ENCYCLOPAEDIA JJRITANNICA KIJEVENTH ' 1 •a taHaa •H •. •y- '•&wm THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty . 1801 — 1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853 — 1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF * ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXII POLL to REEVES Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1 AE. •E 3 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. of j: A. Bo.* AUGUSTE BOUDINHON, D.D., D.C.L. Professor of Canon Law at the Catholic University of Paris. Honorary Canon of -J Pope. Paris. Editor of the Canoniste Contemporain. A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHF.R, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, iSj^-iSgs. Gold Medallist, J D«V t;<* Royal Society, 1878. "Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia,\ Salientia and Fishes in the British Museum ; &c. A. C. McG. REV. ARTHUR CUSHMAN MCGIFFERT, M.A., PH.D., D.D. Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of ] D--_V..« / • History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c. Editor of the Historia Ecclesia') " fan)- of Eusebius. A. D. AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D, D.C.L. f ^ Matthe, See the biographical article: DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN. \ n A. de W. F. ARTHUR DE WINT FOOTE. _f Power Transmission: Superintendent of North Star Mining Company, California. ^ Pneumatic. A. E. G.* REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D. Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and J _ , the Board of Philosophy, London University. Author of Studies in the Inner Life \ Predestination. of Jesus ; &c. I A. E. H. A. E. HOUGHTON. Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the \ Quesada y Matheus. Bourbons in Spain. \, A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. 4 Priapuloidea. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgale; •{ Prison. Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. I A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, PH.D. f _ . t . . A See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. /- _ . . Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of -j Primitive Methodist Church; Mysore Educational Service. [_ Priscillian. A. L. ANDREW LANG. J Poltergeist; Prometheus; See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. "^ Psychical Research. A. McA. ALEXANDER McAuLAY, M.A. (" Professor of Mathematics and Physics, University of Tasmania. Author of Utility J. Quaternions (in part), of Quaternions in Physics; &c. A. M. CL AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-author of Source s s Publican!. of Roman History, 133-70 B.C. f Pratincole; Quail; Quezal: A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. ^aU ((n0part\,n See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. Raven; Razorbill; Redshank; Redstart; 1 Redwing. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. V 1991 vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A. SI. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D. f Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water- "j Prostitution. Supply ; Industrial Efficiency ; Drink, Temperance and Legislation. A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. f Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J i>,,fi.0. Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. 1 ^nagoras n part). Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; &c. I A. S. Wo. ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. f Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of i Pterodactyles. the Geological Society of London. L A. T. H. C. T. J. ARTHUR TWINING HADLEY, LL.D. f „ .. See the biographical article: HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING. \ «»«ways: Economics. A. Wi.* ANEURIN WILLIAMS, M.A. Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple. Chairman of Executive, International I _ „, . . Co-operative Alliance. M. P. for Plymouth, 1910. Author of Twenty-eight Years | t-snarmg. of Co-partnership at Guise; &c. A. W. Po. ALFRED WILLIAM POLLARD, M.A. Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Secretary, Bibliographical Society. Editor of Books about Books -j Polyglott. and Bibliographica. Joint-editor of the Library. Chief Editor of the " Globe " Chaucer. A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the-{ Proclamation. Laws of England. I B. B. A. BRAMAN BLANCHARD ADAMS. _f » •• Associate Editor of the Railway Age Gazette, New York. \ Railways: Accident Statistics. C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, D.LiTT. /n,,i,,i,0, See the biographical article : BEMONT, C. \ Quicnerat. C. E. W. C. E. WEBBER, C.B., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.E.E. (1838-1905). f Major-General, Royal Engineers. Served in Indian Mutiny, 1857-1860; Egyptian I Railways: Light Railways (in Expedition, 1882; &c. Founder (with late Sir Francis Bolton) and Past President j tart) of the Institute of Electrical Engineers. L * C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. [" Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, ist City of London (Royal •{ Ravenna: Battle of 1512. Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. [ C. G. Cr. CHARLES GEORGE CRUMP, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office, London. Editor of J Record. Lander's Works; &c. C, Hi. CHARLES HIAIT. Author of Picture Posters; &c. Poster. C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member -! Purgatory, of the American Historical Association. C. H. T.* CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M., LL.D. J _ . _ . . See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL. \ Proverbs, Book of. C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. Polo, Marco (In part); Ptolemy (in part); Pytheas (in part). CHARLES T. JACOBI. f p..inHn(r Managing Partner of the Chiswick Press, London. Author of Printing; &c. \ r D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. J Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional H Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. D. C. B. DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER. Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Gordon ; J Raffles, Sir Thomas. India in the if>th Century ; History of Belgium ; &c. D. D. A. REV. DANIEL DULANY ADDISON, D.D. C Rector of All Saints' Church, Brookline, Mass. Examining Chaplain to Bishop of J n,nt0ctanf Fnicrnml rhurph Massachusetts. Secretary, Cathedral Chapter of Diocese of Massachusetts. Author 1 of The Episcopalians ; &c. I D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The •< Programme MUSIC. Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. t D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, j Priene; Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and ~ 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Vll D. H. D. H. S. D. W. T. E. A. J. E. A. M. E. Ba. E. Br. E. B. E. E. C. B. E. G. E. Ga. E. Gr. E. G. C. E. H. B. » E. J. J. E. O'N. E. Pr. E. Ru. E. R. B. F. C. C. DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. Quiberon, Battle of; Raleigh, Sir Walter. DUKINFIELD HENRY SCOTT, M.A., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. I 'resident of the Linnean Society. Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, -j Pringsheim, Nathanael. London, 1885-1892. Author of Structural Botany; Studies in Fossil Botany; &c. I D'ARCY WENTWORTH THOMPSON, C.B., M.A. Professor of Natural History, University College, Dundee. British Delegate, J Ray John. Bering Sea Fisheries and other Conferences. Author of A Glossary of Creek Birds ; \ &c. I le of Man; Old Silver] Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England ; Illustrated Catalogue^ Quaich. E. ALFRED JONES. Author of Old English Gold Plate ; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man ; Old Silver of Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate ; A Private Catalogue of the Royal Plate at Windsor Castle ; &c. EDWARD ALFRED MINCHIN, M.A., F.Z.S. Professor of Protozoology in the University of London. Formerly Fellow Merton College, Oxford, and Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy University College, London. EDWIN BALE, R.I. Art Director, Cassell & Company, Ltd. Member of the Royal Institute of Painters 4 Process, in Water Colours. Hon. Sec., Artists' Copyright Committee. , f Polyp; 01 4 Protoplasm; [ Protozoa. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer in Fellow and Tutor of Merton (Raymund of Antioch; Raymund of Toulouse; Raymund of Tripoli; »» t J _• r>l_ " *: II Raynald of Chatillon. EDWARD B. ELLINGTON. f Founder and Chief Engineer of the General Hydraulic Power Co., Ltd. Author of J Power Transmission: Contributions to Proceedings of Institutions of Civil Engineers and of Mechanical 1 Hydraulic. Engineers. I RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., Lrrr.D. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius " in Cambridge Texts and Studies. Premonstratensians ; Ranee, Armand de. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND. EMILE GARCKE, M.lNST.E.E. Managing Director of British Electric Traction Co., Electrical Undertakings; &c. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. J Prologue; Prose. Ltd. Author of Manual of . Li&hi *«''«"»yf (in part). Propylaea. ERNEST GEORGE COKER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.(Edin.), M.Sc., M.I.MECH.E. f Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the City and Guilds of London Technical J , College. Author of various papers in Transactions of the Royal Societies of London, I Edinburgh and Canada ; &c. I SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). f Pompeii (in part); M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; •< Ptolemy (in part) ; &c. [ Pytheas (in part). EDMUND JANES JAMES, A.M., PH.D., LL.D. f President of the University of Illinois; President of American Economic Associa- I Protection tion. Author of History of American Tariff Legislation, and Essays and Mono- | graphs on Economic, Financial, Political and Educational subjects. L ELIZABETH O'NEILL, M.A. (Mrs H. O. O'Neill). Formerly University Fellow and Jones Fellow of the University of Manchester. Prebendary; Prelate; Prior; Procurator. EDGAR PRESTAGE. I" Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. J Commendador, Portuguese Order of S Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon 1 Portugal: Literature. Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea ; &c. ERNEST RUTHERFORD, F.R.S. , D.Sc., LL.D., PH.D. f Langworthy Professor of Physics, University of Manchester. Nobel Prize for -I Radio-activity . Chemistry, 1908. Author of Radio-activity; Radio-active Transformations; &c. EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus ; Jerusalem under the High \ Ptolemies. Priests. [ FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. r Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. J purification. Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and"] Morals; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. C. S. S. FERDINAND CANNING SCOTT SCHILLER, M.A., D.Sc. f Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Author of Riddles of the \ Pragmatism. Sphinx ; Studies in Humanism ; &c. F. Dr. FRANCIS M. D. DRUMMOND. \ Precedence (in part). F. D. A. FRANK DAWSON ADAMS, PH.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., F.R.S. f Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science and Logan Professor of Geology, McGill - , . .. University, Montreal; President of Canadian Mining Institute. Author of Papers-! MUBDec (in part); dealing with problems of Metamorphism, &c., also Researches on Experimental Queen Charlotte Islands. Geology; &c. F. E. W. REV. FREDERICK EDWARD WARREN, M.A., F.S.A. Rector of Bardwell, Bury St Edmunds, and Honorary Canon of Ely. Fellow of St John's College, Oxford, 1865-1882. Author of The Old Catholic Ritual done into \ Prayer, Book Of Common. English and compared with the Corresponding Offices in the Roman and Old German Manuals ; The Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church ; &c. F. G. P.* FRANK GEORGE POPE. f p . Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). \ in< F. H. D.* FRANK HAIGH DIXON, PH.D., A.M. Professor of Economics, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N.H. Member of the 4 Kailways: American Railway National Waterways Commission. Author of State Railroad Control. { Legislation. F. J. H. M. HON. FREDERICK JAMES HAMILTON MERRILL, PH.D., F.G.S. (America), M. f AMERICAN INST.M.E., &c. Consulting Geologist and Mining Engineer. State Geologist of New York, "j Quarrying. 1899—1904. Author of Reports of New Jersey and New York Geological Surveys; &c. F. K.* FERNAND KHNOPFF. J See the biographical article: KHNOPFF, F. E. J. M. \ rortaels, J. F. F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Psammetichus' Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial •{ TJQ_ German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis; I Kameses (in fan>- &c. [ F. M. L.* FRANCIS MANLEY LOWE. Major R.A. (retired). Member of the Staff of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., Ltd., Elswick Works. Assistant-Superintendent of Experiments, Shoebury- -i Range-finder, ness, 1898-1903. Author of articles in the Proceedings of the Royal Artillery I Institution; &c. F. P. FRANK PODMORE, M.A. (d. 1910). Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Studies in Psychical Research ; Modern -j prernonition F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. f Portuguese East Africa; Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Rabah Zobeir. F. Wa. FRANCIS WATT, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of Law's Lumber Room. Pound (in part,) F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. r p .. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. J *~"rl' President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. [ Pyrope, F. Y. E. FRANCIS YSIDRO EDGEWORTH, M.A., D.C.L. Professor of Political Economy in the University of Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, and of King's College, London. Editor of the Economic Journal. * Author of Mathematical Psychics, and numerous papers on the Calculus of Proba- I bilities in the Philosophical Magazine; &c. G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.Lrrr. f Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of India, 1898- 1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice- President of the Royal J Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Languages 1 Rajasthani. of India ; &c. G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, Lrrr.D. r Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard J „ . p. Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of New Edition 1 "rieur, Pierre, of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. G. E.* ROBERT GEOFFREY ELLIS. f Peterhouse, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Joint-editor of English J. Privy Council. Reports. Author of Peerage Law and History. G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of The J Ramsay Allan. Days of James I V. ; The Transition Period ; Specimens of Middle Scots ; &c. G. J. A. GEORGE JOHNSTON ALLMAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., D.Sc. (1824-1005). f Ptolemy (in part)- Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Galway, and in Queen's University of -j _ . . /-.,..._L/_.. Ireland, 1853-1893. Author of Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid ; &c. \ Pythagoras. Geometry. G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. f Provision; Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden •{ T, Society. I RaPe' INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix G. Re. SIR GEORGE REID, LL. I). f_ See the biographical article: REID, SIR GEORGE. \ Portraiture. G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. f Quinet; Rabelais; See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. | Racine. G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old -I Rawendis. Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. I H. A. Y. HORATIO ARTHUR YORKE, C.B. f jjaiiu/avc- R,,-/,'C;, /?,;/„,, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. (retired). Chief Inspecting Officer of Railways, Board oH Railways, fin/, j/, Railway Trade. Served in Afghan War, 1879-1880; Nile Expedition, 1884-1885. I Legislation. H. D. W. SIR HENRY DRUMMOND WOLFF, G.C.B., G.C.M.G. (1830-1908). f Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary at Madrid, 1892-1900. M.P. for I .>_!_,„.. i. ._.... Christchurch, 187.1-1880; for Portsmouth, 1880-1885. Author of A Life o/| Napoleon at Elba ; &c. H. Fr. HENRI FRANTZ 5 Puvis de chavannes. Art Critic, Gazette des beaux arts. Pans. (. H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW. F.R.S., PH.D. f Python; Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author^ Ratitae; of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. I Rattlesnake (in part) H. F. P. HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D., D.C.I.. /D«I,,I,I,, See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F. \ PolyblUS (in part). H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO ROSS. f Railways' Inlrntiurtim Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of The Times Engineering i Supplement. Author of British Railways. ( siruction, Rolling Slock. H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.(Edin.), F.R.G.S. Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, } p j g^ Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford University. ] Author of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c. H. 0. HERMANN OELSNER, M.A., PH.D. ( Taylorian Professor of the Romance Languages in the University of Oxford. Mem- I ProvenQal Literature: ber of Council of the Philological Society. Author of A History of Provencal Litera- j Modern. lure; &c. I H. R. L. THE REV. HENRY RICHARDS LUARD, M.A., D.D. (1825-1891). Registrary of the University of Cambridge, 1862-1891. Formerly Fellow, Bursar and Lecturer at Trinity College. Honorary Fellow of King's College, London. -| Person (in part). Editor of the Annales Monastici; the Historia of Matthew Paris and other works for the " Rolls " Series, [ H. Ti. HENRY TIEDEMANN. London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. Author of a Dutch biography, J. Potgieter. and various pamphlets and travel works, including Via Flushing. H. T. A. REV. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS. Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author of " The I Commentary on Acts" in the Westminster New Testament;. Handbook on the]. Presbyter. Apocryphal Books in the " Century " Bible. I H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J Ralph of Coggeshall. 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. f Polo, Marco (in part); "i See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. "i prester John; Ramusio. Proselyte; Qaraites; Qaro; EL BRAHAMS, .. R h R Reader. in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short \ Rabbah „ . I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. R h R in«;pnh Rpn Hama . Bar Nahmani; History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. Rapoport. Samuel; I Rashbam; Rashi. J. A. B. SIR JERVOISE ATHELSTANE BAINES, C.S.I. President, Royal Statistical Society, 1909-1910. Census Commissioner under the Government of India, 1889-1893. Secretary to Royal Commission on Opium, J Population. 1894-1895. Author of Official Reports on Provincial Administration of Indian 1 Census Operations; &c. J. A. BI. JOHN A. BLACK. Press reader of the New Volumes of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (loth ed.). | * J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology. London. Author of J Pre-Cambrian. The Geology of Building Stones. J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. f pontanus Jovianus. See the biographical article: SYMONDS, JOHN A. I J. E. S.* JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., Lirr.D., LL.D. ( Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's College, J pn_nn /,•„ /,.,,.»') Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of A History of Classical 1 Scholarship; &c. L x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lirr.D., F.R.Hisi.S. [ Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. -{ Quevedo V Villegas Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of I Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. 3. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. f Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln "] Pontus. College. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. J. G. F. SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D. f „ , See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING. [ Praefect (in part); J. G. FT. JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Lrrr.p. Praeneste (in part); Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College, •{ Praetor (in part) ; Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough ; &c. Proserpine (in part); [ Province (in part). 3. G. K. JOHN GRAHAM KERR, M.A., F.R.S. Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Demon- strator in Animal Morphology in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Christ's •< Ray (in part) College, Cambridge, 1898-1904. Walsingham Medallist, 1898. Neill Prizeman, ' Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1904. J. G. Sc. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. f Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma ; -i Rangoon. The Upper Burma Gazetteer. 3. Hn. JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of -| Puttkammer. Das Rheinland unter der Franzosische Herrschaft. 3. H. M. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., Lrrr.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South J Raphael. Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. 3. Ja. JOSEPH JACOBS, LITT.D. Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corresponding J Purim. Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c. 3. L.* SIR JOSEPH LARMOR, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in _ ,. ,. _. . the University. Secretary of the Roval Societv. Professor of Natural Philosoohv. J Kaaiauon' Ineory Ot; the University. Secretary of the Royal Society. Professor of Natural Philosophy, Queen's College, Galway, 1880-1885. memoirs on Mathematics and Physics. Queen's College, Galway", 1880^1885. Author of Ether and Matter, and various Radiometer. J. M. SIR JOHN MACDONELL, C.B., LL.D. Master of the Supreme Court. Counsel to the Board of Trade and London Chamber of Commerce. Formerly Quain Professor of Comparative Law, University College, *j Protectorate. London. Editor of State Trials; Civil Judicial Statistics; &c. Author of Survey of Political Economy ; The Land Question ; &c. J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. r D . „. . Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London J romponazzi, t College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. [ Price, Richard. J. P. E. JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. r Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J Prefect; Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droil i Provost (in France). franfais ; &c. J. P. P. JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. r Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. 1 Propertius, SextUS. Editor-in-chief of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum ; &c. J. R.* JOHN RANDALL. r Formerly Secretary of the London Association of Correctors of the Press. Sub- J ppnnf roorfino- (i* ^,,,f\ editor of the Athenaeum and Notes and Queries. \ Pr00lH J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. f Pornhvrv Pnmir Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- f"UI burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby H ryroxemte; Medallist of the Geological Society of London. [ Quartzite; Quartz-Porphyry. J. S. R. JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. r Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, J o . .... Cambridge. Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's 1 yul nan' Academia, De Amicitia; &c. J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. f Poltava (in part); Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical J Pskov (in part) • Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. I i»aJom (•• j. A INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XI J. T. Cr. J. W. J. W.* J. W. G. K. G. J. K. S. L. BI. L. J. S. L. Wr. L. W. V.-H. M. Br. M. Ha. M. M. Bh. M. N. T, M. 0. B. C. N. M. N. W. T. 0. C. W. 0. H. P. A. K. Fellow of Lincoln JAMES TROUBRIDGE CRITCHELL. London Correspondent of the Australasian Pastoralists' Review, North Queensland J QIIO,,nclanH. HV <•<,*., Herald; &c. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Author of Polynesian \ Labour in Queensland ; Guide to Queensland ; &c. JAMES WILLIAMS, D.C.L., LL.D. All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford. College. Author of Wills and Succession; &c. TAMES WARD, LL.D. See the biographical article: WARD, JAMES. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. f Professor of Geology at the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and J _ _„.„_.•. /-. , . Author of The Dead Heart'} Queensland: Geology \ Possession (law); 1 Prescription (in part) I Psychology. Mineralogy at the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904 of A ustralia ; &c. I KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNF,. Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. Editor of the Portfolio cf Musical Archaeology. Orchestra. f Portugal: Geography and Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. -j History Pommer; Portative Organ; Positive Organ; Psaltery; Rackett; Ravanastron; Rebab; Rebec; Recorder (music); Reed Instruments. Author of The Instruments of the . COUNT LUTZOW, Lrrr.D. (Oxon.), D.Pn. (Prague), F.R.G.S. f Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member j of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. -j Prague. Author of Bohemia: a Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester Lecture, Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John IIus; &c. Louis BELL, PH.D. f Consulting Engineer, Boston, U.S.A. Chief Engineer, Electric Power Trans- J Power Transmission: mission Department, General Electric Co., Boston. Formerly Editor of Electrical ] Electrical. World, New York. Author of Electric Power Transmission ; &c. (. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Proustite; Pyrargyrite; Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of j pvrnliicitp- Pvrnmnrnhita- Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineral- } L-vro ogical Magazine. ( Pyrrhotite; Quartz; Realgar. LEWIS WRIGHT. Author of The Practical Poultry Keeper; The New Book of Poultry; &c. L. W. VERNON-HARCOURT (d. 1909). Barrister-at-Law. Author of His Grace the Steward and the Trial of Peers. MARGARET BRYANT. Poultry and Poultry-farming. J Reclamation of Land. •j Pope, Alexander (in part}. Formerly Fellow of 'the Royal in Cambridge Natural History; MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. University of Ireland. Author of " Protozoa " and papers for various scientific journals. SIR MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGGREE, K.C.I.E. Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green, 1895-1906. of History of the Constitution of the East India Company ; &c. Proteomyxa; Radiolaria. | Readymoney, Author Sir cowasji Jehangir. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham University, 1905-1908. NORMAN M'LEAN, M.A. f Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's -j Rabbula. College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. ( Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the_ Soci6t<5 d'Anthropolpgip de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and Marriage in Australia; &c. REV. OWEN CHARLES WHITEHOUSE, M.A., D.D. Senior Theological Tutor and Lecturer in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge. _ Formerly Principal and Professor of Biblical Exegesis and Theology in the Countess " of Huntingdon's College, Cheshunt. Author of Primer of Hebrew Antiquities; &c. OLAUS MAGNUS FRIEDRICH HENRICI, PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical College of the „ City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Vectors and Rotors; Congruent Figures; &c. Pylos. J Poly crates; 1 Punic Wars. Possession (Psychology). Priest (in part); Prophet (in part). PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVTTCH KROPOTKIN. See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. Projection. [ Poltava (in part); < Pskov (in part); [ Radom (in part). INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. f Prvnnp William a* Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England. { tym, John P.O. PERCY GARDNER, LITT.D., LL.D., F.S.A. / Polyelitus; Polygnotus; See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. 1 Praxiteles P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University I Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological 1 Q» "• Society. t P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist A Potter, Paul. Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. P. G. T. PETER GUTHRIE TAIT, LL.D. f Quaternions (in *nrf\ See the biographical article : TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE. \ ( P P. M. PAUL MEYER. / Provencal Language; See the biographical article: MEYER, PAUL HYACINTHE. I ProvenQal Literature (in part). P. McC. PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, F.G.S. Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of Diary of a Working Farmer; -' Reaping. &c. I R. H. K. REV. ROBERT HATCH KENNETT, M.A., D.D. Regius Professor of Hebrew, Cambridge, and Canon of Ely. Formerly Fellow and I Pcalmc Rnnlr nf (;M j, *i\ Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, Queens' College, and University Lecturer in 1 Aramaic. Author of A Short Account of the Hebrew Tenses; In our Tongues; &c. L R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. I Pycnogonida. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. R. J. M. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A. f Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formeriy Editor of the St James's ] Racquets. Gazette, London. L {Porcupine (in part); Porpoise* Primates- Prnhncoirtoa • Prnnir'hiiplr- rroDosciaea, rrongoucK, Rabbit (in part); Rat; Ratel. R. Mo. RAY MORRIS, M.A. ( Raiiwavs. r,pnprni ,„ Balancing of Engines; Valves and Valve-Gear Mechanism; &c. [ Kail ways. Locomotive fo ' xr. W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f ft _ Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, \ Quarter Sessions, Court of, London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (2yA edition). [ Recognizance. W. G. WILLIAM GARNETT, M.A., D.C.L. Educational Adviser to the London County Council. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Principal and Professor of Mathematics, J polytechnic (in part) Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Author of Elementary Dynamics; ' &c. W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f Porcupine (in part); See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. \ Rabbit (in part). W. H. L. WILLIAM H. LANG, M.B., D.Sc. Barker Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, University of Manchester. xiv INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES W. L. G. W. M. W. M. F. P. W. 0. B. W. R. M. W. R. S. W. W. F.* W. Y. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Prince Edward Island; Formerly Beit Lecturer in J n,.-!,-.,. p... Colonial History at Oxford University." Editor of Acts of the Privy Council (Colonial 1 J*1" .' *_,r°mnce (in part) ; Series) ; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration). I yuenec: Lily. WILLIAM MINTO, M.A., LL.D. See the biographical article: MINTO, WILLIAM. WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS PETRIE, F.R.S., D.C.L., LiTT.D. See the biographical article: PETRIE. W. M. F. VEN. WINFRID OLDFIELD BURROWS, M.A. Archdeacon of Birmingham. Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford, 1884- 1891. Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 1891-1900. Author of The Mystery of the Cross. Pope, Alexander (in part). Pyramid. Prayers for the Dead. WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). f Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University I Pushkin of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia; } Slavonic Literature; &c. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. I r Priest (in part) ; I Prophet (in part); 1 Psalms, Book of (in [ Rameses (in part). WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,] Pontitex Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; \ The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c. REV. WILLIAM YOUNG. r Minister, Higher Broughton Presbyterian Church, Manchester, 1877-1901, and -I Presbyterianism. Association Secretary for the Religious Tract Society in the North of England. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Pollination. Polygon. Polyhedron. Polynesia. Pomegranate. Pomerania. Pontoon. Poor Law. Poplar. Porto Rico. Portuguese Guinea. Potassium. Potato. Potentiometer. Prerogative. Press Laws. Primrose. Primulaceae. Princeton University. Principal and Agent. Probate. Procession. Proctor. Prohibition. Protestant. Prussia. Prussie Acid. Public Health. Publishing. Puffin. Pugilism. Pump. Punjab. Pyrazoles. Pyrenees. Pyridine. Pyrones. Quarantine. Quinine. Quinoline. Quinones. Radium. Rainbow. Ranunculaceae. Rare Earths. Raspberry. Rationalism. Ravenna, Exarchate of. Real Property. Red River. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXII POLL, strictly the head, in men or animals. Skeat connects the word with O. Swed. kolle (initial p and k being interchange- able), and considers a Celtic origin probable; cf. Irish coll, Welsh col, peak, summit. " Poll " is chiefly used in various senses derived from that of a unit in an enumeration of persons or things, e.g. poll-tax (q.v.), or " challenge to the polls " in the case of a jury (q.v.). The most familiar derivative uses are those connected with voting at parliamentary or other elections; thus " to poll " is to vote or to secure a number of votes, and " the poll," the voting, the number of votes cast, or the time during which voting takes place. The verb " to poll " also means to clip or shear the top of anything, hence " polled " of hornless cattle, or " deed-poll " (i.e. a deed with smooth or unindented edges, as distinguished from an " indenture "). A tree which has been " polled," or cut back dose in order to induce it to make short bushy growth, is called a " pollard." At the university of Cambridge, a " pass " degree is known as a " poll-degree." This is generally explained as from the Greek oi TToXXoi, the many, the common people. POLLACK (Gadus pollachius), a fish of the family Gadidae, abundant on rocky coasts of northern Europe, and extending as far south as the western parts of the Mediterranean, where, however, it is much scarcer and does not attain to the same size as in its real northern home. • In Scotland and some parts of Ireland it is called lythe. It is distinguished from other species of the genus Gadus by its long pointed snout, which is twice as long as the eye, with projecting lower jaw, and without a barbel at the chin. The vent is below the anterior half of the first dorsal fin. A black spot above the base of the pectoral fin is another distinguishing mark. Although pollack are well- flavoured fish, and smaller individuals (from 12 to 16 in.) excellent eating, they do not form any considerable article of trade, and are not preserved, the majority being consumed by the captors. Specimens of 12 Ib are common, but the species is said to attain occasionally as much as 24 Ib in weight. (See also COALFISH.) POLLAIUOLO, the popular name of the brothers Antonio and Piero di Jacobo Benci, Florentines who contributed much to Italian art in the isth century. They were called Pollaiuolo because their father was a poulterer. The nickname was also extended to Simone, the nephew of Antonio. ANTOXIO (1429-1498) distinguished himself as a sculptor, jeweller, painter and engraver, and did valuable service in perfecting the art of enamelling. His painting exhibits an excess of brutality, of which the characteristics can be studied in the " Saint Sebastian," painted in 1475, and now in the National Gallery, London. A " St Christopher and the Infant Christ " is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. But it was as a sculptor and metal-worker that he achieved his greatest suc- cesses. The exact ascription of his works is doubtful, as his brother Piero did much in collaboration with him. The museum of Florence contains the bronze group " Hercules strangling Cacus " and the terra-cotta bust " The Young Warrior "; and in the South Kensington Museum, London, is a bas-relief representing a contest between naked men. In 1489 Antonio took up his residence in Rome, where he executed the tomb of Sixtus IV. (1493), a composition in which he again manifested the quality of exaggeration in the anatomical features of the figures. In 1496 he went to Florence in order to put the finishing touches to the work already begun in the sacristy of Santo Spirito. He died in 1498, having just finished his mausoleum 'of Inno- cent VTIL, and was buried in the church of San Pietro in Vincula, where a monument was raised to him near that of his brother. PIERO (1443-1496) was a painter, and his principal works were his " Coronation of the Virgin," an altar-piece painted in 1483, in the choir of the cathedral at San Gimignano; his " Three Saints," an altar-piece, and " Prudence " axe both at the Uffizi Gallery. SIMONE (1457-1508), nephew of Antonio Pollaiuolo, a cele- brated architect, was born in Florence and went to Rome in 1484; there he entered his uncle's studio and studied architecture. On his return to Florence he was entrusted with the completion of the Strozzi palace begun by Benedetto de Maiano, and the cornice on the facade has earned him lasting fame. His highly coloured accounts of Rome earned for him the nickname of U Cronaca (chronicler). About 1498 he built the church of San Francesco at Monte and the vestibule of the sacristy of Santo Spirito. In collaboration with Guiliano da Sangallo he designed the great hall in the Palazzo Vecchio. He was a dose friend and adherent of Savonarola. See also Maud Cruttwell, Antonio Pollaiuolo (1907). POLLAN (Coregonus pollan), the name given to a spedes of the Salmonoid genus Coregonus (whitefish) which has been found in the large and deep loughs of Ireland only. A full account of the fish by its first describer, W. Thompson, may be found in his Natural History of Ireland, iv. 168. 