Danube was by way of the Morava where plentiful remains exist in Serbia, and down the rivers mentioned. The Trojan allies came from the districts to the north of those inhabited by the Greeks who had by that time encountered the declining Mycenaean civilization and were influenced by it to a far greater degree than the inhabitants of Troy, where only the sixth city affords remains of Mycenaean culture. Her connections lie rather with Anatolia and very particularly with the Balkan-Danubian area from neolithic times (Troy I and II) until the Early Iron Age (Troy VII). Dr. Leaf has demonstrated the importance of the control of the Dardanelles in the greatness of Troy and the strategic point of Salonica appears also to have been within her sphere of influence.
6. Mr. William Gates, of Baltimore, Study in the Mayence Languages.
No abstract of this paper was received.
FRIDAY, DECEMBER 27. 9.30 A.M.
1. Mrs. Florence Paul Berger, of the Wadsworth Athenaeum, Hartford, The Bennington Pottery and the Early Red Ware of New England.
To the late Albert Hastings Pitkin, whose collection of Bennington and Red Ware has recently been presented to the Morgan Memorial in Hartford by Mrs. Pitkin, we owe much interesting and valuable information regarding pottery making in New England from the end of the eighteenth to the middle of the nineteenth century. This information he had gathered during many years of collecting with the intention of eventually publishing it. He was prevented from doing this by his sudden death last year; but Mrs. Pitkin has since then edited and published his notes, adding lists of the Bennington and Red Ware, with marks and numerous illustrations.
The records of early pottery-making in the colonies are very meagre, yet there is no doubt that bricks, roof tiles, and common household pots were made from the early part of the seventeenth century. Late in the seventeenth century the Pennsylvania Germans began the redware industry in the neigh-
GENERAL MEETING, DECEMBER 26-28, 1918 69
borhood of Philadelphia, but the earliest piece that bears a date was made in 1733. In the latter half of the eighteenth century small potteries sprang up in Maine, Massachusetts, Vermont, and at Hartford, Norwalk, Norwich, and other towns in Connecticut. Both stoneware and redware were made, usually in the form of jars, jugs, pitchers, and plates. Seth Goodwin, Thomas O'Hara Goodwin, Goodwin and Webster, and Daniel Goodale are some of the names connected with Hartford.
At Bennington, Vermont, Captain John Norton of Goshen, Connecticut, was a pioneer potter, starting his salt glazed stoneware business in 1793. His son, Judge Luman Norton, succeeded him and introduced Rockingham in more ornamental forms. When Christopher Webb Fenton entered the firm about 1839, he brought with him a practical and technical knowledge of the industry which resulted in still finer products, — the Parian, cream ware, scrod- dled, and the brilliantly glazed and colored flint enamelled ware for which Bennington is perhaps best known.
2. Professor Fiske Kimball, of the University of Michigan, The Beginnings of Sculpture in Colonial America.
Protestantism and pioneer conditions restricted sculpture in Colonial Amer- ica even more than the other arts, and until the eve of the Revolution works of sculpture here were almost entirely imported. The first to come (1728 ff.) were casts and copies of antique works, imported by artists for models, and later by Southern planters for decorative use. Original works first appeared (ca. 1750) in connection with marble mural monuments ordered from England by wealthy members of the Anglican church. The first statues commissioned as public monuments were those of Pitt in New York and Charleston, and the equestrian figure of George III in New York, all authorized in 1766, executed by Joseph Wilton in London, and set up in 1770. Closely following was the statue of Governor Berkeley at Williamsburg, Virginia, voted in 1771, carved in London by Richard Hayward, and erected in 1773. All these illustrate the various successive phases of contemporary British sculpture, from the record of classicism. The earliest native sculptor, Mrs. Patience Wright of Bordentown, New Jersey, executed portraits in wax for some years prior to her removal to London in 1772. Her marble bust of Thomas Penn, sent from London to Philadelphia in 1773, may stand as the earliest extant work of an American sculptor.
3. Professor Charles R. Morey, of Princeton University, Two So-called Early Christian Monuments.
This paper will be published later in the JOURNAL.
4. Dr. John Shapley, of Brown University, Problems of Gothic Form.
The appearance of Wilhelm Worringer's book, Problems of Gothic Form, chal- lenges the validity of many current ideas in art history, art theory, and art practice. This paper offered an extension and application of the viewpoints it expresses and carried its arguments to their logical conclusion.
70 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA
5. Mr. Leicester B. Holland, of the University of Pennsyl- vania, The Transformation of the Classical Pediment in Roman- esque Architecture.
This paper will be published in full in a later number of the JOURNAL.
6. Professor Allan Marquand, of Princeton University, The Decoration of the Ceppo Hospital at Pistoia.
Recent investigations by Mr. Rufus G. Mather, of the Ceppo Hospital archives throw much needed light on the authorship of the hospital decorations. To Benedetto Buglioni may now be definitely attributed the Coronation lu- nette (1510) over the entrance of the old building; also a coat of arms of the hospital on the right short side of the frieze. To Giovanni della Robbia be- longs the series of medallions in the spandrels of the arches of the portico (1525- 1529). The frieze representing the Seven Corporal Works of Mercy was entrusted to Santi Buglioni (1527-1529). He accomplished six of the panels; the seventh, possibly correctly attributed to Filippo di Lorenzo Baladini, was executed in stucco in 1585.
FRIDAY, DECEMBER 27. 8 P.M. Joint Session with the American Philological Association.
1. Professor Howard Crosby Butler, of Princeton University, The Future Protection of the Historical Monuments of Nearer Asia.
Professor Butler pointed out the great need of protection for the important remains of antiquity still existing between the Tigris and the Aegean, but likely to be destroyed as a result of changed political conditions. He urged the "internationalization" of all historic monuments with an international commission having power to make all necessary regulations in control. The need for immediate action was emphasized.
2. Professor Charles Upson Clark, of the American Academy, Rome, Some Art Treasures of Redeemed Italy.
No abstract of this paper was received.
SATURDAY, DECEMBER 28. 9.30 A.M.
1. Dr. Margaret C. Waites, of Mount Holyoke College, The Nature of the Lares and their Representation in Roman Art.
This paper will be published in a later number of the JOURNAL.
2. Professor 0. M. Washburn, of the University of California, The Origin of the Triglyph Frieze. (Read by Dr. J. M. Paton.)
This paper is published in this number of the JOURNAL (pp. 33ff.)
GENERAL MEETING, DECEMBER 26-28, 1918 71
3. Mr. W. H. Goodyear, of the Brooklyn Museum, Archi- tectural Refinements in Mediaeval French Cathedrals as Related to the Question of Repairs or Restoration in the War Zone.
In 1895 the Trustees of the Brooklyn Institute Museum organized a research and investigation as to the use of architectural refinements in mediaeval cathe- drals. As the result of various expeditions to Italy, Northern Europe, and Constantinople, many observations have been made, and much evidence has been collected on the subject. The evidence is in the shape of seventy meas- ured surveys, and over eight hundred enlarged photographs, most of which represent original observations. Selections from this collection were shown at Rome in 1904, at Edinburgh in 1905 and in Dublin in 1914. The purpose of this paper is to call attention to such refinements as have been discovered by the Brooklyn Museum research in the French cathedrals in the war zone, with reference to the question of the repairs and restorations which may be planned, debated or undertaken in the immediate future.