5 POLLARD— POLLINATION POLLARD, EDWARD ALBERT (1828-1872), American journalist, was born in Nelson county, Virginia, on the 27th of February 1828. He graduated at the university of Virginia in 1849, studied law at the College of William and Mary, and in Baltimore (where he was admitted to the bar), and was engaged in newspaper work in California until 1855. In 1857-1861 he was clerk of the judiciary committee of the National House of Representatives. By 1859 he had become an outspoken Secessionist, and during the Civil War he was one of the principal editors of the Richmond Examiner, which supported the Con- federacy but was hostile to President Jefferson Davis. In 1864 Pollard sailed for England, but the vessel on which he sailed was captured as a blockade runner, and he was confined in Fort Warren in Boston Harbour from the 29th of May until the i2th of August, when he was paroled. In December he was placed in close confinement at Fort Monroe by order of Secretary Stanton, but was soon again paroled by General B. F. Butler, and in January proceeded to Richmond to be exchanged there for Albert D. Richardson (1833-1869), a well-known corre- spondent of the New York Tribune, who, however, had escaped before Pollard arrived. In 1867-1869 Pollard edited a weekly paper at Richmond, and he conducted the Political Pamphlet there during the presidential campaign of 1868. His publications include Black Diamonds Gathered in the Darkey Homes of the South (1859), in which he advocated a reopening of the slave trade; The Southern History of the War (3 vols. : First Year of the War, with B. M. DeWitt, 1862; Second Year of the War, 1864; Third Year of the War, 1864); Observations in the North: Eight Months in Prison and on Parole (1865) ; Tlie Lost Cause (1866) ; Lee and His Lieutenants (1867); The Lost Cause Regained (1868), a southern view of reconstruction urging the necessity of white supremacy; The Life of Jefferson Davis (1869), an arraignment of the Confederate president; and The Virginia Tourist (1870). POLLENTIA (mod. Pollenzo), an ancient town of Liguria, Italy, 10 m. to the north of Augusta Bagiennorum, on the left bank of the Tanarus (mod. Tanaro). Its position on the road from Augusta Taurinorum to the coast at Vada Sabatia, at the point of divergence of a road to Hasta (Asti) gave it military importance. Decimus Brutus managed to occupy it an hour before Mark Antony in 43 B.C.; and it was here that Stilicho on the 29th of March 403 fought the battle with Alaric which though undecided led the Goths to evacuate Italy. The place was famous for its brown wool, and for its pottery. Considerable remains of ancient buildings, an amphitheatre, a theatre and a temple still exist. The so-called temple of Diana is more probably a tomb. See G. Franchi-Pont in AM dell' accademia di Tornio (1805- 1808), p. 321 sqq. POLLINATION, in botany, the transference of the pollen from the stamen to the receptive surface, or stigma, of the pistil of a flower. The great variety in the form, colour and scent of flowers (see FLOWER) is intimately associated with pollination which is effected by aid of wind, insects and other agencies. Pollen may be transferred to the stigma of the same flower — self-pollination (or autogamy), or to the stigma of another flower on the same plant or another plant of the same species — cross- pollination (or allogamy). Effective pollination may also occur between flowers of different species, or occasionally, as in the case of several orchids, of different genera — this is known as hybridization. The method of pollination is to some extent governed by the distribution of the stamens and pistil. In the case of unisexual flowers, whether monoecious, that is, with staminate and pistillate flowers on one and the same plant, such as many of our native trees — oak, beech, birch, alder, &c., or dioecious with staminate and pistillate flowers on different plants, as in willows and pop- lars, cross pollination only is possible. In bisexual or herma- phrodite flowers, that is, those in which both stamens and pistil are present, though self-pollination might seem the obvious course, this is often prevented or hindered by various arrange- ments which favour cross-pollination. Thus the anthers and stigmas in any given flower are often mature at different times; this condition, which is known as dichogamy and was first pointed out by Sprengel, may be so well marked that the stigma has ceased to be receptive before the anthers open, or the anthers have withered before the stigma becomes receptive, when cross- pollination only is possible, or the stages of maturity in the two organs are not so distinct, when self-pollination becomes possible later on. The flower is termed proteratidrous or proterogynous according as anthers or stigmas mature first. The term homogamy is applied to the simultaneous maturity of stigma and anthers. Spontaneous self-pollination is rendered impossible in some homogamous flowers in consequence of the relative position of the anthers and stigma — this condition has been termed herkogamy. Flowers in which the relative position of the organs allows of spontaneous self-pollination may be all alike as regards length of style and stamens (homomorphy or homostyly), or differ in this respect (heteromorphy) the styles (From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bottmik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) FIG. I. — Long-styled, L, and short-styled, K, flowers of Primula sinensis. G, Level of stigma ; 5, level of anthers ; P, N, pollen grains and stigmatic papillae of long-styled form ; p, n, ditto of short-styled form. and stamens being of different lengths in different flowers (heterostyly) or the stamens only are of different lengths (heter- anthery). Flowers which are closed at the time of maturity of anthers and stigmas are termed cleistogamous. Self-pollination is effected in very various ways. In the simplest case the anthers are close to the stigmas, covering these with pollen when they open; this occurs in a number of small annual plants, also in Narcissus, Crocus, &c. In snowdrop and other pendulous flowers the anthers form a cone around the style and the pollen falls on to the underlying stigmas, or in erect flowers the pollen may fall on to the stigmas which lie directly beneath the opening anthers (e.g. Nafthecium). In very many cases the pollen is carried to the stigma by elongation, curvature or some other movement of the filament, the style or stigma, or corolla or some other part of the ..flower, or by correlated move- ments of two or more parts. For instance, in many flowers the filaments are at first directed outwards so that self-pollina- tion is not possible, but later incline towards the stigmas and pollinate them (e.g. numerous Saxifragaceae, Cruciferae and others), or the style, which first projects beyond the anthers, shortens later on so that the anthers come into contact with the stigmas (e.g. species of Cactaceae), or the style bends so that the stigma is brought within the range of the pollen (e.g. species of Oenothera, Epilobium,most Malvaceae, &c.). In Mirabilis Jalapa and others the filaments and style finally become intertwined, so that pollen is brought in contact with the stigma. Self- pollination frequently becomes possible towards the end of the life of a flower which during its earlier stages has been capable only of cross-pollination. This is associated with the fact, so ably demonstrated by Darwin, that, at any rate in a large number of cases, cross-pollination yields better results, as measured by the number of seeds produced and the strength of the offspring, than self-pollination; the latter is, however, preferable to absence of pollination. In many cases pollen has no effect on the stigma of the same flower, the plants are self- sterile, in other cases external pollen is more effective (pre-potent) than pollen from the same flower; but in a very large number of cases experiment has shown that there is little or no difference POLLINATION between the effects of external pollen and that from the same flower. Cross-pollination may occur between two flowers on the same plant (geitonogamy) or between flowers on distinct plants (xenogamy). The former, which is a somewhat less favourable method than the latter, is effected by air-currents, insect agency, the actual contact between stigmas and anthers in neighbouring flowers, where, as in the family Compositae, flowers are closely crowded, or by the fall of the pollen from a (From Darwin's Different Farms of Flowers by permission.) FIG. 2. — Diagram of the flowers of the three forms of Lythrum salicaria in their natural position, with the petals and calyx removed on the near side. (X 6 times.) The dotted lines with the arrow show the directions in which pollen must be carried to each stigma to ensure full fertility. higher on to the stigmas of a lower flower. Anton Kerner has shown that crowded inflorescences such as those of Compositae and Umbelliferae are especially adapted for geitonogamy. Xenogamy is of course the only possible method in diclinous plants; it is also the usual method in monoclinous plants, owing to the fact that stamens and carpels often mature at different times (dichogamy), the plants being proterandrous or protero- gynous. Even in homogamous flowers cross-pollination is in a large proportion of cases the effective method, at any rate at first, owing to the relative position of anther and stigma or the fact that the plant is self-sterile. The subject of heterostyly was investigated by Darwin (see his Forms of Flowers) and later by Hildebrand. In the case of a dimorphic flower, such as Primula, four modes of pollination are possible, two distinguished by Darwin as legitimate, between anthers and stigmas on corresponding levels, and two so-called illegitimate unions, between anthers and stigmas at different levels (cf. fig. i). In a trimorphic flower such as Lythrum salicaria there are six possible legitimate unions and twelve illegitimate (see fig. 2). Experiment showed that legitimate unions yield a larger quantity of seed than illegitimate. FIG. 3. — Cleistogamous Many plants produce, in addition to ordinary open flowers, so-called cleistogamous flowers, which remain permanently closed but which notwithstanding produce fruit; in these the corolla is inconspicuous or absent and the pollen grows from the anther on to the stigma of the same flower. Species of Viola (see fig. 3), Oxalis acelosella (wood sorrel) and Lamium amplexi- caule are commonly occurring in- stances. The cleistogamous flowers are developed before or after the normal open flowers at seasons less favourable for cross-pollination. In some cases flowers, which open under normal circumstances, remain closed owing to unfavourable circumstances, and self-pollination occurs as in a typical cleistogamous flower — these flower of Viola sylvatica. have been distinguished as pseudo- i, j|« ver X4. cleistogamous. Instances occur in mfgnifieTanTcut open7 water plants, where flowers are un- a, anther; s, pistil; able to reach the surface (e.g. Alisma st, style; v, stigmatic natans, water buttercup, &c.) or surface, where flowers remain closed in dull or cold weather. Systems of classification of flowers according to the agency by which pollination is effected have been proposed by Delpino, H. Mtiller and other workers on the subject. Knuth suggests the following, which is a modification of the systems proposed by Delpino and M tiller. A. Water-pollinated plants, Hydropkilae. A small group which is subdivided thus: — a. Pollinated under the water; e.g. Najas where the pollen grains are rather heavier than water, and sinking down are caught by the stigmas of the extremely simple female flowers. b. Pollination on the surface, a more frequent occurrence than (a). In these the pollen floats on the surface and reaches the stigmas of the female flowers as in Callitriche, Ruppia, Zostera, Elodea. In Vallisneria (fig. 4) the male flowers become detached and float on the surface of the water; . the anthers are thus brought in contact with the stigmas of the female flowers. B. Wind-pollinated plants, Anemophilae. — In these the pollen grains are smooth and light so as to be easily blown about, and are produced in great quantity; the stigmas are brush- like or feathery, and usually long and protruding so as readily to catch the pollen. As no means of attraction are required the flowers are inconspicuous and without scent or nectar. The male inflorescence is often a pendulous catkin, as in hazel and many native English trees (fig. 5) ; or the anthers are loosely fixed on long thread-like filaments as in grasses (fig. 6). B , B FIG. 4. — Vallisneria spiralis. A, female flower; s, stigmas. B, male flowers; I before; 2, after spreading of the petals. A male flower has floated alongside a female and one of its anthers, which have opened to set free the pollen, is in contact with a stigma, a, anther. C. Animal- pollinated plants, Zoidiophilae, are subdivided according to the kind of animal by agency of which pollination is effected, thus: — a. Bat-pollinated, Chiropterophilae. — A Freycinetia, native of Java, and a species of Bauhinia in Trinidad are visited by bats which transfer the pollen. POLLINATION b. Bird-pollinated, Ornithophilae. — Humming-birds and honey- suckers are agents of pollination in certain tropical plants; they visit the generally large and brightly-coloured flowers either for the honey which is secreted in considerable quantity or for the insects which have been attracted by the honey (fig. 7). FIG. FIG. 6. — Grass Flower show- 5. — Catkin of Male ing pendulous anthers and pro- Flowers of Hazel. truding hairy stigmas. Snail or slug-pollinated flowers, Malacophilae. — In small flowers which are crowded at the same level or in flat flowers in which the stigmas and anthers project but little, slugs or snails creeping over their surface may transfer to the stigma the pollen which clings to the slimy foot. Such a transfer has been described in various Aroids, Rohdea japonica (Liliaceae), and other plants. (From a drawing in the Botanical Gallery at the British Museum.) FIG. 7. — Flower of Datura sanguinea visited by humming-bird Docimastes ensi/erus. (About £ nat. size.) d. Insect-pollinated, Entomophilae, a very large class characterized by sticky pollen grains, the surface of which bears spines, warts or other projections (fig. 8) which facilitate adhesion to some part of the insect's body, and a relatively small stigma with a sticky surface. The flowers have an attractive floral envelope, are scented and often contain honey or a large amount of pollen; by these means the insect is enticed to visit it. The form, colour and scent _of the flower vary widely, according to the class of insect whose FIG. 8. — i, anther; 2, pollen grain of Hollyhock (Althaea rosea) enlarged. The pollen grain bears numerous spines, the dark spots indicate thin places in the outer wall. aid is sought, and there are also numerous devices for pro- tecting the pollen and nectar from rain and dew or from the visits of those insects which would not serve the purpose of pollen-transference (unbidden guests).1 The following subdivisions have been suggested A. Pollen Flowers. — These offer only pollen to their visitors, as species of anemone, poppy, rose, tulip, &c. They are simple in structure and regular in form, and the generally abundant pollen is usually freely exposed. B. Nectar Flowers. — These contain nectar and include the following groups: — 1. Flowers with exposed nectar, readily visible and accessible to all visitors. These are very simple, open and gener- ally regular flowers, white, greenish-yellow or yellow in colour and are chiefly visited by insects with a short proboscis, such as short -tongued wasps and flies, also beetles and more rarely bees. Examples are Umbelliferae as a family, saxifrages, holly, Acer, Rhamnus, Euonymus, Euphorbia, &c. 2. Flowers with nectar partly concealed and visible only in bright sunshine. The generally regular flowers are completely open only in bright sunshine, closing up into cups at other times. Such are most Cruciferae, buttercups, king-cup (Caltha), Potenlilla. White and yellow colours predominate and insects with a pro- boscis of medium length are the common pollinating agents, such as short -tongued bees. 3. Flowers with nectar concealed by pouches, hairs, &c. Regular flowers predominate, e.g. Geranium, Cardamine pratensis, mallows, Rubus, Oxalis, Epilobium, &c., but many species show more or less well-marked median symmetry (zygomorphism) as Euphrasia, Orchis, thyme, &c., and red, blue and violet are the usual colours. Long-tongued insects such as the honey-bee are the most frequent visitors. 4. Social flowers, whose nectar is concealed as in (3), but the flowers are grouped in heads which render them strikingly conspicuous, and several flowers can be simul- taneously pollinated. Such are Compositae as a class, also Scabiosa, Armeria (sea-pink) and others. 5. Hymenopterid flowers, which fall into the following groups: Bee-flowers proper, humble-bee flowers requiring a longer proboscis to reach the nectar, wasp-flowers such as fig-wort (Scrophularia nodosa) and ichneumon flowers such as t way-blade (Lislera ovata). The shapes and colours are extremely varied ; bilater- ally symmetrical forms are most frequent with red, blue or violet colours. Such are Papilionaceous flowers, Violaceae, many Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae and others. Many are highly specialized so that pollination can be effected by a few species only. Examples of more special mechanisms are illustrated by Salvia (fig. q). The long connective of the single stamen is hinged to the short filament and has a shorter arm ending in a blunt process and a longer arm bearing a half-anther. A large bee in probing for honey comes in contact with the end of the short arm of the lever and causes the longer arm to descend and the pollen is deposited on the back of the insect (fig. 9, i). In a later stage (fig. 9, 2) the style elongates and the forked stigma occupies the same position as the anther in fig- 9- i- (From Strasburger's Lekrbuck der Bolanik , by FIG. 9. — Pollination 1, Flower visited by a humble- bee, showing the projection of the curved connective bearing the anther from the helmet- shaped upper lip and the depo- sition of the pollen on the back of the humble-bee. 2, Older flower, with connective drawn back, and elongated style. permission of Gustav Fischer.) of Salvia pratensis. 4, The staminal apparatus at rest, with connective enclosed within the upper lip. 3, The same, when disturbed by the entrance of the proboscis of the bee in the direction of the arrow;/, filament; c, connective; s, the obstructing half of the anther. 1 See A. Kerner, Plants and their Unbidden Guests. POLLIO In Broom there is an explosive machanism; the pressure of the insect visitor on the keel of the corolla causes a sudden release of the stamens and the scatter- ing of a cloud of pollen over its body. 6. Lepidopterid flowers, visited chiefly by Lepidoptera, which are able to reach the nectar concealed in deep, narrow tubes or spurs by means of their long slender proboscis. Such are: (a) Butterfly-flowers, usually red in colour, as Dianthus carthusianorum; (b) Moth-flowers, white or whitish, as honeysuckle (Loniceta periclymenum). 7. Fly flowers, chiefly visited by Diptera, and including very different types: — a. Nauseous flowers, dull and yellowish and dark purple in colour and often spotted, with a smell attractive to carrion flies and dung flies, e.g. species of Saxifraga. b. Pitfall flowers such as Asarum, Aristolochia and Arum macu- latum, when the insect is caught and detained until pollination is effected (fig. 10). c. Pinch-trap flowers, as in the family Asclepiadaceae, where the proboscis, claw or bristle of the insect is caught in the clip to which the pairs of pollinia are attached. Bees, wasps and larger insects serve as pollinating agents FIG. 10. — Spadix of Arum maculatum from which the greater part of the spathe has been cut away. p, Pistillate, s, staminate flowers; h, sterile flowers form- ing a circlet of stiff hairs closing the mouth of the chamber formed by the lower part of the spathe. FIG. ii. — Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris). Half nat. size, i, One of the scales which form the coronet in the flower, enlarged. d. Deceptive flowers such as Parnassia, where the conspicuous coronet of glistening yellow balls suggests a plentiful supply of nectar drops (fig. u). e. Hoverfly flowers, small flowers which are beautifully coloured with radiating streaks pointing to a sharply-defined centre in which is the nectar, as in Veronica chamaedrys (fig. 12). LITERATURE. — Joseph Gottlieb Kolreuter1 (d. 1806) was the first to study the pollination of flowers and to draw attention to the necessity of insect visits in many cases; he gave a clear account of cross-pollination by insect aid. He was followed by Christian Konrad Sprengel, whose work Das entdeckte Geheimniss der Natur im Bau und in der Bejruchtung der Blumen (Berlin, 1733), contains a description of floral adaptations to insect visits in nearly 500 species of plants. Sprengel came very near to appreciating the meaning of cross-pollina- tion in the lite of plants when he states that " it seems that Nature is unwilling that any flower should be fertilized by its own pollen." In 1799 an Englishman. (From Vines's Tact Book of Thomas Andrew Knight, after experiments Botany- by t* on the cross-fertilization of cultivated FIG. 12. — Flower of plants, formulated the conclusion that no plant fertilizes itself through many genera- k. Calyx, tions. Sprengel's work, which had been u, u, u, The three lobes almost forgotten, was taken up again by of the lower lip of Charles Darwin, who concluded that no the rotate corolla, organic being can fertilize itself through o, The upper lip. an unlimited number of generations; but s, s, The two stamens, a cross with other individuals is occasion- n, The stigma. ally — perhaps at very long intervals — indis- pensable. Darwin's works on dimorphic flowers and the fertiliza- tion of orchids gave powerful support to this statement. The study of the fertilization, or as it is now generally called " pollina- tion," of flowers, was continued by Darwin and taken up by other workers, notably Friedrich Hildebrand, Federico Delpino and the brothers Fritz and Hermann Miiller. Hermann Muller's work on The Fertilization of Flowers by Insects and their Reciprocal Adapta- tions (1873), followed by subsequent works on the same lines, brought together a great number of observations on floral mechanisms and their relation to insect-visits. Miiller also suggested a modification of the Knight-Darwin law, which had left unexplained the numer- ous instances of continued successful self-pollination, and restated it on these terms: " Whenever offspring resulting from crossing comes into serious conflict with offspring resulting from self- fertilization, the former is victorious. Only where there is no such struggle for existence does self-fertilization often prove satis- factory for many generations." An increasing number of workers in this field of plant biology in England, on the Continent and in America has produced a great mass of observations, which have recently been brought together in Dr Paul Knuth's classic work, Handbook of Flower Pollination, an English translation of which has been published (1908) by the Clarendon Press. POLLIO, GAIUS ASINIUS (76 B.C.-A.D. 5; according to some, 75 B.C.-A.D. 4), Roman orator, poet and historian. In 54 he impeached unsuccessfully C. Porcius Cato, who in his tribunate (56) had acted as the tool of the triumvirs. In the civil war between Caesar and Pompey Pollio sided with Caesar, was present at the battle of Pharsalus (48), and commanded against Sextus Pompeius in Spain, where he was at the time of Caesar's assassination. He subsequently threw in his lot with M. Antonius. In the division of the provinces, Gaul fell to Antony, who entrusted Pollio with the administration of Gallia Trans- padana. In superintending the distribution of the Mantuan territory amongst the veterans, he used his influence to save from confiscation the property of the poet Virgil. In 40 he helped to arrange the peace of Brundisium by which Octavian (Augustus) and Antonius were for a time reconciled. In the same year Pollio entered upon his consulship, which had been promised him in 43. It was at this time that Virgil addressed the famous fourth eclogue to him. Next year Pollio conducted a successful campaign against the Parthini, an Illyrian people who adhered to Brutus, and celebrated a triumph on the 25th of October. The eighth eclogue of Virgil was addressed to Pollio while engaged in this campaign. From the spoils of the war he constructed the first public library at Rome, in the Atrium Libertatis, also erected by him (Pliny, Nat. hist. xxxv. 10), which he adorned with statues of the most celebrated 1 Vorlaufige Nachricht von einigen das Geschlecht der Pflanzen betreffenden Versuchen und Beobachtungen, 3, 4, 6 (Leipzig, 1761). POLLNITZ— POLL-TAX authors, both Greek and Roman. Thenceforward he withdrew from active life and devoted himself to literature. He seems to have maintained to a certain degree an attitude of independence, if not of opposition, towards Augustus. He died in his villa at Tusculum, regretted and esteemed by all. Pollio was a distinguished orator; his speeches showed ingenuity and care, but were marred by an affected archaism (Quintilian, Inst. x. I, 113; Seneca, Ep. loo). He wrote tragedies also, which Virgil (Ed. viii. id) declared to be worthy of Sophocles, and a prose history of the civil wars of his time from the first triumvirate (60) down to the death of Cicero (43) or later. This history, in the composition of which Pollio received assistance from the grammarian Ateius Praetextatus, was used as an authority by Plutarch and Appian (Horace, Odes, ii. I ; Tacitus, Annals, iv. 34). As a literary critic Pollio was very severe. He censured Sallust (Suetonius, Gram. 10) and Cicero (Quintilian, Inst. xii. I, 22) and professed to detect in Livy's style certain provincialisms of his native Padua (Quintilian, i. 5, 56, viii. I, 3); he attacked the Commentaries of Julius Caesar, accusing their author of carelessness and credulity, if not of deliberate falsification (Suet. Caesar, 56). Pollio was the first Roman author who recited his writings to an audience of his friends, a practice which afterwards became common at Rome. The theory that Pollio was the author of the Bellum africanum, one of the supplements to Caesar's Commentarii, has met with little support. All his writings are lost except a few fragments of his speeches (H. Meyer, Oral. rom. frag., 1842), and three letters addressed to Cicero (Ad. Fam. x. 31-33). See Plutarch, Caesar, Pompey; Veil. Pat. ii. 36, 63, 73, 76; Florus iv. 12, II; Dio Cassius xlv. 10, xlviii. 15; Appian, Bell, civ. ; V. Gardthausen, Augustus und seine Zeit (1891), i. ; P. Groebe, in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie (1896), ii. pt. 2 ; Teuffel-Schwaben, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), § 221 ; M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, pt. 2, p. 20 (2nd ed., 1899); Cicero, Letters, ed. Tyrrell and Purser, vi. introd. p. 80. POLLNITZ, KARL LUDWIG, FREIHERR VON (1692-1775), German adventurer and writer, was born at Issum on the 25th of February 1692. His father, Wilhelm Ludwig von Pollnitz (d. 1693), was in the military service of the elector of Branden- burg, and much of his son's youth was passed at the electoral court in Berlin. He was a man of restless and adventurous disposition, unscrupulous even for the age in which he lived, visited many of the European courts, and served as a soldier in Austria, Italy and Spain. Returning to Berlin in 1735 he obtained a position in the household of King Frederick William I. and afterwards in that of Frederick the Great, with whom he appears to have been a great favourite; and he died in Berlin on the 23rd of June 1775. Pollnitz's Memoires (Lie'ge, 1734), which were translated into German (Frankfort, 1735), give interesting glimpses of his life and the people whom he met, but they are very untrustworthy. He also wrote Nouveaux memoires (Amsterdam, 1737); Etat abrege de la cour de Saxe sous le regne d'Auguste III. (Frankfort, 1734; Ger. trans., Breslau, 1736); and Memoires pour servir a I'histoire des guatres derniers souverains de la maison de Brandenbourg, published by F. L. Brunn (Berlin, 1791; Ger. trans., Berlin, 1791). Per- haps his most popular works are La Saxe galante (Amsterdam, 1734), an account of the private life of Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony and king of Poland; and Histoire secrete de la duchesse d'Hanovre, Spouse de Georges I. (London, 1732). There is an English translation of the Memoires (London, 1738—1739). See P. von Pollnitz, Stammtafeln der Familie von Pollnitz (Berlin, 1894); and J. G. Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politik, pt. iv. (Leipzig, 1870). POLLOCK, the name of an English family which has con- tributed many important members to the legal and other profes- sions. David Pollock, who was the son of a Scotsman and built up a prosperous business in London as a saddler, had three distin- guished sons: Sir David Pollock (1780-1847), chief justice of Bombay; Sir Jonathan Frederick Pollock, Bart. (1783-1870), chief baron of the exchequer; and Sir George Pollock, Bart. (1786-1872), field-marshal. Of these the more famous were the two last. Field Marshal Sir George Pollock, who rendered valuable military service in India, and especially in Afghanistan in 1841-1843, ended his days as constable of the Tower of London, and was buried in Westminster Abbey; his baronetcy, created in 1872, descended to his son Frederick (d. 1874), who assumed the name of Montagu- Pollock, and so to his heirs. Chief Baron Sir J. Frederick Pollock, who had been senior wrangler at Cam- bridge, and became F.R.S. in 1816, was raised to the bench in 1844, and created a baronet in 1866. He was twice married and had eight sons and ten daughters, his numerous descendants being prominent in many fields. The chief baron's eldest son, Sir William Frederick Pollock, 2nd Bart. (1815-1888), became a master of the Supreme Court (1846) and queen's remembrancer (1874); his eldest son, Sir Frederick Pollock, 3rd Bart. (b. 1845), being the well-known jurist and legal historian, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Corpus professor of jurisprudence at Oxford (1883-1903), and the second son, Walter Herries Pollock (b. 1850), being a well-known author and editor of the Saturday Review from 1883 to 1894. The chief baron's third son, George Frederick Pollock (b. 1821), became a master of the Supreme Court in 1851, and succeeded his brother as queen's (king's) remembrancer in 1886; among his sons were Dr W. Rivers Pollock (1850-1909), Ernest Murry Pollock, K.C. (b. 1861), and the Rt. Rev. Bertram Pollock (b. 1863), bishop of Norwich, and previously head master of Wellington College from 1893 till 1910. The chief baron's fourth son, Sir Charles Edward Pollock (1823-1897), had a successful career at the bar and in 1873 became a judge, being the last survivor of the old barons of the exchequer; he was thrice married and had issue by each wife. POLLOK, ROBERT (1798-1827), Scottish poet, son of a small farmer, was born at North Moorhouse, Renfrewshire, on the igth of October 1798. He was trained as a cabinet-maker and after- wards worked on his father's farm, but, having prepared himself for the university, he took his degree at Glasgow, and studied for the ministry of the United Secession Church. He published Tales of the Covenanters while he was a divinity student, and planned and completed a strongly Calvinistic poem on the spiri- tual life and.destiny of man. This was the Course of Time (1827), which passed through many editions and became a favourite in serious households in Scotland. It was written in blank verse, in ten books, in the poetic diction of the i8th century, but with abundance of enthusiasm, impassioned elevation of feeling and copious force of words and images. The poem at once became popular, but within six months of its publication, on the i8th of September 1827, its author died of consumption. POLLOKSHAWS, a police burgh and burgh of barony of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the White Cart, now virtually a suburb of Glasgow, with which it is connected by electric tramway and the Glasgow & South-Western and Caledonian railways. Pop. (1901), 11,183. It is named from the shows or woods (and is locally styled " the Shaws ") and the lands of Pollok, which have been held by the Maxwells since the i3th century. The family is now called Stirling-Maxwell, the estate and baronetcy having devolved in 1865 upon Sir William Stirling of Keir, who then assumed the surname of Maxwell. Pollok House adjoins the town on the west. The staple indus- tries are cotton-spinning and weaving, silk-weaving, dyeing, bleaching, calico-printing and the manufacture of chenille and tapestry, besides paper mills, potteries and large engineering works. Pollokshaws was created a burgh of barony in 1813, and is governed by a council and provost. About 2 m. south- west is the thriving town of Thornliebank (pop. 2452), which owes its existence to the cotton-works established towards the end of the i8th century. POLL-TAX, a tax levied on the individual, and not on property or on articles of merchandise, so-called from the old English poll, a head. Raised thus per capita, it is sometimes called a capitation tax. The most famous poll-tax in English history is the one levied in 1380, which led to the revolt of the peasants under Wat Tyler in 1381, but the first instance of the kind was in 1377, when a tax of a groat a head was voted by both clergy and laity. In 1379 the tax was again levied, but on a graduated scale. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, paid ten marks, and the scale descended from him to the peasants, who paid one groat each, every person over sixteen years of age being liable. In 1380 the tax was also graduated, but less steeply. For some years after the rising of 1381 money was only raised in this way from aliens, but in 1513 a general poll tax was imposed. This, however, only produced about £50,000, instead of £160,000 as was expected, but a poll-tax levied in 1641 resulted in a revenue of about £400,600. During the reign of POLLUX, JULIUS— POLO, MARCO Charles II. money was obtained in this way on several occasions, although in 1676-1677 especially there was a good deal of resentment against the tax. For some years after 1688 poll- taxes were a favourite means of raising money for the prosecution of the war with France. Sometimes a single payment was asked for the year; at other times quarterly payments were required. The poll-tax of 1697 included a weekly tax of one penny from all persons not receiving ahns. In 1698 a quarterly poll-tax produced £321,397. Nothing was required from the poor, and those who were liable may be divided roughly into three classes. Persons worth less than £300 paid one shilling; those worth £300, including the gentry and the professional classes, paid twenty shillings; while tradesmen and shopkeepers paid ten shillings. Non-jurors were charged double these rates. Like previous poll-taxes, the tax of 1698 did not produce as much as was anticipated, and it was the last of its kind in England. Many of the states of the United States of America raise money by levying poll-taxes, or, as they are usually called, capitation taxes, the payment of this tax being a necessary preliminary to the exercise of the suffrage. See S. Dowell, History of Taxation and Taxes in England (1888), vol. iii. ; and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History (1896), vol. ii. POLLUX, JULIUS, of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek grammarian and sophist of the 2nd century A.D. He taught at Athens, where, according to Philostratus (Vit. Soph.), he was appointed to the professorship of rhetoric by the emperor Commodus on account of his melodious voice. Suidas gives a list of his rhetorical works, none of which has survived. Philostratus recognizes his natural abilities, but speaks of his rhetoric in very moderate terms. Pollux is probably the person attacked by Lucian in the Lexiphanes and Teacher of Rhetoricians. In the Teacher of Rhetoricians Lucian satirizes a worthless and ignorant person who gains a reputation as an orator by sheer effrontery ; the Lexiphanes, a satire upon the use of obscure and obsolete words, may conceivably have been directed against Pollux as the author of the Onomasticon. This work, which we still possess, is a Greek dictionary in ten books, each dedicated to Commodus, and arranged not alphabetically but according to subject-matter. Though mainly a dictionary of synonyms and phrases, chiefly intended to furnish the reader with the Attic names for indi- vidual things, it supplies much rare and valuable information on many points of classical antiquity. It also contains numerous fragments of writers now lost. The chief authorities used were the lexicological works of Didymus, Tryphon, and Pamphilus; in the second book the extant treatise of Rufus of Ephesus On the Names of the Parts of the Human Body was specially consulted. The chief editions of the Onomasticon are those of W. Dindorf (1824), with the notes of previous commentators, I. Bekker (1846), containing the Greek text only, and Bethe (1900). There are mono- graphs on special portions of the vocabulary; by E. Rohde (on the theatrical terms, 1870), and F. von Stojentin (on constitutional antiquities, 1875). POLLUX, or POLLUCITE, a rare mineral, consisting of hydrous caesium and aluminium silicate, H2Cs4AL((Si03)9. Caesium oxide (Cs2O) is present to the extent of 30-36 %, the amount varying somewhat owing to partial replacement by other alkalis, chiefly sodium. The mineral crystallizes in the cubic system. It is colourless and transparent, and has a vitreous lustre. There is no distinct cleavage and the fracture is conchoidal. The hardness is 6| and the specific gravity 2-90. It occurs sparingly, together with the mineral " castor " (see PETALITE), in cavities in the granite of the island of Elba, and with beryl in pegmatite veins at Rumford and Hebron in Maine. POLO, CASPAR GIL (?i53O-iS9i), Spanish novelist and poet, was born at Valencia about 1530. He is often confused with Gil Polo, professor of Greek at Valencia University between 1566 and 1373; but this professor was not named Caspar. He is also confused with his own son, Caspar Gil Polo, the author of De origins et progressu juris romani (1615) and other legal treatises, who pleaded before the Cortes as late as 1626. A notary by profession, Polo was attached to the treasury commission which visited Valencia in 1571, became coadjutor to the chief accountant in 1572, went on a special mission to Barcelona in 1580, and died there in 1591. Timoneda, in the Sarao de amor (1561), alludes to him as a poet of repute; but of his miscellaneous verses only two conventional, eulogistic sonnets and a song survive. Polo finds a place in the history of the novel as the author of La Diana enamorada, a continuation of Monte- mayor's Diana, and perhaps the most successful continuation ever written by another hand. Cervantes, punning on the writer's name, recommended that " the Diana enamorada should be guarded as carefully as though it were by Apollo himself " ; the hyperbole is not wholly, nor even mainly, ironical. The book is one of the most agreeable of Spanish pastorals; interesting in incident, written in fluent prose, and embellished with melodious poems, it was constantly reprinted, was imitated by Cervantes in the Canto de Caliope, and was translated into English, French, German and Latin. The English version of Bartholomew Young, published in 1598 but current in manu- script fifteen years earlier, is said to have suggested the Felismena episode in the Two Gentlemen of Verona; the Latin version of Caspar Barth, entitled Erotpdidascalus (Hanover, 1625), is a per- formance of uncommon merit as well as a bibliographical curiosity. POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324), the Venetian, greatest of medieval travellers. Venetian genealogies and traditions of uncertain value trace the Polo family to Sebenico in Dalmatia, and before the end of the nth century one Domenico Polo is found in the great council of the republic (1094). But the ascertained line of the traveller begins only with his grandfather. Andrea Polo of S. Felice was the father of three sons, Marco, Nicolo and Maffeo, of whom the second was the father of the subject of this article. They were presumably " noble," i.e. belonging to the families who had seats in the great council, and were enrolled in the Libro d' Oro; for we know that Marco the traveller is officially so styled (nobilis vir). The three brothers were engaged in commerce; the elder Marco, resident apparently in Constantinople and in the Crimea (especially at Sudak), suggests, by his celebrated' will, a long business partnership with Nicolo and Maffeo. About 1260, and even perhaps as early as 1250, we find Nicolo and Maffeo at Constantinople. Nicolo was married and had left his wife there. The two brothers went on a speculation to the Crimea, whence a succession of chances and openings carried them to the court of Barka Khan at Sarai, further north up to Bolghar (Kazan), and eventually across the steppes to Bokhara. Here they fell in with certain envoys who had been on a mission from the great Khan Kublai to his brother Hulagu in Persia, and by them were persuaded to make the journey to Cathay in their company. Under the heading CHINA the circumstances are noticed which in the last half of the I3th century and first half of the I4th threw Asia open to Western travellers to a degree unknown before and since — until the igth century. Thus began the medieval period of intercourse between China and catholic Europe. Kublai, when the Polos reached his court, was either at Cambaluc (Khanbaligh, the Khan's city), i.e. Peking, which he had just rebuilt, or at his summer seat at Shangtu in the country north of the Great Wall. It was the first time that the khan, a man full of energy and intelligence, had fallen in with European gentlemen. He was delighted with the Venetian brothers, listened eagerly to all they had to tell of the Latin world, and decided to send them back as his envoys to the poperwrtirteUers requesting the despatch of a large body of educated men to instruct his people in Christianity and the liberal arts. With Kublai, as with his predecessors, religion was chiefly a political engine. Kublai, the first of his house to rise above the essential barbarism of the Mongols, had perhaps discerned that the Christian Church could afford the aid he desired in taming his countrymen. It was only when Rome had failed to meet his advance that he fell back upon Buddhism as his chief civilizing instrument. The brothers arrived at Acre in April 1269. They learned that Clement IV. had died the year before, and no new pope had yet been chosen. So they took counsel with an eminent church- man, Tedaldo, archdeacon of Liege and papal legate for the 8 POLO, MARCO whole realm of Egypt, and, being advised by him to wait patiently, went home to Venice, where they found that Nicole's wife was dead, but had left a son Marco, now fifteen. The papal in- terregnum was the longest that had been known, at least since the dark ages. After the Polos had spent two years at home there was still no pope, and the brothers resolved on starting again for the East, taking young Marco with them. At Acre they again saw Tedaldo, and were furnished by him with letters to authenticate the causes that had hindered their mission. They had not yet left Lajazzo, Layas, or Ayas on the Cilician coast (then one of the chief points for the arrival and departure of the land trade of Asia), when they heard that Tedaldo had been elected pope. They hastened back to Acre, and at last were able to execute Kublai's mission, and to obtain a papal reply. But, instead of the hundred teachers asked for by the Great Khan, the new pope (styled Gregory X.) could supply but two Dominicans; and these lost heart and turned back, when they had barely taken the first step of their journey. The second start from Acre must have taken place about November 1271; and from a consideration of the indications and succession of chapters in Polo's book, it would seem that the party proceeded from Lajazzo to Sivas and Tabriz, and thence by Yezd and Kirman down to Hormuz (Hurmuz) at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, with the purpose of going on to China by sea ; but that, abandoning their naval plans (perhaps from fear of the flimsy vessels employed on this navigation fronrthr^ttH east- wards), they returned northward through Persia. Traversing Kirman and Khorasan they went on to Balkh and Badakshan, in which last country young Marco recovered from illness. In a passage touching on the climate of the Badakshan hills, Marco breaks into an enthusiasm which he rarely betrays, but which is easily understood by those who have known what it is, with fever in the blood, to escape to the exhilarating mountain air and fragrant pine-groves. They then ascended the upper Oxus through Wakhan to the plateau of Pamir (a name first heard in Marco's book). These regions were hardly described again by any European traveller (save Benedict Goes) till the expedition in 1838 of Lieut. John Wood of the Indian navy, whose narrative abounds in incidental illustratio of Marco Polo. Crossing the Pamir the travellers descend upon Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan (Khutan). These are regions which remained almost absolutely closed to our know- ledge till after 1860, when the temporary overthrow of the Chinese power, and the enterprise of British, Russian and other explorers, again made them known. From Khotan the Polos passed on to the vicinity of Lop-Nor, reached for the first time since Polo's journey by Prjevalsky in 1871. Thence the great desert of Gobi was crossed to Tangut, as the region at the extreme north-west of China, both within and without the Wall, was then called. In his account of the Gobi, or desert of Lop, as he calls it, Polo gives some description of the terrors and superstitions of the waste, a description which strikingly reproduces that of the Chinese pilgrim Suan T'sang, in passing the same desert in the contrary direction six hundred years before. The Venetians, in their further journey, were met and welcomed by the Great Khan's people, and at last reached his presence at Shangtu, in the spring of 1275. Kublai received them with great cordiality, and took kindly to young Marco, by this time about twenty-one years old. The " young bachelor," as the book calls him, applied himself diligently to the acquisi- tion of the divers languages and written characters chiefly in use among the multifarious nationalities subject to the Khan; and Kublai, seeing that he was both clever and discreet, soon began to employ him in the public service. G. Pauthier found in the Chinese annals a record that in the year 1 277 a certain Polo was nominated as a second-class commissioner or agent attached to the imperial council, a passage which we may apply to the young Venetian. Among his public missions was one which carried him through the provinces of Shansi, Shensi, and Szechuen, and the wild country on the borders of Tibet, to the remote province of Yunnan, called by the Mongols Karajang, and into northern Burma (Mien). Marco, during his stay at court, had observed the Khan's delight in hearing of strange countries, of their manners, marvels, and oddities, and had heard his frank expressions of disgust at the stupidity of envoys and commissioners who could tell of nothing but their official business. He took care to store his memory or his note-book with curious facts likely to interest Kublai, which, on his return to court, he related. This south-western journey led him through a country which till about 1860 was almost a terra incognita — though since the middle of the iQth century we have learned much regarding it through the journeys of Cooper, Gamier, Richthofen, Gill, Baber and others. In this region there existed and still exists in the deep valleys of the great rivers, and in the alpine regions which border them, a vast ethnological garden, as it were, of tribes of various origin, and in every stage of semi-civilization or barbarism; these afforded many strange products and eccentric traits to entertain Kublai. Marco rose rapidly in favour and was often employed on distant missions as well as in domestic administration; but we gather few details of his employment. He held for three years the government of the great city of Yangchow; on another occasion he seems to have visited Kangchow, the capital of Tangut, just within the Great Wall, and perhaps Karakorum on the north of the Gobi, the former residence of the Great Khans: again we find him in Ciampa, or southern Cochin-China; and perhaps, once more, on a separate mission to the southern states of India. We are not informed whether his father and uncle shared in such employments, though they are mentioned as having rendered material service to the Khan, in forwarding the capture of Siang-yang (on the Han river) during the war against southern China, by the construction of powerful artillery engines — a story, however, perplexed by chronological difficulties. All the Polos were gathering wealth which they longed to carry back to their home, and after their exile they began to dread what might follow Kublai's death. The Khan, however, was deaf to suggestions of departure and the opportunity only carneby chance. ' _^7 oqfl^-rsrghun, khan of Persia, the grandson of Kublai's brother eft. -Hulagu, lost in 1286 his favourite wife, called by Polo Balgana (i.e. Bulughan or " Sable "). Her