The most widely diffused refinement in French cathedrals is a system of delicately widening the nave in the upward direction. A cross-section of the nave thus resembles a delicately attenuated horseshoe form. The construc- tion sometimes slopes the piers outward from the pavement up, as in Rouen Cathedral, and the crossing piers of Notre-Dame. Sometimes the piers are perpendicular and the outward slope begins at the arcade capitals. This arrangement is found at Rheims and at Amiens, and has the optical effect of vertical curvature. Sometimes the piers diverge outward in delicate curves beginning near the bases, as in the Cathedral of Noyon. The total amounts of divergence at the height of the clerestory when compared with the distance between piers at the bases are inconspicuous in fact and in effect, but greater than might be supposed when the habitual oversight of the facts by antiqua- rians and experts, as well as by casual visitors and spectators, is considered. The total maximum divergence at Noyon is about 8 inches. In Rouen Cathe- dral it is about 24 inches, and it is about the same at Rheims. At Amiens it is about 20 inches. Approximately the same divergence occurs in the crossing piers of Notre-Dame. The habitual oversight of the arrangement mentioned is largely due to the convergence of vertical perspective, and partly due in many cases to the delicate vertical curvatures, or bends having the effect of delicate curvature, by which the total divergence is obtained.
An even more delicate refinement of the same description is usually found in the side aisles where the widening effect is confined to the exterior sides. At Amiens the aisle responds of the chapel walls have an outward curvature of only 3 inches deflection in a height of 40 feet. The facts here are only dis- coverable by plumb-line sighting, and cannot be verified by the unassisted eye. This, in fact, is also generally true in the naves. Still more remarkable is the expansion of the nave system into the transepts where the verticals of the piers and window mullions are inclined in parallels to those of the nave. The purpose of this subtle arrangement is doubtless to avoid the contrast of per- pendiculars in the transepts with the inclined verticals in the nave, which would make the latter conspicuous. This arrangment is found in Rouen Cathedral, in Amiens Cathedral, at St. Quentin, and elsewhere. Finally there is a crowning complexity of subtlety which gives the same transepts an
72 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA
independent transverse system of widening similar to that of the nave, and crossing the nave system. This is found at Amiens, at St. Quentin, and in the crossing piers, at least, of Notre-Dame.
The paper otherwise dealt in detail by illustrative views with the problems and difficulties of repairs and restoration of such refinements. Above all it was insisted that a wide knowledge of the facts described is an essential pre- liminary to any general activity of restoration.
The system described in France originated in Byzantine architecture of the sixth century, as is shown by Santa Sophia and other churches in Constanti- nople. It spread to Italy, and thence to Northern Europe. Various exam- ples were cited in Great Britain. Among these were Canterbury Cathedral, the Temple Church in London, Lichfield Cathedral, and St. Patrick's in Dublin.
4. Professor Norman W. DeWitt, of Victoria College, Toronto, The Origin of the Roman Forum.
It is customary to explain the beginnings of Rome by its fortunate situation and the Forum as a casual evolution from a central location among surround- ing settlements, an explanation which fails to account for the Temple of Janus and the religious character of the Janus entrance. As Ovid, Fasti I, 257, inquires:
Cum tot sint lani, cur stas sacratus in uno, Hie ubi iuncta foris templa duobus habes?
In other words, to explain the Forum we must explain Janus. Warde Fowler in Roman Festivals, pp. 286 ff., thinks Janus the guardian of the doorway but Janus is older than the Roman town house. He is the guardian of the gate- way of the walled compound that surrounded the Roman villa. Varro, R.R. I, 13, 2 : Vilici proximum ianuam cellam esse oportet eumque scire qui introeat aut exeat noctu quidve ferat. Janus has a religious character because he guards private property. The Janus entrance of the Forum had a religious character. Therefore the Forum was once private property. If it was private property it must have been the courtyard of the royal residence. Numerous traditions place the site of Numa's residence at the end of the Forum and the residences of other kings on the Velia, which is suitably situated to look on the Forum as a courtyard. The Rex was the priest of Janus. The Forum was a royal mart. The ship's beak on coins meant foreign commerce. It was a king who built the shops, and paved and drained the Forum. Market fees may have been collected at the Janus gate. Hence the money changers. Before the temple of Saturn was built the temple of Janus must have contained the war treasure. Hence the bolts and bars and the opening in time of war. As at the rape of the Sabine women, games were instituted to attract crowds. So the numerous shows and sacrifices would bring customers. The fattest sheep was sacrificed every market day to attract the farmers (Festus, Muller, 186). The early Romans, led by the king, believed in advertising.
5. Mrs. Phila C. Nye, of Princeton, The Oblong Ivory Caskets of the Byzantine Period.
This paper will be published in a later number of the JOURNAL.
GENERAL MEETING, DECEMBER 26-28, 1918 73
The following abstracts of papers announced, but not read have been received.
1. Miss Helen McClees, of Columbia University, Notes on Women in Attic Inscriptions.
From the inscriptions we find that women were employed as wool-workers, laundresses, children's nurses, hucksters, vendors of hemp, perfumes, sesame, salt, and himatia. One cobbler is known, and two physicians. A woman fur- nished to the state caps for public slaves and another reeds for repairing a roof. Women held office as priestesses in about forty cults, including those of three male divinities. Women and girls of noble family also served as Arrhephori, "initiates from the altar" at Eleusis, basket-bearers, and workers of the peplos for the Panathenaea. Women of the lower classes were often engaged in the service of Eastern divinities. Large numbers of dedications, especially to goddesses and to the gods of healing, were made by women, and they also contributed to public works. Public honors in the form of honorary decrees, golden crowns, and seats in the theatre were awarded to women. A decree of the Erechtheid tribe in favor of an eTrkXTjpos whose father was a mem- ber of the tribe directs the im^ijTal to take her interests in charge and pre- vent her from being wronged when making purchases. The Tabellae Defix- ionum furnish curious information concerning the superstitions and also the every-day life of women of the lower classes.
2. Miss Georgiana Goddard King, of Bryn Mawr College, Notes on the Portals of Santiago de Compostella.
I. Aymery Picaud's account written about 1140 describes the three doors as they were finished : that of the western is less closely observed than the others and mentions no tympanum. It seems likely, recalling the steep street that led up, and the internal staircases of which traces exist, that this was like the west door of Le Puy, with which Santiago had frequent relations.
II. Comparison of photographs shows a striking likeness between the South Transept door of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem and that at Santiago (the only one surviving). No door in the south of France comes quite so near, though certain details are oriental, as would be expected. The carving of the few old capitals within shows likeness to Spanish Romanesque. Of the original flanking chapels, one is dedicated to S. James. The Spanish part in the crusade, and the Spanish element here, have been overlooked through ignorance. On the south fagade at Santiago stands S. James between cypress trees, says Aymery. They are wreathed with vines. Figure and flanking trees are copied at Toulouse. I know only one other case: on the back of the Harbaville Triptych cypresses wreathed with vine and ivy bow down to the Cross. There the cypresses are probably both trees of death and also symbols of the Mysteries. In the gold plates which constitute an Orphic Guide of the soul after death, the cypress stands beside the House of Hades. Compostella was a place of pilgrimage for dead souls and a gathering place for souls. S. James is here in his chthonic aspect.
1
1918
July-December
ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS1
NOTES ON RECENT EXCAVATIONS AND DISCOVERIES; OTHER NEWS
WILLIAM N. BATES, Editor
220, St. Mark's Square, Philadelphia, Pa.
GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS
HAL-TARXIEN. — The Excavations of 1916-1917.— In Archaeologia, LXVIII, 1916-1917, pp. 263-284 (11 pis.; 22 figs.) T. ZAMMIT reports upon the excavations conducted on the site of the neolithic sanctuary at Hal- Tarxien, Malta, during the year 1916-1917 (see A.J.A. XXI, 1917, pp. 339 f.). The approach to the building was cleared and the limits of the ruins to the south and southwest determined. At the main entrance a fine slab with a convex edge served as a doorstep, and on each side of it large stone blocks supported the outer wall and were also probably used as seats for the wor- shipers. To the west of the main entrance a wide apse was excavated, and beyond that to the north a room with an elaborate altar. The northern end of the main entrance was completely cleared. There is abundant evidence to show that the whole edifice underwent a reconstruction. The northern portion is older than the southern. It is "massive, rude, severe, simpler in its elements a,nd more compact and imposing." The ornaments are fewer, but executed with a firmer hand, the blocks heavier and placed with greater accuracy and the apses wider and better designed. In the southern part the apses are not accurately designed, and the ornaments are elaborate and more varied but lack the firmer lines of the older type. The entrance to the first apses of the older building is very imposing, and consists of broad, vertical slabs standing on a large flagstone which serves as a threshold. The passage is 17 ft. 6 in. long, and on each side at its inner end a monolith stands on a plinth. Beyond is an oval area 46 ft. long carefully paved with large stones. In the centre is a large stone basin 3 ft. 8 in. in diameter in which a fire was probably kept burning. Two other similar, but smaller oval areas lie side by side to the north, and in the outer one is another fire basin. The excavations are far from complete. To the northeast numerous upright stones are projecting from
1 The departments of Archaeological News and Discussions and of Bibliography of Archaeo- logical Books are conducted by Professor BATES, Editor-in-charge, assisted by Professor C. N. BROWN, Miss MARY H. BUCKINGHAM, Dr. T. A. BUENGER, Dr. L. D. CASKEY, Professor HAROLD R. HASTINGS, Professor ELMER T. MERRILL, Professor LEWIS B. PATON, Professor A. S. PEASE, Professor S. B. PLATNER, Professor JOHN C. ROLFE, Dr. JOHN SHAPLEY, Professor ARTHUR L. WHEELER and the Editors, especially Professor MARQUAND.
No attempt is made to include in this number of the JOURNAL material published after Decem- ber 31, 1918.
For an explanation of the abbreviations, see pp. 99-100.
75
76 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXIII, 1919
the soil, and in that direction and to the east other oval spaces will probably be brought to light. Many carved stones, especially blocks with spirals were discovered. In the older specimens the spirals are simple and their surface is flat, while in those of later date the surface is convex and the spirals more com- plicated. Neolithic grinders, mortars, hammer-stones, and stone vessels were unearthed, besides statuettes of stone and of clay, baked and unbaked. Some of these apparently represent priests. Neolithic potsherds were found in abundance although complete vases were few. They show great skill on the part of the makers. Incised designs were filled in with red, and wide bands of red ochre, still partly preserved on the fragments, were sometimes applied to- the body of the vase.
NECROLOGY.— Oric Bates.— On October 8, 1918 Oric Bates died of pneu- monia at Camp Zachary Taylor, Louisville, Kentucky. He was born Decem- ber 5, 1883, graduated from Harvard College in 1905, and later studied at the University of Berlin. He took part with Professor Reisner in the excavations- conducted by Harvard University and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts in Egypt, and in other archaeological work. He was the author of The Eastern Libyans. He was Curator of African Archaeology and Ethnology at the Pea- body Museum, Harvard University, at the time when he entered the service of the government. (B. Mus. F. A. XVI, 1918, opp. p. 80; Harvard Alumni Bulletin, XXI, 1918, p. 76.)
Leon Henri Louis Berard. — Captain Leon-Henri-Louis Berard, born in 1883,. was killed in a bombardment January 9, 1918. He had carried on important researches in Gallic archaeology, especially in Champagne. (S. R., R. Arch. VII, 1918, p. 182.)
Emmanuel Edouard Chavannes. — The orientalist Emmanuel Edouarcl Chavannes, a distinguished scholar and author of numerous monographs and articles, chiefly on Chinese and Indian subjects, may almost be said to have founded the science of Chinese archaeology. Born in 1865, he died January 30, 1918. (S. R., R. Arch. VII, 1918, pp. 179 f.)
J. de Closmadeuc.— The veteran archaeologist of Brittany, Dr. J. de Closmadeuc, was born in 1828 and died in May, 1918. His articles and mono- graphs on the archaeology of Brittany are many and valuable. He was ad- mirable as a scholar, a physician, and a man. (S. REINACH, R. Arch. VII, 1918, pp. 304 f.)
Vidal de la Blache.— The geographer Vidal de la Blache, born in 1845, died early in 1918. He became a member of the Ecole d'Athenes in 1867 and made fruitful investigations in Asia Minor and Syria, but his chief activity was in the field of geography. (S. R., R. Arch. VII, 1918, p. 180.)
Friedrich Hauser. — In Atene e Roma, XXI, 1918, pp. 164-165 C. ALBIZZATI publishes an appreciative notice of the late Dr. Friedrich Hauser.
Paul Leprieur. — The Conservateur de la peinture at the Louvre, Paul Le- prieur, died May 17, 1918, at the age of 58 years. Numerous articles, from 1887 to 1917, testify to his rare feeling for the quality of works of art and the personality of their authors. (S. R., R. Arch. VII, 1918, pp. 305 f . ; bibliography by CLOTILDE MISME, pp. 305-309.)
Paul Mffliet.— Paul Milliet (March 6, 1844— January 8, 1918) was as a painter a convinced traditionalist, but was attached to most radical and even revolutionary social reforms. In 1891 his thesis on the Premieres Periodes de
EGYPT] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1918 77
la Ceramique grecque (Giraudon) appeared; in 1889-1890 his photographic album of the vases in the Bibliotheque Nationale (Giraudon) ; in 1892 he pub- lished his Catalogue des Vases antiques des Collections de la Ville de Geneve; he was among the benefactors of the Louvre and of the Association des Etudes grecques, to which he gave a sum of money for the publication, with transla- tion, of all passages of ancient authors relating to works of art, a work which is not yet finished. He left nearly all his fortune to the Louvre. (E. POTTIER, R. Arch. VII, 1918, pp. 309 f.)
Luigi Savignoni. — The archaeologist, Luigi Savignoni, died March 14, 1918. He was born at Montefiascone August 20, 1864, and studied in Rome and in Athens. From 1895 to 1901 he was inspector in the Amministrazione delle Antichita e Belle Arti at Rome and at Naples. In 1901 he became professor of archaeology at Messina where he remained until the great earthquake. Since 1914 he has been professor in the R. Istituto di Studi Superiori at Florence. He took part with Halbherr in the exploration of Crete (see his article on Cretan pithoi in A. J.A. V, 1901, pp. 404 ff.), and from 1901 to 1904 excavated Norba in Etruria. He published many papers on his excavations and explora- tions, upon Greek and Roman sculpture and vases, Etruscan antiquities, etc. (L. PERNIER, Atene e Roma, XXI, 1918, pp. 115-130; portrait; also Cron. B. A. V, 1918, pp. 39 f.)