dying injunction was that her place should be filled only by a lady of her own Mongol tribe. Ambassadors were despatched to the court of Peking to obtain such a bride. The message was courteously received, and the choice fell on the lady Cocacin (Kukachin), a maiden of seventeen. The overland road from Peking to Tabriz was then imperilled by war, so Arghun's envoys proposed to return by sea. Having made acquaintance with the Venetians, and eager to profit by their experience, especially by that of Marco, who had just returned from a mission to the Indies, they begged the Khan to send the Franks in their company. He consented with reluctance, but fitted out the party nobly for the voyage, charging them with friendly messages to the potentates of Christendom, including the pope, and the kings of France, Spain and England. They sailed from Zaiton or Amoy Harbour in Fukien (a town corresponding either to the modern Changchow or less probably toTswanchoworChinchew),thenoneof the chief Chinese havens for foreign trade, in the beginning of 1292. The voyage in- volved long detention on the coast of Sumatra, and in south India, and two years or more passed before they arrived in Persia. Two of the three envoys and a vast proportion of their suite perished by the way; but the three Venetians survived all perils, and so did the young lady, who had come to look on them with filial regard. Arghun Khan had died even before they quitted China; his brother reigned in his stead; and his son Ghazan succeeded to the lady's hand. The Polos went on (apparently by Tabriz. Trebizond, Constantinople and Negro- pont) to Venice, which they seem to have reached about the end of 1295. The first biographer of Marco Polo was the famous geo- graphical collector John Baptist Ramusio, who wrote more than two centuries after the traveller's death. Facts and dates POLO, MARCO sometimes contradict his statements, but he often adds detail, evidently authentic, of great interest and value, and we need not hesitate to accept as a genuine tradition the substance of his story of the Polos' arrival at their family mansion in St John Chrysostom parish in worn and outlandish garb, of the scornful denial of their identity, and the stratagem by which they secured acknowledgment from Venetian society. We next hear of Marco Polo in a militant capacity. Jealousies had been growing in bitterness between Venice and Genoa thioughout the I3th century. In 1298 the Genoese prepared to strike at their rivals on their own ground, and a powerful fleet under Lamba Doria made for the Adriatic. Venice, on hearing of the Genoese armament, equipped a fleet still more numerous, and placed it under Andrea Dandolo. The crew of a Venetian galley at this time amounted, all told, to 250 men, under a comito or master, but besides this officer each galley carried a sopracomito or gentleman-commander, usually a noble. On one of the galleys of Dandolo's fleet Marco Polo seems to have gone in this last capacity. The hostile fleets met before Curzola Island on the 6th of September, and engaged next morning. The battle ended in a complete victory for Genoa, the details of which may still be read on the facade of St Matthew's church in that city. Sixty-six Venetian galleys were burnt in Curzola Bay, and eighteen were carried to Genoa, with 7000 prisoners, one of whom was Marco Polo. The captivity was of less than a year's duration; by the mediation of Milan peace was made, on honourable terms for both republics, by July 1299; and Marco was probably restored to his family during that or the following month. But his captivity was memorable as the immediate cause of his Book. Up to this time he had doubtless often related his experiences among his friends; and from these stories, and the 'frequent employment in them (as it would seem) of grand numerical expressions, he had acquired the nickname of Marco Millioni. Yet it would seem that he had committed nothing to writing. The narratives not only of Marco Polo but of several other famous medieval travellers (e.g. Ibn Batuta, Friar Odoric, Nicolo Conti) seem to have been extorted from them by a kind of pressure, and committed to paper by other hands. Examples, perhaps, of that intense dislike to the use of pen and ink which still prevails among ordinary respectable folk on the shores of the Mediterranean. In the prison of Genoa Marco Polo fell in with a certain person of writing propensities, Rusticiano or Rustichello of Pisa, also a captive of the Genoese. His name is otherwise known as that of a respectable literary hack, who abridged and recast several of the French romances of the Arthurian cycle, then in fashion. He wrote down Marco's experiences at his dictation. We learn little of Marco Polo's personal or family history after this captivity; but we know that at his death he left a wife, Donata (perhaps of the Loredano family, but this is uncertain), and three daughters, Fantina and Bellela (married, the former to Marco Bragadino), and Moreta (then a spinster, but married at a later date to Ranuzzo Dolfino). One last glimpse of the traveller is gathered from his will, now in St Mark's library. On the gth of January 1324 the traveller, in his seventieth year, sent for a neighbouring priest and notary to make his testament. We do not know the exact time of his death, but it fell almost certainly within the year 1324, for we know from a scanty series of documents, beginning in June 1325, that he had at the latter date been some time dead. He was buried, IrTaccordance with his will, in the Church of St Lorenzo, where the family burying-place was marked by a sarcophagus, erected by his filial care for his father Nicolo, which existed till near the end of the i6th century. On the renewal of the church" in 1592 this seems to have disappeared. The archives of Venice have yielded a few traces of our tra- veller. Besides his own will just alluded to, there are the wills of his uncle Marco and of his younger brother Maffeo; a few legal documents connected with the house property in St John Chrysostom, and other papers of similar character; and two or three entries in the record of the Maggior Con- siglio. We have mentioned the sobriquet of Marco Millioni. Ramusio tells us that he had himself noted the use of this name in the public books of the commonwealth, and this statement has been verified in an entry in the books of the Great Council (dated April 10, 1305), which records as one of the securities in a certain case the " Nobilis vir Marchus Paulo MILION." It is alleged that long after the traveller's death there was always in the Venetian masques one individual who assumed the character of Marco Millioni, and told Munchausen-like stories to divert the vulgar. There is also a record (March 9, 1311) of the judgment of the court of requests (Curia Peti- tionum) upon a suit brought by the " Nobilis vir Marcus Polo " against Paulo Girardo, who had been an agent of his, to recover the value of a certain quantity of musk for which Girardo had not accounted. Another document is a catalogue of certain curiosities and valuables which were collected in the house of Marino Faliero, and this catalogue comprises several objects that Marco Polo had given to one of the Faliero family. The most tangible record of Polo's memory in Venice is a portion of the Ca' Polo — the mansion (there is reason to believe) where the three travellers, after their long absence, were denied entrance. The court in which it stands was known in Ramusio's time as the Corte del millioni, and now is called Corte Sabbionera. That which remains of the ancient edifice is a passage with a decorated archway of Italo-Byzantine character pertaining to the I3th century. No genuine portrait of Marco Polo exists. There is a medallion portrait on the wall of the Sala dello Scudo in the ducal palace, which has become a kind of type; but it is a work of imagination no older than 1761. The oldest professed portrait is one in the gallery of Monsignor Badia at Rome, which is inscribed Marcus Polus venetus lolius orbis et Indie peregrator primus. It is a good picture, but evidently of the i6th century at earliest. The Europeans at Canton have absurdly attached the name of Marco Polo to a figure in a Buddhist temple there containing a gallery of " Arhans " or Buddhist saints, and popularly known as the " temple of the five hundred gods." The Venetian municipality obtained a copy of this on the occasion of the geographical congress at Venice in 1881. The book indited by Rusticiano is in two parts. The first, or prologue, as it is termed, is unfortunately the only part which con- sists of actual personal narrative. It relates in an interesting though extremely brief fashion the circumstances which led the two elder Polos to the Khan's court, together with those of their second journey (when accompanied by Marco), and of the return to the west by the Indian seas and Persia. The second and staple part consists of a series of chapters of unequal length and unsystem- atic structure, descriptive of the different states and provinces of Asia (certain African islands and regions included), with occasional notices of their sights and products, of curious manners and re- markable events, and especially regarding the Emperor Kublai, his court, wars and administration. A series of chapters near __ the close treats of sundry wars that took place between various'' branches of the house of Jenghiz in the latter half of the I3th century. This last series is either omitted or greatly curtailed in all the MS. copies and versions except one (Paris, National Library, Fonds Fr. 1116). It was long doubtful in what language the work was originally written. That this had been some dialect of Italian was a natural presumption, and a contemporary statement could be alleged in its favour. But there is now no doubt that the original was French. This was first indicated by Count Baldelli-Boni, who published an elaborate edition of two of the Italian texts at Florence in 1827, and who found in the oldest of these indisputable signs that it was a translation from the French. The argument has since been followed up by others; and a manuscript in rude and peculiar French, belonging to the National Library of Paris (Fonds Fr. 1116), which was printed by the Socifti de gto^raphie in 1824, is evidently either the original or a close transcript of the original dictation. A variety of its characteristics are strikingly indicative of the unrevised product of dictation, and are such as would necessarily have disappeared either in a translation or in a revised copy. Many illustrations could be adduced of the fact that the use of French was not a circumstance of surprising or unusual nature; for the language had at that time, in some points of view, even a wider diffusion than at present, and examples of its literary em- ployment by writers who were not Frenchmen (like Rusticiano himself, a compiler of French romances) are very numerous. IO POLO, MARCO Eighty-five MSS. of the book are known, and their texts exhibit considerable differences. These fall under four principal types. Of these, type i. is found completely only in that old French codex which has been mentioned (Paris, National Library, Fr. 1116). Type ii. is shown by several valuable MSS. in purer French (Paris, Nat. Libr., Fr. 2810; Fr. 5631; Fr. 5649; Bern, Canton Library, 125), which formed the basis of the edition prepared by the late M. Pauthier in 1865. It exhibits a text condensed and revised from the rude original, but without any exactness, though perhaps under some general direction by Marco Polo himself, for an inscrip- tion prefixed to certain MSS. (Bern, Canton Libr. 125; Paris, Nat. Libr., Fr. 5649) records the presentation of a copy by the tra- veller himself to the Seigneur Thiebault de C6poy, a distinguished Frenchman known to history, at Venice in the year 1306. Type iii. is that of a Latin version prepared in Marco Polo's lifetime, though without any sign of his cognisance, by Francesco Pipino, a Dominican of Bologna, and translated from an Italian copy. In this, condensation and curtailment are carried a good deal further than in type ii. Some of the forms under which this type appears curiously illustrate the effects of absence of effective publication, not only before the invention of the press, but in its early days. Thus the Latin version published by Grynaeus at Basel in the Novus Orbis (1532) is different in its language from Pipino's, and yet is clearly traceable to that as its foundation. In fact it is a retranslation into Latin from some version of Pipino (Marsden thinks the Portuguese printed one of 1502). It introduces changes of its own, and is worthless as a text; yet Andreas Miiller, who in the 1 7th century took so much trouble with Polo, unfortunately chose as his text this fifth-hand version. The French editions published in the middle of the i6th century were translations from Grynaeus's Latin. Hence they complete this curious and vicious circle of transmission — -French, Italian, Pipino's Latin, Portuguese, Grynaeus's Latin, French. Type iv. deviates largely from those already mentioned; its history and true character are involved in obscurity. It is only represented by the Italian version prepared for the press by John Baptist Ramusio, with interesting preliminary dissertations, and published at Venice two years after his death, in the second volume of the Navigation* e viaggi. Its peculiarities are great. Ramusio seems to imply that he made some use of Pipino's Latin, and various passages confirm this. But many new circumstances, and anec- dotes occurring in no other copy, are introduced; many names assume a new shape; the whole style is more copious and literary than that of any other version. While a few of the changes and interpolations seem to carry us farther from the truth, others contain facts of Asiatic nature or history, as well as of Polo's alleged experiences, which it is difficult to ascribe to any hand but the traveller's own. We recognize to a certain extent tampering with the text, as in cases where Polo's proper names have been identified, and more modern forms substituted. In some other cases the editorial spirit has gone astray. Thus the age of young Marco has been altered to correspond with a date which is itself erroneous. Ormuz is described as an island, contrary to the old texts, and to the fact in Polo's time. In speaking of the oil-springs of Caucasus the phrase " camel-loads " has been substituted for " ship-loads," in ignorance that the site was Baku on the Caspian. But, on the other hand, there are a number of new circumstances certainly genuine, which can hardly be ascribed to any one but Polo himself. Such is the account which Ramusio's version gives of the oppressions exercised by Kublai's Mahommedan minister Ahmad, telling how the Cathayans rose against him and murdered him, with the addition that Messer Marco was on the spot when all this happened. Not only is the whole story in substantial accordance with the Chinese annals, even to the name of the chief conspirator (Vanchu in Ramusio, Wangcheu in the Chinese records), but the annals also tell of the frankness of " Polo, assessor of the privy council," in opening Kublai's eyes to the iniquities of his agent. Polo was the first traveller to trace a route across the whole longitude of Asia, naming and describing kingdom after kingdom which he had seen ; the first to speak of the new and brilliant court which had been established at Peking; the first to reveal China in all its wealth and vastness, and to tell of the nations on its borders; the first to tell more of Tibet than its name, to speak of Burma, of Laos, of Siam, of Cochin-China, of Japan, of Java, of Sumatra and of other islands of the archipelago, of the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, of Ceylon and its sacred peak, of India but as a country seen and partially explored; the first in medieval times to give any distinct account of the secluded Christian Empire of Abyssinia, and of the semi-Christian island of Sokotra, and to speak, however dimly, of Zanzibar, and of the vast and distant Madagascar; whilst he carries us also to the remotely opposite region of Siberia and the Arctic shores, to speak of dog-sledges, white bears and reindeer- riding Tunguses. The diffusion of the book was hardly so rapid as has been some- times alleged. We know from Gilles Mallet's catalogue of the books collected in the Louvre by Charles V., dating c. 1370^1375, that five copies of Marco Polo's work were then in the collection ; but on the other hand, the 202 known MSS. and the numerous early printed editions of " Mandeville," with his lying wonders, indicates a much greater popularity. Dante, who lived twenty-three years after the book was dictated, and who touches so many things in the seen and unseen worlds, never alludes to Polo, nor, we believe, to any- thing that can be connected with him; nor can any trace of Polo be discovered in the book of his contemporary, Marino Sanudo the Elder, though this worthy is well acquainted with the work, later by some years, of Haytpn the Armenian, and though many of the subjects on which he writes in his own book (Secrela Fidelium Crucis1) challenge a reference to Polo's experiences. " Mande- ville " himself, who plundered right and left, hardly ever plunders Polo (see one example in Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 323, note). The only literary works we know of the I4th century which show acquaintance with Polo's book or achievements are Pipino's Chronicle, Villani's Florentine History, Pietro d'Abano's Conciliator, the Chronicle of John of Ypres, and the poetical romance of Baudouin de Sebourc, which last borrows themes largely from Polo. Within the traveller's own lifetime we find the earliest examples of the practical and truly scientific coast-charts (Portolani), based upon the experience of pilots, mariners, merchants, &c. In two of the most famous of the I4th century Portolani, we trace Marco Polo's influence — first, very slightly in the Laurentian or Medicean Portolano of 1351 (at Florence), but afterwards with clearness and in remarkable detail in the Catalan Atlas of 1375 (now at Paris). Both of these represent a very advanced stage of medieval knowledge, a careful attempt to represent the known world on the basis of collected fact, and a disregard for theological or pseudo- scientific theory; in the Catalan Atlas, as regards Central and Further Asia, and partially as regards India, Marco Polo's Book is the basis of the map. His names are often much perverted, and it is not always easy to understand the view that the compiler took of his itineraries. Still we have Cathay placed in the true position of China, as a great empire filling the south-east of Asia. The trans-Gangetic peninsula is absent, but that of India proper is, for the first time in the history of geography, represented with a fair approximation to correct form and position. It is curious that, in the following age, owing partly to his un- happy reversion to the fancy of a circular disk, the map of Fra Mauro (1459), one of the greatest map-making enterprises in history, and the result of immense labour in the collection of facts and the endeavour to combine them, gives a much less accurate idea of Asia than the Carta catalana. Columbus possessed a printed copy of the Latin version of Polo's book made by Pipino, and on more than seventy pages of this there are manuscript notes in the admiral's handwriting, testifying, what is sufficiently evident from the whole history of the Columbian voyages, to the immense in- fluence of the work of the Venetian merchant upon the discoverer of the new world. When, in the i6th century, attempts were made to combine new and old knowledge, the results were unhappy. The earliest of such combinations tried to realize Columbus's ideas regarding the identity of his discoveries with the Great Khan's dominions; but even after America had vindicated its independent existence, and the new knowledge of the Portuguese had named China where the Catalan map had spoken of Cathay, the latter country, with the whole of Polo's nomenclature, was shunted to the north, forming a separate system. Henceforward the influence of Polo's work on maps was simply injurious; and when to his names was added a sprinkling of Ptolemy's, as was usual throughout the i6th century, the result was a hotchpotch conveying no approximation to facts (see further MAP). As to the alleged introduction of important inventions into Europe by Polo — although the striking resemblance of early Euro- pean block-books to those of China seems clearly to indicate the derivation of the art from that country, there is no reason for connecting this introduction (any more than that of gunpowder or the mariner's compass) with the name of Marco. In the I4th century not only were missions of the Roman Church established in some of the chief cities of eastern China, but a regular overland trade was carried on between Italy and China, by way of Tana (Azov), Astrakhan, Otrar, Kamul (Hami) and Kanchow. Many a traveller other than Marco Polo might have brought home the block-books, and some might have witnessed the process of making them. This is the less to be ascribed to Polo, because he so curiously omits to speak of the process of printing, when, in describing the block-printed paper-money of China, his subject seems absolutely to challenge a description of the art. See the Recueil of the Paris Geographical Society (1824), vol. i., giving the text of the fundamental MS. (Nat. Libr. Paris, Fr. 1116; see above), as well as that of the oldest Latin version; G. Pauthier's edition, Livre . . . de Marco Polo . . . (Paris, 1865), based mainly upon the three Paris MSS. (Nat. Libr. Fr. 2810; Fr. 5631; Fr. 5649; see above) and accompanied by a commentary of great value; Baldelli-Boni's Italian edition, giving the oldest Italian version (Florence, 1827); Sir Henry Yule's edition, which in its final shape, as revised and augmented by Henri Cordier (. . . Marco Polo . . . London, 1903), is the most complete 1 Printed by Bongars in the collection called Gesla Dei per Francos (1611), ii. 1-281. POLO ii storehouse of Polo learning in existence, embodying the labours of all the best students of the subject, and giving the essence of such works as those of Major P. Molesworth Sykes (Ten Thousand Miles in Persia, &c.) so far as these touch Marco Polo; the Archimandrite Palladius Katharov's " Elucidations of Marco Polo " (from vol. x. of the Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1876), pp. 1-54; F. von Richthofen, Letters to Shangai Chamber of Commerce; E. C. Baber, Travels . . . in Western China; G. Phillips, Identity of . . . Zailun with Chang- chau in T'oung Poo (Oct. 1890), and other studies in T'oung-Pao (Dec. 1895 and July 1896). There are in all 10 French editions of Polo as well as 4 Latin editions, 27 Italian, 9 German, 4 Spanish, i Portuguese, 12 English, 2 Russian, I Dutch, I Bohemian (Chekh), I Danish and I Swedish. See also E. Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources, i. 239, 167; ii. 8, 71, 81-84, 184; Leon Cahun, Introduction a Vhistoire de I'Asie, 339, 386; C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 15-160, 545-547. 554, 556-563. (H. Y!; C. R. B.) POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball), the most ancient of games with stick and ball. Hockey, the Irish national game of hurling (and possibly golf and cricket) are derived from polo. History. Tjje jatter was caued hockey or hurling on horse- back in England and Ireland respectively, but historically hockey and hurling are polo on foot. The earliest records of polo are Persian. From Persia the game spread westward to Constantinople, eastwards through Turkestan to Tibet, China and Japan. From Tibet polo travelled to Gilgit and Chitral, possibly also to Manipur. Polo also flourished in India in the i6th century. Then for 200 years its records in India cease, till in 1854 polo came into Bengal from Manipur by way of Cachar and in 1862 the game was played in the Punjab. There have been twelve varieties of the game during its existence of at least 2000 years, (i) A primitive form consisting of feats of horsemanship and of skill with stick and ball. (2) Early Persian, described in Shahnama, a highly organized game with rules, played four aside. (3) Later Persian, i6th century, the grounds 300 by 1 70 yds. Sir Anthony Shirley says the game resembled the rough football of the same period in England. (4) The game in the lyth century in Persia. A more highly organized game than No. 3, as described by Chardin. (5) The Byzantine form played at Constantinople in the i2th century. A leathern ball the size of an apple and a racquet were used. (6) The Chinese game, about A.D. 600 played with a light wooden ball. The goal was formed by . two posts with a boarding between, in the latter a hole being cut and a net attached to it in the form of a bag. The side which hit the ball into the bag were the winners. Another Chinese form was two teams ranged on opposite sides of the ground, each defending its own goal. The object of the game was to drive the ball through the enemy's goal. (7) The Japanese game, popular in feudal times, still survives under the name of Dakiu, or ball match. The Japanese game has a boarded goal; 5 ft. from the ground is a circular hole i ft. 2 in. in diameter with a bag behind. The balls are of paper with a cover of pebbles or bamboo fibre, diameter 1-7 in., weight ij oz. The sticks are racket shaped. The object is to lift over or carry the ball with the racket and place it in the bag. (8) Called rol, played with a long stick with which the ball was dribbled along the ground. (9) Another ancient Indian form in which the sides ranged up on opposite sides of the ground and the ball was thrown in. This is probably the form of the game which reached India from Persia and is represented at the present day by Manipur and Gilgit polo, though these forms are probably rougher than the old Indian game. (10) Modern English with heavy ball and sticks, played in England and the colonies and wherever polo is played in Europe. Its characteristics are: offside; severe penalties for breach of the rules; close combination; rather short passing; low scoring, and a strong defence, (ii) Indian polo has a lighter ball, no boards to the grounds, which are usually full-sized; a modified offside-rule, but the same system of penalties. It is a quicker game than the English. (12) The American game has no offside and no penalties, in the English sense. The attack is stronger, the passing longer, the pace greater and more sustained. American players are more certain goal-hitters and their scoring is higher. They defeated the English players in 1909 with ease. Polo was first played in England by the loth Hussars in 1869. The game spread rapidly and some good play was seen at Lillie Bridge. But the organization of polo in England dates from its adoption by the Hurlingham Club in 1873. The ground was boarded along the sides, and this device, which was employed as a remedy for the irregular shape of the Hurlingham ground, has become almost universal and has greatly affected the develop- ment of the game. The club committee, in 1874, drew up the first code of rules, which reduced the number of players to five a side and included offside. The next step was the foundation 9f the Champion Cup, in 1877. Then came the rule dividing the game into periods of ten minutes, with intervals of two minutes for changing ponies after each period, and five minutes at half- time. The height of ponies was fixed at 14-2, and a little later an official measurer was appointed, no pony being allowed to play unless registered at Hurlingham. The next change was the present scale of penalties for offside, foul riding or dangerous play. A short time after, the crooking of the adversary's stick, unless in the act of hitting the ball, was forbidden. The game grew faster, partly as the result of these rules. Then the ten minutes' rule was revised. The period did not close until the ball went over the boundary. Thus the period might be ex- tended to twelve or thirteen minutes, and although this time was deducted from the next period the strain of the extra minutes was too great on men and ponies. It was therefore laid down that the ball should go out of play on going out of bounds or striking the board, whichever happened first. In 1910 a polo handicap was established, based on the American system of estimating the number of goals a player was worth to his side. This was modified in the English handicap by assigning to each player a handicap number as at golf. The highest number is ten, the lowest one. The Hurlingham handicap is revised during the winter, again in May, June and July, each handicap coming into force one month after the date of issue. In tournaments under handicap the individual handicap numbers are added together, and the team with the higher aggregate concedes goals to that with the lower, according to the con- ditions of the tournament. The handicap serves to divide second from first class tournaments, for the former teams must not have an aggregate over 25. The size of the polo ground is 300 yds. in length and from 1 60 to 200 yds. in width. The larger size is only found now where boards are not used. The ball is made of willow root, is 3J in. in diameter, weight not over s| oz. The polo stick has no standard size or weight, and square or cigar-shaped heads are used at the discretion of the player. On soft grounds, the former, on hard grounds the latter are the better, but Indian and American players nearly always prefer the cigar shape. The goal posts, now generally made of papier mache, are 8 yds. apart. This is the goal line. Thirty yards from the goal line a line is marked out, nearer than which to the goal no one of a fouled side may be when the side fouling has to hit out, as a penalty from behind the back line, which is the goal line produced. At 50 yds. from each goal there is generally a mark to guide the man who takes a free hit as a penalty. Penalties are awarded by the umpires, who should be two in number, well mounted, and with a good knowledge of the rules of the game. The Hurlingham and Ranelagh clubs appoint official umpires. There should also be a referee in case of disagreement between the umpires, and it is usual to have a man with a flag behind each goal to signal when a goal is scored. The Hurlingham club makes and revises the rules of the game, and its code is, with some local modifications, in force in the United Kingdom, English-speaking colonies, the Argentine Republic, California, and throughout Europe. America and India are governed by their own polo associations. . The American rules have no offside, and their penalties consist of subtracting a goal or the fraction of a goal, according to the offence, from the side which has incurred a penalty for fouling. The differences between the Hurlingham and Indian rules 12 POLONAISE— POLONNARUWA are very slight, and they tend to assimilate more as time goes on. Polo in the army is governed by an army polo committee, which fixes the date of the inter-regimental tournament. The semi-finals and finals are played at Hurlingham. The earlier ties take place at centres arranged by the army polo committee, who are charged by the military authorities with the duty of checking the expenditure of officers on the game. The value of polo as a military exercise is now fully recognized, and with the co-operation of Hurlingham, Ranelagh and Roehampton the expenses of inter-regimental tournaments have been regulated and restrained. The County Polo Association has affiliated to it all the county clubs. It is a powerful body, arranging the conditions of county tournaments, constructing the handicaps for county players, and in conjunction with the Ranelagh club holding a polo week for county players in London. The London clubs are three — Hurlingham, Ranelagh and Roehampton. Except that they use Hurlingham rules the clubs are independent, and arrange the con- ditions and fix the dates of their own tournaments. Ranelagh has four, Roehampton three and Hurlingham two polo grounds. There are about 400 matches played at these clubs, besides members' games from May to July during the London season. At present the Meadowbrook still hold the cup which was won inter- by an English team in 1886. In 1902 an American national team made an attempt to recover it and failed. Polo. They lacked ponies and combination; but they bought the first and learned the second, and tried again successfully in 1909, thus depriving English polo of the championship of the world. Polo in England has passed through several stages. It was always a game of skill. The cavalry regiments in India in early The Game. P°'° days, the 5th, 9th, 1 2th and i7th Lancers, the loth Hussars and the i3th Hussars, had all learned the value of combination. In very early days regimental players had learned the value of the backhanded stroke, placing the ball so as to give opportunities to their own side. The duty of support- ing the other members of the team and riding off opponents so as to clear the way for players on the same side was understood. This combination was made easier when the teams were reduced from five a side to four. Great stress was laid on each man keeping his place, but a more flexible style of play existed from early days in the I7th Lancers and was improved and perfected at the Rugby Club by the late Colonel Gordon Renton and Captain E. D. Miller, who had belonged to that regiment. For a long time the Rugby style of play, with its close combination, short passes and steady defence, was the model on which other teams formed themselves. The secret of the success of Rugby was the close and unselfish combination and the hard work done by every member of the team. After the American victories of 1909 a bolder, harder hitting style was adopted, and the work of the forwards became more important, and longer passes are now the rule. But the main principles are the same. The forwards lead the attack and are supported by the half-back and back when playing towards the adversaries' goal. In defence the forwards hamper the opposing No. 3 and No. 4 and endeavour to clear the way for their own No. 3 and No. 4, who are trying not merely to keep the ball out of their own goal but to turn defence into attack. Each individual player must be a good horseman, able to make a pony gallop, must have a control of the ball, hitting hard and clean and in the direction he wishes it to go. He must keep his eye on the ball and yet know where the goal-posts are, must be careful not to incur penalties and quick to take advantage of an opportunity. Polo gives no time for second thoughts. A polo player must not be in a hurry, but he must never be slow nor dwell on his stroke. He must be able to hit when galloping his best pace on to the ball and able to use the speed of his pony in order to get pace. He must be able to hit a backhander or to meet a ball coming to him, as the tactics of the game require. Polo has given rise to a new type of horse, an animal of 14 hands 2 in. with the power of a hunter, the courage of a racehorse and the docility of a pony. At first the ponies were small, but now each pony must pass the Hurlingham official measurer and be entered on the register. The English The Polo system of measurement is the fairest and most Pony. humane possible. The pony stripped of his clothing is led by an attendant, not his own groom, into a box with a perfectly level floor and shut off from every distraction. A veterinary surgeon examines to see that the pony is neither drugged nor in any way improperly prepared. The pony is allowed to stand easily, and a measuring standard with a spirit-level is then placed on the highest point of the wither, and if the pony measures 14-2 and is five years old it is i cgistered for life. Ponies are of many breeds. There are Arabs, Argentines, Americans, Irish and English ponies, the last two being the best. The Polo and Riding Pony Society, with headquarters at 12 Hanover Square, looks after the interests of the English and Irish pony and encourages their breeders. The English ponies are now bred largely for the game and are a blend of thoroughbred blood (the best are always the race-winning strains) or Arab and of the English native pony. AUTHORITIES. — Polo in England: J. Moray Brown, Riding and Polo, Badminton Library, revised and brought up to date by T. F. Dale (Longmans, 1899) ; Captain Younghusband, Polo in India, (n.d.); J. Moray Brown, Polo (Vinton, 1896); T. F. Dale, The Came of Polo (A. Constable & Co., 1897); Captain Younghusband, Tourna- ment Polo (1897); Captain de Lisle, Durham Light Infantry, Hints to Polo Players in India (1897); T. B. Drybrough, Polo (Vinton, 1898; revised, Longmans, 1906); Captain E. D. Miller, Modern Polo (1903); H. L. Fitzpatrick, Equestrian Polo, in Spalding's Athletic Library (1904) ; Major G. J. Younghusband, Tournament Polo (1904); T. F. Dale " Polo, Past and Present," Country Life; Walter Buckmaster, " Hints on Polo Combination," Library of Sport (George Newnes Ltd., 1905 ; Vinton & Co., 1909) ; Hurlingham Club, Rules of Polo, Register of Ponies; Polo and Riding Pony Society Stud Book (12 vols., 12 Hanover Square). A nnuals: American Polo Association, 143 Liberty Street, New York; Indian Polo Association, Lucknow, N. P.; Captain E. D. Miller, D.S.O., The Polo Players' Guide and Almanack; The Polo Annual, ed. by L. V. L. Simmonds. Monthlies: Bailey's Magazine (Vinton & Co.); The Polo Monthly (Craven House, Kingsway, London). Polo in Persia: Firdousi's Shahnama, translated as Le Livre des rois by J. Mohl, with notes and comm. ; Sir Anthony Shirley, Travels in Persia (1569); Sir John Chardin, Voyages en Perse (1686), ed. aug. de notes, &c. par L. Langles, 181 1 ; Sir William Ouseley, Travels in Various Countries of the East, particularly Persia (1810). There are many allusions to polo in the poets, notably Nizami, . Jam! and Omar Khayyam. Polo in Constantinople; Cinnamus Joannes epitome rerum ab loanne et Alexio Commenis gest. (Bonn, 1836). Polo in India: Ain-i-Akbari (1555); G. F. Vigne, Travels in Kashmir (Ladakh and Iskardo, 1842); Colonel Algernon Durand, The Making of a Frontier (1899). Polo in digit and Chitral: " Polo in Baltistan." The Field (1888); Polo in Manipur, Captain McCulloch, Manipuris and the Adjacent Tribes (1859). (T. F. D.) POLONAISE (i.e. Polish, in French), a stately ceremonious dance, usually written in J time. As a form of musical com- position it has been employed by such ccmposers as Bach, Handel, Beethoven, and above all by Chopin. It is usual to date the origin of the dance from the election (1573) of Henry duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. of France, to the throne of Poland. The ladies of the Polish nobility passed in cere- monial procession before him at Cracow to the sound of stately music. This procession of music became the regular opening ceremony at royal functions, and developed into the dance. The term is also given to a form of skirted bodice, which has been fashionable for ladies at different periods. POLONNARUWA, a ruined city and ancient capital of Ceylon. It first became a royal residence in A.D. 368, when the lake of Topawewa was formed, and succeeded Anuradhapura as the capital in the middle of the 8th century. The principal ruins date chiefly from the time of Prakrama Bahu (A.D. 1153- ii 86). The most imposing pile remaining is the Jetawa- narama temple, a building 170 ft. in length, with walls about 80 ft. high and 12 ft. thick. The city is now entirely deserted, and, as in the case of Anuradhapura, its ruins have only recently been rescued from the jungle. POLOTSK— POLTAVA POLOTSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Vitebsk, at the confluence of the Polota with the Dvina, 62 m. by rail N.W. of the town of Vitebsk. Pop. 20,751. Owing to the continuous wars, of which, from its position on the line of communication between central Russia and the west it was for many centuries the scene, scarcely any of its remarkable anti- quities remain. The upper castle, which stood at the confluence of the rivers and had a stone wall with seven towers, is in ruins, as is the lower castle formerly enclosed with strong walls and connected with the upper castle by a bridge. The cathedral of St Sophia in the upper castle, built in the I2th century, fell to ruins in the i8th century, whereupon the United Greek bishop substituted a modern structure. Upwards of two-thirds of the inhabitants are Jews; the remainder have belonged mostly to the Orthodox Greek Church since 1839, when they were compelled to abandon the United Greek Church. Flax, linseed, corn and timber are the leading articles of commerce. Polotesk or Poltesk is mentioned in 862 as one of the towns given by the Scandinavian Rurik to his men. In 980 it had a prince of its own, Ragvald (Rogvolod or Rognvald), whose daughter is the subject of many legends. It remained an independent principality until the I2th century, resisting the repeated attacks of the princes of Kiev; those of Pskov, Lithu- ania, and the Livonian tCnights, however, proved more effective, and Polotsk fell under Lithuanian rule in 1320. About 1385 its independence was destroyed by the Lithuanian prince Vitovt. It was five times besieged by Moscow in 1500-18, and was taken by Ivan the Terrible in 1563. Recaptured by Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, sixteen years later, it became Polish by the treaty of 1582. It was then a large and populous city, and carried on an active commerce. Pestilences and conflagrations were its ruin; the plague of 1566 wrought great havoc among its inhabitants, and that of 1600 destroyed 15,000. The castles, the town and its walls were burned in 1607 and 1642. The Russians continued their attacks, burning and plundering the town, and twice, in 1633 and 1705, taking possession of it for a few years. It was not definitely annexed, however, to Russia until 1772, after the first dismemberment of Poland. In 1812 its inhabitants resisted the French invasion, and the town was partially destroyed. POLTAVA, a government of south-western Russia, bounded by the government of Chernigov on the N., Kharkov on the E., Ekaterinoslav and Kherson on the S., and Kiev on the W., and having an area of 19,260 sq. m. Its surface is an undulating plain 500 to 600 ft. above sea-level, with a few elevations reach- ing 670 ft. in the north, and gently sloping to 300 and 400 ft. in the south-west. Owing to the deep excavations of the rivers, their banks, especially those on the right, have the aspect of hilly tracts, while low plains stretch to the left. Almost the whole of the surface consists of Tertiary deposits; Cretaceous rocks appear in the north-east, at the bottom of the deeper ravines. The government touches the granitic region of the Dnieper only in the south, below Kremenchug. Limestone with dolerite veins occurs in the isolated hill of Isachek, which rises above the marshes of the Sula. The whole is covered with a layer, 20 to 60 ft. thick, of boulder clay, which again is often mantled with a thick sheet of loess. Sandstone (sometimes suitable for grindstones) and limestone are quarried, and a few beds of gypsum and peat-bog are known within the government. With the exception of some sandy tracts, the soil is on the whole very fertile. Poltava is drained by the Dnieper, which flows along its border, navigable throughout, and by its tributaries the Sula, Psiol, Vorskla, Orel, Trubezh, and several others, none of them navigable, although their courses vary from 150 to 270 m. each in length. Even those which used to be navigated within the historical period, such as the Trubezh and Supoi, are now drying up, while the others are being partially trans- formed into marshes. Deep sand-beds intersected by number- less ravines and old arms of the river stretch along the left bank of the Dnieper, where accordingly the settlements are few. Only 5% of the total area is under forest; timber, wooden wares, and pitch are imported. The estimated population in 1906 was 3,312,400. The great majority are Little Russians. Agriculture is the principal pursuit, 60% of the total area being arable land. The crops chiefly grown are wheat, rye and oats; the sunflower is largely cultivated, especially for oil, and the growing of tobacco, always important, has made a great advance. Kitchen gardening, the cultivation of the plum, and the preparation of preserved fruits are important branches of industry. At Lubny, where an apothecaries' garden is maintained by the Crown, the col- lection and cultivation of medicinal plants are a speciality. The main source of wealth in Poltava always has been, and still is, its live-stock breeding — horses, cattle, sheep, pigs. Some of the wealthier landowners and many peasants rear finer breeds of horses. The land is chiefly owned by the peasants, who possess 52% of the cultivable area; 42% belongs to private persons, and the remainder to the Crown, the clergy, and the municipalities. Among the manufactures distilleries hold the leading place, after which come flour-mills, tobacco factories, machine-making, tanneries, saw-mills, sugar-works and woollen manufactures. In the villages and towns several domestic trades are carried on, such as the preparation of sheepskins, plain woollen cloth, leather, boots and pottery. The fair of Poltava is of great importance for the whole woollen trade of Russia, and leather, cattle, horses, coarse woollen cloth, skins, and various domestic wares are exchanged for manufactures imported from Great Russia. The value of merchandise brought to the fair averages over £2,500,000. Several other fairs, the aggregate returns for which reach more than one-half of the above, are held at Romny (tobacco), Kremenchug '(timber, corn, tallow and salt), and Kobelyaki (sheepskins). Corn is exported to a considerable extent to the west and to Odessa, as also saltpetre, spirits, wool, tallow, skins and woollen cloth. The Dnieper is the principal artery for the exports and for the import — timber. The chief river-ports are Kremenchug and Poltava. Steamers ply between Kiev and Ekaterinoslav; but the navigation is hampered by want of water and becomes active only in the south. Traffic mostly follows the railway. Poltava is divided into fifteen districts, of which the chief towns are Poltava, Gadyach, Khorol, Kobelyaki, Konstantinograd, Kremenchug, Lokhvitsa, Lubny, Mirgorod, Pereyaslavl, Piryatin, Priluki, Romny, Zenkov and Zolotonosha. History. — At the dawn of Russian history the region now occupied by Poltava was inhabited by the Slav tribe of the Syeveryanes. As early as 988 the Russians erected several towns on the Sula and the Trubezh for their protection against the Turkish Petchenegs and Polovtsi, who held the south- eastern steppes. Population extended, and the towns of Pereyaslavl, Lubny, Priluki, Piryatin, Romny, begin to be mentioned in the nth and i2th centuries. The Mongol invasion of 1230-42 destroyed most of them, and for two centuries afterwards they disappear from Russian annals. About 1331 Gedimin, prince of Lithuania, annexed the so-called " Syeversk towns " and on the recognition of the union of Lithuania with Poland they were included in the united kingdom along with the remainder of Little Russia. In 1476 a separate principality of Kiev under Polish rule and Polish institutions was formed out of Little Russia, and remained so until the rising of the Cossack chief Bogdan Chmielnicki in 1654. By the Andrussowo Treaty, the left bank of the Dnieper being ceded to Russia, Poltava became part of the dominions of the Zaporogian Cossacks, and was divided into " regiments," six of which (Poltava, Pereyaslavl, Priluki, Gadyach, Lubny and Mirgorod) lay within the limits of the present government. They lost their independence in 1764. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) POLTAVA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the right bank of the Vorskla, 88 m. by rail W.S.W. of Kharkov. Pop. 53,060. The town is built on a plateau which descends by steep slopes on nearly every side. Several suburbs, inhabited by Cossacks, whose houses are buried amid gardens, and a German colony, surround the town. The oldest buildings are a monastery, erected in 1650, and a wooden POLTERGEIST church visited by Peter the Great after the battle of Poltava. There are a military school for cadets, a theological seminary and two girls' colleges; also flour-mills, tobacco works and a tannery. Poltava is mentioned in Russian annals in 1174, under the name of Ltava, but does not again appear in history until 1430, when, together with Glinsk, it was given by Gedimin, prince of Lithuania, to the Tatar prince Leksada. Under the Cossack chief, Bogdan Chmielnicki, it was the chief town of the Poltava " regiment." Peter the Great of Russia defeated Charles XII. of Sweden in the immediate neighbourhood on the 27th of June 1709, and the victory is commemorated by a column over 50 ft. in height. POLTERGEIST (Ger. for " racketing spirit "), the term applied to certain phenomena of an unexplained nature, such as movements of objects without any traceable cause, and noises equally untraced to their source; but in some 'cases exhibiting intelligence, as when raps answer a question by a code. In the word Poltergeist, the phenomena are attributed to the action of a Geist, or spirit : of old the popular explanation of all residuary phenomena. The hypothesis, in consequence of the diffusion of education, has been superseded by that of "electricity"; while sceptics in all ages and countries have accounted for all the phenomena by the theory of imposture. The last is at least a tier a causa: imposture has often been detected; but it is not so certain that this theory accounts for all the circumstances. To the student of human nature the most interesting point in the character of poltergeist phenomena is their appearance in the earliest known stages of culture, their wide diffusion, and their astonishing uniformity. Almost all the beliefs usually styled " superstitious " are of early occurrence and of wide diffusion: the lowest savages believe in ghosts of the dead and in wraiths of the living. Such beliefs when found thriving in our own civilization might be explained as mere survivals from savagery, memories of all " The superstitions idle-headed eld Received and did deliver to our age." But we have not to deal only with a belief that certain apparently impossible things may occur and have occurred in the past. We are met by the evidence of sane and credible witnesses, often highly educated, who maintain that they themselves have heard and beheld the unexplained sounds and sights. It appears, therefore, that in considering the phenomena of the poltergeist we are engaged with facts of one sort or another; facts produced either by skilled imposture, or resting on hallucinations of the witnesses; or on a mixture of fraud and of hallucination caused by " suggestion." There remains the chance that some agency of an unexplored nature is, at least in certain cases, actually at work. A volume would be needed if we were to attempt to chronicle the phenomena of the poltergeist as believed in by savages and in ancient and medieval times. But among savages they are usually associated with the dead, or with the medicine-men of the tribes. These personages are professional " mediums," and like the mediums of Europe and America, may be said to have do- mesticated the poltergeist. At their seances, savage or civilized, the phenomena are reported to occur — such as rappings and other noises, loud or low, and " movements of objects without physical contact." (See, for a brief account, A. Lang, Cock Lane and Common Sense, " Savage Spiritualism "; and see the Jesuit Lettres edifiantes, North America, 1620-1770, and Kohl's Kitchi Garni.) But ;< induced phenomena," where professional mediums and professional medical men are the agents, need not here be considered. The evidence, unless in the case of Sir William Crookes's experiments with Daniel Dunglas Home, is generally worthless, and the laborious investigations of the Society for Psychical Research resulted only in the detection of fraud as far as " physical " manifestations by paid mediums were concerned. The spontaneous poltergeist, where, at least, no professional is present, and no stance is being held, is much more curious and interesting than the simple tricks played in the dark by impudent charlatans. The phenomena are identical, as reported, literally "from China to Peru.". The Cieza de Leon (1549) tells us that the cacique of Pirza, in Popyan, during his conversion to Christianity, was troubled by stones falling mysteriously through the air (the mysterious point was the question of whence they came, and what force urged them), while Chris- tians saw at his table a glass of liquor raised in the air, by no visible hand, put down empty, and replenished! Mr Dennys (Folk Lore of China, 1876, p. 79) speaks of a Chinese householder who was driven to take refuge in a temple by the usual phenomena — throwing about of crockery and sounds of heavy footfalls — after the decease of an aggrieved monkey. This is only one of several Chinese cases of poltergeist; and the phenomena are described in Jesuit narratives of the i8th century, from Cochin China. In these papers no explanation is suggested. There is a famous example in a nunnery, recorded (1528) by a notable witness, Adrien de Montalembert, almoner to Francis I. The agent was supposed to be the spirit of a sister recently deceased. Among multitudes of old cases, that of the " Drummer of Tedworth " (1662-1663; see Glanvil, Sadducismus triumphatus, 1666); that at Rerrick, recorded by the Rev. Mr Telfer in 1695; that of the Wesley household (1716-1717) chronicled in contemporary letters and diaries of the Wesley family (Southey's Life of John Wesley); tha£ of Cideville (1851), from the records of the court which tried the law-suit arising out of the affair (Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, xviii. 454-463); and the Alresford case, attested by the great admiral, Lord St Vincent, are among the most remarkable. At Tedworth we have the evidence of Glanvil himself, though it does not amount to much; at Rerrick, Telfer was a good chronicler and gives most respectable signed vouchers for all the marvels: Samuel Wesley and his wife were people of sense, they were neither alarmed nor superstitious, merely puzzled; while the court which tried the Cideville case, only decided that " the cause of the events remains unknown." At Alresford, in Hampshire, the phenomena attested by Lord St Vincent and his sister Mrs Ricketts, who occupied the house, were pecu- liarly strange and emphatic: the house was therefore pulled down. At Willington Mill, near Morpeth (1831-1847), the phenomena are attested by the journal of Mr Procter, the occupant, a Quaker, a " tee-totaller," and a man of great resolution. He and his family endured unspeakable things for sixteen years, and could find no explanation of the sights and sounds, among which were phantasms of animals, as at Epworth, in the Wesley case. Of all these cases that of the Wesleys has attracted most critical attention. It was not, in itself, an extreme instance of poltergeist: at Alresford, at the close of the i8th century, and at Willington Mill in the middle of the igth the disturbances were much more violent and persistent than at Epworth, while our evidence is, in all three examples, derived from the contem- porary narratives, letters and journals of educated persons. The Wesleys, however, were people so celebrated and so active in religion that many efforts have been made to explain their " old Jeffrey," as they called the disturbing agency. These attempts at explanation have been fruitless. The poet Coleridge, who said that he knew many cases, explained all by a theory of contagious epidemic hallucination of witnesses. Dr Salmon, of Trinity College, Dublin, set all down to imposture by Hetty Wesley, a vivacious girl (Fortnightly Review, 1866). The documents on which he relied, when closely studied, did not support his charges, for he made several important errors in dates, and on these his argument rested. F. Podmore, in several works (e.g. Studies in Psychical Research), adopted a theory of exaggerative memory in the narrators, as one element, with a dose of imposture and of hallucination begotten of excited expectation. The Wesley letters and journals, written from day to day, do not permit of exaggerative memory, and when the records of 1716-1717 are compared with the remini- scences collected from his family by John Wesley in 1726, the discrepancies are seen to be only such as occur in all human POLTERGEIST evidence about any sort of events, remote by nine or ten years. Thus, in 1726, Mrs Wesley mentioned a visionary badger seen by her. She did not write about it to her son Samuel in 1717, but her husband and her daughter did then describe it to Samuel, as an experience of his mother at that date. The whole family, in 1717, became familiar with the phenomena, and were tired of them and of Samuel's questions. (Mr Podmore's arguments are to be found in the Journal of the Studies of Psychical Research, ix. 40-45. Some dates are mis- printed.) The theory of hallucination cannot account for the uniformity of statements, in many countries and at many dates, to the effect that the objects mysteriously set in motion moved in soft curves and swerves, or " wobbled." Suppose that an adroit impostor is throwing them, suppose that the spectators are excited, why should their excitement every- where produce a uniform hallucination as to the mode of motion? It is better to confess ignorance, and remain in doubt, than to invent such theories. A modern instance may be analysed, as the evidence was given contemporaneously with the events (Podmore, Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, xii. 45-58: " Poltergeists ")• On the 2oth or 2ist of February 1883 a Mrs White, in a cottage at Worksop, was " washing up the tea-things at the table," with two of her children in the room, when " the table tilted up at a considerable angle," to her amazement. On the 26th of February, Mr White being from home, Mrs White extended hospitality to a girl, Eliza Rose, " the child of an imbecile mother." Eliza is later described as " half-witted," but no proof of this is given. On the ist of March, White being from home, at about 11.30 p.m. a number of things " which had been in the kitchen a few minutes before " came tumbling down the kitchen stairs. Only Mrs White and Eliza Rose were then in the kitchen. Later some hot coals made an invasion. On the following night, White being at home in the kitchen, with his wife and Eliza, a miscellaneous throng of objects came in, Mr White made vain research upstairs, where was his brother Tom. On his return to the kitchen " a little china woman left the mantelpiece and flew into the corner." Being replaced, it repeated its flight, and was broken. White sent his brother to fetch a doctor; there also came a policeman, named Higgs; and the doctor and policeman saw, among other things, a basin and cream jug rise up automatically, fall on the floor and break. Next morning, a clock which had been silent for eighteen months struck; a crash was heard, and the clock was found to have leapt over a bed and fallen on the floor. All day many things kept flying about and breaking themselves, and Mr White sent Miss Rose about her business. Peace ensued. Mr Podmore, who visited the scene on the 7th and 8th of April and collected depositions, says (writing in 1883): "It may be stated generally that there was no possibility, in most cases, of the objects having been thrown by hand. . . . More- over it is hard to conceive by what mechanical appliances, under the circumstances described, the movements could have been effected. ... To suppose that these various objects were all moved by mechanical contrivances argues incredible stupidity, amounting almost to imbecility, on the part of all the persons present who were not in the plot," whereas Higgs, Dr Lloyd and a miner named Curass, all " certainly not wanting in intelligence," examined the objects and could find no explana- tion. White attested that fresh invasions of the kitchen by inanimate objects occurred as Eliza was picking up the earlier arrivals; and he saw a salt-cellar fly from the table while Eliza was in another part of the room. The amount of things broken was valued by White at £9. No one was in the room when the clock struck and fell. Higgs saw White shut the cupboard doors, they instantly burst open, and a large glass jar flew into the yard and broke. " The jar could not go in a straight line from the cupboard out of the door; but it certainly did go " (Higgs). The depositions were signed by the witnesses (April 1883). In 1896, Mr Podmore, after thirteen years of experience in examining reports of the poltergeist, produced his explana- tions, (i) The witnesses, though " honest and fairly intelli- gent," were " imperfectly educated, not skilled in accurate observation of any kind." (They described, like many others, in many lands, the " wobbling " movement of objects in flight.) (2) Mr Podmore took the evidence five weeks after date; there was time for exaggerated memories. (Mr Podmore did not consult, it seems, the contemporary evidence of Higgs in the Retford and Gainsborough Times, oth of March 1883. On examination it proves to tally as precisely as possible with the testimonies which he gave to Mr Podmore, except that in March he mentioned one or two miracles which he omitted five weeks later! The evidence is pubh'shed in Lang's The Making oj Religion, 1898, p. 356.) (3) In the evidence given to Mr Podmore five weeks after date, there are discrepancies between Higgs and White as to the sequence of some events, and as to whether one Coulter was present when the clock fell: he asserts, Higgs and White deny it . (There is never evidence of several witnesses, five weeks after an event, without such discrepancies. If there were, the evidence would be suspected as " cooked." Higgs in April gave the same version as in March.) (4) As there are discrepancies, the statements that Eliza was not always present at the abnormal occurrences may be erroneous. " It is perhaps not unreasonable to conjecture that Eliza Rose herself, as the instrument of mysterious agencies, or simply as a half- witted girl gifted with abnormal cunning and love of mischief, may have been directly responsible for all that took place." (How, if, as we have seen, the theory of mechanical appliances is abandoned, " under the circumstances described " ? We need to assume that all the circumstances are wrongly described. Yet events did occur, the breakages were lamentable, and we ask how could the most half-witted of girls damage so much property undetected, under the eyes of the owner, a policeman, a medical practitioner and others ? How could she throw things from above into the room where she was picking up the things as they arrived? Or is that a misdescription ? No evidence of Eliza's half-wittedness and abnormal cunning is adduced. If we call her "the instrument of mysterious agencies," the name of these agencies is — poltergeist! No later attempt to find and examine the abnormal girl is recorded.) The explanations are not ideally satisfactory, out they are the result, in Mr Podmore's mind, of examination of several later cases of poltergeist.1 In one a girl, carefully observed, was detected throwing things, and evidence that the phenomena occurred, in her absence, at another place and time, is discounted. In several other cases, exaggerations of memory, malobservation and trickery combined, are the explanations, and the conclu- sion is that there is " strong ground " for believing in trickery as the true explanation of all these eleven cases, including the Worksop affair. Mr Podmore asserts that, at Worksop, " the witnesses did not give their testimony until some weeks after the event." That is an erroneous statement as far as Higgs goes, the result apparently of malobservation of the local news- paper. More or less of the evidence was printed in the week when the events occurred. Something more than unconscious exaggeration, or malobservation, seems needed to explain the amazing statements made by Mr Newman, a gamekeeper of Lord Portman, on the 23rd of January 1895, at Durmeston in another case. Among other things, he said that on the i8th of December 1894, a boot flew out of a door. " I went and put my foot on the boot and said ' I defy anything to move- this boot.' Just as I stepped off, it rose up behind me and knocked my hat off. There was nobody behind me." Gamekeepers are acute observers, and if the narrative be untrue, malobservation or defect of memory does not explain the fact. In this case, at Durmeston, the rector, Mr Anderson, gave an account of 1 The present writer criticized Mr Podmore's explanation in The Making of Religion. Mr Podmore replied (Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, xiv. 133, 136), pointing out an error in the critic's presentation of his meaning. He, in turn, said that the writer ' champions the supernormal interpretation," which is not exact, as the writer has no theory on the subject, though he is not satisfied that " a naughty little girl " is a uniformly successful solution of the poltergeist problem. i6 POLTERGEIST some of the minor phenomena. He could not explain them, and gave the best character to the Nonconformist mother of the child with whom the events were associated. No trickery was discovered. The phenomena are frequently connected with a person, often a child, suffering from nervous malady or recent nervous shock. No such person appears in the Alresford, Willington, Epworth and Tedworth cases, and it is not stated that Eliza Rose at Worksop was subjected to a medical examination. In a curious case, given by Mrs Crewe, in The Night Side of Nature, the young person was the daughter of a Captain Molesworth. Her own health was bad, and she had been depressed by the death of a sister. Captain Molesworth occupied a semi-detached villa at Trinity, near Edinburgh; his landlord lived next door. The phenomena set in: the captain bored holes in the wall to discover a cause in trickery, and his landlord brought a suit against him in the sheriff's court at Edinburgh. The papers are preserved, but the writer found that to discover them would be a herculean labour. He saw, how- ever, a number of documents in the office of a firm of solicitors employed in the case. They proved the fact of the lawsuit but threw no other light on the matter. We often find that the phenomena occur after a nervous shock to the person who may be called the medium. The shock is frequently consequent on a threat from a supposed witch or wizard. This was the case at Cideville in 1850-1851. (See an abstract of the documents of the trial, Proceedings S.P.R. xviii. 454-463. The entire report was sent to the writer.) In 1901 there was a case at Great Grimsby; the usual flying of stones and other objects occurred. The woman of the house had been threatened by a witch, after that the poltergeist developed. No explanation was forthcoming. In Proc. S.P.R. xvii. 320 the Rev. Mr Deanley gives a curious parallel case with detection of imposture. In Miss O'Neal's Devonshire Idylls is an excellent account of the phenomena which occurred after a Devonshire girl of the best character, well known to Miss O'Neal, had been threatened by a witch. In the famous instance of Christian Shaw of Bargarran (1697) the child had been thrice formally cursed by a woman, who prayed to God that her soul " might be hurled through hell." Christian fell into a state which puzzled the medical faculty (especially when she floated in the air), and doubtless she herself caused, in an hysterical state, many phenomena which, however, were not precisely poltergeistish. A very marked set of phenomena, in the way of movements of objects, recently occurred in the Hudson Bay territory, after a half-breed girl had received a nervous shock from a flash of lightning that struck near her. Heavy weights automatically " tobogganed," as Red Indian spectators said, and there were the usual rappings in tent and wigwam. If we accept trickery as the sufficient explanation, the uniformity of tricks played by hysterical patients is very singular. Still more singular is a long series, continued through several years, of the same occurrences where no hysterical patient is known to exist. In a very curious example, a carpenter's shop being the scene, there was concerned nobody of an hysterical temperament, no young boy or girl, and there was no explanation (Proc. S.P.R. vii- 383-394). The events went on during six weeks. An excellent case of hysterical fraud by a girl in France is given by Dr Grasset, professor of clinical medicine at Montpellier (Proc. S.P.R. xviii. 464-480). But in this instance, though things were found in unusual places, nobody over eight years old saw them flying about ; yet all concerned were deeply superstitious. On the whole, while fraud, especially hysterical fraud, is a vera causa in some cases of poltergeist, it is not certain that the explanation fits all cases, and it is certain that detection of fraud has often been falsely asserted, as at Tedworth and Willington. No good chronic case, as at Alresford, Epworth, Spraiton (Bovet's Pandaemon ium) , Willington, and in other classical instances, has been for months sedulously observed by sceptics. In short-lived cases, as at Worksop, science appears on the scene long enough after date to make the theory of exaggeration of memory plausible. If we ask science to explain how the more remarkable occurrences could be produced by a girl ex hypothese half-witted, the reply is that the occurrences never occurred, they were only " described as occurring " by untrained observers with " patent double magnifying " memo- ries; and with a capacity for being hallucinated in a uniform way all the world over. Yet great quantities of crockery and furniture were broken, before the eyes of observers, in a house near Ballarmina, in North Ireland, in January 1907. The experiment of exhibiting a girl who can break all the crockery without being detected, in the presence of a doctor and a policeman, and who can, at the same time, induce the spectators to believe that the flying objects waver, swerve and " wobble," has not been attempted. An obvious difficulty in the search for" authentic information is the circumstance that the poor and imperfectly educated are much more numerous than the well-to-do and well educated. It is therefore certain that most of the disturbances will occur in the houses of the poor and ill educated, and that their evidence will be rejected as insufficient. When an excellent case occurs in a palace, and is reported by the margravine of Bayreuth, sister of Frederick the Great, in her Memoirs, the objection is that her narrative was written long after the events. When we have contemporary journals and letters, or sworn evidence, as in the affairs of Sir Philip Francis, Cideville and Willington, criticism can probably find some other good reasons for setting these testimonies aside. It is certain that the royal, the rich and the well-educated observers tell, in many cases, precisely the same sort of stories about poltergeist phenomena as do the poor and the imperfectly instructed. On the theory that there exist " mysterious agencies " which now and then produce the phenomena, we may ask what these agencies can possibly be? But no answer worthy of considera- tion has ever been given to this question. The usual reply is that some unknown but intelligent force is disengaged from the personality of the apparent medium. This apparent medium need not be present; he or she may be far away. The High- landers attribute many poltergeist phenomena, inexplicable noises, sounds of viewless feet that pass, and so forth, to taradh, an influence exerted unconsciously by unduly strong wishes on the part of a person at a distance. The phrase falbh air farsaing (" going uncontrolled ") is also used (Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Scottish Highlands, 1902, pp. 144-147). The present writer is well acquainted with cases attributed to taradh, in a house where he has often been a guest. They excite no alarm, their cause being well understood. We may call this kind of thing telethoryby, a racket produced from a distance. A very marked case in Illinois would have been attributed in the Highlands to the taradh of the late owner of the house, a dipsomaniac in another state. On his death the disturbances ceased (first-hand evidence from the disturbed lady of the house, May 1907). It may be worth while to note that the phenomena are often regarded as death-warnings by popular belief. The early incidents at the Wesleys' house were thought to indicate the death of a kinsman; or to announce the approach- ing decease of Mr Wesley pere, who at first saw and heard nothing unusual. At Worksop the doctor was called in, because the phenomena were guessed to be " warnings " of the death of a sick child of the house. The writer has first-hand evidence from a lady and her son (afterwards a priest) of very singular movements of untouched objects in their presence, which did coincide with the death of a relation at a distance. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The literature of the subject is profuse, but scattered. For modern instances the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research may be consulted, especially an essay by F. W. H. Myers, vii. 146-198, also iy. 29-38; with the essay by Podmore, already quoted. Books like Dale Owen's Footfalls on the Boundary of Another World, and Fresnoy's Recueil des dis- sertations sur les apparitions, are stronger in the quantity of anec- dotes than in the quality of evidence. A. Lang's Book of Dreams and Ghosts, contains outlandish and Celtic examples, and Telfair's (Telfer's) A True Relation of an Apparition (1694-1696) shows un- usual regard for securing signed evidence. Kiesewetter's Geschichte des neueren Occultismus and Graham Dalyell's Darker Super- stitions of Scotland, with any collections of trials for witchcraft POLTROON— POLYANTHUS may be consulted, and Bovet's Pandaemonium (1684) is very rich in cases. The literature of the famous drummer of Tedworth (March i662-April 1663) begins with an abstract of the sworn deposition of Mr Mompesson, whose house was the scene of the dis- turbances. The abstract is in the Mercurius publicus of April 1663, the evidence was given in a court of justice on the isth of April. There is also a, ballad, a rhymed news-sheet of 1662 (Anthony \\< « nl's Collection 401 (193). Bodleian Library). Pepys mentions " books " about the affair in his Diary for June 1663. Glanvil's first known version is in his Sadductsmus triumphatus of 1666. Tin- sworn evidence of Mompesson proves at least that he was disturbed in an intolerable manner, certainly beyond any means at the disposal of his two daughters, aged nine and eleven or there- abouts. The agent may have been the taradh of the drummer whom Mompesson offended. Glanvil in 1666 confused the dates, and, save for his own experiences, merely repeats the statements current in 1662-1663. The ballad and Mompesson's deposition iveu in Proc. S.P.R. xvii. 304—336, in a discussion between tin- writer and Mr Podmore. The dated and contemporary narrative of Procter in the Willington Mill case (1835- 1847), is printed in the Journ. S.P.R. (Dec. 1892), with some conu-mporary letters on the subject. Mr Procter endured the disturbances for sixteen years before he retreated from the place. There was no naughty little girl in the affair; no nervous or hysterical patient. The Celtic hypothesis of idradh, exercised by " the spirit of the living," includes visual apparitions, and many a sd-called " ghost " of the dead may be merely the taradh of a living person. (A. L.) POLTROON, a coward, a worthless rogue without courage or spirit. The word comes through Fr. poltron from Ital. poltrone, an idle fellow, one who lolls in a bed or couch (Milanese palter, Venetian poltrona, adapted from Ger. Polster, a pillow; cf. English " bolster"). The old guess that it was from Lat. pollice truncus, maimed in the thumb, and was first applied to those who avoided military service by self-mutilation, gave rise probably to the French application of poltron to a falcon whose talons were cut to prevent its attacking game. POLTROT, JEAN DE (c. 1537-1561.), sieur de Mere or Merey, a nobleman of Angoumois, who murdered Francis, duke of Guise. He had lived some time in Spain, and his knowledge of Spanish, together with his swarthy complexion, which earned him the nickname of the " Espagnolet," procured him employment as a spy in the wars against Spain. Becoming a fanatical Huguenot, he determined to kill the duke of Guise, and gained admission as a deserter to the camp of the Catholics who were besieging Orleans. In the evening of the i8th of February 1563 he hid by the side of a road along which he knew the duke would pass, fired a pistol at him, and fled. But he was captured the next day, and was tried, tortured several times, and sentenced to be drawn and quartered. On the i8th of March 1563 he underwent a frightful punishment. The horses not being able to drag off his limbs, he was hacked to pieces with cutlasses. He had made several contradictory declarations regarding the complicity of Coligny. The admiral protested emphatically against the accusation, which appears to have had no foundation. See Memoires du prince de Conde (London, 1 743) ; T. A. D'Aubign<5, Histoire universelle (ed. by de Ruble, Soc. de I'histoire de France, 1886) ; A. de Ruble, L'Assassinat du due Francois de Lorraine (Paris, 1897). POLYAENUS, a Macedonian, who lived at Rome as a rhetori- cian and pleader in the 2nd century A.D. When the Parthian War (162-5) broke out, Polyaenus, too old to share in the campaign, dedicated to the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus a work, still extant, called Stratcgica or Strategemata, a historical collection of stratagems and maxims of strategy written in Greek and strung together in the form of anecdotes. It is not strictly confined to warlike stratagems, but includes also examples of wisdom, courage and cunning drawn from civil and political life. The work is uncritically written, but is nevertheless important on account of the extracts it has preserved from histories now lost. It is divided into eight books (parts of the sixth and seventh are lost), and originally contained nine hundred anecdotes, of which eight hundred and thirty-three are extant. Polyaenus intended to write a history of the Parthian War, but there is no evidence that he did so. His works on Macedonia, on Thebes, and on tactics (perhaps identical with the Strategical are lost. His Strategica seems to have been highly esteemed by the Roman emperors, and to have been handed down by them as a sort of heirloom. From Rome it passed to Constantinople; at the end of the gth century it was diligently studied by Leo VI., who himself wrote a work on tactics; and in the middle of the loth century Constantino Porphyrogenitus mentioned it as one of the most valuable books in the imperial library. It was used by Stobaeus, Suidas, and the anonymous author of the work n«pt iirlaTiaii (see PALAEPHATUS). It is arranged as follows: bks. i., ii., iii., strata- gems occurring in Greek history; bk. iv., stratagems of the Mace- donian kings and successors of Alexander the Great; bk. v., strata- gems occurring in the history of Sicily and the Greek islands and colonies; bk. vi., stratagems of a whole people (Carthaginians, Lacedaemonians, Argives), together with some individuals (Philopoemen, Pyrrhus, Hannibal); bk. vii., stratagems of the barbarians (Medes, Persians, Egyptians, Thracians, Scythians, Celts); bk. viii., stratagems of Romans- and women. This dis- tribution is not, however, observed very strictly. Of the negligence or haste with which the work was written there are many instances : e.g. he confounds Dionysius the elder and Dionysius the younger, Mithradates satrap of Artaxerxes and Mithradates the Great, Scipio the elder and Scipio the younger, Perseus, king of Macedonia and Perseus the companion of Alexander; he mixes up the strata- gems of Caesar and Pompey; he brings into immediate connexion events which were totally distinct; he narrates some events twice over, with variations according to the different authors from whom he draws. Though he usually abridges, he occasionally amplifies arbitrarily the narratives of his authorities. He never mentions his authorities, but amongst authors still extant he used Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, Frontinus and Suetonius; amongst authors cf whom only fragments now remain he drew upon Ctesias, Ephorus, Timaeus, Phylarchus and Nicolaus Damascenus. His style is clear, but monotonous and inelegant. In the forms of his words he generally follows Attic usage. The best edition of the text is Wolfflin and Melber (Teubner Series, 1887, with bibliography and editio princeps of the Strate- eemata of the emperor Leo) ; annotated editions by Isaac Casaubon (1589) and A. Coraes (1809); I. Melber, Ueber die Quellen tind Werth der Strategemensammlung Polydns (1885); Knott, De fide et fontibus Polyaeni (1883), who largely reduces the number of the authorities consulted by Polyaenus. Eng. trans, by R. Shepherd (1793)- 'POLYANDRY (Gr. iroXtis, many, and &VTIP, man), the system of marriage between one woman and several men, who are her husbands exclusively (see FAMILY). The custom locally legal- izing the marriage of one woman to more than one husband at a time has been variously accounted for as the result of poverty and of life in unfertile lands, where it was essential to check popula- tion as the consequence of female infanticide, or, in the opinion of J. F. McLennan and L. H. Morgan, as a natural phase through which human progress has necessarily passed. Polyandry is to be carefully differentiated from communal marriage, where the woman is the property of any and every member of the tribe. Two distinct kinds of polyandry are practised: one, often called Nair, in which, as among the Nairs of India, the husbands are not related to each other; and the second, the Tibetan or fraternal polyandry, in which the woman is married to all the brothers of one family. Polyandry is practised by the tribes of Tibet, Kashmir and the Himalayan regions, by the Todas, Koorgs, Nairs and other peoples of India, in Ceylon, New Zealand, by some of the Australian aborigines, in parts of Africa, in the Aleutian archipelago, among the Koryaks and on the Orinoco. See McLennan's Primitive Marriage (London, 1885); Studies in Ancient History (London, 1886); "The Levirate and Polyandry," in The Fortnightly Review, new series, vol. xxi. (London, 1877); L. H. Moigan, System of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (Washington, 1869); Lord Avebury, Origin of Civilization; E. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage. POLYANTHUS, one of the oldest of the florists' flowers, is probably derived from P. variabilis, itself a cross between the common primrose and the cowslip; it differs from the primrose in having the umbels of flowers carried up on a stalk. The florists' polyanthus has a golden margin, and is known as the gold-laced polyanthus, the properties being very distinctly laid down and rigidly adhered to. The chief of these are a clear, unshaded, blackish or reddish ground colour, an even margin or lacing of yellow extending round each segment and cutting through its centre down to the ground colour, and a yellow band surrounding the tube of exactly the same hue as the yellow of the lacing. The plants are quite hardy, and grow best in strong, loamy soil tolerably well enriched with well-decayed dung and leaf -mould ; i8 POLYBIUS they should be planted about the end of September or not later than October. Plants for exhibition present a much better and cleaner appearance if kept during winter in a cold well-aired frame. For the flower borders what are called fancy polyanthuses are adopted. These are best raised annually from seed, the young crop each year blooming in succession. The seed should be sown as soon as ripe, the young plants being allowed to stand through the winter in the seed bed. In April or May they are planted out in a bed of rich garden soil, and they will bloom abundantly the following spring. A few of the better " thrum- eyed " sorts (those having the anthers in the eye, and the pistil sunk in the tube) should be allowed to ripen seed; the rest may be thrown away. In some remarkable forms which have been cultivated for centuries the ordinarily green calyx has become petaloid; when this is complete it forms the hose-in-hose prim- rose of gardeners. There are also a few well-known double- flowered varieties. POLYBIUS (c. 204-122 B.C.), Greek historian, was a native of Megalopolis in Arcadia, the youngest of Greek cities (Paus. viii. 9), which, however, played an honourable part in the last days of Greek freedom as a stanch member of the Achaean League (?.».). His father, Lycortas, was the intimate friend of Philopoemen, and on the death of the latter, in 182, succeeded him as leader of the league. The date of Polybius's birth is doubtful. He tells us himself that in 181 he had not yet reached the age (? thirty years, Polyb. xxix. 9) at which an Achaean was legally capable of holding office (xxiv. 6). We learn from Cicero (Ad Fam. v. .12) that he outlived the Numantine War, which ended [in 132, and from Lucian (Macrob. 22) that he died at the age of eighty-two. The majority of authorities therefore place his birth between 214 and 204 B.C. Little is known of his early life. As the son of Lycortas he was naturally brought into close contact with the leading men 'of the Achaean League. With Philopoemen he seems to have been on intimate terms. After Philopoemen's tragic death in Messenia (182) he was entrusted with the honour- able duty of conveying home the urn in which his ashes had been deposited (Plut. Phil. 21). In 181, together with his father, Lycortas and the younger Aratus, he was appointed, in spite of his youth, a member of the embassy which was to visit Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of Egypt, a mission, however, which the sudden death of Ptolemy brought to a premature end (xxv. 7). The next twelve years of his life are a blank, but in 169 he reappears as a trusted adviser of the Achaeans at a difficult crisis in the history of the League. In 1 7 1 war had broken out between Rome and the Macedonian king Perseus, and the Achaean statesmen were divided as to the policy to be pursued; there were good reasons for fearing that the Roman senate would regard neu- trality as indicating a secret leaning towards Macedon. Polybius therefore declared for an open alliance with Rome, and his views were adopted. It was decided to send an Achaean force to co- operate with the Roman general, and Polybius was selected to command the cavalry. The Roman consul declined the proffered assistance, but Poiybius accompanied him throughout the campaign, and thus gained his first insight into the military system of Rome. In the next year (168) both Lycortas and Polybius were on the point of starting at the head of 1200 Achaeans to take service in Egypt against the Syrians, when an intimation from the Roman commander that armed inter- ference was undesirable put a stop to the expedition (xxix. 23). The success of Rome in the war with Perseus was now assured. The final victory was rapidly followed by the arrival in Achaea of Roman commissioners charged with the duty of establishing Roman interests there. Polybius was arrested with 1000 of the principal Achaeans, but, while his companions were con- demned to a tedious incarceration in the country towns of Italy, he obtained permission to reside in Rome. This privilege he owed to the influence of L. Aemilius Paullus and his two sons, Scipio and Fabius (xxxii. 9). Polybius was received into Aemi- lius's house, and became the instructor of his sons. Between Scipio (P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus the younger), the future conqueror of Carthage, and himself a friendship soon sprang up, which ripened into a lifelong intimacy, and was of inestimable service to him throughout his career. It protected him from interference, opened to him the highest circles of Roman society, and enabled him to acquire a personal influence with the leading men, which stood him in good stead when he afterwards came forward to mediate between his countrymen and Rome. It placed within his reach opportunities for a close study of Rome and the Romans such as had fallen to no historian before him, and secured him the requisite leisure for using them, while Scipio's liberality more than once supplied him with the means of conducting difficult and costly historical investigations (Pliny, N.H. v. 9). In 151 the few surviving exiles were allowed to return to Greece. But the stay of Polybius in Achaea was brief. The estimation in which he was held at Rome is clearly shown by the anxiety of the consul Marcus (or Manlius) Manilius (149) to take him as his adviser on his expedition against Carthage. Polybius started to join him, but broke off his journey at Corcyra on learning that the Carthaginians were inclined to yield (xxxvi. 3). But when, in 147, Scipio himself took the command in Africa, Polybius hastened to join him, and was an eye-witness of the siege and destruction of Carthage. During his absence in Africa the Achaeans had made a last desperate attempt to assert their independence of Rome. He returned in 146 to find Corinth in ruins, the fairest cities of Achaea at the mercy of the Roman soldiery, and the famous Achaean League shattered to pieces (see ACHAEAN LEAGUE). All the influence he possessed was freely spent in endeavouring to shield his countrymen from the worst consequences of their rashness. The excesses of the soldiery were checked, and at his special intercession the statues of Aratus and Philopoemen were preserved (xxxix. 14). An even more difficult task was that entrusted to him by the Roman authorities themselves, of persuading the Achaeans to acquiesce in the new regime imposed upon them by their con- querors, and of setting the new machinery in working order. With this work, which he accomplished so as to earn the heartfelt gratitude of his countrymen (xxxix. 16), his public career seems to have closed. The rest of his life was, so far as we know, devoted to the great history which is the lasting monument of his fame. He died, at the age of eighty-two, of a fall from his horse (Lucian, Macrob. 22). The base of a statue erected to him by Elis was found at Olympia in 1877. It bears the inscrip- tion 17 iroXis i? 'HXtiaw IIoXti/3ioj> AuKopra Me7aXo7roXiTT)i'. Of the forty books which made up the history of Polybius, the first five alone have come down to us in a complete form ; of the rest we have only more or less copious fragments. But the general plan and scope of the work are explained by Polybius himself. His intention was to make plain how and why it was that " all the known regions of the civilized world had fallen under the sway of Rome (iii. l). This empire of Rome, unprecedented in its extent and still more so in the rapidity with which it had been ac- quired, was the standing wonder of the age, and " who," he exclaims (l. l), " is so poor-spirited or indolent as not to wish to know by what means, and thanks to what sort of constitution, the Romans subdued the world in something less than fifty-three years? " These fifty-three years are those between 220 (the point at which the work of Aratus ended) and 168 B.C., and extend therefore f-om the outbreak of the Hannibalic War to the defeat of Perseus at Pydna. To this period then the main portion of his history is devoted from the third to the thirtieth book inclusive. But for clearness' sake he prefixes in bks. i. and ii. such a preliminary sketch of the earlier history of Rome, of the First Punic War, and of the contemporary events in Greece and Asia, as will enable his readers more fully to understand what follows. This seems to have been his original plan, but at the opening of bk. iii., written apparently after 146, he explains that he thought it desirable to add some account of the manner in which the Romans exercised the power they had won, of their temperament and policy and of the final catastrophe which destroyed Carthage and for ever broke np the Achaean League (iii. 4, 5). To this appendix, giving the history from 168-146, the last ten books are devoted. Whatever fault may be found with Polybius, there can be no question that he had formed a high conception of the task before him. He lays repeated stress on two qualities as distinguishing his history from the ordinary run of historical compositions. The first of these, its synoptic character, was partly necessitated by the nature of the period. The various states fringing the basin of the Mediterranean had become so inextricably interwoven that it was no longer possible to deal with them m isolation. Polybius therefore claims for his history that it will take a comprehensive POLYBIUS view of the whole course of events in the civilized world, within the limits of the period (i. 4). He thus aims at placing before his readers at each stage a complete survey of the field of action from Spain to Syria and Egypt. This synoptic method proceeds from a true appreciation of what is now called the unity of history, and to Polybius must be given the credit of having first firmly grasped and clearly enforced a lesson which the events of his own time were especially well calculated to teach. It is the great merit of his work that it gives such a picture of the 2nd and 3rd centuries B.C. as no series of special narratives could have supplied. The second quality upon which Polybius insists as distinguishing his history from all others is its " pragmatic " character. It deals, that is, with events and with their causes, and aims at an accurate record and explanation of ascertained facts. This " pragmatic method " (ix. 2) makes history intelligible by explaining the how and the why; and, secondly, it is only when so written that history can perform its true function of instructing and guiding those who study it. For the great use of history, according to Polybius, is to contribute to the right conduct of human life (i. 35). But this it can do only if the historian bears in mind the true nature of his task. He must remember that the historian should not write as the dramatist does to charm or excite his audience for the moment (ii. 56). He will aim simply at exhibiting events in their true light, setting forth " the why and the how " in each case, not confusing causes and occasions, or dragging in old wives' fables, prodigies and marvels (ii. 16, iii. 48). He will omit nothing which can help to explain the events he is dealing with : the genius and temperament of particular peoples, their political and military systems, the characters of the leading men, the geographical features of the country, must all be taken into account. To this conception of history Polybius is on the whole consistently faithful. It is true that his anxiety to instruct leads often to a rather wearisome iteration of his favourite maxims, and that his digressions, such as that on the military art, are occasionally provokmgly long and didactic. But his comments and reflections are for the most part sound and instructive (e.g. those on the lessons to be learnt from the revolt of the mercenaries in Africa, i. 65; from the Celtic raids in Italy, ii. 35 ; and on the Roman character), while among his digres- sions are included such invaluable chapters as those on the Roman constitution (bk. vi), the graphic description of Cisalpine Gaul (bk. ii.) and the account of the rise and constitution of the Achaean League (ii. 38 seq.). To his anxiety again to trace back events to their first causes we owe, not only the careful inquiry (bk. iii.) into the origin of the Second Punic War, but the sketch of early Roman history in bk. i., and of the early treaties between Rome and Carthage in iii. 22 seq. Among the many defects which he censures in previous historians, not the least serious in his eyes are their inattention to the political and geographical surroundings of the history (ii. 16, iii. 36), and their neglect duly to set forth the causes of events (iii. 6). Polybius is equally explicit as regards the personal qualifications necessary for a good historian, and in this respect too his practice is in close agreement with his theory. Without a personal knowledge of affairs a writer will inevitably distort the true relations and im- portance of events (xii. 28). Such experience would have saved accomplished and fluent Greek writers like Timaeus from many of their blunders (xii. 25a), but the shortcomings of Roman soldiers and senators like Q. Fabius Pictor show that it is not enough by itself. Equally indispensable is careful painstaking research. All available evidence must be collected, thoroughly sifted, soberly weighed, and, lastly, the historian must be animated by a sincere love of truth and a calm impartiality. It is important to consider how far Polybius himself comes up to his standard. In his personal acquaintance with affairs, in the variety of his experience, and in his opportunities for forming a correct judgment on events he is without a rival among ancient historians. A great part of the period of which he treats fell within his own lifetime (iv. 2). He may just have remembered the battle of Cynoscephalae (197), and, as we have seen, he was actively engaged in the military and political affairs of the Achaean League. During his exile in Rome he was able to study the Roman constitu- tion, and the peculiarities of the Roman temperament; he made the acquaintance of Roman senators, and became the intimate friend of the greatest Roman of the day. Lastly, he was able to survey with his own eyes the field on which the great struggle between Rome and Hannibal was fought out. He left Rome only to witness the crowning triumph of Roman arms in Africa, and to gain a practical acquaintance with Roman methods of government by assisting in the settlement of Achaea. When, in 146, his public life closed, he completed his preparation of himself for his great work by laborious investigations of archives and monu- ments, and by a careful personal examination of historical- sites and scenes. To all this we must add that he was deeply read in the learning of his day, above all in the writings of earlier historians. Of Polybius's anxiety to get at the truth no better proof can be given than his conscientious investigation of original documents and monuments, and his careful study of geography and topography — both of them points in which his predecessors, as well as his successor Livy, conspicuously failed. Polybius is careful con- stantly to remind us that he writes for those who are lovers of knowledge, with whom truth is the first consideration. He closely studied the bronze tablets in Rome on which were in- scribed the early treaties concluded between Romans and Cartha- ginians. He quotes the actual language of the treaty which ended the First Punic War (i. 62), and of that between Hannibal and Philip of Macedon (vii. 9). In xvi. 15 he refers to a document which he had personally inspected in the archives at Rhodes, and in iii. 33 to the monument on the Lacinian promontory, recording the number of Hannibal's forces. According to Dionysius, i. 17, he got his date for the foundation of Rome from a tablet in the pontifical archives. As instances of his careful attention to geography and topography we have not only the fact of his widely extended travels, from the African coast and the Pillars of Hercules in the west, to the Euxine and the coasts of Asia Minor in the east, but also the geographical and topographical studies scattered throughout his history. Next to the duty of original research, Polybius ranks that of impartiality. Some amount of bias in favour of one's own country may, he thinks, be pardoned as natural (xvi. 14) ; but it is unpardon- able, he says, for the historian to set anything whatever above the truth. And on the whole, Polybius must be allowed here again to have practised what he preached. It is true that his affection for and pride in Arcadia appear in more than one passage (iv. 20, 21). as also does his dislike of the Aetolians (ii. 45, iv. 3, 16). His treatment of Aratus and Philojsoemen, the heroes of the Achaean League, and of Cleomenes of Sparta, its most constant enemy, is perhaps open to severer criticism. Certainly Cleomenes does not receive full justice at his hands. Similarly his views of Rome and the Romans may have been influenced by his firm belief in the necessity of accepting the Roman supremacy as inevitable, and by his intimacy with Scipio. He had a deep admiration for the great republic, for her well-balanced constitution, for her military system, and for the character of her citizens. But just as his patriotism does not blind him to the faults and follies of his country- men (xxxviii. 4, 5, 6), so he does not scruple to criticize Rome. He notices the incipient degeneracy of Rome after 146 (xviii. 35). He endeavours to hold the balance evenly between Rome and Carthage; he strongly condemns the Roman occupation of Sardinia as a breach of faith (iii. 28, 31); and he does full justice to Hannibal. Moreover, there can be no doubt that he sketched the Roman character in a masterly fashion. His interest in the study of character and his skill in its delinea- tion are everywhere noticeable. He believes, indeed, in an over- ruling fortune, which guides the course of events. It is fortune which has fashioned anew the face of the world in his own time (iv. 2), which has brought the whole civilized world into subjection to Rome (i. 4) ; and the Roman Empire itself is the most marvellous of her works (viii. 4). But under fortune not only political and geographical conditions but the characters and temperaments of nations and individuals play their part. The Romans had been fitted by their previous struggles for the conquest of the world (i. 63) ; they were chosen to punish the treachery of Philip of Macedon (xv. 4) ; and the greatest of them, Scipio himself, Polybius regards as the especial favourite of fortune (xxxii. i§; x. 5). In respect of form, Polybius is far the inferior of Livy, partly owing to his very virtues. His laudable desire to present a picture of the whole political situation at each important moment is fatal to the continuity of his narrative. Thus the thrilling story of the Second Punic War is broken in upon by digressions on the con- temporary affairs in Greece and Asia. More serious, however, than this excessive love of synchronism is his almost pedantic anxiety to edify. For grace and elegance of composition, and for the artistic presentation of events, he has a hardly concealed con- tempt. Hence a general and almost studied carelessness of effect, which mars his whole work. On the other hand he is never weary of preaching. His favourite theories of the nature and aims_ of history, of the distinction between the universal and special histories, of the duties of an historian, sound as most of them are in them- selves, are enforced with wearisome iteration; more than once the effect of a graphic picture is spoilt by obtrusive moralizing. Nor, lastly, is Polybius's style itself such as to compensate for these defects. It is, indeed, often impressive from the evident earnest- ness of the writer, and from his sense of the gravity of his subject, and is unspoilt by rhetoric or conceit. It has about it the ring of reality; the language is sometimes pithy and vigorous; and now and then we meet with apt metaphors, such as those borrowed from boxing (i. 57), from cock-fighting (i. 58), from draughts (i. 84). But, in spite of these redeeming features, the prevailing baldness of Polybius's style excludes him Irom the first rank among classical writers; and it is impossible to quarrel with the verdict pronounced by Dionysius of Hahcarnassus, who places him among those authors of later times who neglected the graces of style, and who paid for their neglect by leaving behind them works " which no one was patient enough to read through to the end." It is to the value and variety of his matter, to his critical insight, breadth of view and wide research, and not least to the surpassing importance and interest of the period with which he deals, that Polybius owes his place among the writers of history. What is known as to the fortunes of his histories, and the reputation they enjoyed, fully bears out this conclusion. The silence respecting 20 POLYCARP him maintained by Quintilian and by Lucian may reasonably be taken to imply their agreement with Dionysius as to his merits as a master of style. On the other hand, Cicero (De off. iii. 32) describes him as " bonus auctor in primis"; in the De republica (ii. 14) he praises highly his accuracy in matters of chronology; and Cicero's younger contemporary, Marcus Brutus, was a devoted student of Polybius, and was engaged on the eve of the battle of Pharsalia in compiling an epitome of his histories (Sui'das, s.ii. ; Plutarch, Brut. 4). Livy, however, notwithstanding the extent to which he used his writings (see LIVY), speaks of him in such qualified terms as to suggest the idea that his strong artistic sensi- bilities had been wounded by Polybius's literary defects. He has nothing better to say of him than that he is 'by no means con- temptible " (xxx. 45), and "not an untrustworthy author" (xxxiii. 10). Posidonius and Strabo, both of them Stoics like Polybius himself, are said to have written continuations of his history (Sui'das, s.v. ; Strabo p. 515). Arrian in the early part of the 2nd and Aelian in the 3rd century both speak of him with respect, though with reference mainly to his excellence as an authority on the art of war. In addition to his Histories Polybius was the author of the following smaller works: a life of Philopoemen (Polyb. x. 24), a history of the Numantine War (Cic. Ad Fam. v. 12), a treatise on tactics (Polyb. ix. 20; Arrian, Tactica; Aelian, Tact. i.). The geographical treatise, referred to by Geminus, is possibly identical with the thirty-fourth book of the Histories (Schweighauser, Praef. p. 184. AUTHORITIES. — The complete books (i.-v.) of the Histories were first printed in a Latin translation by Nicholas Perotti in 1473. The date of the first Greek edition, that by Obsopaeus, is 1530. For a full account of these and of later editions, as well as of the extant MSS., see Schweighauser's Preface to his edition of Polybius. Our knowledge of the contents of the fragmentary books is derived partly from quotations in ancient writers, but mainly from two collections of excerpts; one, probably the work of a late Byzantine compiler, was first printed at Basel in 1549 and contains extracts from books vi.-xviii. (wepl irpeafit'uav, vtpl apertjs icai xaxias) ; the other consists of two fragments from the " select passages " from Greek historians compiled by the directions of Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the loth century. To these must be added the Vatican excerpts edited by Angelo Mai in the present century. The following are the more important modern editions of Polybius: Ernest! (3 vols., 1763-1764); Schweighauser (8 vols., 1793, and Oxford, 1823); Bekker (2 vols., 1844); L. Dindorf (4 vols., 1866- 1868, 2nd ed., T. Biittner-Wobst, 5 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1904); Hultsch (4 vols., 1867-1871); J. L. Strachan-Davidson, Selections from Polybius (Oxford, 1888). For the literature of the subject, see Engelmann, Biblioth. script, class.: Script, graeci, pp. 646- 650 (8th ed. Leipzig, 1880). See also W. W. Capes, The History of the Achaean League (London, 1888); F. Susemihl, Gesch. d. griech. Litteratur in d. Alexandrinerzeit, ii. 80—128 (Leipzig, 1891— 1892); O. Cuntz, Polybios und sein Werk (Leipzig, 1902); R. v. Scala, Die Studien des Polybios (Stuttgart, 1890); J. B. Bury, Ancient Greek Historians (1909), " a whole-hearted appreciation of Polybius"; J. L. Strachan-Davidson, in Hellenica, pp. 353- 387 (London, 1898), and in Appendix II. to Selections from Polybius pp. 642-668 (Oxford, 1888). (H. F. P.; X.) POLYCARP (c. 6o-c. 155), bishop of Smyrna and one of the Apostolic Fathers, derives much of his importance from the fact that he links together the apostolic age and that of nascent Catholicism. The sources from which we derive our knowledge of the life and activity of Polycarp are: (i) a few notices in the writings of Irenaeus, (2) the Epistle of Polycarp to the Church at Philippi, (3) the Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp, (4) the Epistle of the Church at Smyrna to the Church at Philomelium, giving an account of the martyrdom of Polycarp. Since these authori- ties have all been more or less called in question and some of them entirely rejected by recent criticism, it is necessary to say a few words about each. i. The Statements of Irenaeus are Sound (a) inh\sAdversus haereses, iii. 3, 4, (6) in the letter to Victor, where Irenaeus gives an account of Polycarp's visit to Rome, (c) in the letter to Florinus — a most important document which describes the intercourse between Irenaeus and Polycarp and Polycarp's relation with St John. No objection has been made against the genuineness of the statements in the Adversus haereses, but the authenticity of the two letters has been stoutly contested in recent times by van Manen.1 The main attack is directed against the Epistle to Florinus, doubtless because of its importance. " The manifest exaggerations," says van Manen, " coupled with the fact that Irenaeus never shows any signs of acquaintance with Florinus . . . enable us to perceive clearly that a writer otherwise unknown is speaking to us here." The criticism of van Manen has, however, found no supporters outside the Dutch school. The epistle is quoted by Eusebius 1 Ency. Bib. iii. 3490. (v. 20), and is accepted as genuine by Harnack2 and Kriiger.* The relevant statements in the letter, moreover, are supported by the references to Polycarp which we find in the body of Irenaeus's great work. 2. 'The Epistle of Polycarp. — Though Irenaeus states that Polycarp wrote many " letters to the neighbouring churches or to certain of the brethren "4 only one has been preserved, viz. the well-known letter to the Philippians. The epistle is largely involved in the Ignatian controversy (see IGNATIUS). The testimony which it affords to the Ignatian Epistles is so striking that those scholars who regard these letters as spurious are bound to reject the Epistle of Polycarp altogether, or at any rate to look upon it as largely interpolated. The former course has been adopted by Schwegler,6 Zeller,6 and Hilgenfeld,7 the latter by Ritschl8 and Lipsius.9 The rehabilitation of the Ignatian letters in modern times has, however, practically destroyed the attack on the Epistles of Polycarp. The external evidence in its favour is of considerable weight. Irenaeus (iii. 3, 4) expressly mentions and commends a " very adequate " (iKa.vwTa.Tri) letter of Polycarp to the Philippians, and we have no reason for doubting the identity of this letter mentioned by Irenaeus with our epistle. Eusebius (iii. 36) quotes extracts from the epistle, and some of the extracts contain the very passages which the critics have marked as interpolations, and Jerome (De Vir. III. xvii.) testifies that in his time the epistle was publicly read in the Asiatic churches. The internal evidence is equally strong. There is absolutely no motive for a forgery in the contents of the epistle. As Harnack says, " There is no trace of any tendency beyond the immediate purpose of maintaining the true Christian life in the church and warning it against covetousness and against an un- brotherly spirit. The occasion of the letter was a case of embezzle- ment, the guilty individual being a presbyter at Philippi. It shows a fine combination of mildness with severity; the language is simple but powerful, and, while there is undoubtedly a lack of original ideas, the author shows remarkable skill in weaving together pregnant sentences and impressive warnings selected from the apostolic epistles and the first Epistle of Clement. In these circum- stances it would never have occurred to any one to doubt the genuineness of the epistle or to suppose that it had been inter- polated, but for the fact that in several passages reference is made to Ignatius and his epistles." The date of the epistle depends upon the date of the Ignatian letters and is now 'generally fixed between 112 and 118. An attempt has been made in some quarters to prove that certain allusions in the epistle imply the rise of the heresy of Marcion and that it cannot therefore be placed earlier than 140. Lightfoot, however, has proved that Polycarp's statements may equally well be directed against Corinthianism or any other form of Docetism, while some of his arguments are absolutely inapplicable to Marcionism. 3. The Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp. — This epistle has of course been subjected to the same criticism as has been directed against the other epistles of Ignatius (see IGNATIUS). Over and above the general criticism, which may now be said to have been completely answered by the investigations of Zahn, Lightfoot and Harnack, one or two special arguments have been brought against the Epistle to Polycarp. Ussher, for instance, while accepting the other six epistles, rejected this on the ground that Jerome says that Ignatius only sent one letter to Smyrna — a mistake due to his misinterpre- tation of Eusebius. Some modern scholars (among whom Harnack was formerly numbered, though he has modified his views on the point) feel a difficulty about the peremptory tone which Ignatius adopts towards Polycarp. There was some force in this argument when the Ignatian Epistles were dated about 140, as in that case Polycarp would have been an old and venerable man at the time. But now that the date is put back to about 112 the difficulty vanishes, since Polycarp was not much over forty when he received the letter. We must remember, too, that Ignatius was writing under the consciousness of impending martyrdom and evidently felt that this gave him the right to criticize the bishops and churches of Asia. 4. The Letter of the Church at Smyrna to the Philomelians is a most important document, because we derive from it all our in- formation with regard to Polycarp's martyrdom. Eusebius has preserved the greater part of this epistle (iv. 15), but we possess it entire with various concluding observations in several Greek MSS., and also in a Latin translation. The epistle gives a minute description of the persecution in Smyrna, of the last days of Polycarp and of his trial and martyrdom; and as it contains many instructive details and professes to have been written not long after the events to which it refers, it has always been regarded as one of the most precious remains of the 2nd century. Certain recent critics, however, have questioned the authenticity of the narrative. 2 Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur, i. 593-594. 3 Early Christian Literature (Eng. trans., 1897), p. 150. 4 Letter to Florinus ap. Euseb. v. 20. 5 Nachapostolisches Zeitalter, ii. 154. e Apostolgeschichte, p. 52. 7 A postolische Vater, p. 272. 8 Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche, p. 584. * Ueber das Verhaltniss, &c., p. 14. POLYCARP 21 Lipsius brings1 the date of the epistle down to about 260, though he admits many of the statements as trustworthy. Keim, too,1 endeavours to show that, although it was based on good information, it could not have been composed till the middle of the 3rd century. A similar position has also been taken up by Schurer,' Holtzmann,' Gebhardt,6 Reville," and van Manen.7 The last named regards the document " as a decorated narrative of the saint's martyrdom framed after the pattern of Jesus' martyrdom," though he thinks that it cannot be put as late as 250, but must fall within the limits of the 2nd century. It cannot be said, however, that the case against the document has been at all substantiated, and the more modi-rate school of modern critics (e.g. Lightfoot,8 Harnack,8 Krugcr)10 is unanimous in regarding it as an authentic document, though it recognizes that here and there a few slight interpolations have been inserted." Besides these we have no other sources for the life of Polycarp; the Vita S. Polycarpi auctore Pionio (published by Duchesne, Paris, 1881, and Lightfoot Ignatius and Polycarp, 1885, ii- 1015-1047) is worthless. Assuming the genuineness of the documents mentioned, we now proceed to collect the scanty information which they afford with regard to Polycarp's career. Very little is known about his early life. He must have been born not later than the year 6g, for on the day of his death (c. 155) he declared that he had served the Lord for eighty-six years (Martyrium, 9). The statement seems to imply that he was of Christian parentage ; he cannot have been older than eighty-six at the time of his martyrdom, since he had paid a visit to Rome almost immediately before. Irenaeus tells us that in early life Polycarp " had been taught by apostles and lived in familiar intercourse with many that had seen Christ " (iii. 3,4). This testimony is expanded in the remarkable words which Irenaeus addresses to Florinus: " I saw thee when I was still a boy (TTGUS in &v) in Lower Asia in company with Polycarp ... I can even now point out the place where the blessed Polycarp used to sit when he discoursed, and describe his goings out and his comings in, his manner of life and his personal appearance and the discourses which he delivered to the people, how he used to speak of his intercourse with John and with the rest of those who had seen the Lord, and how he would relate their words. And everything that he had heard from them about the Lord, about His miracles and about His teaching, Polycarp used to tell us as one who had received it from those who had seen the Word of Life with their own eyes, and all this in perfect harmony with the Scriptures. To these things I used to listen at the time, through the mercy of God vouchsafed to me, noting them down, not on paper but in my heart, and constantly by the grace of God I brood over my accurate recollections." These are priceless words, for they establish a chain of tradition (John-Polycarp-Irenaeus) which is without a parallel in early church history. Polycarp thus becomes the living link between the Apostolic age and the great writers who flourished at the end of the 2nd century. Recent criticism, however, has endeavoured to destroy the force of the words of Irenaeus. Harnack, for instance, attacks this link at both ends.12 (a) The connexion of Irenaeus and Polycarp, he argues, is very weak, because Irenaeus was only a boy (irals) at the time, and his recollections therefore carry very little weight. The fact too that he never shows any signs of having been influ- enced by Polycarp and never once quotes his writings is a further proof that the relation between them was slight, (b) The connexion which Irenaeus tries to establish between Polycarp and John the apostle is probably due to a blunder. Irenaeus has confused John the apostle and John the presbyter. Polycarp was the disciple of the latter, not the former. In this second 1 Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Theol. (1874), p. 200 seq. 2 A us dem Urchristcnth:'.m (1878), p. 90. 8 Zeitschr. f. hist. Theol. (1870), p. 203 seq. 4 Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Theol. (1877). 5 Zeitschr. f. hist. Theol. (1875). 6 De anno Polycarpi (1881). 7 Oud-Christ (1861), and Ency. Bib. iii. 3479. ' Ignatius and Polycarp, i. 589 seq. • Gesch. d. altchrist. Lit. II. i. 341. 10 Early Christian Lit. (Eng. trans., 1897), p. 380. "Amongst these we ought probably to include the expression i) KofloXoci) (KK\riTTa, tongue), the term for a book which contains side by side versions of the same text in several different languages; the most important polyglotts are editions of the Bible, or its parts, in which the Hebrew and Greek originals are exhibited along with the great historical versions, which are of value for the history of the text and its interpretation. The first enterprise of this kind is the famous Hexapla of Origen in which the Old Testament Scriptures were written in six parallel columns, the first containing the Hebrew text, the second a transliteration of this in Greek letters, the third and fourth the Greek translations by Aquila and Sym- machus, the fifth the Septuagint version as revised by Origen, the sixth the translation by Theodotion. Inasmuch, however, as only two languages, Hebrew and Greek, were employed the work was rather diglott than polyglott in the usual sense. After the invention of printing and the revival of philological studies, polyglotts became a favourite means of advancing the knowledge of Eastern languages (for which no good helps were available) as well as the study of Scripture. The series began with the Complutensian printed by Arnaldus Guilielmus de Brocario at the expense of Cardinal Ximenes at the university at Alcala de Henares (Complutum). The first volume of this, containing the New Testament in Greek and Latin, was completed on the loth of January 1514. In vols. ii.-v. (finished on July 10, 1517) the Hebrew text of the Old Testament was printed in the first column of each page, followed by the Latin Vulgate and then by the Septuagint version with an interlinear Latin trans- lation. Below these stood the Chaldee, again with a Latin translation. The sixth volume containing an appendix is dated 1515, but the work did not receive the papal sanction till March 1520, and was apparently not issued till 1522. The chief editors were Juan de Vergara, Lopez de Zuniga (Stunica), Nunez de Guzman (Pincianus), Antonio de Librixa (Nebrissensis), and Demetrius Ducas. About half a century after the Complu- tensian came the Antwerp Polyglott, printed by Christopher Plantin (1569-1572, in 8 vols. folio). Of this the principal editor was Arias Montanus aided by Guido Fabricius Boderianus, Raphelengius, Masius, Lucas of Bruges and others. This work was under the patronage of Philip II. of Spain; it added a new language to those of the Complutensian by including the Syriac New Testament; and, while the earlier polyglott had only the Targum of Onkelos on the Pentateuch, the Antwerp Bible had also the Targum on the Prophets, and on Esther, Job, Psalms and the Salomonic writings. Next came Le Jay's Paris Poly- glotl (1645), which embraces the first printed texts of the Syriac Old Testament (edited by Gabriel Sionita, a Maronite, but the book of Ruth by Abraham Ecchelensis, also a Maronite) and of the Samaritan Pentateuch and version (by Morinus). It has also an Arabic version, or rather a series of various Arabic versions. The last great polyglott is Brian Walton's (London, 1657), which is much less beautiful than Le Jay's but more complete in various ways, including, among other things, the Syriac of Esther and of several apocryphal books for which it is wanting in the Paris Bible, Persian versions of the Pentateuch and Gospels, and the Psalms and New Testament in Ethiopic. Walton was aided by able scholars, and used much new manuscript material. His prolegomena, too, and collections of various readings mark an important advance in biblical criticism. It was in connexion with this polyglott that E. Castell produced his famous Heptaglott Lexicon (2 vols. folio, London, 1669), an astounding monument of industry and erudition even when allowance is made for the fact that for the Arabic he had the great MS. lexicon compiled and left to the university of Cambridge by the almost forgotten W. Bedwell. The liberality of Cardinal Ximenes, who is said to have spent half a million ducats on it, removed the Complu- tensian polyglott from the risks of commerce. The other three editions all brought their promoters to the verge of ruin. The later polyglotts are of little scientific importance, the best recent texts having been confined to a single language ; but every biblical student still uses Walton and, if he can get it, Le Jay. Of the numerous polyglott editions of parts of the Bible it may suffice to mention the Genoa psalter of 1516, edited by Giustini- ani, bishop of Nebbio. This is in Hebrew, Latin, Greek, Chaldee and Arabic, and is interesting from the character of the Chaldee text, being the first specimen of Western printing in the Arabic character, and from a curious note on Columbus and the dis- covery of America on the margin of Psalm xix. (A. W. Po.) POLYGNOTUS, Greek painter in the middle of the jth century B.C., son of Aglaophon, was a native of Thasos, but was adopted by the Athenians, and admitted to their citizenship. He painted for them in the time of Cimon a picture of the taking of Ilium on the walls of the Stoa Poecile, and another of the marriage of the daughters of Leucippus in the Anaceum. In the hall at the entrance to the Acropolis other works of his were preserved. The most important, however, of his paintings were his frescoes in a building erected at Delphi by the people of Cnidus. The subjects of these were the visit to Hades by Odysseus, and the taking of Ilium. Fortunately the traveller Pausanias has left us a careful description of these paintings, figure by figure (Paus. x. 25-31). The foundations of the building have been recovered in the course of the French excavations at Delphi. From this evidence, some modern archaeologists have tried to reconstruct the paintings, excepting of course the colours of them. The best of these reconstructions is by Carl Robert, who by the help of vase-paintings of the middle of the fifth century has succeeded in recovering both the perspective of Polygnotus and the character of his figures (see GREEK ART, fig. 29). The figures were detached and seldom overlapping, ranged in two or three rows one above another; and the farther were not smaller nor dimmer than the nearer. The designs are repeated in Frazer's Pausanias, v. 360 and 372. It will hence appear that paintings at this time were executed on almost precisely the same plan as contemporary sculptural reliefs. We learn also that Polygnotus employed but few colours, and those simple. Technically his art was primitive. His excellence lay in the beauty of his drawing of individual figures; but especially in the "ethical" and ideal character of his art. The contemporary, and perhaps the teacher, of Pheidias, he had the same grand manner. Simplicity, which was almost childlike, sentiment at once noble and gentle, extreme grace and charm of execution, marked his works, in contrast to the more animated, complicated and technically superior paintings of a later age. (P. G.) POLYGON (Gr. TroXus, many, and yuivla., an angle), in geo- metry, a figure enclosed by any number of lines — the sides — which intersect in pairs at the corners or vertices. If the sides are coplanar, the polygon is said to be "plane"; if not, then it is a "skew" or "gauche" polygon. If the figure lies entirely to one side of each of the bounding lines the figure is " convex"; if not it is " re-entrant " or " concave ." A "regular" polygon has all its sides and angles equal, i.e. it is equilateral and equi- angular; if the sides and angles be not equal the polygon is "irregular." Of polygons inscriptible in a circle an equilateral POLYGON figure is necessarily equiangular, but the converse is only true when the number of sides is odd. The term regular polygon is usually restricted to " convex " polygons; a special class of polygons (regular in the wider sense) has been named " star polygons " on account of their resemblance to star-rays; these are, however, concave. Polygons, especially of the " regular " and " star " types, were extensively studied by the Greek geometers. There are two important corollaries to prop. 32, book i., of Euclid's Elements rrluting to polygons. Having proved that the sum of the angles of a triangle is a straight angle, i.e. two right angles, it is readily seen that the sum of. the internal angles of a polygon (necessarily convex) of n sides is re —2 straight angles (2re —4 right angles), for the on can be divided into n—2 triangles by lines joining one vertex to the other vertices. The second corollary is that the sum of the supplements of the internal angles, measured in the same direction, is 4 right angles, and is thus independent of the number of sides. The systematic discussion of regular polygons with respect to the inscribed and circumscribed circles is given in the fourth book of the Elements. (We may note that the construction of an equilateral triangle and square appear in the first book.) The triangle is dis- cussed in props. 2-6; the square in props. 6-9; the pentagon (5-side) in props. 10-14; the hexagon (6-side) in prop. 15; and the quin- decagon in prop. 16. The triangle and square call for no special mention here, other than that any triangle can be inscribed or circumscribed to a circle. The pentagon is of more interest. Euclid bases his construction upon the fact that the isosceles triangle formed by joining the extremities of one side of a regular penta- gon to the opposite vertex has each angle at the base double the angle at the vertex. He constructs this triangle in prop. 10, by dividing a line in medial section, i.e. the square of one part equal to the product of the other part and the whole line (a construction given in book ii. u), and then showing that the greater segment is the base of the required triangle, the remaining sides being each equal to the whole line. The inscription of a pentagon in a circle is effected by inscribing an isosceles triangle similar to that constructed in prop. 10, bisecting the angles at the base and producing the bisec- tors to meet the circle. Euclid then proves that these intersections and the three vertices of the triangle are the vertices of the required pentagon. The circumscription of a pentagon is effected by con- structing an inscribed pentagon, and drawing tangents to the circle at the vertices. This supplies a general method for circumscribing a polygon if the inscribed be given, and conversely. In book xiii., prop. 10, an alternative method for inscribing a pentagon is indicated, for it is there shown that the sum of the squares of the sides of a square and hexagon inscribed in the same circle equals the square of the side of the pentagon. It may be incidentally noticed that Euclid's construction of the isosceles triangle which has its basal angles double the vertical angle solves the problem of quinquesecting a right angle; moreover, the base of the triangle is the side of the regular decagon inscribed in a circle having the vertex as centre and the sides of the triangle as radius. The inscription of a hexagon in a circle (prop. 15) reminds one of the Pythagorean result that six equilateral triangles placed about a common vertex form a plane; hence the bases form a regular hexagon. The side of a hexagon inscribed in a circle obviously equals the radius of the circle. The inscription of the quindecagon in a circle is made to depend upon the fact that the difference of the arcs of a circle intercepted by covertical sides of a regular pentagon and equilateral triangle is $ — i, = j*s> of the whole circumference, and hence the bisection of this intercepted arc (by book iii., 30) gives the side of the quindecagon. The methods of Euclid permit the construction of the following series of inscribed polygons: from the square, the 8-side or octagon, I6-, 32- . . ., or generally 4-2"-side; from the hexagon, the 12-side or dodecagon, 24-, 48- . . ., or generally the 6-2"-side; from the pentagon, the lo-side or decagon, 20-, 40- . . ., or generally 5-2"- side; from the quindecagon, the 30-, 60- . . ., or generally 15-2"- side. It was long supposed that no other inscribed polygons were possible of construction by elementary methods (i.e. by the ruler and compasses); Gauss disproved this by forming the 17-side, and he subsequently generalized his method for the (2n-|-i)-side, when this number is prime. The problem of the construction of an inscribed heptagon, nonagon, or generally of any polygon having an odd number of sides, is readily reduced to the construction of a certain isosceles triangle. Suppose the polygon to have (2n + i) sides. Join the extremities of one side to the opposite vertex, and consider the triangle so formed. It is readily seen that the angle at the base is n times the angle at the vertex. In the heptagon the ratio is 3, in the nonagon 4, and so on. The Arabian geometers of the 9th century showed that the heptagon required the solution of a cubic equation, thus resembling the Pythagorean problems of " duplicating the cube " and " tri- secting an angle." Edmund Halley gave solutions for the heptagon and nonagon by means of the parabola and circle, and by a parabola and hyperbola respectively. Although rigorous methods for inscribing the general polygons in a circle are wanting, many approximate ones have been devised. Two such methods are here given: (i) Divide the diameter of the circle into as many parts as the polygon has sides. On the diameter construct an equilateral triangle; and from its vertex draw a line through the second division along the diameter, measured from an extremity, and produce this Tine to intercept the circle. Then the chord joining this point to the extremity of the diameter is the side of the required polygon. (2) Divide the diameter as before, and draw also the perpendicular diameter. Take points on these diameters beyond the circle and at a dis- tance from the circle equal to one division of the diameter. Join the points so obtained; and draw a line from the point nearest the divided diameter where this line intercepts the circle to the third division from the produced extremity; this line is the required length. The construction of any regular polygon on a given side may be readily performed with a protractor or scale of chords, for it is only necessary to lay off from the extremities of the given side lines equal in length to the given base, at angles equal to the interior angle of the polygon, and repeating the process at each extremity so obtained, the angle being always tak--n on the same side; or lines may be laid off at one half of the interior angles, describing a circle having the meet of these lines as centre and their length as radius, and then measuring the given base around the circumference. Star Polygons. — These figures were studied by the Pythagoreans, and subsequently engaged the attention of many geometers — Boethius, Athelard of Bath, Thomas Bradwardine, archbishop of Canterbury, Johannes Kepler and others. Mystical and magical properties were assigned to them at an early date; the Pythagoreans regarded the pentagram, the star polygon derived from the pentagon, as the symbol of health, the Platonists of well-being, while .others used it to symbolize happiness. Engraven on metal, &c.. it is worn in almost every country as a charm or amulet. The pentagon gives rise to one star polygon, the hexagon gives none, the heptagon two, the octagon one, and the nonagon two. In general, the number of star polygons which can be drawn with the vertices of an n-point regular polygon is the number of numbers which are not factors of n and are less than J». A Pentagrams. Heptagrams. Nonograms. Number of n-point and n-side Polygons. A polygon may be regarded as determined by the joins of points or the meets of lines. The termination -gram is often applied to the figures determined by lines, e.g, pentagram, hexagram. It is of interest to know how many polygons can be formed with n given points as vertices (no three of which are collinear), or with n given lines as sides (no two of which are parallel). Considering the case of points it is obvious that we can join a chosen point with any one cf the remaining (n — i) points; any one of these (re — i) points can be joined to any one of the remaining (n—2), and by proceeding similarly it is seen that we can pass through the re points in (n — i) (n—2) . . . 