EGYPT
EXCAVATIONS OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM.— During the year 1916-1917 the expedition of the Metropolitan Museum of New York to Egypt continued its excavations at Lisht and at Thebes. At Lisht work was carried on in the area adjacent to the pyramid of Sesostris where it was dis- continued in 1914. The ground between the pyramid temple and the south- east corner was cleared. The two enclosure walls of the royal monument and a smaller ruined pyramid inside the inner enclosure were uncovered. At Thebes excavations were continued on the site of the palace of Amenhotep III north of the sections previously cleared. Near the northern limit of the area an enclosure 110 by 185 m. contained the palace chapel dedicated to Amon and here also was the Festival Hall of Amenhotep's second jubilee in the thirty-fourth year of his reign, as inscriptions prove. Some of the decorative features of the building have been recovered. During the winter of 1917-1918 the section west of the residential building was excavated and found to have been occupied by makers of glass and faience. (A. M. LYTHGOE, B. Metr. Mus. Supplement, March, 1918, pp. 3-8; 2 figs.). Ibid. pp. 8-14 (8 figs.) A. LANSING describes the excavation of the Festival Hall. Numerous inscribed potsherds refer to the jubilee. The chapel lies in the middle of the building (Fig. 1). The main entrance was provided with an antechamber with mud-brick benches on either side. From this one passed to the first hypostyle hall the roof of which was supported by six columns. A doorway at the west end of this room led to a second hypostyle hall with four columns. The ceiling in these two halls had a blue background with yellow stars in it. Beyond this room, on a higher level, were three rooms, the central one reached by a flight of seven
78 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VoL. XXIII, 1919
steps and the other two by four steps. These were probably sanctuaries. North and south were storerooms in which were found fragments of alabaster vases which had been deliberately destroyed. In the southeast corner of the large fore-court are remains of some rooms where the priests may have lived. Beyond the court to the southeast are remains of a villa. Ibid. pp. 14-24 (24 figs.) N. DE G. DAVIES reports for the de Peyster Tytus Memorial Fund that the season of 1916-1917 was largely spent in work on the tombs of Puy- emre" (which is almost ready for publication) and Kenamon (Tomb No. 93). The paintings in the latter tomb are among the finest in Egypt. Attention is
nri
FIGURE 1. — THE FESTIVAL HALL OF AMENHOTEP III.
called especially to the figures of animals. During the work at Thebes a frag- ment came to light with the figure of the highest local official of the sixth dy- nasty. The inscription, which is important for the early history of Thebes, reads "the viceregent, governor of the South, controller of the state granaries, Unasonkh."
NURL— The Excavation of the Pyramids.— In B. Mus. F. A. XVI, 1918, pp. 67-82 (36 figs.) G. A. R(EISNER) gives a general account of his excavation of the pyramids of Nuri. The largest of all, which is 52 m. square and sur- rounded by small pyramids 7 to 12 m. square, proved to be the tomb of Tirhaqa mentioned in II Kings, 19. Within it had a great central hall divided into three aisles by two lines of rectangular pillars. In front of this hall was an antechamber approached by a flight of four steps leading from the bottom of the great entrance stairway. A corridor surrounded this great hall. The floors of the two side aisles were covered with over a thousand beautifully
GREECE]
ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1918
79
carved stone figures, 18 to 64 cm. high, of which about 600 were in good con- dition. Nineteen pyramids were found to be tombs of Ethiopian kings, the names of some of whom were previously un- known. Fifty-three tombs of queens and princesses were opened. All of the pyramids of Nuri were of the slender type, 68° to the horizontal. Each stood in a small enclosure bounded by a low wall and had a chapel for offerings consisting of a single room. The cemetery seems to have been ransacked by thieves about 300 to 250 B.C., but many objects of value were left behind (Fig. 2). The tombs of all the kings and queens who lived after Tirhaqa, except the four buried at Kurru, were excavated at Nuri. All of the twenty kings were identified by inscriptions and likewise twenty-five royal ladies. The pyramids may be divided chrono- logically into four groups, and foundation deposits were discovered under the four corners of most of them. The contents of these deposits varied with the date. In addition to the skull and fore-quarter of a sacrificed calf there were pottery vessels, or models of vessels, stone implements, and, in some cases, inscribed cups of faience. There were also many tablets, inscribed with the king's name, of gold, electrum, silver, bronze, faience, red jasper, lapis lazuli, alabaster, and malachite. As a result of these excavations it is now possible to reconstruct
an outline of the history of Ethiopia from about 650 to 250 B.C., a period previously entirely unknown.
FIGURE 2. — GOLD VASE FROM NURI.
GREECE
SALONICA.— Work of the Service Archeologique of the French Army. — The French army has been maintaining its traditional interest in scientific work by explorations in Macedonia. MM. Thureau-Dangin and Rey have methodically mapped the various tumuli within the sector occupied by the French and have excavated several. These mounds are of twro types: 1, the round tumulus, which may be either an old village site or a burial mound; and 2,. the table-shaped mound. The origin of the latter type has yet to be deter- mined. The tumuli which represent village sites may be distinguished from the funeral mounds by the presence of numerous potsherds on their sides. Two of the former, the mounds of Gona and Sedes, near Salonica, have been ex- plored and the relative dates of their different strata from neolithic times deter- mined. The funeral mounds apparently all date from Hellenistic times. One which was opened had a tomb-chamber adorned with a Doric facade. In Salonica the church of St. George was carefully examined. It was a Roman building, transformed into a church in the fifth or sixth century, and in the sixteenth century into a mosque. A study was also made of the old Byzantine
80 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXIII, 1919
fortress on the acropolis. It is further proposed to take photographs of wood- carvings, inlaid work, etc., illustrating the local decorative art of the eighteenth century. (G. MENDEL, C. R. Acad. Insc. 1918, pp. 9-17.)
ITALY
AMITERNUM.— Reliefs of the Time of Claudius.— In Not. Scav. XIV, 1917, pp. 332-341 F. FORNARI publishes reliefs found in the district known as Torricello. Of the slabs two belong together and are slightly curved, as if they formed part of the decoration'of an exedra or some similar structure. A third obviously belonged to the same funeral monument, but did not adjoin either of the other two. The relief represented the procession (pompa) preceding gladiatorial games, and probably recorded an exhibition given by the deceased during his lifetime or his funeral games. Fornari assigns the relief, which is of crude workmanship, to the time of Claudius, and considers it especially inter- esting as a specimen of provincial art of that period. A fourth slab, of much better execution, represents a round shield adorned with a gorgon's head, flanked by two greaves. Five fragmentary inscriptions were found in the same place, one of which mentions a triumvir Augustalis, a title peculiar to Amiter- num and Peltuinum, in place of the usual sevir. This inscription is on a curved stone, and apparently formed a part of the same monument as the reliefs with the pompa.
ANGERA. — Excavations in the Mithraeum. — Angera, near Como, was the site of the Roman Vicus Sebuinus. The Mithraeum was made by building a structure before the entrance of a grotto in the rock upon which the village stands, and the grotto itself required but little modification to serve as the apse of the temple. The cave was elliptical in form, 7.50 by 4.70 m. and 4.80 m. high. A bench ran around the sides and in the rear wall was a place for the usual relief. In and near the Mithraeum were found fragments of Roman vases and coins dating from 73 A.D. to the middle of the fourth century. The grotto had been occupied also in prehistoric times and yielded a number of stone implements. (G. PATRONI, Not. Scav. XV, 1918, pp. 3-11.)
CASALE DI MALAFEDE. — A Subterranean Aqueduct.— On the left side of the Via Ostiensis, about 200 m. east of the Casale di Malafede and between twelve and thirteen kilometers from Rome, there were found the remains of an aqueduct with a subterranean specus. It ran approximately parallel to the Via Ostiensis at an average distance of 80 m., and probably conducted water to some villa, perhaps that of L. Fabius Gilo. (E. GATTI, Not. Scav. XIV, 1917, pp. 275-277; 2 figs.)
CATANIA.— Discoveries in 1916 and 1917.— In Not. Scav. XV, 1918, pp. 53-71 P. ORSI gives a summary of discoveries made during 1916 and 1917. These included the unearthing of a hypogeum with mural decorations of a simple pattern, containing a number of interesting graffiti and Greek Christian inscriptions. Other discoveries were a Hellenistic building of unknown pur- pose, perhaps a heroon, and traces of the ancient necropolis of Catania with a few vases. The excavations in the Odeum were completed.
COMO.— Latin Inscriptions.— In Not. Scav. XIV, 1917, pp. 265-273 G. PATRONI publishes twenty-three inscriptions found in the town of Como and
ITALY] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1918 81
for the most part within the area of the ancient necropolis of S. Giovanni. The existence of a necropolis of "the end of the good imperial period" is established. Noteworthy are the nomen Cattulia (cf. the cognomen Catullus), some names new to that region, and the mention of a hitherto unknown corrector Italiae.
MONTE BALAIANA. — An Early Sardinian Bronze Statuette. — In Not. Scav. XV, 1918, pp. 72-76 A. TARAMELLI reports the discovery at Monte Balaiana, Sardinia, of a prehistoric Sardinian bronze statuette, 18.5 cm. in height. He adds a brief discussion of this early art and of the meaning of the name Balaiana, which he thinks may be connected with the ancient Balares.
NEPL— An Ancient Tomb.— In Not. Scav. XV, 1918, pp. 16-19 E. STEFANI announces the discovery of a tomb near Nepi, beside the ancient road from Nepi to Falerii. It contained a few vases.
OSTLA. — The House of Diana. — The completion of the excavation of the house of Diana (see Not. Scav. 1914, pp. 248 ff.) leads to a full description of the building. Although on two sides it closely adjoins the building of the Mills (dei Molini, ibid. 1914, p. 250), it conforms to Nero's law mentioned by Tacitus, Ann. 13, 43, by having its own separate walls. It covers an area of 900 sq. m., of which 80 are occupied by a court, serving for the admission of light; the court is not exactly in the middle of the structure. Of the other two sides of the building one, 23.30 m. in length, fronting on the Via di Diana contains a stairway leading to the upper stories, the main entrance, and three shops, one of which opens also on the Via dei Balconi. The side fronting the latter street (39.30 m. in length) contains five shops and a second stairway leading to the upper stories. The principal floor of the house is not the ground floor, as at Pompeii, but the second story, which was surrounded on both sides by a balcony, of which a considerable part survives. The ground floor con- sisted on the outside of a series of shops, which received light from the street by means of doors and windows, and an inner series of rooms lighted from the court and the corridors surrounding it. The shops were closed by wooden doors on a threshold of travertine and fastened by bars. The walls retained traces of painting resembling the second Pompeian style. The ground floor and the first floor were closely connected, the rooms above the shops forming corresponding dwellings, reached by stairways in the corners of the shops, while the outside stairways led to the floors above. The house was at least four stories high and the remains, which are well preserved, rise to a height of seven metres. It seems to have been built in the second century of our era and to have been occupied until the end of the third century, at least. This theory is supported by the coins found in the building. (G. CALZA, Not. Scav. XIV, 1917, pp. 312-326.)
A Magic Amulet.— In Not. Scav. XIV, 1917, pp. 326-328 G. CALZA describes an amulet found during the excavation of houses not earlier than the second or later than the fourth century of our era; the exact location of the find is uncertain. It is circular, with a hole for hanging it. On one side is a male figure in profile to the right, clad in a long robe reaching to the feet. He has a spear leaning against his left arm, and the right hand holds a staff projecting from a caldron, as if he were stirring the contents; above is the legend "Solo- mon." On the other side is the triple-formed Hecate, represented in exactly the same way as on a gem shown in Roscher, s.v. 'Hekate,' p. 1909. In the field of the medal are numerous figures, many of which appear on both sides:
82 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXIII, 1919
a caduceus, a balance, an X (the sign of Osiris), an X with a circle described through the apices, a kind of anchor, a star with small circles at the apices, and a four-branched candlestick, perhaps intended to represent one with seven branches. The amulet, which is in some respects unique, is perhaps Jewish. There were communities of Jews at Castel Porziano and at Porto.
PITIGLIANO.— A Neolithic Tomb.— In Not. Scav. XV, 1918, pp. 12-15 E. GALLI records the discovery of a neolithic tomb at Corano near Pitigliano, containing two vases.
ROME. — Recent Acquisitions of the National Museum. — Among the recent acquisitions of the National Museum in Rome are the following: 1, the Niobid from the Gardens of Sallust; 2, the base and two feet of an Egyptian statue of black basalt probably found near the Ministero delle Poste e Telegrafi; 3, a fragment of an architrave; 4, a marble head of Isis-Demeter less than life size; 5, a piece of a large glass plate decorated with a small figure of Victory and a helmeted head on a larger scale; 6, the contents of the tomb of a young girl including a small boat of glass paste; 7, part of a marble statuette representing a negro walking on his hands; 8, a plaque of terracotta, 0.465 x 0.36 m. with three scenes separated by columns; 9, a hoard of 820 denarii dating from the end of the second and beginning of the third centuries, found in the Via del Tritone, Rome; 10, a hoard of about two thousand debased silver pieces dating from the second half of the third century A.D. found near Ancona. Many other separate coins were acquired, the most interesting and rarest being two 100 litrae gold pieces of Syracuse dating from the end of the fifth century B.C. and bearing the head of Persephone and Heracles struggling with the lion.
One has the letters ETA, i.e. Evenetus. (R. PARIBENI, Boll. Arte, XII, 1918, pp. 49-56; 5 figs.)
The Underground Ba- silica of the Via Prae- nestina. — In Not. Scav. XV, 1918, pp. 30-39 (7 figs.) E. GATTI pub- lishes further details of the underground build- ing found two kilometres from the Stazione di Termini on the railroad to Naples (see A. J.A. XXII, 1918, p. 79). Its floor is 13.34 m. below the level of the rails. It was undoubtedly used for the celebration of
mystic rites and dates from the early years of the empire. Ibid. pp. 39-52 (9 figs.) F. FORNARI describes the reliefs which include several with mytho- logical subjects such as the rape of Helen, the rescue of Hesione, Jason and the Golden Fleece (Fig. 3), Heracles and one of the Hesperides, the pun-
FIGURE 3. — THE GOLDEN FLEECE: VIA PRAE- NESTINA, ROME.