2-1 or (n — i)! ways. It is obvious that the direction in which we pass is immaterial ; hence we must divide this number by 2, thus obtaining (n — 1)!/2 as the required number. In a similar manner it may be shown that the number of polygons determined by n lines is. (n — 1)!/2. Thus five points or lines determine 12 pentagons, 6 points or lines 60 hexagons, and so on. Mensuration. — In the regular polygons the fact that they can be inscribed and circumscribed to a circle affords convenient expres- sions for their area, &c. In a w-gon, i.e. a polygon with n-sides, each side subtends at the centre the angle 2r/n, i.e. 36o°/n, and each internal angle is (n— 2)ir/n or (n—2) iSo°fn. Calling the length of side a we may derive the following relations: Area Number of sides. Triangle. Square. 5 Pentagon. 6 Hexagon. Heptagon. 8 Octagon. 9 Nonagon. 10 Decagon. ii Undecagon. 12 Dodecagon. a ft A R r 60° 120° 0-43301 0-57735 0-28867 9°°o 90° i 0-70710 o-5 108° 72° 1-72048 0-85065 0-68819 120° 60° 2-59808 i 0-86602 1284" 5if° 3-6339I 1-1523 1-0383 I35°0 45° 4-82843 1-3065 1-2071 140° 40° 6-18182 1-4619 1-3737 144° 36° 7-69421 1-6180 1-5388 H7 A" 3*A° 9-36564 1-7747 1-7028 150° 30° 11-19615 1-9318 1-8660 POLYGONACEAE (A) = J ^rij /i^ri2'V,ri2 /v-n2'\~ri2v — 2X .[ II CH< I | CH< >CH2,&c. \CH2, CH2C-H2 \CH2-CH2, \CH2-CH^ Cyc/o-propane, -butane, -pentane, -hexane. The unsaturated members of the series are named on the Geneva system in which the termination -one is replaced by-ene, -diene, -Iriene, according to the number of double linkages in the compound, the position of such double linkages being shown by a numeral immediately following the suffix -ene; for example I. is methyl-cyc/o-hexadiene — i. 3. An alterna- tive method employs A. v. Baeyer's symbol A. Thus A 2-4 indicates the presence of two double bonds in the molecule situated immediately after the carbon atoms 2 and 4; for example II. is A 2-4 dihydrophthalic acid. C(CO.H):CH (6) (5) (6) II. (5) As to the stability of these compounds, most trimethylene derivatives are comparatively unstable, the ring being broken fairly readily; the tetramethylene derivatives are rather more stable and the penta- and hexa-methylene compounds are very stable, showing little tendency to form open chain compounds under ordinary conditions (see CHEMISTRY: Organic). Isomerism. — No isomerism can occur in the monosubstitution derivatives but ordinary position isomerism exists in the di- and poly-substitution compounds. Stereo-isomerism may occur: the simplest examples are the dibasic acids, where a. cis- (maleinoid) form and a trans- (fumaroid) form have been ob- served. These isomers may frequently be distinguished by the facts that the «'s-acids yield anhydrides more readily than the trans-acids, and are generally converted into the trans-adds on heating with hydrochloric acid. O. Aschan (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 3389) depicts these cases by representing the plane of the carbon atoms of the ring as a straight line and denoting the substituted hydrogen atoms by the letters X, Y, Z. Thus for dicarboxylic acids (C02H = X) the possibilities are represented by .A. .A. / • \ -A. /, \ X /¥» (cis), JT (trans), jj (I). The trans compound is perfectly asymmetric and so its mirror image (I) should exist, and, as all the trans compounds syn- thetically prepared are optically inactive, they are presumably racemic compounds (see O. Aschan, Chemie der alicyklischen Verbindungen, p. 346 seq.). General Methods of Formation. — Hydrocarbons may be ob- tained from the dihalogen paraffins by the action of sodium or zinc 'dust, provided that the halogen atoms are not attached to the same or to adjacent carbon atoms (A. Freund, Monats., 1882, 3, p. 625; W. H. Perkin, jun., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1888, 53, p. 213):— CH2-CH2-Br , ... ,vr p , CHz-CHz. CHrCH2-Br+2Na-2NaBr+CHrCH2! by the action of hydriodic acid and phosphorus or of phos- phonium iodide on benzene hydrocarbons (F. Wreden, Ann., 1877, 187, p. 153; A. v. Baeyer, ibid., 1870, 155, p. 266), ben- zene giving methylpentamethylene; by passing the vapour of benzene hydrocarbons over finely divided nickel at 180-250° C. (P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens, Comptes rettdus, 1901, 132, p. 210 seq.); and from hydrazines of the type CnHm-i-NH-NH* by oxidation with alkaline potassium ferricyanide (N. Kijner, Journ. prak. Chem., 1901, 64, p. 113). Unsaturated hydro- carbons of the series may be prepared from the corre- sponding alcohols by the elimination of a molecule of water, using either the xanthogenic ester method of L. Tschugaeff (Ber. 1899, 32, p. 3332): CnH2n_IONa->CBH2n_,O-CS.SNa(R) — >CnH2n-2+COS+R-SH; or simply by dehydrating with anhydrous oxalic acid (N. Zelinsky, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3249); and by eliminating the halogen acid from mono- or di-halogen polymethylene compounds by heating them with quinoline. Alcohols are obtained from the corresponding halogen com- pounds by the action of moist silver oxide, or by warming them with silver acetate and acetic acid; by the reduction of ketones with metallic sodium; by passing the vapours of monohydric phenols and hydrogen over finely divided nickel (P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens, loc. «'/.); by the reduction of cyclic esters with POLYMETHYLENES sodium and alcohol (L. Bouveault and G. Blanc, Comptes rendus, 1903, 136, p. 1676; 137, p. 60); and by the addition of the elements of water to the unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons on boiling with dilute acids. Aldehydes and Ketones. — The aldehydes are prepared in the usual manner from primary alcohols and acids. The ketones are obtained by the dry distillation of the calcium salts of di- basic saturated aliphatic acids (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275, p. 309): [CH2-CH2-CO2]2Ca->[CH2-CH2]2CO; by the action of sodium on the esters of acids of the adipic and pimelic acid series (W. Dieckmann, Ber., 1894, 27, pp. 103, 2475): — CH2-CH2-CH2-CO2R CH2-CH2-CH2. CH2-CH2-CO2R ~*CH2-CH2C-O ' by the action of sodium ethylate on 5-ketonic acids (D. Vor- lander, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2348): — /CH2-CH2v X xCH2-CH2\ CH< >CO; XCO-CH3 \CO-CH2 ' from sodio-malonic ester and a|3-unsaturated ketones or ketonic esters: — /CH2 COV (R02C)2CH2+Ph-CH :CH-CO-CH3-»PhCH< >CH2; \CH(C02R)-CO/ from aceto-acetic ester and esters of a|3-unsaturated acids, followed by elimination of the carboxyl group: — 2x >CHCO2R ; / 2CH8-CO-CH2-CO2R+OHC-R'- CH,; CH3-CO-CH2-CO2R+R'2C:CH-CO2R-»CO< \CH2-CO by the condensation of two molecules of aceto-acetic ester with aldehydes followed by saponification (E. Knoevenagel, Ann., 1894, 281, p. 25; 1896, 288, p. 321; Ber., 1904, 37, p. 4461) :— J"'\ :— co from i-s-diketones which contain a methyl group next the keto-group (W. Kerp, Ann., 1896, 290, p. 123): — /CH2-C(CH3k 3CH,-CO-CHS-»(CH3)2C< >CH; XCH2 CO/ by the condensation of succinic acid with sodium ethylate, fol- lowed by saponification and elimination of carbon dioxide: — CH2-CH2-CO ^CO-CH.i-CHz1 and from the condensation of ethyl oxalate with esters of other dibasic acids in presence of sodium ethylate (W. Dieckmann, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 1470; 1899, 32, p. 1933):— C°2R ___ /CO2R CO-CH* 2C2H4(C02H)2-v +CH2 > COjR NC02R CO- Acids may be prepared by the action of dihalogen paraffins on sodio-malonic ester, or sodio-aceto-acetic ester (W. H. Perkin, jun., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1888, 53, p. 194): — C2H1Br2+2NaCH(C02R)2->(CH2)2C(C02R)2+CH2(CO2R)2; ethyl butane tetracarboxylate is also formed which may be converted into a tetramethylene carboxylic ester by the action of bromine on its disodium derivative (W. H. Perkin and Sinclair, ibid., 1829, 61, p. 36). The esters of the acids may also be obtained by condensing sodio-malonic ester with a-halogen derivatives of unsaturated acids: — /CH-C02R CH3-CH : CBr-CO2R+NaCH(CO2R)2-»CH3-CH/ . | \C(C02R)2 by the action of diazomethane or diazoacetic ester on the esters of unsaturated acids, the pyrazoline carboxylic esters so formed losing nitrogen when heated and yielding acids of the cyclo- propane series (E. Buchner, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 703; Ann., 1895, 284, p. 212; H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 1891): — CH-CO2R N:N-CH-CO2R XCHC02R CH2N2+ II -> 1 I ->H2C< ' ; CH-CO2R H2C— CH-CO2R \CHCO2R and by the Grignard reaction (S. Malmgren, Ber., 1903, 36, pp. 668, 2(122; N. Zelinsky, ibid., 1902, 35, p. 2687). Cydo-propane Group. Trimethylene, C3H6, obtained by A. Freund (Monats., 1882, 3, p. 625) by heating trimethylene bromide with sodium, is a gas, which may be liquefied, the liquid boiling at —35° C. (749 mm.). It dis- solves gradually in concentrated sulphuric acid, forming propyl sulphate. Hydriodic acid converts it into w-propyl iodide. It is decomposed by chlorine in the presence of sunlight, with explosive violence. It is stable to cold potassium permanganate. Cyclo-propane carboxylic acid, C3H5-CO2H, is prepared by heating the i.i-dicarboxylic acid; and by the hydrolysis of its nitrile, formed by heating -y-chlorbutyro-nitrilewith potash (L. Henry and P. Dalle, Chem. Centralblatt, 1901, I, p. 1357; 1902, I, p. 913). .It is a colour- less oil, moderately soluble in water. The I.I dicarboxylic acid is prepared from ethylene dibromide and sodio-malonic ester. The ring is split by sulphuric or hydrobromic acids. The cis 1 .2-cydo-propane dicarboxylic acid is formed by elimi- nating carbon dioxide from cyc/0-propane tricarboxylic acid -1.2.3 (from a/3-dibrompropionic ester and sodio-malonic ester). The trans-acid is produced on heating pyrazolin-4.5-dicarbpxylic ester, or by the action of alcoholic potash on a-bromglutaric ester. It does not yield an anhydride. Cydo-butane Group. Cydo-butane, C4H8, was obtained by R. Willstatter (Ber., 1907, 40, p. 3979) by the reduction of cyclobutene by the Sabatier and Senderens method. It is a colourless liquid which boils at 1 1-12° C., and its vapour burns with a luminous flame. Reduction at 1 80- 200° C. by the above method gives n-butane. Cydo-butene, CiH6, formed by distilling trimethyl-cyc/o-butyl- ammonium hydroxide, boils at 1.5-2.0° C. (see N. Zelinsky, ibid., p. 4744; G. Schweter, ibid., p. 1604). When sodio-malonic ester is condensed with trimethylene bromide the chief product is ethyl pentane tetracarboxylate, tetramethylene i.i-dicarboxylic ester being also formed, and from this the free acid may be obtained on hydrolysis. It melts at 154-156° C., losing carbon dioxide and passing into cycfo-butane carboxylic acid, C4H7CO2H. This basic acid yields a monobrom derivative which, by the action of aqueous potash, gives the corresponding hydroxy- cyc/o-butane carboxylic acid, C4H6(OH)-CO2H. Attempts to elimi- nate water from this acid and so produce an unsaturated acid were unsuccessful; on warming with sulphuric acid, carbon monoxide is eliminated and cyc/o-butanone (keto-tetramethylene) is probably formed. The truxillic acids, CisHieO^ which result by the hydrolytic split- ting of truxilline, Cs8H«N2Os, are phenyl derivatives of cyc/o-butane. Their constitution was determined by C. Liebermann (Ber., 1 888, 21, p. 2342; 1889, 22, p. 124 seq.). They are polymers of cinnamic acid, into which they readily pass on distillation. The a-acid on oxidation yields benzoic acid, whilst the /3-acid yields benzil in addition. The a-acid is diphenyl-2.4-cyc/o-butane dicarboxylic acid -1.3; and the 0-acid diphenyl-34-cyclo-butane dicarboxylic acid -1.2. By alkalis they are transformed into stereo-isomers, the a-acid giving -y-truxillic acid, and the j3-acid 6-truxillic acid. The a-acid was synthesized by C. N. Riiber (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 2411; 1904, 37, p. 2274), by oxidizing diphenyl-2.4-cyc/o-butane-bismethy- lene malonic acid (fron cinnamic aldehyde and malonic acid in the presence of quinoline) with potassium permanganate. Cydo-pentane Group. Derivatives may be prepared in many cases by the breaking down of the benzene ring when it contains an accumulation of negative atoms (T. Zincke, Ber., 1886-1894; A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 2780; 1889, 22, p. 1238), this type of reaction being generally brought about by the action of chlorine on phenols in the presence of alkalis (see CHEMISTRY: Organic). A somewhat related example is seen in the case of croconic acid, which is formed by the action of alkaline oxidizing agents on hexa-oxybenzene : — HO-C-C(OH) : C(OH) HO-C-CO-CO HO-C-Ca .«. I -» .»- !-» A >CO HO-C-C(OH) i C(OH) HO-C-CO-CO HO-C-CO/ Hexa-oxybenzene. Rhodizonic acid. Croconic acid. Cyclo-pentane, C6Hio, is obtained from rycfo-pentanone by reducing it to the corresponding secondary alcohol, converting this into the iodo-compound, which is finally reduced to the hydrocarbon (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275, p. 327). It is a colourless liquid which boils at 50-51° C. Methyl-cydo-pentane, CsHgCHs, first obtained by F. Wreden (Ann., 1877, 187, p. 163) by the action of hydriodic acid and red phosphorus on benzene, and considered to be hexahydro- benzene, is obtained synthetically by the action of sodium on 1-5 dibromhexane ; and by the action of magnesium on acetylbutyl iodide (N. Zelinsky, Ber., 1902, 35, p. 2684). It is a liquid boiling at 72° C. Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-42) oxidizes it to succinic and acetic acids. Cydo-pentene, C6H8, a liquid obtained by the action of alcoholic potash on iodo-cycto-pentane, boils at 45° C. Cyclo- pentadiene, CeHe, is found in the first runnings from crude benzene distillations. It is a liquid which boils at 41° C. It rapidly poly- merizes to di-cyc/o-pentadiene. The -CH2- group is very reactive and behaves in a similar manner to the grouping -CO-CH2-CO- in open chain compounds, e.g. with aldehydes and ketones it gives the POLYMETHYLENES fulvcnes, substances characterized by their intense orange-red colour HC:CH (J. Thiele, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 669). Phenylfulven, \ >C:CHPh, HC-.CH7 obtained from benzaldehyde and cyc/o-pentadiene, forms dark red plates. Diphenylfulven, from benzophenone and cyc/o-pentadienc, crystallizes in deep red prisms. Dimethylfulven is an orange- coloured oil which oxidizes rapidly on exposure. Concentrated sulphuric acid converts it into a deep red tar. Cydo-pentanone, CsHsO, first prepared pure by the distillation of calcium adipate (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275, p. 312), is also ob- tained by the action of sodium on the esters of pimelic acid; by the distillation of calcium succinate; and by hydrolysis of the cyclo- pentanone carboxylic acid, obtained by condensing adipic and oxalic esters in the presence of sodium ethylate. Reduction gives cyc/o-pentanol, CsH9OH. Croconic acid (dioxy-eyc/0-pentene-trione), C6H2O6, is formed when triquinoyl is boiled with water, or by the oxidation of hexa-oxyben- zene or dioxydiquinoyl in alkaline solution (T. Zincke, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 1267). It has the character of a quinone. On oxidation it yields cyc/o-pentane-pentanone (leuconic acid). Derivatives of the cyc/o-pentane group are met with in the break- ing-down products of the terpenes &.».). Campholactone, C9H]4O2, is the lactone of trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o- pentanol-5-carboxylic acid-3. For an isomer, isocampholactone (the lactone of trimethyl-2-2-3-eyc/o-pentanol-3-carboxylic acid-i) see W. H. Perkin, jun., Proc. Ghent. Soc., 1903, 19, p. 61. Lauronolic acid, C,HMO2, is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentene-4-acid-i. Isolauro- nolic acid, C9HuO2, is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentene-3-acid-4. Campholic acid, CioHi8O2, is tetrametnyl-i-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentane acid-3. Camphononic acid, C9Hi4O3, is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/0-penta- none- 1 -carboxylic acid-3. Camphorphorone, C9HuO, is methyl-2- isobuty-lene-5-cycfo-pentanone-l. Isothujone, Ci0Hi6O, is dim- ethyl-i-2-isopropyl-3-cyc/o-pentene-l-one-5. (F. W. Semmler, Ber., I9°o, 33, p. 275.) L. Bouveault and G. Blanc (Comptes rendus, 1903, 136, p. 1460), prepared hydrocarbons of the eyc/o-pentane series from cyclo- hexane compounds by the exhaustive methylation process of A. W. Hofmann (see PYRIDINE). For phenyl derivatives of the cyclo- pentane group see F. R. Japp, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1897, 71, pp. 139, 144; H. Stobbe, Ann., 1901, 314, p. in; 315, p. 219 seq.; 1903, 326, p. 347. Cydo-hexane Group. Hydrocarbons. — Cydo-hexane, or hexahydro benzene, C6Hi2, is obtained by the action of sodium on a boiling alcoholic solution of i •6-dibromhexane, and by passing the vapour of benzene, mixed with hydrogen, over finely divided nickel. It is a liquid with an odour like that of benzene. It boils at 80-81° C. Nitric acid oxidizes it to adipic acid. When heated with bromine in a sealed tube for some days at 150-200° C., it yields i-2-4'5-tetrabrombenzene (N. Zelinsky, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 2803). It is stable towards halogens at ordinary temperature. Benzene hexachloride, CtH6Cls, is formed by the action of chlorine on benzene in sunlight. By recrystallization from hot benzene, the a form is obtained in large prisms which melt at 157° C., and at their boiling-point decompose into hydrochloric acid and trichlorbenzene. The /3 form results by chlorinating boiling benzene in sunlight, and may be separated from the o variety by distillation in a current of steam. It sublimes at about 310° C. Similar varieties of benzene hexabromide are known. Hexahydrocymene (methyl- i-isopropyl-4-cyc/o-hexane), CioH20, is important since it is the parent substance of many terpenes (H2<1 and a mixture of ketones (C. Mannul, Ber., 1907,40, p. 153). Methyl-i-cydo-hexanone-^, CHj-C«H9O, is prepared by the hydrolysis of pulegone. It is an optically active liquid which boils at 168-169° C. Homologues of menthone may be obtained from the ketone by successive treatment with sodium amide and alkyl halides (A. Haller, Comptes rendus, 1905, 140, p. 127). On oxidation with nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-4) at 60-70° C., a mixture of — and — -methyl adipic acids is obtained (W. Markownikoff, Ann., 1905, 336, p. 299). It can be transformed into the isomeric methyl-i-cydo-hexanone-2 (O. Wallach, Ann., 1904, 329, p. 368). For methyl-i-cydo-hexanone-4, obtained by distilling •y-methyl pimelate with lime, see O. Wallach, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 1492. Cydo-hexane-dione-l-3 (dihydroresorcin), C«H802, was obtained by G. Merling (Ann., 1894, 278, p. 28) by reducing resorcin in hot alcoholic solution with sodium amalgam. Cydo-hexane-dione- 1 -4 is obtained by the hydrolysis of succino-succinic ester. On reduction it yields quinite. It combines with benzaldehyde, in the presence of hydrochloric acid, to form 2-benzyl-hydroquinone. Cyclo- hexane-trione-i-3-5 (phloroglucin) is obtained by the fusion of many resins and of resorcin with caustic alkali. It may be prepared synthetically by fusing its dicarboxylic ester (from malonic ester and sodio malonic ester at 145° C.) with potash (C. W. Moore, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, p. 165). It crystallizes in prisms, which melt at 218° C. With ferric chloride it gives a dark violet coloration. It exhibits tautomerization, since in many of its reactions it shows the properties of a hydroxylic substance. Rhodizonic acid (dioxydiquinoyl), C6H2O6, is probably the enolic form of an pxypentaketo-cycfo-hexane. It is formed by the reduction of triquinoyl by aqueous sulphurous acid, or in the form of its potassium salt by washing potassium hexa-oxybenzene with alcohol (R. Nietzki, Ber., 1885, 18, pp. 513, 1838). Triquinoyl (hexaketp-cyc/o-hexane) CeOe-8H2O, is formed on oxidizing rhodi- zonic acid or hexa-oxybenzene. Stannous chloride reduces it to hexa-oxybenzene, and when boiled with water it yields croconic acid (dioxy-cydo-pentene-trione) . Cydo-hexenones. — Two types of ketones are to be noted in this group, namely the o/3 and jS-y ketones, depending upon the position of the double linkage in the molecule, thus: .CH2:CH ,CH-CH,V H2C< \CO HCf >CO N:H2-CH,/ N:H2-CH/ These two classes show characteristic differences in properties. For example, on reduction with zinc and alcoholic potash, the off compounds give saturated ketones and also bi-molecular compounds, the /S? being unaffected; the 0-y series react with hydroxylamine in a normal manner, the aft yield oxamino-oximes. Melhyl-i-cydo-hexene-i-one-z, CHj-CjHvO, is obtained by condens- ing sodium aceto-acetate with methylene iodide, the ester so formed being then hydrolysed. Isocamphorphorone, C9HuO, is trimethyl i-6-6.-cyc/o-hexene-i-one 6. Isocamphor, Ci0Hi6O, is methyl-l- isopropyl-3-cyc/o-hexene-i-one 6. Acids. — Hexahydrobenzoic acid, C«Hn'CO2H, is obtained by the reduction of benzole acid, or by the condensation of 1-5 dibrompen- tane with disodio-malonic ester. It crystallizes in small plates which melt at 30-31° C. and boil at 232-233° C. (J. C. Lumsden, Journ. Chem. _Soc., 1905, 87, p. 90). The sulphochloride of the acid on reduction with tin and hydrochloric acid gives hexahydrothiophenol, C«HnSH, a colourless oil which boils at 158-160° C. (W. Borsche, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 392). Quinic acid, C«H7(OH)4CO2H (tetra-oxy-cyc/o-hexane carboxylic acid), is found in coffee beans and in quinia bark. It crystallizes in colourless prisms and is optically active. When heated to about 250° C. it is transformed into quinide, probably a lactone, which on heating with baryta water gives an inactive quinic acid. Hexahydrophthalic acids, C«Hio(COsH)2 (cyc/o-hexanedicarboxylic acids). — Three acids of this group are known, containing the Carb- oxyl-groups in the 1-2, 1-3, and 1-4 positions, and each exists in two tereo-isomeric forms (CM- and trans-). The anhydride of theciVi-2 POLYMETHYLENES A2 and A* TETRAHYDRO^- ' I Heat A 1 TETEAHYDRO Hydrobromidf OH reduction HEXAHYDRO acid, obtained by heating the anhydride of the trans-acid, forms prisms which melt at 192° C. When heated with hydrochloric acid it passes into the /rani-variety. The racemic trans-acid is produced by the reduction of the dihydrobromide of A4-tetrahydrophthalic acid or A2'6 dihydrophthalic acid. It is split into its active components by means of its quinine salt (A. Werner and H. E. Conrad, Ber., *899, 32, p. 3046). Hexahydroisophtholic acids (cyc/o-hexane-l'3- dicarboxylic acids) are obtained by the action of methylene iodide on disodio-pentane tetracarboxylic ester (W. H. Perkin, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1891, 59, p. 798); by the action of trimethylene bromide on disodio-propane tetracarboxylic ester ; and by the reduction of isophthalic acid with sodium amalgam, the tetrahydro acids first formed being converted into hydrobromides and further reduced (A. v. Baeyer and V. Villiger, Ann., 1893, 276, p. 255). The cis- and trans- forms can be separated by means of their sodium salts. The (rani-acid is a racemic compound, which on heating with acetyl chloride gives the anhydride of the cii-acid. Hexahydroterephthalic acids (cydo-hexane-l-4-dicarboxylic acids). These acids are obtained by the reduction of the hydrobromides of the di- and tetra-hydroterephthalic acids or by the action of ethylene dibromide on disodio-butane tetracarboxylic acid. An important derivative is succino-succinic acid, C6H6O2(CO2H)2, or cyc/o-hexane- dione-2>5-dicarboxylic acid-1'4, which is obtained as its ester by the action of sodium or sodium ethylate on succinic ester (H. Fehling, Ann., 1844, 49, p. 192; F. Hermann, Ann., 1882, 211, p. 306). It crystallizes in needles or prisms, and dissolves in alcohol to form a bright blue fluorescent liquid, which on the addition of ferric chloride becomes cherry red. The acid on heating loses COa and gives cye/o-hexanedione-1'4. Tetrahydrobenzoic acid (cyc/o-hexene- I -carboxy lie acid- 1 ) , C6H9- COjH . Three structural isomers are possible. The A1 acid results on boiling the A2 acid with alkalis, or on eliminating hydro- bromic acid from i-brom-cyc/o-hexane- carboxylic acid- 1. The A2 acid is formed on the reduction of benzoic acid with sodium amalgam. The A3 acid is obtained by eliminating the elements of water from 4-oxy-cyc/o-hexane-i-carb- oxylic acid (W. H. Perkin, iun., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, p. 431). Shikimic acid (3-4'6-trioxy-A1-tetrahydrobenzoic acid) is found in the fruit of Illicium religiosum. On fusion with alkalis it yields para-oxybenzoic acid, and nas- cent hydrogen reduces it to hydro- shikimicacid. Sedanolic acid, CiaH^Os, which is found along with sedanonic acid, C^HigOa, in the higher boiling fractions of celery oil, is an ortho- oxyamyl-A6-tetrahydrobenzoic acid, sedanonic acid being ortho- valeryl-A'-tetrahydrobenzoic acid(G. Ciamician and P. Silber, Ber., 1897, 30, pp. 492, 501, 1419 seq.). Sedanolic acid readily decom- poses into water and its lactone sedanolid, Ci2Hi8O2, the odorous constituent of celery oil. Telrahydrophthalic acids (cycfo-hexene dicarboxylic acids), C6HS(CO2H)2. Of the ortho-series four acids are known. The A1 acid is obtained as its anhydride by heating the A2 acid to 220° C., or by distilling hydropyromellitic acid. Alkaline potassium permanganate oxidizes it to adipic acid. The A2 acid is formed along with the A4 acid by reducing phthalic acid with sodium amalgam in hot solutions. The A4 acid exists in cis- and trans- forms. The /raws-variety is produced by reducing phthalic acid, and the cis-acid by reducing A2'4 dihydrophthalic acid. In the meta-series, four acids are also known. The A2 acid is formed along with the A4 (cis) acid by reducing isophthalic acid. The trans A4 acid is formed by heating the m-acid with hydrochloric acid under pressure. The A3 acid is formed when the anhydride of tetrahydro rimesic acid is distilled (W. H. Perkin, junr., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, p. 293). In the para-series, three acids are known. The A1 acid is formed by the direct reduction of terephthalic acid; by boiling the A2 acid with caustic soda; and by the reduction (in the heat) of A1'4 dihydro- terephthalic acid. The A2 acid exists in cis- and trans- forms; these are produced simultaneously in the reduction of A1'* or A1'6 dihydro- terephthalic acids by sodium amalgam. There are five possible dihydrobenzoic acids. One was obtained in the form of its amide by the reduction of benzamide in alkaline solution with sodium amalgam (A. Hutchinson, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 177). The A1'* acid is obtained on oxidizing dihydrobenzalde- hyde with silver oxide or by the reduction of meta-trimethyl- aminobenzoic acid (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 1859). Of the dihydrophthalic acids, five are known in the ortho-series, two of which are stereo-isomers of the cis- and trans-type, and a similar number are knbwn in the para-series. The A1'4 acid is obtained as its anhydride by heating A2'4 dihydrophthalic anhydride with acetic anhydride. When boiled with caustic soda it isomerizes to a mixture of the A2'4 and A2's dihydrophthalic acids. The A2'4 acid is obtained by boiling the dihydrobromide of the A2'6 acid with alcoholic potash or by continued boiling of the A2'6 acid with caustic soda. The A2'6 acid is formed when phthalic acid is reduced in the cold by sodium amalgam or by heating the A2'4 and A3'5 acids with caustic soda. The (raws- modification of A3'5 acid is produced when phthalic acid is reduced by sodium amalgam in the presence of acetic acid. When heated for some time with acetic anhydride it changes to the cis-iorm. The trans-acid has been resolved by means of its strychnine salts into two optically active isomerides, both of which readily pass to A2'6 dihydrophthalic acid (A. Neville, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1906, 89, p. 1744). Of the dihydroterephthalic acids, the A1'3 acid is obtained by heat- ing the dibromide of the A2 tetrahydro acid with alcoholic potash. It cannot be prepared by a direct reduction of terephthalic acid. On warming with caustic soda it is converted into the A1'4 acid. TheA1'4 acid is also obtained by the direct reduction of terephthalic acid. It is the most stable of the dihydro acids. The A1 5 acid is obtained by boiling the cis- andirons-A2'6 acids with water, which are obtained on reducing terephthalic acid with sodium amalgam in faintly alka- line solution. The relationships existing between the various hydrophthalic acids may be shown as follows: — Sodium amalgam (hot) Sodium amalgam + acetic acid PHTHALIC ACID Sodium Sodium amalgam (cold) amalgam (hot) • A 2-6 DIHYDRO Alkali Eydrobromide with alcoholic potash A3-5 DIHYDRO (TRANS.) J, Acetic anhydride A3-5 DIHYDRO (cis.) A2'4 DIHYDRO Anhydride with acetic anhydride AH DIHYDRO Isetttmm amalgam Sodium amalgam in faintly alkaline solution Sodium Boil with I A2-6 DlHYDRO amalgam (hot) water ( A 1-5 DlflYDRO 1 Sodium amalgam „ -. , Kan rj A 2 TETRAHYDRO- >A 1 TETRAHYDRO Reduce Dibromide 4- alcoholic potash Remove H Br from I Hydrobromifc on reduction dibromide -HEXAHYDRO Cyclo-heptane Croup. Cyclo-heptane (suberane), C7Hi4, obtained by the reduction of suberyl iodide, is a liquid which boils at 117° C. On treatment with bromine in the presence of aluminium bromide it gives chiefly pentabromtoluene. When heated with hydriodic acid to 230° C. acid thick _ _ reduction of suberyl bromide. Cyc\o-heptene, C^Hu, is obtained by the action of alcoholic potash on suberyl iodide; and from eyc/o-heptane carboxylic acid, the amide of which by the action of sodium hypobromite is converted into cyc/o-heptanamine, which, in its turn, is destructively methylated (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1901, 34, 131). Cyclo-heptadiene 1-3, C7H10, is obtained from cyc/o-heptene (Willstatter, loc. cit.). It is identical with the hydrotropilidine, which results by the destructive methyla- tion of tropane. Euterpene (trimethyl-i-4-4-cyc/o-heptadiene I -5), CioHie is prepared from dihydroeucarveol. By the action of hydrobromic acid (in glacial acetic acid solution) and reduction of the resulting product it yields l-2-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene (A. v. Baeyer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2075). Cyc\o-heptatriene (tropilidine), C7H8, is formed on dis- tilling tropine with baryta; and from cyc/o-heptadiene by forming its addition product with bromine and heating this with quinoline to 150-160° C. (R. Willstatter, loc. cit.). Chromic acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid and benzaldehyde. With bromine it forms a di- bromide, which then heated to IIO° C. decomposes into hydro- bromic acid and benzyl bromide, Cyclo-heptanol, CiHupH, is formed by the reduction of suberone, and by the action of silver nitrite on the hydrochloride of cyclo- hexanamine (N. Demjanow, Centralblatt, 1904, i. p. 1214). Cyc\o-heptanone (suberone), CyH^O, is formed on the dis- tillation of suberic acid with lime, and from o-brom-cyc/o-heptane carboxylic acid by treatment with baryta and subsequent distilla- tion over lead peroxide (R. Willstatter, Ber.. -1898, 31, p. 2507). It is a colourless liquid having a peppermint odour, and boiling at I78'5-I79'5° C. Nitric acid oxidizes it to n-pimelic acid. POLYNESIA 33 Tropilene, CjHioO, is obtained in small quantities by the distillation of a-methyltropine methyl hydroxide, and by the hydrolysis of 0- im-thyltropidine with dilute hydrochloric acid. It is an oily liquid, with an odour resembling that of benzaldehyde. It forms a benzal compound, and gives an oyxmethylene derivative and cannot be oxidized to an acid, reactions which point to it being a ketone con- taining the grouping -CH,-CO-. It is thus to be regarded as a cyc/o-heptene-i-one-7. Cyc\o-heptane carboxylic acid (suberanic acid), CrHuCOjH, is obtained by the reduction of cyc/o-heptene-i-carboxylic acid; from brom-cyc/o-heptane by the Grignard reaction; and by the re- duction of hydrotropilidine carboxylic acid by sodium in alcoholic solution (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2504^. The corresponding oxyacid is obtained by the hydrolysis of the nitrile, which is formed by the addition of hydrocyanic acid to suberone (A. Spiegel, Ann., 1882, 211, p. 117). Four cy«o-heptene carboxylic acids are known. Cyc\o-heptene-i- carboxylic acid-l is prepared from oxysuberanic acid. This acid when heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid to 120-^130° C. yields a chlor-acid, which on warming with alcoholic potash is trans- formed into the cye/o-heptene compound. Cyc\o~heptene-2-carboxylic acid-l is formed by the reduction of cyc/o-heptatriene 2-4-6-carb- oxylic acid-l. On boiling with caustic soda it isomerizes to the corresponding l-acid. Cyc\o-heptatriene carboxylic acids, CiHjCOtH. All four are known. According to F. Buchner (Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2242) they may be represented as follows : — aiWorji. The a-acid (a-isophenylacetic acid) is obtained by the hydrolysis of pseudophenylacetamide, formed by condensing diazoacetic ester with benzene, the resulting pseudophenyl acetic ester being then left in contact with strong ammonia for a long time. 0-Isophenylacetic acid is formed by strongly heating pseudophenylacetic ester in an air-free sealed tube and hydrolysing the resulting 0-isophenyIacetic ester. y-Isophenylacetic acid is obtained by heating the 0 and & acids for a long time with alcoholic potash (A. Einhorn, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 2828; E. Buchner, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2249). d-Isophenyl- acetic acid is obtained by heating the iodmethylate of anhydro- ecgonine ester with dilute caustic soda (A. Einhorn, Ber., 1893, 26, P- 329). Numerous ammo-derivatives of the cyclo-heptane series have been prepared by R. Willstatter in the course of his investigations on the constitution of tropine (g.v.). Amino-cyclo-heptane (suberylamine) is obtained by the reduction of suberone oxime or by the action of sodium hypobromite on the amide of cycloheptane carboxylic acid. Cyc\o-octane Croup. Few members of this group are known. By the distillation of the calcium salt of azelaic acid H. Mayer (Ann., 1893, 275, p. 363) obtained azelain ketone, C8HUO, a liquid of peppermint odour. It boils at 90-91° C. (23 mm.) and is readily oxidized by potassium permanganate to oxysuberic acid. It is apparently cyc/o-octanone (see also W. Miller and A. Tschitschkin, Centralblatt, 1899, 2., p. 181). Pseudopelletierine (methyl granatonine), C8Hi6NO, an alkaloid of the pomegranate, is a derivative of cyc/o-octane, and resembles tropine in that it contains a nitrogen bridge between two carbon atoms. It is an inactive base, and also has ketonic properties. On oxidation it yields methyl granatic ester, which, by the exhaustive methylation process, is converted into homopipcrylene dicarboxvlic ester, HO,C-CH:CH CH, CHa CH:CH-COSH, from which suberic acid may be obtained on reduction. When reduced in alcoholic solution by means of sodium amalgam it yields methyl granatoline, CsHnOH-NCHj; this substance, on oxidation with cold potassium permanganate, is converted into granatoline, C8HuNO, which on listillation over zinc dust yields pyridine. Methyl granatoline on treatment with hydriodic acid and red phosphorus, followed by caustic potash, yields methyl granatinine, C9Hi6N, which when heated with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to 240° C. is converted into methyl granatanine, C8HU.NCH3, and granatanine, C8HUNH. The hydrochloride of the latter base when distilled over zinc dust yields o-propyl pyridine. By the electrolytic reduction of pseudopellet- icrine, W-methyl granatanine is obtained, and this by exhaustive methylation is converted into A Mes-dimethyl granatanine. This Uter compound readily forms an iodmethylate, which on treatment with silver oxide yields the corresponding ammonium hydroxide. The ammonium hydroxide on distillation decomposes into trimethyl- amine, water and cyc/o-octadiene I -3. CH.CH— CH, CH.NMe CO - CH.CH— CH, Pseudopelletierine CH2CH— CH, >CH,NMe CH, CH.-CH— CH, JV-methyl granatanine CH, — CH— CH, -»CH,HO NMe,CH, CH, CH— CH, CH.CH— CH, CH, CH— CH, CH,CH:CH CH, NMe CH,<-CH,HO NMe,CH^-CH, CH CH,CH = CH CH, — CH = CH CH, CH, CH A-4.), widely distributed throughout the world, but specially developed in the tropics. The name is derived from Gr. iroXus, many, and irodiov, a little foot, on account of the foot-like appear- ance of the rhizome and its branches. The species differ greatly in size and general appearance and in the character of the frond ; the sori or groups of spore-cases (sporangia) are borne on the back of the leaf, are globose and naked, that is, are not covered with a membrane (indusium) (see fig. i). The common poly- pody (fig. 2) (P. wdgare) is widely diffused in the British Isles, where it is found on walls, banks, trees, &c.; the creep- ing, densely-scaly rootstock bears deeply pinnately cut fronds, the fertile ones bear- ing on the back the bright yellow naked groups of sporangia (sori). It is also known as adder's foot, golden maidenhair and wood-fern, and is the oak- fern of the old herbals. FIG. i. — Portion of a pinna of leaf of Polypodium bearing sori, s, on its back. FIG. 2. — Polypodium vulgare, common polypody (about \ nat. size). i. Group of spore-cases (sorus) on back of leaf (X 4). There are a large number of varieties, differing chiefly in the form and division of the pinnae; var. cambricum (origin- ally found in Wales) has the pinnae themselves deeply cut into narrow segments; var. cornubiense is a very elegant plant with finely-divided fronds; var. cristatum is a handsome variety with fronds forking at the apex and the tips of all the pinnae crested and curled. P. dryopteris, generally known as oak- fern, is a very graceful plant with delicate fronds, 6 to id in. long, the three main branches of which are themselves pinnately divided; it is found in dry, shady places in mountain districts in Great Britain, but is very rare in Ireland. P. phegopteris (beechfern) is a graceful species with a black, slender root-stock, from which the pinnate fronds rise on long stalks, generally about 12 in. long, including the stalk; it is characterized by having the lower pinnae of the frond deflexed; it is generally distributed in Britain, though not common. Many other species from different parts of the world are known in green- house cultivation. POLYPUS, a term signifying a tumour which is attached by a narrow neck to the walls of a cavity lined with mucous membrane. A polypus or polypoid tumour may belong to any variety of tumour, either simple or malignant. The most com- mon variety is a polypus of the nose of simple character and easily removed. Polypi are also met with in the ear, larynx, uterus, bladder, vagina, and rectum. (See TUMOUR.) POLYTECHNIC (Gr. iroX6s, many, and T«X»"?, an art), a term which may be held to designate any institution formed with a view to encourage or to illustrate various arts and sciences. It has, however, been used with different applications in several European countries. In France the first ecole polylcchnique was founded by the National Convention at the end of the i8th century, as a practical protest against the almost exclusive devotion to literary and abstract studies in the places of higher learning. The institution is described as one " ou Ton instruit les jeunes gens, destines a entrer dans les ecoles speciales d'artillerie, du genie, des mines, des ponts et chaussees, cree en 1794 sous le nom d'ecole centrale des travaux publiques, et en 1795 sous celui qu'elle porte aujourd'hui " (Litlre). In Ger- many there are nine technical colleges which, in like manner, have a special and industrial, rather than a general educational purpose. In Switzerland the principal educational institution, which is not maintained or administered by the communal authorities, but is non-local and provided by the Federal govern- ment, is the Polytechnikum at Zurich. In all the important towns of the Federation there are trade and technical schools of a more or less special character, adapted to the local indus- tries; e.g. schools for silk-weaving, wood-carving, watchmaking, or agriculture. But the Zurich Polytechnikum has a wider and more comprehensive range of work. It is a college designed to give instruction and practical training in those sciences which stand in the closest relation to manufactures and commerce and to skilled industry in general and its work is of university rank. To the English public the word polytechnic has only recently become familiar, in connexion with some London institutions of an exceptional character. In the reign of William The First IV. there was an institution in London called after Poiyiechaks the name of his consort— " The Adelaide Gallery " >* England. — and devoted rather to the display of new scientific inven- tions and curiosities than to research or to the teaching of science. It enjoyed an ephemeral popularity, and was soon imitated by an institution called the Polytechnic in Regent Street, with a somewhat more pretentious programme, a diving- bell, electrical and mechanical apparatus, besides occasional illustrated lectures of a popular and more or less recreative character. In the popular mind this institution is inseparably associated with " Professor " Pepper, the author of The Boy's Playbook of Science and of Pepper's Ghost. Both of these institutions, after a few years of success, failed financially; and in 1880 Mr Quintin Hogg, an active and generous philan- thropist, purchased the disused building in Regent Street, and reopened it on an altered basis, though still retaining the name of Polytechnic, to which, however, he gave a new significance. He had during sixteen years been singularly successful in gathering -together young shopmen and artisans in London in the evenings and on Sunday for religious and social intercourse, and in acquiring their confidence. But by rapid degrees his enterprise, which began as an evangelistic effort, developed into an educational institution of a novel and comprehensive char- acter, with classes for the serious study of science, art, and literature, a gymnasium, library, reading circles, laboratories for physics and chemistry, conversation and debating clubs, organized country excursions, swimming, rowing, and natural history societies, a savings bank, and choral singing, besides religious services, open to all the members, though not obli- gatory for any. The founder, who from the first took the closest personal interest in the students, well describes his own aims: " What we wanted to develop our institute into was a place which should recognize that God had given man more than one side to his character, and where we could gratify any reason- able taste, whether athletic, intellectual, spiritual or social. The success of this effort was remarkable. In the first winter POLYTECHNIC 39 6800 members joined, paying fees of 35. per term, or IDS. 6d. per year; and the members steadily increased, until in 1900 they reached a total of 15,000 The average daily attendance is 4000; six hundred classes in different grades and subjects are held weekly; and upwards of forty clubs and societies have been formed in connexion with the recreative and social departments. The precedent thus established by private initiative has since :en followed in the formation of the public institutions which, under the name of " Polytechnics," have become "ti'tutioas so prominent and have exercised such beneficent this influence among the working population of London. The principal resources for the foundation and .tenance of these institutions have been derived from two nds — that administered under the City Parochial Charities .ct of 1883, and that furnished by the London County Council, first under the terms of the Local Taxation (Customs and ;cise) Act of 1890, and the Technical Instruction Act 1889, ,t since the ist of May 1904 under the Education Act 1902, as applied to London by the act of 1903. More detailed refer- ence to these two acts seems to be necessary in this place. The royal commission of inquiry into the parochial char- ities of London was appointed in 1878, mainly at the instance TheCHy °^ ^r James Bryce, and under the presidency of Parochial the Duke of Northumberland. Its report appeared Charities in iggo, giving particulars of the income of the parishes, and revealing the fact that the funds had largely outgrown the original purposes of the endowments, which were ill adapted to the modern needs of the class for ;vhose benefit they were intended. The act of parliament of 1883 was designed to give effect to the recommendations of the commissioners. It provided that while five of the largest parishes were to retain the management of their own charitable funds, the endowments of the remaining 107 parishes in the city should be administered by a corporate body, to be en- titled " the Trustees of the London Parochial Charities" (other- wise known in relation to the polytechnics as " the Central Governing Body" ), this body to include five nominees of the Crown and four of the corporation of London. The remaining members were to be chosen under a subsequent scheme of the charity commission, which added four nominees of the Lon- don County Council, two of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, and one each appointed by the university of London, Univer- sity College, King's College, the City and Guilds institute, and the governing bodies of the Bishopsgate and the Cripplegate foundations. For the purpose of framing the scheme, a special commissioner, Mr James Anstie, Q.C., was temporarily attached to the charity commission, and it thus became the duty of the commission to prepare a statement of the charity property possessed by the 107 parishes, distinguishing between the secular and the ecclesiastical parts of the endowments. The annual income derived from the ecclesiastical fund was £35,000, and that from the secular portion of the fund £50,000. The scheme assigned capital grants amounting to £155,000 to the provision of open spaces, and £149,500 to various institutions, including free libraries in Bishopsgate and Cripplegate, the People's Palace, the Regent Street and Northampton Institutes, and the Victoria Hall. A capital sum of £49,355 out of the ecclesiastical fund was devoted to the repair of city churches; and the balance of the annual income of this fund, after allowances for certain vested interests, was directed to be paid to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners. This balance has varied by slight increases from year to year, and amounted in 1906 to £20,875. The remaining fund thus set free for secular purposes was by the scheme largely devoted to the erection and main- tenance of polytechnic institutions, or " industrial institutes," as they were at first called. It was the opinion of Mr Anstie and his fellow-commissioners that in this way it would be possible to meet one of the most urgent of the intellectual needs of the metropolis, and to render service nearly akin to the original purposes of the obsolete charitable endowments. For the year 1906-1907 the grants made to the polytechnics and kindred institutions (the Working Men's College, College for Working Women, &c.) by the Central Governing Body amounted to £39,140, and the total amount contributed by the Central Governing Body since its creation amounts to £543,000. The general scope and aims of the institutions thus con- templated by the commissioners are defined hi the A Typlcal " general regulations for the management of an indus- Scheme trial institute," which are appended as a schedule to uaaertbe the several schemes, and which run as follows: — Act' The object of this institution is the promotion of the industrial skill, general knowledge, health and well-being of young men and women belonging to the poorer classes by the following means: — _ i. Instruction in — a. The general rules and principles of the arts and sciences applicable to any handicraft, trade or business. b. The practical application of such general rules and principles in any handicraft, trade or business. c. Branches or details of any handicraft, trade or business, facilities for acquiring the knowledge of which cannot usually be obtained in the workshop or other place of business. The classes and lectures shall not be designed or arranged so as to be in substitution for the practical experience of the workshop or place of business, but so as to be supplementary thereto. u. Instruction suitable for persons intending to emigrate. iii. Instruction in such other branches and subjects of art, science, language, literature and general knowledge as may be approved by the governing body. iv. Public lectures or courses of lectures, musical and other entertainments and exhibitions. v. Instruction and practice in gymnastics, drill, swimming and other bodily exercises. vi. Facilities for the formation and meeting of clubs and societies. vii. A library, museum and reading room or rooms. Within the limits prescribed, the governing body may from time to time, out of the funds at their disposal, provide and maintain buildings and grounds, including workshops and laboratories suit- able for all the purposes herein specified, and the necessary furniture, fittings, apparatus, models and books, and may provide or receive by gift or on loan works of art or scientific construction, or objects of interest .and curiosity, for the purpose of the institute, and for the purpose of temporary exhibition. Other provisions in the scheme require: (i) that the educa- tional benefits of the institute shall be available for both sexes equally, but that common rooms, refreshment rooms, gymnasia and swimming-baths may be established separately, under such suitable arrangements as may be approved by the governing body; (2) that the fees and subscriptions shall be so fixed as to place the benefits of the institute within the reach of the poorer classes; (3) that no intoxicating liquors, smoking or gambling shall be allowed in any part of the building; (4) that the build- ings, ground and premises shall not be used for any political, denominational or sectarian purpose, although this rule shall not be deemed to prohibit the discussion of political subjects in any debating society approved by the governing body; (5) that no person under the age of sixteen or above twenty-five shall be admitted to membership except on special grounds, and that the number thus specially admitted shall not exceed 5 % of the total number of members. These and the like provisions have formed the common basis for all the metropolitan polytechnics. In 1890 a large sum was placed by the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act at the disposal of the county and county borough councils for the general purposes of tech-o/erous seaport town situated close to the seashore, from which it is now nearly 2 m. distant, and adjoining the mouth of the river Sarnus or Sarno, which now enters the sea nearly 2 m. from its site. The present course of this stream is due in part to modern alteration of its channel, as well as to the effects of the great eruption. The prosperity of Pompeii was due partly to its commerce, as the port of the neighbouring towns, partly to the fertility of its territory, which produced strong wine, olive oil (a comparatively small quantity), and vegetables; fish sauces were made here. Millstones and pumice were also exported, but for the former the more gritty lava of Rocca Monfina was later on preferred. The area occupied by the ancient city was of an irregular oval form, and about 2 m. in circumference. It was sur- rounded by a wall, which is still preserved for more than two-thirds of its extent, but no traces of this are found on the side towards the sea, and there is no doubt that on this side it had been already demolished in ancient times, so as to give room for the free extension of houses and other buildings in that direction.1 These walls are strengthened at intervals by numerous towers, occupying the full width of the wall, which occur in some parts at a distance of only about 100 yds., but in general much less frequently. They are, however, of a different style of construction from the walls, and appear to have been added at a later period, probably that of the Social War. Similar evidences of the addition of subsequent defences are to be traced also in the case of the gates, of which no less than eight are found in the existing circuit of the walls. Some of these present a very elaborate system of defence, but it is evident from the decayed condition of others, as well as of parts of the walls and towers, that they had ceased to be maintained for the purposes of fortification long before the destruction of the city. The names by which the gates and streets are known are entirely of modern origin. The general plan of the town is very regular, the streets being generally straight, and crossing one another at right angles or nearly so. But exceptions are found on the west in the street leading from the Porta Ercolanese (gate of Herculaneum) to the forum, which, though it must have been one of the principal thoroughfares in the city, was crooked and irregular, as well as verynarrow, in some parts not exceeding 12 to 14 ft. in width, including the raised footpaths on each side, which occupy a considerable part of the space, so that the carriage-way could only have admitted of the passage of one vehicle at a time. The explanation is that it follows the line of the demolished city wall. Another exception is to be found in the Strada Stabiana (Stabian Street) or Cardo, which, owing to the existence of a natural depression which affects also the line of the street just east of it, is not parallel to the other north and south streets. The other main streets are in some cases broader, but rarely exceed 20 ft. in width, and the broadest yet found is about 32, while the back streets running parallel to the main lines are only about 14 ft. (It is to be remembered, however, that the standard width of a Roman highroad in the neighbourhood of Rome itself is about 14 ft.) They are uniformly paved with large poly- gonal blocks of hard basaltic lava, fitted very closely together, though now in many cases marked with deep ruts from the passage of vehicles in ancient times. They are also in all cases bordered by raised footways on both sides, paved in a similar manner; and for the convenience of foot-passengers, which was evidently a more important consideration than the obstacle which the arrangement presented to the passage of vehicles, which indeed were probably only allowed for goods traffic, these are connected from place to place by stepping-stones raised above the level of the carriage-way. In other respects they must have resembled those of Oriental cities — the living apartments all opening towards the interior, and showing only blank walls towards 1 It consisted of two parallel stone walls with buttresses, about 15 ft. apart and 28 in. thick, the intervening space being filled with earth, and there being an embankment on the inner side. the street; while the windows were generally to be found only in the upper storey, and were in all cases small and insignificant, without any attempt at architectural effect. In some instances indeed the monotony of their external appearance was broken by small shops, occupying the front of the principal houses, and let off separately; these were in some cases numerous enough to form a continuous fagade to the street. This is seen especially in the case of the street from the Porta Ercolanese to the forum and the Strada Stabiana (or Cardo), both of which were among the most frequented thoroughfares. The streets were also diversified by fountains, small water-towers and reservoirs (of which an especially interesting example was found in 1902 close to the Porta del Vesuvio) and street shrines. The source of the water-supply is unknown. The first-mentioned of the two principal streets was crossed, a little before it reached the forum, by the street which led directly to the gate of Nola (Strada delle Terme, della Fortuna, and di Nola). Parallel to this last to the south is a street which runs from the Porta Marina through the forum, and then, with a slight turn, to the Sarno gate, thus traversing the whole area of the city from east to west (Via Marina, Strada dell' Abbondanza, Strada dei Diadumeni). These two east and west streets are the two decumani. The population of Pompeii at the time of its destruction cannot be fixed with certainty, but it may very likely have ex- ceeded 20,000. It was of a mixed character; both Oscan and Greek inscriptions are still found up to the last, and, though there is no trace whatever of Christianity, evidences of the presence of Jews are not lacking — such are a wall-painting, probably representing the Judgment of Solomon, and a scratched inscription on a wall, " Sodoma, Gomora." It has been estimated, from the number of skeletons discovered, that about 2000 persons perished in the city itself in the eruption of A.D. 79. Almost the whole portion of the city which lies to the west of the Strada Stabiana, towards the forum and the sea, has been more or less completely excavated. It is over one-half of the whole extent, and that the most important portion, inasmuch as it includes the forum, with the temples and public buildings adjacent to it, the thermae, theatres, amphitheatre, &c. The greater part of that on the other side of the Strada Stabiana remains still unexplored, with the exception of the amphi- theatre, and a small space in its immediate neighbourhood. The forum at Pompeii was, as at Rome itself and in all other Italian cities, the focus and centre of all the life and movement of the city. Hence it was surrounded on all sides by public buildings or edifices of a commanding character. It was not, however, of large size, as compared to the open spaces in modern towns, being only 467 ft. in length by 126 in breadth (excluding the colonnades). Nor was it accessible to any description of wheeled carriages, and the nature of its pavement, composed of broad flags of travertine, shows that it was only intended for foot-passengers. It was adorned with numerous statues, some of the imperial family, others of dis- tinguished citizens. Some of the inscribed pedestals of the latter have been found. It was surrounded on three sides by a series of porticos supported on columns; and these porticos were originally surmounted by a gallery or upper storey, traces of the staircases leading to which still remain, though the gallery itself has altogether disappeared. It is, however, certain from the existing remains that both this portico and the adjacent buildings had suffered severely from the earthquake of 63, and that they were undergoing a process of restoration, involving material changes in the original arrangements, which was still incomplete at the time of their final destruction. The north end of the forum, where alone the portico is wanting, is occupied in great part by the imposing temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva being also worshipped here. It was raised on a podium 10 ft. high, and had a portico with six Corinthian columns in front. This magnificent edifice had, however, been evidently overthrown by the earthquake of 63, and is in its present condition a mere ruin, the rebuilding of which had not been begun at the time of the eruption, so that the cult of POMPEII the three Capitoline divinities was then carried on in the so- called temple of Zeus Milichius. On each side of it were two arches, affording an entrance into the forum, but capable of being closed by gates. On the east side of the forum were four edifices; all of them are of a public character, but their names and attribution have been the subject of much controversy. The first (proceeding from the north), once known as the Pantheon, is generally regarded as a macellum or meat-market, consisting of a rectangular court surrounded by a colonnade, with a twelve- sided roofed building (tholus) in the centre. On the south side and Q. Catulus (78 B.C.), and therefore belongs to the Oscan period of the city, before the introduction of the Roman colony. It was an oblong edifice divided by columns into a central hall and a corridor running round all the four sides with a tribunal opposite the main entrance; and, unlike the usual basilicae, it had, instead of a clerestory, openings in the walls of the corridor through which light was admitted, it being almost as lofty as the nave. The temple was an extensive edifice, having a com- paratively small cella, raised upon a podium, and standing in the midst of a wide space surrounded by a portico of^columns, Scale. 1:7,200 Yards 50 loo 150 200 1. Tf tuple of Jupiter 8. Basilica 2. Mncellum 9. Temple of Apollo 3. Sanctuary of Lares 10. Temple of Hercules? 4. Temple of Vespasian 11. Temple of Isit 5. Building of Eumachia 12. Temple of Zeus 6. Comitium ? 13. Temple of Fortuna Augusta 7. Curia ere. 11 Temple of Venus fomatio.no. 15. Great Theatre 16. Small Theatre 17. Barracks of Gladiators 18. Palaestra 19. Tttermae near the Forum 20. Stab/an Bathi 21. Central Baths 22. House of Sallust O. House of the Vettii M. House of the. Golden Cupid* 19. Water Reservoir 26. House of Pansa n. House of the Fan* M. House of Jucundus IS. Home of the Silver Wedding n.House of the Figured Capitals IL. House of Ariadre VL House of Holconius 33.House of Cornelius Rufus U. House of the C/tharis' (Redrawn by permission from Baedeker's Southern Italy.) were shops, and in the centre of the east side a chapel for the worship of the imperial house. Next to this comes the sanctuary of the Lares of the city, a square room with a large apse; and beyond this, as Mau proves, the small temple of Vespasian. Beyond this again, bounded on the south by the street known as the Strada dell' Abbondanza, is a large and spacious edifice, which, as we learn from an extant inscription, was erected by a priestess named Eumachia. Its purpose is uncertain— possibly a cloth-exchange, as the fullers set up a statue to Eumachia here. It is an open court, oblong, surrounded on all four sides by a colonnade; in front is a portico facing the forum, and on the other three sides theie is a corridor behind the colonnade with windows opening on it. On the south side of the Strada dell' Abbondanza was a building which Mau conjectures to have been the Comitium. At the south end of the forum are three halls side by side, similar in plan with a common facade — the central one, the curia or council chamber, the others the offices respec- tively of the duumvirs and aediles, the principal officials of the city; while the greater part of the west side is occupied by two large buildings — a basilica, which is the largest edifice in Pompeii, and the temple of Apollo, which presents its side to the forum, and hence fills up a large portion of the surrounding space. The former, as we learn from an inscription scratched on its walls, was anterior in date to the consulship of M. Lepidus Enxry W.lktf tc. outside which again is a wall, bounding the sacred enclosure. Between this temple and the basilica the Via Marina leads off direct to the Porta Marina. Besides the temples which surrounded the forum, the remains of five others have been discovered, three of which are situated in the immediate neighbourhood of the theatres. Of these by far the most interesting, though the least perfect, is one which is commonly known as the temple of Hercules (an appellation wholly without foundation), and which is not only by far the most ancient edifice in Pompeii, but presents us with all the characters of a true Greek temple, resembling in its proportions that of the earliest temple of Selinus, and probably of as remote antiquity (6th century B.C.). Unfortunately only.the. foundation and a few Doric capitals and other architectural fragments remain; they were coated with stucco which was brightly painted. In front of the temple is a monument which seems to have been the tomb of the founder or founders of the city; so that for a time this must have been the most important temple. The period of its destruction is unknown, for it appears certain that it cannot be ascribed wholly to the earthquake of 63. On the other hand the reverence attached to it in the later periods of the city is evidenced by its being left standing in the midst of a triangular space adjoining the great theatre, which is surrounded by a portico, so as to constitute a kind of forum (the so-called Foro POMPEII 53 Triangolare). Not far off, and to the north of the great theatre, stood a small temple, which, as we learn from the inscription still remaining, was dedicated to Isis, and was rebuilt by a certain Popidius Celsinus at the age of six (really of course by his parents), after the- original edifice had been reduced to ruin by the great earthquake of 63. Though of small size, and by no means re- markable in point of architecture, it is interesting as the only temple that has come down to us in a good state of preservation of those dedicated to the Egyptian goddess, whose worship became so popular under the Roman Empire. The decorations were of somewhat gaudy stucco. The plan is curious, and deviates much from the ordinary type; the internal arrangements are adapted for the performance of the peculiar rites of this deity. Close to this temple was another, of very small size, commonly known as the temple of Aesculapius, but probably dedicated to Zeus Milichius. More considerable and important was a temple which stood at no great distance from the forum at the point where the so-called Strada di Mercurio was crossed by the wide line of thoroughfare (Strada delta Fortuna) leading to the gate of Nola. We learn from an inscription that this was dedicated to the Fortune of Augustus (Fortuna Augusta), and was erected, wholly at his own cost, by a citizen of the name of M. Tullius. This temple appears to have suffered very severely from the earthquake, and at present affords little evidence of its original architectural ornament; .but we learn from existing remains that its walls were covered with slabs of marble, and that the columns of the portico were of the same material. The fifth temple, that of Venus Pompeiana, lay to the west of the basilica; traces of two earlier periods underlie the extant temple, which was in progress of rebuilding at the time of the eruption. Before the earthquake of 63 it must have been the largest and most splendid temple of the whole city. It was surrounded by a large colonnade, and the number of marble columns in the whole block has been reckoned at 206. All the temples above described, except that ascribed to Her- cules, which was approached by steps on all four sides, agree in being raised on an elevated podium or basement — an arrange- ment usual with all similar buildings of Roman date. Neither in materials nor in style does their architecture exceed what might reasonably be expected in a second-rate provincial town; and the same may be said in general of the other public buildings. Among these the most conspicuous are the theatres,'of which there were two, placed, as was usual in Greek towns, in close juxta- position with one another. The largest of these which was partly excavated in the side of the hill, was a building of considerable magnificence, being in great part cased with marble, and fur- nished with seats of the same material, which have, however, been almost wholly removed. Its internal construction and arrangements resemble those of the Roman theatres in general, though with some peculiarities that show Greek influence, and we learn from an inscription that it was erected in Roman times by two members of the same family, M. Holconius Rufus and M. Holconius Celer, both of whom held important municipal offices at Pompeii during the reign of Augustus. It appears, however, from a careful examination of the remains that their work was only a reconstruction of a more ancient edifice, the date of the original form of which cannot be fixed; while its first alteration belongs to the " tufa " period, and three other periods in its history can be traced. Recent investigations in regard to the vexed question of the position of the actors in the Greek theatre have as yet not led to any certain solution.1 The smaller theatre, which was erected, as we learn from an inscription, by two magistrates specially appointed for the purpose by the decuriones of the city, was of older date than the large one, and must have been constructed a little before the amphitheatre, soon after the establishment of the Roman colony under Sulla. We learn also that it was permanently covered, and it was probably used for musical entertainments, but in the case of the larger theatre also the arrangements for the occasional extension of an awning (velarium) over the whole are distinctly found. The 1 See A. Mau, Pompeii in Leben und Kunst (Leipzig, 1908), pp. 150 sqq. smaller theatre is computed to have been capable of containing fifteen hundred spectators, while the larger could accommodate five thousand. Adjoining the theatres is a large rectangular enclosure, sur- rounded by a portico, at first the colonnade connected with the theatres, and converted, about the time of Nero, into the barracks of the gladiators, who were permanently maintained in the city with a view to the shows in the amphitheatre. This explains why it is so far from that building, which is situated at the south-eastern angle of the town, about 500 yds. from the theatres. Remains of gladiators' armour and weapons were found in some of the rooms, and in one, traces of the slocks used to confine insubordinate gladiators. The amphitheatre was erected by the same two magistrates who built the smaller theatre, C. Quinctius Valgusand M. Porcius (the former the father- in-law of that P. Servilius Rullus, in opposition to whose bill relating to the distribution of the public lands Cicero made his speech, De lege agraria), at a period when no permanent edifice of a similar kind had yet been erected in Rome itself, and is indeed the oldest structure of the kind known to us. But apart from its early date it has no special interest, and is wholly wanting in the external architectural decorations that give such grandeur of character to similar edifices in other instances. Being in great part excavated in the surface of the hill, instead of the seats being raised on arches, it is wanting also in the picturesque arched corridors which contribute so much to the effect of those other ruins. Nor are its dimensions (460 by 345 ft.) such as to place it in the first rank of structures of this class, nor are there any underground chambers below the arena, with devices for raising wild beasts, &c. But, as we learn from the case of their squabble with the people of Nuceria, the games celebrated in the amphitheatre on grand occasions would be visited by large numbers from the neighbouring towns. The seating capacity was about 2o,ooo2 (for illustration see AMPHITHEATRE). Adjoining the amphitheatre was found a large open space, nearly square in form, which has been supposed to be a forum boarium or cattle-market, but, no buildings of interest being discovered around it, the excavation was filled up again, and this part of the city has not been since examined. Between the entrance to the triangular forum (so-called) and the temple of Isis is the Palaestra, an area surrounded by a colonnade; it is a structure of the pre-Roman period, intended for boys, not men. Among the more important public buildings of Pompeii were the public] baths (thermae). Three different establishments of this character have been discovered, of which the first, exca- vated in 1824, the baths near the forum, built about 80 B.C., was for a long time the only one known. Though the smallest of the three, it is in some respects the most complete and interesting; and it was until of late years the principal source from which we derived our knowledge of this important branch of the economy of Roman life. At Pompeii the baths are so well preserved as to show at a glance the purpose of all the different parts — while they are among the most richly decorated of all the buildings in the city. We trace without difficulty all the separate apart- ments that are described to us by Roman authors — the apody- terium, frigidarium, tepidarium, caldarium, &c. together with the apparatus for supplying both water and heat, the places for de- positing the bather's clothes, and other minor details (see BATHS). The greater thermae (the so-called " Stabian " baths), which were originally built in the and century B.C., and repaired about 80 B.C., are on a much more extensive scale than the others, and combine with the special purposes of the building a palaestra in the centre and other apartments for exercise or recreation. The arrangements of the baths themselves are, however, almost similar to those of the lesser thermae. In this case an inscription records the repair and restoration of the edifice after the 1 The interest taken by the Pompeians in the sports of the amphitheatre is shown by the contents of the numerous painted and scratched inscriptions relating tc them which have been found, in Pompeii — notices of combats, laudatory inscriptions, including even references to the admiration which gladiators won from the fair sex, &c. 54 POMPEII earthquake of 63. It appears, however, that these two establish- ments were found inadequate to supply the wants of the in- habitants, and a third edifice of the same character, the so- called central baths, at the corner of the Strada Stabiana and the Strada di Nola, but on a still more extensive scale, intended for men only, while the other two had separate accommodation for both sexes, was in course of construction when the town was overwhelmed. Great as is the interest attached to the various public buildings of Pompeii, and valuable as is the light that they have in some instances thrown upon similar edifices in other ruined cities, far more curious and interesting is the insight afforded us by the numerous private houses and shops into the ordinary life and habits of the population of an ancient town. The houses at Pompeii are generally low, rarely exceeding two storeys in height, and it appears certain that the upper storey was generally of a slight construction, and occupied by small rooms, serving as garrets, or sleeping places for slaves, and perhaps for the females of the family. From the mode of destruction of the city these upper floors were in most cases crushed in and destroyed, and hence it was long believed that the houses 'for the most part had but one storey; but recent researches have in many cases brought to light incontestable evidence of the existence of an upper floor, and the frequent occurrence of a small staircase is in itself sufficient proof of the fact. The windows, as already mentioned, were generally small and insignificant, and contri- buted nothing to the external decoration or effect of the houses, which took both light and air from the inside, not from the outside. In some cases they were undoubtedly closed with glass, but its use appears to have been by no means general. The principal living rooms, as well as those intended for the reception of guests or clients, were all on the ground floor, the centre being formed by the atrium, or hall, which was almost always open above to the air, and in the larger houses was gener- ally surrounded with columns. Into this opened other rooms, the entrances to which seem to have been rarely protected by doors, and could only have been closed by curtains. At the back was a garden. Later, under Greek influences, a peristyle with rooms round it was added in place of the garden. We notice that, as in modern Italy until quite recent years, elaborate precautions were taken against heat, but none against cold, which was patiently endured. Hypocausts are only found in connexion with bathrooms. All the apartments and arrangements described by Vitruvius and other ancient writers may be readily traced in the houses of Pompeii, and in many instances these have for the first time enabled us to understand the technical terms and details trans- mitted to us by Latin authors. We must not, however, hastily assume that the examples thus preserved to us by a singular accident are to be taken as representing the style of building in all the Roman and Italian towns. We know from Cicero that Capua was remarkable for its broad streets and widespread buildings, and it is probable that the Campanian towns in general partook of the same character. At Pompeii indeed the streets were not wide, but they were straight and regular, and the houses of the better class occupied considerable spaces, presenting in this respect no doubt a striking contrast, not only with those of Rome itself, but with those of many other Italian towns, where the buildings would necessarily be huddled to- gether from the circumstances of their position. Even at Pompeii itself, on the west side of the city, where the ground slopes somewhat steeply towards the sea, houses are found which consisted of three storeys or more. The excavations have provided examples of houses of every description, from the humble dwelling-place of the artisan or proletarian, with only three or four small rooms, to the stately mansions of Sallust, of the Faun, of the Golden Cupids, of the Silver Wedding, of the Vettii, of Pansa,1 &c. — -the last of which is among the most regular in plan, and may be taken as an almost 1 It may be observed that the names given in most cases to the houses are either arbitrary or founded in the first instance upon erroneous inferences. perfect model of a complete Roman house of a superior class. But the general similarity in their plan and arrangement is very striking, and in all those that rise above a very humble class the leading divisions of the interior, the atrium, tablinum, peristyle, &c. may be traced with unfailing regularity. Another peculi- arity that is found in all the more considerable houses in Pompeii is that of the front, where it faces one of the principal streets, being occupied with shops, usually of small size, and without any communication with the interior of the mansion. In a few instances indeed such a communication is found, but in these cases it is probable that the shop was used for the sale of articles grown upon the estate of the proprietor, such as wine, fruit, oil, &c., a practice that is still common in Italy. In general the shop had a very small apartment behind it, and probably in most cases a sleeping chamber above it, though of this the only remaining evidence is usually a portion of the staircase that led to this upper room. The front of the shop was open to the street, but was capable of being closed with wooden shutters, the remains of which have in a few instances been preserved. Not only have the shops of silversmiths been recognized by the precious objects of that metal found in them, but large quantities of fruits of various kinds preserved in glass vessels, various de- scriptions of corn and pulse, loaves of bread, moulds for pastry, fishing-nets and many other objects too numerous to mention, have been found in such a condition as to be identified without difficulty. Inns and wine-shops appear to have been numerous; one of the latter we can see to have been a thermopolmm, where hot drinks were sold. Bakers' shops are also frequent, though arrangements for grinding and baking appear to have formed part of every large family establishment. In other cases, how- ever, these were on a larger scale, provided with numerous querns or hand-mills of the well-known form, evidently intended for public supply. Another establishment on a large scale was a fullonica (fuller's shop), where all the details of the business were illustrated by paintings still visible on the walls. Dyers' shops, a tannery and a shop where colours were ground and manufactured — an important business where almost all the rooms of every house were painted — are of special interest, as is also the house of a surgeon, where numerous surgical instru- ments were found, some of them of a very ingenious and elaborate description, but all made of bronze. Another curious discovery was that of the abode of a sculptor, containing his tools, as well as blocks of marble and half-finished statues. The number of utensils of various kinds found in the houses and shops is almost endless, and, as these are in most cases of bronze, they are generally in perfect preservation. Of the numerous works of art discovered in the course of the excavations the statues and large works of sculpture, whether in marble or bronze, are inferior to those found at Herculaneum, but some of the bronze statuettes are of exquisite workmanship, while the profusion of ornamental works and objects in bronze and the elegance of their design, as well as the finished beauty of their execution, are such as to excite the utmost admiration — more especially when it is considered that these are the casual results of the examination of a second-rate provincial town, which had, further, been ransacked for valuables (as Hercu- laneum had not) after the eruption of 79. The same impression is produced in a still higher degree by the paintings with which the walls of the private houses, as well as those of the temples and other public buildings, are adorned, and which are not merely of a decorative character, but in many instances present us with elaborate compositions of figures, historical and mythological scenes, as well as representations of the ordinary life and manners of the people, which are full of interest to us, though often of inferior artistic execution. It has until lately been the practice to remove these to the museum at Naples; but the present tendency is to leave them (and even the movable objects found in the houses) in situ with all due precautions as to their preservation (as in the house of the Vettii, of the Silver Wedding, of the Golden Cupids, &c.), which adds im- mensely to the interest of the houses; indeed, with the help of judicious restoration, their original condition is in large POMPEII 55 measure reproduced.1 In some cases it has even been possible to recover the original arrangement of the garden beds, and to replant them accordingly, thus giving an appropriate frame- work to the statues, &c. with which the gardens were decorated, and which have been found in situ. The same character of elaborate decoration, guided almost uniformly by good taste and artistic feeling, is displayed in the mosaic pavements, which in all but the humbler class of houses frequently form the ornament of their floors. One of these, in the House of the Faun, well known as the battle of Alexander, presents us with the most striking specimen of artistic com- position that has been preserved to us from antiquity. The architecture of Pompeii must be regarded as presenting in general a transitional character from the pure Greek style to that of the Roman Empire. The temples (as already observed) have always the Roman peculiarity of being raised on a podium of considerable elevation; and the same characteristic is found in most of the other public buildings. All the three orders of Greek architecture — the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian — are foun'd freely employed in the various edifices of the city, but rarely in strict accordance with the rules of art in their proportions and details; while the private houses naturally exhibit still more deviation and irregularity. In many of these indeed we find varieties in the ornamentation, and even in such leading features as the capitals of the columns, which remind one rather of the vagaries of medieval architecture than of the strict rules of Vitruvius or the regularity of Greek edifices. One practice which is especially prevalent, so as to strike every casual visitor, and dates from the early years of the empire, is that of filling up the flutings of the columns for about one-third of their height with a thick coat of stucco, so as to give them the appearance of being smooth columns without flutings below, and only fluted above. The unpleasing effect of this anomalous arrangement is greatly aggravated by the lower part of each column being almost always coloured with red or yellow ochre, so as to render the con- trast between the two portions still stronger. The architecture of Pompeii suffers also from the inferior quality of the materials generally employed. No good building stone was at hand; and the public as well as private edifices were constructed either of volcanic tufa, or lava, or Sarno limestone, or brick (the latter only used for the corners of walls). In the private houses even the columns are mostly of brick, covered merely with a coat of stucco. In a few instances only do we find them making use of a whitish limestone wrongly called travertine, which, though inferior to the similar material so largely employed at Rome, was better adapted than the ordinary tufa for purposes where great solidity was required. The portion of the portico sur- rounding the forum which was in the process of rebuilding at the time when the city was destroyed was constructed of this material, while the earlier portions, as well as the principal temples that adjoined it, were composed in the ordinary manner of volcanic tufa. Marble appears to have been scarce, and was sparingly employed. In some instances where it had been freely introduced, as in the great theatre, it would seem that the slabs must have been removed at a period subsequent to the entombment of the city. These materials are used in several different styles of con- struction belonging to the six different periods which Mau traces in the architectural history of Pompeii. 