ITALY]
ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1918
83
ishment of the Danaides, etc. He believes that the building belonged to the family of the Statilii.
Pagan and Christian Inscriptions. — In Not. Scav. XIV. 1917 pp. 277-288, G. FORNARI gives an account of discoveries near the principal entrance of the cemetery of Ponziano, including sixty-one inscriptions, for the most part frag- mentary. The cemetery is mentioned in the Salzburg Itinerary, which refers to tombs of saints and an ecclesia magna, where the martyrs Abdon and Sennen were buried; no trace of these monuments was found. Outside the area of the cemetery, to the north, there were found the remains of an ancient building, probably part of a villa. Ibid. XIV, 1917, pp. 288-310 G. LUGLI describes the exploration of a new part of the sepulcretum Salarium, between the Via Po and the Via Gregorio Allegri. Many tombs were uncovered and four columbaria decorated in colors. There were fifty-three inscriptions, one of which mentions a speculator cohortis VIII, belonging to the century of Nepos (cf. C.I.L. VI, 2686). There were also found thirty-four frag- ments of a bas-relief (see AJ.A. XXII, 1918, p. 79), so badly damaged that only the group at the extreme right could be reconstructed.
Inscriptions from the Via Po. — In Not. Scav.
XIV, 1917, pp. 310-312 G. FORNARI publishes twelve inscriptions/ ound behind the palazzo of G. Sleiter in the Via Po. They form an addition to those published ibid. 1916, pp. 95 ff.
Discoveries on the Via Labicana. — In Not. Scav.
XV, 1918, pp. 20-29 G. LUGLI reports the un- earthing of another por- tion of the sepulcretum near the third kilometer of the Via Casilina, the
ancient Labicana. It fronted on the Via Labicana and was for the most part explored in 1912 and 1917. The finds included twenty-two inscriptions and a small bronze statuette, 144 mm. high, (Fig. 4) a copy of the Diadumenus of Polyclitus. (See also Cron. B.A.V, 1918, pp. 36-37).
Minor Discoveries.— In Not. Scav. XIV, 1917, pp. 273-275 E. GATTI, F. GATTI, and G. FORNARI report some discoveries of minor importance.
SICILY.— Greek Inscriptions.— In Not. Scav. XIV, 1917, pp. 341-348 E. GABRICI publishes eleven fragmentary archaic inscriptions, of which eight were found at Selinus and three at Motye.
FIGURE 4. — DIADUMENUS: VIA LABICANA, ROME.
84 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXIII, 1919
ZERFALIU.— A Roman Necropolis.— In Not. Scav. XV, 1918, pp. 76-79 A. TARAMELLI reports the discovery of remains of an ancient nuraghe and of Roman antiquities in the region called Santu Giuanne (S. Giovanni) near the village of Zerfaliu, Sardinia. The latter consisted of a small necropolis, apparently of the period of Hadrian. In one of the tombs was found a bronze disc (8 cm. in diameter) rudely decorated with three birds. It was probably the cover of >a box of wood or bone. Taramelli assumes the existence of a Roman settlement at Zerfaliu.
SPAIN
BOLONIA.— Excavations in 1917.— In C. R. Acad. Insc. 1918, pp. 34-40 P. PARIS reports upon his excavations at Bolonia, a small town a few miles west of Tarifa, in 1917. The principal ruins, which include the theatre, lie in a rectangular space once surrounded by a wall, of which some parts are still well preserved. Near the shore a building used for salting fish was excavated; also a large Roman house which had a square court surrounded by a colonnade and several rooms connected with it. Columns from an earlier building were em- ployed in its construction. On the slope of the hill a fountain was found as well as an undisturbed tomb, the painted decoration of which is identical with that of one of the rooms in the house by the shore. All of these buildings date from about the time of the Christian era. In March 1918 the excavations were resumed and two bronze figures 15 cm. high found. They were much corroded but when cleaned were found to represent a satyr carrying off a woman (ibid. pp. 165-166). Another establishment for salting fish was excavated and like- wise a large house. One of its rooms was decorated with wall paintings of peonies in color on a white background. Many plaques of dark red and yellow stucco were found and on them large numbers of graffiti in Roman letters but in the Iberian language, figures of men, and prows of ships adorned with monsters. An avenue bordered by columns, probably the principal street of the town, passed this house. In the Roman cemetery great quantities of primitive barbarian figures, the significance of which is not yet clear, were brought to light (ibid. pp. 184-185).
FRANCE
KOENIGSHOFEN.— A Sanctuary of Mithra.— In 1912 while the founda- tions of a church were being dug at Koenigshofen near Strasburg remains of a Mithraeum were found. The plan of the building, which was erected about 225 A.D. and restored under Aurelian, can be determined with exactness, but the interior had been sacked by the Christians after the fall of paganism. In the foundations of the Mithra relief were found a human skull and femur, con- nected with some oriental rite of consecration. Among the inscriptions are dedications to Attis and Cissonius, proving a connection between the mysteries of Mithra and those of the Magna Mater. The inscription on the altar is to be read Deo invicto Mytrae secu[lari]. Other Mithraic monuments in Alsace are noted by R. Forrer who published this sanctuary under the title Das Mithraheiligtum von Konigshofen bei Strassburg, in 1915. (F. CUMONT, R. fit. Anc. XX, 1918, pp. 117-118.)
HOLLAND] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1918 85
MONTESQUIEU-AVANTES.— Palaeolithic Drawings.— On a hillside at Montesquieu-Avantes, in the department of Ariege, Count Bergonen has dis- covered another cave with palaeolithic drawings upon its walls. They date from the Aurignacian and Magdalenian epochs and represent bison, reindeer, horses, wild goats, bears, a lion, birds, and human figures. Little arrows may be seen sticking in the lion. The human forms are poorly drawn, while the animals are well depicted. In one drawing certain details are picked out in black and seem to represent a human being masked and covered with an animal's skin, perhaps a ritual dance. The cave of the Tuc d'Audoubert where the group of clay bison was found (see C. R. Acad. Insc. 1912, pp. 532 if.; A.J.A. XVII, 1913, p. 450) is on the same estate. (Nation, November 16, 1918, p. 595.)
NAGES.— Gallic Remains.— In R. Et. Anc. XX, 1918, pp. 185-190 (fig.) F. MAZAURIC points out that soundings made at Nages (Gard) in 1914 revealed a Gallic wall with a paved road near it. Many fragments of local and imported pottery were brought to light as well as some remains of glass, bronze, etc. The mass supposed to be the remains of a tower is really made up of what is left of twin towers. Two periods may be distinguished in the fortifications, the earlier dating back to the first Iron Age.
PARIS.— Recent Acquisitions of the Louvre. — In 1917 the Louvre received as a gift from Professor Maxime Collignon two bronzes. One, which was bought at Mantinea, represents in relief a young man standing in front of a cokftnn. He holds in his left hand a large phiale and in his right an oenochoe. His chlamys blows back in the breeze. There was probably originally a second figure. The whole design was attached to a Greek mirror and may be dated by its style in the third century B.C. The second bronze is a statuette of a tipsy Silenus dancing. It is good Roman work. The eyes were of silver set in. The Louvre has also recently acquired a torso of a Roman emperor in a cuirass adorned with figures in relief. Above is the Gorgon's head, and below two Nereids mounted upon sea horses gallop towards each other. Below these are two dolphins. The ornamentation is the same as on a torso found at Olympia. (A. HERON DE VILLEFOSSE, C. R. Acad. Insc. 1918, pp. 151-155; fig.)
HOLLAND
UBBERGEN.— Remains of a Village of the Batavi.— In R. fit. Anc. XX, 1918, p. 116 F. CUMONT calls attention to the important discoveries of Dr. J. H. Holwerda near Nimegue. In 1917 considerable remains of the village of the Batavi (oppidum Batavorum) burnt by Civilis in 70 A.D. were brought to light on the plateau of Ubbergen. A few hundred metres away were remains of a fort where the Tenth Legion was established for thirty years after the subju- gation of the Batavi. See also J. BREUER, ibid. pp. 190-192.
NORTHERN AFRICA
CARTHAGE.— Recent Discoveries. — In C. R. Acad. Insc. 1918, pp. 140- 150 (3 figs.) Dr. CARTON reports upon his recent archaeological discoveries at Carthage. He finds that the stones along the waterfront at the northwest angle of the sea wall belonged to an enclosing wall about thirty feet high.. At
86 'AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. xxm, 1919
the foot of the Bordj-Djedid a series of eighteen apses supported the great landing-stage to which a staircase of white marble 50 m. broad led down. Here were located the stables, storehouses, etc. mentioned by ancient writers. In a trench a stele of white marble, 41 cm. high, came to light. It represents a nude man standing in front of a wall with his hands above his head. The lower part is broken off. Considerable information as to the line of the ancient waterfront was obtained by soundings made at various points. Between the Fondouk of the Jews and the dar Oulad el Agha there was excavated an ellip- tical structure with two apses facing each other and enclosing a room llm. long by 6 m. wide. Of the openings between the apses one led to a stairway which descended to the water, and the other to a place paved with a fine mosaic of colored marbles laid in a pattern consisting of rectangles and trian- gles. A Christian tomb was found nearby.
UNITED STATES
CLEVELAND. — A Stele of the Twenty-second Dynasty. — In the Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art, V, 1918, pp. 67-69 (fig.) Mrs. CAROLINE R. WIL- LIAMS publishes an Egyptian stele in the Cleveland museum which is inscribed with the name of Shedesnefertem, a high priest of Memphis in the early part of the twenty-second dynasty. It is a little more than 34 inches high and 31 inches .wide with decoration in three bands. The middle register has the young Sun-god seated on a lotus flower attended by a figure of Maat on either side, while back of them at the left stands Sekhmet and at the right Ptah. This part of the slab is in low relief. The zone above represents apes addressing the sun, and that below priests worshiping Bast, Sekhmet, and Mut, both in sunken relief. The composition and workmanship are excellent.
NEW YORK.— Recent Acquisitions of the Metropolitan Museum. — The Metropolitan Museum has recently acquired through the bequest of Mr. Isaac D. Fletcher about 250 objects among which are: 1, a magnificent Apulian vase 3 ft. 3 in. high, upon each side of which are represented mourners carrying offerings to a tomb, while on the neck of the vase is a toilet scene and the figure of a woman crowned by two Erotes; 2, a Lucanian vase 1 ft. 8| in. high upon which appear two women giving a warrior a drink; 3, eight pieces of ancient glass; 4, two bowls covered with metallic glaze, one decorated with ornamental motives and the other with a representation of Heracles carrying off the Ery- manthian boar. Two examples of Egyptian art were also received, the bronze figure of a cat of the Ptolemaic period, and a statuette of a priest of the thirtieth dynasty. (B. Metr. Mus. XIII, 1918, pp. 58-59; 2 figs.)
A New Egyptian Room in the Metropolitan Museum. — In B. Metr. Mus. XIII, 1918, pp. 283-288 (7 figs.) A. M. L(YTHGOE) calls attention to a room recently opened in the Egyptian section of the Metropolitan Museum in which are displayed antiquities illustrating the daily life of the ancient Egyptians. Many of the objects exhibited came from the excavations carried on by the Museum at Lisht, at Thebes, and in the oasis of Khargeh.
Etruscan Earrings. — The Metropolitan Museum has recently acquired two pairs of Etruscan earrings dating from the fourth or third century B.C. They are important examples of Etruscan gold work. The design consists of a highly decorated horseshoe pattern above and an inverted pyramid of balls below.
UNITED STATES] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1918 87
One pair is two inches long. (Miss G. M. A. R(ICHTER), B. Metr. Mus. XIII, 1918, pp. 289-290; 2 figs.)
A Chinese Tomb Entrance of the Wei Period. — In B. Metr. Mus. XIII, 1918, pp. 217-220 (4 figs.) S. C. B. R. calls attention to a stone tomb entrance or gateway from Peking recently set up in the Metropolitan Museum. It consists of a semicircular lintel resting upon stone jambs and kept in place by dowels. The decoration of the lintel consists of a broad band of five panels filled with symbolic animals and scrolls across the lower part, and a large ogre's head with phoenixes on both sides above. The jambs are decorated with five medallions beginning and ending with an ogre's head. A fresco representing ' Buddha in a red and green robe standing on a lotus flower formed part of the decoration of the tomb and this was also acquired. The doorway and fresco date from the Wei period, that is about the sixth century A.D.
Ornaments from a Chinese Tomb. — The Metropolitan Museum has recently acquired thirteen objects said to have been found in a Chinese tomb on the Mongolian border near Yulin in the northern part of the province of Shenzi. There are plaques of bronze and silver, and other objects of bone and jade. The designs represent horses attacked by bears, deer grazing, lions' heads, etc. Some of these are purely Scythian in style, others purely Chinese, and others still show both styles. They apparently date from the Han period (206 B.C. to 220 A.D.). At present it cannot be determined whether the Scythian orna- ments came from Siberia, or originated in China. (S. C. B. R., B. Metr. Mus. XIII, 1918, pp. 135-137; 8 figs.)
PHILADELPHIA.— Two Chinese Reliefs.— In M.J. IX, 1918, pp. 244- 272 (19 figs.) C. W. B(ISHOP) publishes two Chinese sculptures in relief recently placed on exhibition in the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania. They represent war-horses of the emperor T'ang T'ai-tsung, who died in 649 A.D. and was buried near Li-ts'tian Hsien. About the interior of his mortuary
FIGURE 5.— GROOM AND WOUNDED HORSE: PHILADELPHIA.
88 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXIII, 1919
9HHPHHHHHHI
„,. '. .«,;^>. ' _ _ ,-^-j...^ _-:^— „....-
FIGURE 6. — WOUNDED HORSE: PHILADELPHIA.
chamber were figures of his six horses, each carved on a slab of stone six feet high, seven feet wide, and one foot thick. The two finest of these were acquired by the Museum. One (Fig. 5) represents a wounded horse with a groom in the act of drawing an arrow from its breast; the other (Fig. 6) a horse walking forward with three arrows sticking in its back. Both are fine examples of Chinese sculpture of the seventh century. The four remaining slabs are now in the museum at Si-an Fu.
Chinese Sculptures.— In MJ. IX, 1918, pp. 123-147 (7 figs.) C. W. B(ISHOP) calls attention to four pieces of Chinese sculpture recently acquired by the University Museum. There are two colossal heads of the Boddhisattva in stone which are fine examples of Chinese Buddhistic sculpture and probably date from the sixth century A.D.; also a lifesize Maitreya of stone dedicated in the year 586 A.D. and a small bronze Maitreya, 24 inches high, dating from 537. The last two have their dates fixed by inscriptions.
Two Early Chinese Bronzes.— In MJ. IX, 1918, pp. 99-120 (3 figs.) C. W. B(ISHOP) publishes two recent acquisitions of the University Museum, a liba- tion cup 9£ inches high of the twelfth or eleventh century B.C., and a sacri- ficial wine vessel 18 inches high dating from the latter part of the Chou period (1122-225 B.C.). Both are fine examples of early Chinese work in bronze.
EARLY CHRISTIAN, BYZANTINE, MEDIAEVAL, AND RENAISSANCE ART
GREECE
SALONICA.— The Destruction of the Church of St. Demetrius.— In C. R. Acad. Insc. 1917, pp. 377-380 C. DIEHL reports that the fire of August 18 and 19, 1917 which burned about half of the city of Salonica destroyed the famous Byzantine church of St. Demetrius. The apse, the great lateral arches of the
CHRISTIAN ART] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1918 89
transepts and the colonnade on the right of the ground floor still remain, but there is little else. The mosaics were almost entirely destroyed, but the four panels which decorate the pillars at the entrance to the transept escaped. Great efforts have been made by the Greeks to preserve everything which could be preserved. Some interesting discoveries have come to light, e.g., on the right wall of the church certain paintings have been found, and in a little chapel to the right of the apse frescoes dating from the fourteenth century. Under the building a crypt has been discovered, and under one of the transepts a chapel. Fortunately a few years ago the building was carefully studied and photographs and water color reproductions of the mosaics made for a mono- graph on the church by M. Diehl, which is soon to appear. The other Byzan- tine churches in Salonica were not injured by the fire.
ITALY
BOLOGNA.— The Manufacture of Maiolica.— In Faenza, VI, 1918, pp. 25-26, F. M. VALERI announces the discovery of records that contain, besides other important data, proof of the existence in Bologna of maiolica ateliers at an earlier time than has heretofore been shown by documents. In 1421 the Risi family moved from Modena to Bologna and established maiolica works there.
FLORENCE.— An Unknown Work by Giotto.— In Rass. d'Arte, XVIII, 1918, pp. 39-41 (fig.) F. M. PERKINS publishes a fragment of a polyptych in the collection of H. P. Home as a work of Giotto. The piece contains the half length figure of St. Stephen in a panel the upper corners of which have a plastic decoration of floral design (Fig. 7). The painting is almost perfectly preserved and bears the distinguishing characteristics of Giotto, — decision of drawing, simplicity of modelling, firmness of construction, and the general effect of plastic force that suggests inevitably his name. Details of the figure, also, show unmistakable relationship to his authentic works. If this authorship is denied, there is no other to advance. None of the master's followers came so close to their model.
Commemoration of Fra Bartolommeo. — In Cron. B. A.V, 1918, pp. 13-14, P. N. FERRI calls attention to the exhibit of drawings and cartoons by Fra Bartolommeo held in the Uffizi in celebration of the fourth centennial of the artist's death. Aside from their merit in themselves, many of the examples exhibited are of importance for the study of paintings executed after their designs. To make this point of real value to .visitors photographs of some of the paintings were placed at their disposal.
MESSINA.— Early Work of Antonello Gagini. — In spite of the destruction of most of Gagini's sculptures in Messina, E. MAUCERI finds some important examples illustrative of the artist's activity there (1498-1508). These are published in L'Arte, XXI, 1918, pp. 89-92 (5 figs.). The earliest known pro- duction of Gagini's is the Madonna in the church of Bordonaro in Messina, a figure animated by youthful innocence and sad tenderness, created in the style of the fifteenth century. The development which Gagini underwent in a few years is made clear by a comparison of this early Madonna with the Madonna in the Duomo of Palermo signed and dated 1503. Here the form is decidedly cinquecentesque. Other examples to the point are the Madonna of S. Maria
90 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXIII, 1919
di Gesu in Catania and the tomb of Giovanni Cardenas in the museum of Syracuse.
MILAN. — The Borromeo Museum. — In Emporium, XLVIII, 1918, pp. 3-14 (2 pis. ; 9 figs.) L. BELTRAMI writes on the original museum of Cardinal Borromeo. Such a donation to the public as Borromeo's in 1618 was for the seventeenth century very unusual. The character and importance of the collection may be judged from Borromeo's catalogue, as well as from the works
FIGURE 7. — SAINT STEPHEN BY GIOTTO.
that still remain in the museum. This catalogue shows that the purpose in the collector's mind was didactic; for this reason, aside from originals, copies abounded in his selection, and there was also a series of portraits of notable characters. Among the originals included in the bequest of 1618 were Titian's Adoration of the Magi, Veronese's Holy Family with Tobias, Luini's Holy
CHRISTIAN ART] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1918 91
Family, and Leonardo's Portrait of a Duchess of Milan. Borromeo's own attributions are, for the most part, still considered valid.
NAPLES.— Gian Paolo de Agostini. — Light is thrown upon the work of Gian Paolo de Agostini at Naples by a letter dated 1524 to which L. VENTURI calls attention in L'Arte, XXI, 1918, pp. 49-52 (3 figs.). In this letter there is mentioned with slight description a portrait of Sannazaro by De Agostini, who is there called a native of Venice and a pupil of Giovanni Bellini. Apparently the portrait referred to is the one formerly in the Lancellotti collection, en- graved by Morghen. A replica of this belongs to Count Contini, Rome.
RAVENNA. — The Bacini of S. Apollinaje Nuovo.— The restorations made necessary by the explosion of a bomb in the basilica of S. Apollinare Nuovo in 1915 have made possible a minute study of the ceramic decorations of the campanile. In Burl. Mag. XXXII, 1918, pp. 128-135 (2 pis.) G. BALLARDINI discusses the bacino and scodella which remained in situ after the explosion and have since been removed to the Museo Nazionale, Ravenna. Examina- tion of the exterior of the wall of the campanile reveals a Romanesque restora- tion of that part in which the ceramic pieces were imbedded. To the Roman- esque period, then, these pieces are to be assigned. And the style of the bacino is clearly Hispano-Moresque. Considering the popularity of Musselman ceramics in upper Italy, it is not remarkable that dishes of such origin should have been brought to Ravenna in the thirteenth century for decoration of the basilica. Two gold-lustred plaques or bacini of indefinite provenance in the Kunstgewerbe-Museum in Berlin bear such striking resemblance to the one here discussed as to suggest that they may be two of the three that once dec- orated the campanile.
RIMINI.— A New Portrait of Dante.— In Emporium, XLVIII, 1918, pp. 45-46 (2 figs.) is published the painting of a laurel-crowned head, apparently that of Dante, which has recently come to light in the church of S. Agostino at Rimini. The poet is one of a group in the fore part of a procession in a scene from the life of a saint.
ROME. — A Triptych by Domenico da Tolmezzo. — In L'Arte, XXI, 1918, pp. 53-56 (2 figs.) A. SERAFINI publishes an altar triptych, found in southern Etruria, which is signed, "OPUS