1 . That of the Doric temple in the Foro Triangolare (6th century B.C.) and an old column built into a house in Region vi., Insula 5; also of the older parts of the city walls — date uncertain (Sarno limestone and grey tufa). 2. That of the limestone atriums (outer walls of the houses of ashlar-work of Sarno limestone, inner walls with framework of limestone blocks, filled in with small pieces of limestone). Date, before 200 B.C. 3. Grey tufa period ; ashlar masonry of tufa, coated with fine white stucco; rubble work of lava. The artistic character is still Greek, and the period coincides with the first (incrustation) style of mural decoration, which (probably originating in Alexandria) aimed at 1 The paintings of the house of the Vettii are perhaps the best-preserved in Pompeii, and extremely fine in conception and execution, especially the scenes in which Cupids take part. the imitation in stucco of the appearance of a wall veneered with coloured marbles. No wall paintings exist, but there are often fine floor mosaics. To this belong a number of private houses (e.g. the House of the Faun), and the colonnade round the forum, the basilica, the temples of Apollo and Jupiter, the large theatre with the colonnades of the Foro Triangoiare, and the barracks of the gladiators, the Stabian baths, the Palaestra, the exterior of the Porta Marina, and the interior of the other gates— all the public buildings indeed (except the Doric temple mentioned under (l), which do not belong to the time of the Roman colony). Date, 2nd century B.C. 4. The quasi-reticulate" period — walling faced with masonry not yet quite so regular as opus reticulatum, and with brick quoins, coinciding with the second period of decoration (the architectural, partly imitating marble like the first style, but without relief, and by colour only, and partly making use of architectural designs). It is represented by the small theatre and the amphitheatre, the baths near the forum, the temple of Zeus Milichius, the Comitium and the original temple of Isis, but only a few private houses. The ornamentation is much less rich and beautiful than that of the preceding period. Date, from 80 B.C. until nearly the end of the Republic. 5. The period from the last decades of the Republic to the earthquake of A.D. 63. No homogeneous series of buildings — we find various styles of construction (quasi-reticulate, opus reticulatum of tufa with stone quoins, of the time of Augustus, opus reticulatum with brick quoins or with mingled stone and brick quoins, a little later); and three styles of wall decoration fall within its limits. The second, already mentioned, the third or ornate, with its freer use of ornament and its introduction of designs which suggest an Egyptian origin (originating in the time of Augustus), and the fourth or intricate, dating from about A.D. 50. Marble first appears as a building material in the temple of Fortuna Augusta (c. 3 B.C.). 6. The period from the earthquake of A.D. 63 to the final de- struction of the city, the buildings of which can_ easily be recognized. The only wholly new edifice of any importance' is the central baths. Outside the Porta Ercolanese, or gate leading to Herculaneum, is found a house of a different character from all the others, which from its extent and arrangements was undoubtedly a suburban villa, belonging to a person of considerable fortune. It is called — as usual without any authority — the villa of Arrius Diomedes; but its remains are of peculiar interest to us, not only for comparison with the numerous ruins of similar buildings which occur else- where— often of greater extent, but in a much less perfect state of preservation — but as assisting us in understanding the description of ancient authors, such as Vitruvius and Pliny, of the numerous appurtenances frequently annexed to houses of this description. In the cellar of this villa were discovered no less than twenty skeletons of the unfortunate inhabitants, who had evidently fled thither for protection, and fourteen in other parts of the house. Almost all the skeletons and remains of bodies found in the city were discovered in similar situations, in cellars or underground apartments — those who had sought refuge in flight having appar- ently for the most part escaped from destruction, or having perished under circumstances where their bodies were easily recovered by the survivors. According to Cassius Dio, a large number of the inhabitants were assembled in the theatre at the time of the catas- trophe, but no bodies have been found there, and they were probably sought for and removed shortly afterwards. Of late years it has been found possible in many cases to take casts of the bodies found — a complete mould having been formed around them by the fine white ashes, partially consolidated by water. An interesting farm-house (few examples have been so far dis- covered in Italy) is that at Boscoreale excavated in 1893-1894, which contained the treasure of one hundred and three silver vases now at the Louvre. The villa of P. Fannius Synhistor, not far off, was excavated in 1900; it contained fine wall paintings, which, despite their importance, were allowed to be exported, and sold by auction in Paris (some now in the Louvre). (See F. Barnabei, La Villa pompeiana di P. Fannio Sinistore; Rome, 1901.) The road leading from the Porta Ercolanese towards Herculaneum is bordered on both sides for a considerable extent by rows of tombs, as was the case with all the great roads leading into Rome, and in- deed in all large Roman towns. These tombs are in many instances monuments of considerable pretension, and of a highly ornamental character, and naturally present in the highest degree the peculiar advantage common to all that remains of Pompeii, in their perfect preservation. Hardly any scene even in this extraordinary city is more striking than the coup d'oeil of this long street of tombs, preserving uninjured the records of successive generations eighteen centuries ago. Unfortunately the names are all otherwise unknown ; but we learn from the inscriptions that they are for the most part those of local magistrates and municipal dignitaries of Pompeii. Most of them belong to the early empire. There appears to have been in the same quarter a considerable suburb, outside the gate, extending on each side of the road towards Herculaneum, apparently much resembling those which are now found throughout almost the whole distance from thence to Naples. It was known by the name of Pagus Augustus Felix POMPEY Suburbanus. Other suburbs were situated at the harbour and at the saltworks (salinae). No manuscripts have been discovered in Pompeii. Inscriptions have naturally been found in considerable numbers, and we are indebted to them for much information concerning the municipal arrangements of the town, as well as the construction of various edifices and other public works. The most interesting of these are such as are written in the Oscan dialect, which appears to have continued in official use down to the time when the Roman colony was introduced by Sulla. From that time the Latin language was certainly the only one officially employed, though Oscan may have still been spoken by a portion at least of the population. Still more curious, and almost peculiar to Pompeii, are the numerous writings painted upon the walls, which have generally a semi- public character, such as recommendations of candidates for muni- cipal offices, advertisements, &c., and the scratched inscriptions (graffiti), which are generally the mere expression of individual impulse and feeling, frequently amatory, and not uncommonly conveyed in rude and imperfect verses. In one house also a whole box was found filled with written tablets — diptychs and triptychs — containing the record of the accounts of a banker named L. Caecilius Jucundus. See A. Mau, Pompeii: its Life and Art (trans, by F. W. Kelsey, 2nd ed., New York and London, 1902; 2nd revised edition of the German original, Pompeii in Leben und Kunst, Leipzig, 1908), the best general account written by the greatest authority on the subject, to which our description owes much, with full references to other sources of information; and, for later excavations, Notizie degli Scavi and Romische Mitteilungen (in the latter, articles by Mau), passim. For the inscriptions on the tablets and on the walls, Corpus inscriptionum latinarum, vol. iv. (ed. Zangemeister and Mau). Recent works on the Pompeian frescoes are those of Berger, in Die Maltechnik des Alterthums, and A. P. Laurie, Creek and Roman Methods of Painting (1910). (E. H. B. ; T. As.) Oscan Inscriptions. — The surviving inscriptions which can be dated, mainly by the gradual changes in their alphabet, are of the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C., some certainly belonging to the Gracchan period. The oldest of the Latin inscriptions are C.I.L. x. 794, the record of the building of colonnades in the forum by the " quaestor " V. Popidius, and two or three election placards (C.I.L. iv. 29, 30, 36) of one R. Caecilius, a candidate for the same office. It cannot be an accident that the alphabet of these inscriptions belongs distinctly to Sullan or pre-Sullan times, while no such officer as a quaestor appears in any later documents (e.g. in C.I.L. x. 844, it is the duoviri who build the small theatre), but does appear in the Oscan inscrip- tions. Hence it has been inferred that these oldest Latin inscrip- tions are also older than Sulla's colony; if so, Latin must have been in use, and in fairly common use (if the programmata were to be of any service), in Pompeii at that date. On the other hand, the good condition of many of the painted Oscan inscrip- tions at the times when they were first uncovered (1797 onwards) and their subsequent decay and the number of Oscan graffiti appear to make it probable that at the Christian era Oscan was still spoken in the town. The two languages undoubtedly existed side by side during the last century B.C., Latin being alone recognized officially and in society, while Oscan was preserved mainly by intercourse with the country folk who frequented the market. Thus beside many Latin programmala later than those just mentioned we have similar inscriptions in Oscan, addressed to Oscan-speaking voters, where Illlner. obviously relates to the quattuorvirate, a title characteristic of the Sullan and triumviral colonies. An interesting stone containing nine cavities for measures of capacity found in Pompeii and now preserved in the Naples Museum with Oscan inscriptions erased in antiquity shows that the Oscan system of measurement was modified so as to correspond more closely with the Roman, about 14 B.C., by the duoviri, who record their work in a Latin inscription (C.I.L. x. 793; for the Oscan see Hal. Dial. p. 67). , See further OSCA LINGUA, and R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, pp. 54 sqq.; Nissen, Pompeianische Studien; J. Beloch, Campanien, and ed. (R. S. C.) POMPEY, the common English form of Pompeius, the name of a Roman plebeian family. i. GNAEUS POMPEIUS (106-48 B.C.), the triumvir, the first of his family to assume the surname MAGNUS, was born on the 30th of September in the same year as Cicero. When only seventeen he fought together with his father in the Social War. He took the side of Sulla against Marius and Cinna, but for a time, in consequence of the success of the Marians, he kept in the background. On the return of Sulla from the Mithradatic War Pompey joined him with an army of three legions, which he had raised in Picenum. Thus early in life he connected himself with the cause of the aristocracy, and a decisive victory which he won in 83 over the Marian armies gained for him from Sulla the title of Imperator. He followed up his successes in Italy by defeating the Marians in Sicily and Africa, and on his return to Rome in 81, though he was still merely an eques and not legally qualified to celebrate a triumph, he was allowed by general consent to enjoy this distinction, while Sulla greeted him with the surname of Magnus, a title he always retained and handed down to his sons. Latterly, his relations with Sulla were somewhat strained, but after his death he resisted the attempt of the consul M. Aemilius Lepidus to repeal the constitution. In conjunction with A. Lutatius Catulus, the other consul, he defeated Lepidus when he tried to march upon Rome, and drove him out of Italy (77). With some fears and misgivings the senate permitted him to retain the command of his victorious army, and decided on sending him to Spain, where the Marian party, under Sertorius, was still formidable. Pompey was fighting in Spain from 76 to 71, and though at first he met with serious reverses he was ultimately successful. After Sertorius had fallen a victim to assassination, Pompey easily defeated his successor Perperna and put an end to the war. In 71 he won fresh glory by finally crushing the slave insurrection of Spartacus. That same year, amid great popular enthusiasm, but without the hearty concurrence of the senate, whom he had alarmed by talking of restoring the dreaded power of the tribunes, he was elected with M. Licinius Crassus to the consulship, and entered Rome in triumph (December 31) for his Spanish victories. He was legally ineligible for the consulship,' having held none of the lower offices of state and being under age. The following year saw the work of Sulla undone; the tribunate was restored, and the administration of justice was no longer left exclusively to the senate, but was to be shared by it with the wealthier portion of the middle class, the equites (q.v.) and the tribuni aerarii.1 The change was really necessary, as the provincials could never get justice from a court composed of senators, and it was carried into effect by Pompey with Caesar's aid. Pompey rose still higher in popularity, and on the motion of the tribune Aulus Gabinius in 67 he was entrusted with an extraordinary command over the greater part of the empire, specially for the extermination of piracy in the Mediterranean, by which the corn supplies of Rome were seriously endangered, while the high prices of provisions caused great distress. He was completely successful; the price of corn fell immediately on his appointment, and in forty days the Mediterranean was cleared of the pirates. Next year, on the proposal of the tribune Manilius, his powers were still further extended, the care of all the provinces in the East being put under his control for three years together with the conduct of the war against Mithradates VI., who had recovered from the defeats he had sustained from Lucullus and regained his dominions. Both Caesar and Cicero supported the tribune's proposal, which was easily carried in spite of the interested opposition of the senate and the aristocracy, several of whom held provinces which would now be practically under Pompey's command. The result of Pompey's operations was eminently satisfactory. The wild tribes of the Caucasus were cowed by the Roman arms, and Mithradates himself fled across the Black Sea to Panticapaeum (modern Kertch). In the years 64 and 63 Syria and Palestine were annexed to Rome's empire. After the capture of Jerusalem Pompey is said to have entered the Temple, and even the Holy of Holies. Asia and the East generally were left under the subjection of petty kings who were mere vassals of Rome. Several cities had been founded which became centres of Greek life and civilization. Pompey, now in his forty-fifth year, returned to Italy in 61 to 1 Their history and political character is obscure; they were at any rate connected with the knights (see AERARIUM). POMPEY 57 celebrate the most magnificent triumph which Rome had ever witnessed, as the conqueror of Spain, Africa, and Asia (see A. Holm, Hist, of Greece, Eng. trans., vol. iv.). This triumph marked the turning-point of his career. As a soldier everything had gone well with him; as a politician he was a failure. He found a great change in public opinion, and the people indifferent to his achievements abroad. The optimates resented the extra- ordinary powers that had been conferred upon him; Lucullus and Crassus considered that they had been robbed by him of the honour of concluding the war against Mithradates. The senate refused to ratify the arrangements he made in Asia or to provide money and lands for distribution amongst his veterans. In these circumstances he drew closer to Caesar on his return from Spain, and became reconciled to Crassus. The result was the so-called first triumvirate (see ROME: History). The remainder of his life is inextricably interwoven with that of Caesar. He was married to Caesar's daughter Julia, and as yet the relations between the two had been friendly. On more than one occasion Caesar had supported Pompey's policy, which of late had been in a decidedly democratic direction. Pompey was now in fact ruler of the greater part of the empire, while Caesar had only the two provinces of Gaul. The control of the capital, the supreme command of the army in Italy and of the Mediterranean fleet, the governorship of the two Spains, the superintendence of the corn supplies, which were mainly drawn from Sicily and Africa, and on which the vast population of Rome was wholly dependent, were entirely in the hands of Pompey, who was gradually losing the confidence of all political parties in Rome. The senate and the aristocracy disliked and distrusted him, but they felt that, should things come to the worst, they might still find in him a champion of their cause. Hence the joint rule of Pompey and Caesar was not unwillingly accepted, and anything like a rupture between the two was greatly dreaded as the sure beginning of anarchy throughout the Roman world. With the deaths of Pompey's wife Julia (54) and of Crassus (53) the relations between him and Caesar became strained, and soon afterwards he drew closer to what we may call the old conservative party in the senate and aristocracy. The end was now near, and Pompey blundered into a false political position and an open quarrel with Caesar. In 50 the senate by a very large majority revoked the extraordinary powers conceded to Pompey and Caesar in Spain and Gaul respectively, and called upon them to disband their armies. Pompey's refusal to submit gave Caesar a good pretext for declaring war and marching at the head of his army into Italy. At the beginning of the contest the advantages were decidedly on the side of Pompey, but the superior political tact of his rival, combined with extraordinary promptitude and decision in following up his blows, soon turned the scale against him. Pompey's cause, with that of the senate and aristocracy, was finally ruined by his defeat in 48 in the neighbourhood of the Thessalian city Pharsalus. That same year he fled with the hope of finding a safe refuge in Egypt, but was treacherously murdered by one of his old centurions as he was landing. He was five times married, and three of his children survived him — Gnaeus, Sextus, and a daughter Pompeia. Pompey, though he had some great and good qualities, hardly deserved his surname of " the Great." He was certainly a very good soldier, and is said to have excelled in all athletic exercises, but he fell short of being a first-rate general. He won great successes in Spain and more especially in the East, but for these he was no doubt partly indebted to what others had already done. Of the gifts which make a good statesman he had really none. As plainly appeared in the last years of his life, he was too weak and irresolute to choose a side and stand by it. But to his credit be it said that in a corrupt time he never used his opportunities for plunder and extortion, and his domestic life was pure and simple. AUTHORITIES. — Ancient: Plutarch, Pompey; Dio Casstus; Appian; Velleius Paterculus; Caesar, De hello civtli; Strabo xii., 555-s6o- Cicero, passim; Lucan, Pharsalia. Modern: Histories of Rome in general (see ROME: Ancient History, ad fin.); works quoted under CAESAR and CICERO. Also G. Boissicr, Cicero and His Friends (Eng. trans., A. D. Jones, 1897); J. L. Strachan-Davidson's Cicero (1894); Warde Fowler's Julius Caesar (1892); C. VV. Oman, Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Republic (1902); notes in Tyrrell and Purser's Correspondence of Cicero (see index in vii. 80). 2. GNAEUS POMPEIUS, surnamed Strabo (squint-eyed), Roman statesman, father of the triumvir. He was successively quaestor in Sardinia (103 B.C.), praetor (94), propraetor in Sicily (93) and consul (89). He fought with success in the Social War, and was awarded a triumph for his services. Probably towards the end of the same year he brought forward the law (lex Pompeia de Gallia Transpadana), which conferred upon the inhabitants of that region the privileges granted to the Latin colonies. During the civil war between Marius and Sulla he seems to have shown no desire to attach himself definitely to either side. He certainly set out for Rome from the south of Italy (where he remained as proconsul) at the bidding of the aristocratic party, when the city was threatened by Marius and Cinna, but he displayed little energy, and the engage- ment which he fought before the Colline gate, although hotly contested, was indecisive. Soon afterwards he was killed by lightning (87). Although he possessed great military talents, Pompeius was the best-hated general of his time -owing to his cruelty, avarice and perfidy. His body was dragged from the bier, while being conveyed to the funeral pile, and treated with the greatest indignity. See Plutarch, Pompey, i; Appian, Bell. civ. i. 50, 52, 66-68, 80; Veil. Pat. ii. 21 ; Livy, Epit. 74-79; Florus iii. 18. 3. GNAEUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (c. 75-45 B.C.), the elder son of the triumvir. In 48 B.C. during the civil war he commanded his father's fleet in the Adriatic. After the battle of Pharsalus he set out for Africa with the remainder of the Pompeian party, but, meeting with little success, crossed over to Spain. Having been joined by his brother Sextus, he collected a considerable army, the numbers of which were increased by the Pompeians who fled from Africa after the battle of Thapsus (46). Caesar, who regarded him as a formidable opponent, set out against him in person. A battle took place at Munda on the I7th of March 45, in which the brothers were defeated. Gnaeus managed to make his escape after the engagement, but was soon (April 12) captured and put to death. He was generally unpopular owing to his cruelty and violent temper. See Pseudo-Oppius, Bellum hispaniense, 1-39; Lucan, Pharsalia, ix. 120; Dio Cassius xliii. 28-40. 4. SEXTUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (75-35 B.C.), the younger son of the triumvir. After his father's death he continued the struggle against the new rulers of the Roman Empire. From Cyprus, where he had taken refuge, he made his way to Africa, and after the defeat of the Pompeians at Thapsus (46) crossed over to Spain. After Caesar's victory at the battle of Munda (45), in which he took no actual part, he abandoned Corduba (Cordova), though for a time he held his ground in the south, and defeated Asinius Pollio, the governor of the province. In 43, the year of the triumvirate of Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus, he was proscribed along with the murderers of Caesar, and, not daring to show himself in Italy, he put himself at the head of a fleet manned chiefly by slaves or proscribed persons, with which he made himself master of Sicily, and from thence ravaged the coasts of Italy. Rome was threatened with a famine, as the corn supplies from Egypt and Africa were cut off by his ships, and it was thought prudent to negotiate a peace with him at Misenum (39) , which was to leave him in possession of Sicily, Sardinia and Achaea, provided he would allow Italy to be freely supplied with corn. But the arrangement could not be carried into effect, as Sextus renewed the war and gained some considerable successes at sea. However, in 36 his fleet was defeated and destroyed by Agrippa at Naulochus off the north coast of Sicily. After his defeat he fled to Mytilene, and from there to Asia Minor. In the attempt to make his way to Armenia he was taken prisoner by Antony's troops, and put to death at Miletus. Like his father, he was a brave soldier, but a man of little culture. POMPIGNAN— POMPTINE MARSHES See Dio Cassius, xlvi-xlix. ; Appian, Bell. civ. iv. 84-117, v. 2-143; Veil. Pat. ii. 73-87; Plutarch, Antony; Livy, Epit. 123 128, 129, 131; Cicero, Philippica, xiii., and many references in Letters to Atticus. POMPIGNAN, JEAN JACQUES LEFRANC, MARQUIS DE (1700- 1784), French poet, was born on the i7th of August 1709, al Montauban, where his father was president of the cour d.es aides and the son, who also followed the profession of the law, suc- ceeded in 1745 to the same charge. The same year he was also appointed conseiller d'honneur of the parlement of Toulouse but his courageous opposition to the abuses of the royal power especially in .the matter of taxation, brought down upon him so much vexation that he resigned his positions almost immedi- ately, his marriage with a rich woman enabling him to devote himself to literature. His first play, Didon (1734), which owec much to Metastasio's opera on the same subject, gained a great success, and gave rise to expectations not fulfilled by the Adieux de Mars (i 735) and some light operas that followed. His reputa- tion was made by Poesies sacrees et philosophiques (1734), much mocked at by Voltaire who punned on the title: " Sacres Us sont, car personne n'y louche." Lefranc's odes on profane sub- jects hardly reach the same level, with the exception of the ode on the death of J. B. Rousseau, which secured him entrance to the Academy (1760). On his reception he made an ill-con- sidered oration violently attacking the Encyclopaedists, many of whom were in his audience and had given him their votes. Lefranc soon had reason to repent of his rashness, for the epigrams and stories circulated by those whom he had attacked made it impossible for him to remain in Paris, and he took refuge in his native town, where he spent the rest of his life occupied in making numerous translations from the classics, none of great merit. La Harpe, who is severe enough on Lefranc in his correspondence, does his abilities full justice in his Cours litteraire, and ranks him next to J. B. Rousseau among French lyric poets. With those of other 18th-century poets his works may be studied in the Petits ponies franfais (1838) of M. Prosper Poitevin. His (Euvres com- pletes (4 vols.) were published in 1781, selections (2 vols.) in 1800, 1813, 1822. His brother, JEAN GEORGES LEFRANC DE POMPIGNAN (1715- 1790), was the archbishop of Vienne against whose defence of the faith Voltaire launched the good-natured mockery of Les Letlres d'un Quaker. Elected to the Estates General, he passed over to the Liberal side, and led the 149 members of the clergy who united with the third estate to form the National Assembly. He was one of its first presidents, and was minister of public worship when the civil constitution was forced upon the clergy. POMPONAZZI, PIETRO (PETRUS POMPONATIUS) (1462-1525), Italian philosopher, was born at Mantua on the i6th of Sep- tember 1462, and died at Bologna on the i8th of May 1525. His education, begun at Mantua, was completed at Padua, where he became doctor of medicine in 1487. In 1488 he was elected extraordinary professor of philosophy at Padua, where he was a colleague of Achillini, the Averroist. From about 1495 to 1509 he occupied the chair of natural philosophy until the closing of the schools of Padua, when he took a professorship at Ferrara where he lectured on the De anima. In 1512 he was invited to Bologna where he remained till his death and where he produced ah1 his important works. The predominance of medical science at Padua had cramped his energies, but at Ferrara, and even more at Bologna, the study of psychology and theological speculation were more important. In 1516 he produced his great work De immortalilate animi, which gave rise to a storm of controversy between the orthodox Thomists of the Catholic Church, the Averroists headed by Agostino Nifo, and the so-called Alexandrist School. The treatise was burned at Venice, and Pomponazzi himself ran serious risk of death at the hands of the Catholics. Two pamphlets followed, the Apologia and the Defensorium, wherein he explained his paradoxical position as Catholic and philosophic materialist. His last two treatises, the De incantationibus and the De fato, were posthumously published in an edition of his works printed at Basel. Pomponazzi is profoundly interesting as the herald of the Renaissance. He was born in the period of transition when scholastic formalism was losing its hold over men both in the Church and outside. Hitherto the dogma of the Church had been based on Aristotle as interpreted by Thomas Aquinas. So close was this identification that any attack on Aristotle, or even an attempt to reopen the old discussions on the Aristo- telian problems, was regarded as a dangerous heresy. Pom- ponazzi claimed the right to study Aristotle for himself, and devoted himself to the De anima with the view of showing that Thomas Aquinas had entirely misconceived the Aristotelian theory of the active and the passive intellect. The Averroists had to some extent anticipated this attitude by their contention that immortality does not imply the eternal separate existence of the individual soul, that the active principle which is common to all men alone survives. Pomponazzi's revolt went further than this. He held, with Alexander of Aprodisias, that, as the soul is the form of the body (as Aquinas also asserted), it must, by hypothesis, perish with the body; form apart from matter is unthinkable. The ethical consequence of such a view is important, and in radical contrast to the practice of the period. Virtue can no longer be viewed solely in relation to reward and punishment in another existence. A new sanction is required. Pomponazzi found this criterion in TOV /caXoO evtKa —virtue for its own sake. " Praemium essentiale virtutis est ipsamet virtus quae hominem felicem facit," he says in the De immorlalilale. Consequently, whether or not the soul be im- mortal, the ethical criterion remains the same: " Neque aliquo pacto declinandum est a virtute quicquid accidat post mortem." In spite of this philosophical materialism, Pomponazzi declared his adherence to the Catholic faith, and thus established the principle that religion and philosophy, faith and knowledge, may be diametrically opposed and yet coexist for the same thinker. This curious paradox he exemplifies in the De incanta- tione, where in one breath he sums up against the existence of demons and spirits on the basis of the Aristotelian theory of the cosmos, and, as a believing Christian, asserts his faith in their existence. In this work he insists emphatically upon the orderly sequence of nature, cause and effect. Men grow to maturity and then decay; so- religions have their day and succumb. Even Christianity, he added (with the usual proviso that he is speaking as a philosopher) was showing indications of decline. See A. H. Douglas, Philosophy and Psychology of Pietro Pompo- nazzi (1910); also Ritter, Geschichte der Philosophie; J. A. Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy; Windelband, History of Philosophy (trans, by James H. Tufts, pt. 4, c. l); J. Burckhardt, Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien; L. Ferri, La Psicologia di P. Pom- ponazzi. (j. M. M.) POMPONIUS, LUCIUS, called Bononiensis from his birthplace Bononia, Latin comic poet, flourished about 90 B.C. (or earlier). He was the first to give an artistic form to the Atellanae Fabulae by arranging beforehand the details of the plot which had hitherto been left to improvisation, and providing a written text. The fragments show fondness for alliteration and playing upon words, skill in the use of rustic and farcical language, and a considerable amount of obscenity. Fragments in O. Ribbeck, Scenicae romanorum poesis fragmenla (1897-1898); see Mommsen, Hist, of Rome (Eng. tr.), bk. iv. ch. 13; Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. tr.), § 151. POMPOSA, an abbey of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Ferrara, 2 m. from Codigoro, which is 30 m. E. of Ferrara in the delta of the Po. The fine church, a work of the loth (?) century, with interesting sculptures on the facade and a splendid Roma- nesque campanile, contains a good mosaic pavement, and interest- ng frescoes of the i4th century— a " Last Judgment " of the school of Giotto and others; and there are also paintings in the refectory. It was abandoned in 1550 on account of malaria. See G. Agnelli, Ferrara e Pomposa (Bergamo, 1902). (T. As.) POMPTINE MARSHES, a low tract of land in the province of iome, Italy, varying in breadth between the Volscian mountains and the sea from 10 to 16 m., and extending N.W. to S.E. from PONANI— PONCHIELLI 59 Velletri to Terracina (40 m.). In ancient days this low tract was fertile and well-cultivated, and contained several prosperous cities (Sue.ssa Pometia, Ulubrae — perhaps the mod. Cisterna — &c.), but, owing to the dying out of the small proprietors, it had already become unhealthy at the end of the Republican period. Attempts to drain the marshes were made by Appius Claudius in 312 B.C., when he constructed the Via Appia through them (the road having previously followed a devious course at the foot of the Volscian mountains), and at various times during the Roman period. A canal ran through them parallel to the road, and for some reason that is not altogether clear it was used in preference to the road during the Augustan period. Trajan repaired the road, and Theodoric did the same some four hundred years later. But in the middle ages it had fallen into disrepair. Popes Boniface VIII., Martin V., Sixtus V., and Pius VI. all attempted to solve the problem, the last-named reconstructing the road admirably. The difficulty arises from the lack of fall in the soil, some parts no less than 10 m. from the coast being barely above sea-level, while they are separated from the sea by a series of sand-hills now covered with forest, which rise at some points over 100 ft. above sea-level. Springs also rise in the district, and the problem is further complicated by the flood-water and solid matter brought down by the mountain torrents, which choke up the channels made. By a law passed in 1899, the proprietors are bound to arrange for the safe outlet of the water from the mountains, keep the exist- ing canals open, and reclaim the district exposed to inundation, within a period of twenty-four years. The sum of £280,000 has been granted towards the expense by the government. See T. Berti, Paludi pontine (Rome, 1884); R. de la Blanchere, Un Chapitre d'histoire pontine (Paris, 1889). (T. As.) PONANI, a seaport on the west coast of India, in Malabar district, Madras, at a mouth of a river of the same name. Pop. (1901), 10,562. It is the headquarters of the Moplah or Map- pilla community of Mahommedans, with a religious college and many mosques, one of which is said to date from 1510. There is a large export of coco-nut products. PONCA, a tribe of North-American Indians of Siouan stock. They were originally part of the Omaha tribe, with whom they lived near the Red River of the North. They were driven westward by the Dakotas, and halted on the Ponca river, Dakota. After a succession of treaties and removals they were placed on a reservation at the mouth of the Niobrara, where they were prospering, when their lands were forcibly taken from them, and they were removed to Indian Territory (Oklahoma). During the march thither and in their new quarters, the tribe's health suffered, so that in 1878 they revolted and made their way back to the Omahas. They were recaptured, but public attention having been drawn to their hard case they were liberated in 1880, after a long trial, which resulted in their being declared United States citizens. They number some 700, mostly in Oklahoma. PONCE, a seaport and the second largest city of Porto Rico, the seat of government of the Department of Ponce, on the south coast, about 50 m. (84 m. by the military road) S.W. of San Juan. Pop. (1899), 27,952, of whom 2554 were negroes and 9942 of mixed races; (1910), 35,027. It is served by the American Railroad of Porto Rico, by a railway to Guayama (1910), and by steamboats from numerous ports; an old military road connects it with San Juan. Ponce consists of two parts: Ponce, or the city proper, and Ponce Playa, or the seaport ; they are separated by the Portuguese River and ate connected by an electric street railway. Ponce Playa is on a spacious bay and is accessible to vessels drawing 25 ft. of water; Ponce is 2 m. inland at the interior margin of a beautiful plain, with hills in the rear rising to a height of 1000 to 2000 ft. The city is supplied with water by an aqueduct about 2 m. long. There are two attractive public squares in the heart of the city: Plaza Principal and Plaza de las Delicias. Among prominent public buildings are the city hall, the custom-house, the Pearl theatre, several churches — Roman Catholic (including a finely decorated cathedral) and Protestant; St Luke's hospital and insane asylum, an asylum for the blind, a ladies' asylum, a home for the indigent and aged, and a military barracks. At the Quintana Baths near the city are thermal springs with medicinal properties. The surrounding country is devoted chiefly to the cultivation of sugar cane, tobacco, oranges and cacao, and to the grazing of cattle. Among the manufactures are sugar, molasses, rum, and ice, and prepared coffee for the market. Ponce, named in honour of Ponce de Leon, was founded in 1752 upon the site of a settlement which had been established in the preceding century, was incorporated as a town in 1848, and was'made a city in 1878. PONCELET, JEAN VICTOR (1788-1867), French mathe- matician and engineer, was born at Metz on the ist of July 1788. From 1808 to 1810 he attended the £fole poly technique, and afterwards, till 1812, the £cole d'applicalion at Metz. He then became lieutenant of engineers, and took part in the Russian campaign, during which he was taken prisoner and was confined at Saratov on the Volga. It was during his imprison- ment here that, " priv6 de toute espece de livres et de secours, surtout distrait par les malheurs de ma patrie et les miens propres," as he himself puts it, he began his researches on pro- jective geometry which led to his great treatise on that subject. This work, the Traile des proprieties projectiles des figures, which was published in 1822 (zd ed., 2 vols. 1865-1866), is occupied with the investigation of the projective properties of figures (see GEOMETRY). This work entitles Poncelet to rank as one of the greatest of those who took part in the development of the modern geometry of which G. Monge was the founder. From 1815 to 1825 he was occupied with military engineering at Metz; and from 1825 to 1835 he was professor of mechanics at the £cole d'applicalion there. In 1826, in his Mimoire sur les roues hydrauliques a aubes courbes, he brought forward im- provements in the construction of water-wheels, which more than doubled their efficiency. In 1834 he became a member of the Academic; from 1838 to 1848 he was professor to the faculty of sciences at Paris, and from 1848 to 1850 comman- dant of the £cole poly technique. At the London International Exhibition of 1851 he had charge of the department of machinery, and wrote a report on the machinery and tools on view at that exhibition. He died at Paris on the 23rd of December 1867. See J. Bertrand, Aloge historique de Poncelet (Paris, 1875). PONCHER, ETIENNE DE (1446-1524), French prelate and diplomatist. After studying law he was early provided with a prebend, and became councillor at the parlement of Paris in 1485 and president of the Chambre des Enquetes in 1498. Elected bishop of Paris in 1503 at the instance of Louis XII., he was entrusted by the king with diplomatic missions in Germany and Italy. After being appointed chancellor of the duchy of Milan, he became keeper of the seals of France in 1512, and retained that post until the accession of Francis I., who employed him on various diplomatic missions. Poncher became archbishop of Sens in 1519. His valuable Constitutions synodales was published in 1514. PONCHIELLI, AMILCARE (1834-1886), Italian musical composer, was born near Cremona on the ist of September 1834. He studied at the Milan Conservatoire. His first dramatic work, written in collaboration with two other composers, was // Sindaco Babbeo (1851). After completing his studies at Milan he returned to Cremona, where his opera / Promessi sposi was produced in 1856. This was followed by La Savoyards (1861, produced in a revised version as Line in 1877), Roderigo, re dei Goti (1864), and La Stella del monte (1867). A revised version of I Promessi sposi, which was produced at Milan in 1872, was his first genuine success. After this came a ballet, Le Due Gemelle (1873), and an opera, I Liluani (1874, produced in a revised version as Alduna in 1884). Ponchielli reached the zenith of his fame with La Gioconda (1876), written to a libretto founded by Arrigo Boito upon Victor Hugo's tragedy, Angela, Tyran de Padoue. La Gioconda was followed by // Figliuol prodigo (1880) and Marion Delorme (1885). Among his less 6o PONCHO— PONIARD important works are II Parlatore eterno, a musical farce (1873), and a ballet, Clarina (1873). In 1881 Ponchielli was made maestro di cappella of Piacenza Cathedral. His music shows the influence of Verdi, but at its best it has a distinct value of its own, and an inexhaustible flow of typically Italian melody. His fondness for fanciful figures in his accompaniments has been slavishly imitated by Mascagni, Leoncavallo, and many of their contemporaries. Ponchielli died at Milan on the i7th of January 1886. PONCHO (a South American Spanish word, adopted from the Araucanian poncho or pontho in the i7th century), a form of cloak worn originally by the South American Indians, and afterwards adopted by the Spaniards living in South America. It is merely a long strip of cloth, doubled, with a hole for the head. POND, JOHN (c. 1767-1836), English astronomer-royal, was born about 1767 in London, where his father made a fortune in trade. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of sixteen, but took no degree, his course being interrupted by severe pulmonary attacks which compelled a long residence abroad. In 1800 he settled at Westbury near Bristol, and began to determine star-places with a fine altitude and azimuth circle of 25 ft. diameter by E. Troughton. His demonstration in 1806 (Phil. Trans, xcvi. 420) of a change of form in the Greenwich mural quadrant led to the introduction of astro- nomical circles at the Royal Observatory, and to his own appoint- ment as its head. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society on the 26th of February 1807; he married and went to live in London in the same year, and in 1811 succeeded Maskelyne as astronomer-royal. During an administration of nearly twenty-five years Pond effected a reform of practical astronomy in England comparable to that effected by Bessel in Germany. In 1821 he began to employ the method of observation by reflection; and in 1825 he devised means (see Mem. Roy. Astron. Soc. ii. 499) of combin- ing two mural circles in the determination of the place of a single object, the one serving for direct and the other for reflected vision. Under his auspices the instrumental equipment at Greenwich was completely changed, and the number of assis- tants increased from one to six. The superior accuracy of his determinations was attested by S. C. Chandler's discussion of them in 1894, in the course of his researches into the variation of latitude (Astron. Journ. Nos. 313, 315). He persistently con- troverted (1810-1824) the reality of J. Brinkley's imaginary star-parallaxes (Phil. Trans, cviii. 477, cxiii. 53). Delicacy of health compelled his retirement in the autumn of 1835. He died at Blackheath on the 7th of September 1836, and was buried beside Halley in the churchyard of Lee. The Copley medal was conferred upon him in 1823, and the Lalande prize in 1817 by the Paris Academy, of which he was a corresponding member. He published eight folio volumes of Greenwich Observations, translated Laplace's Systeme du monde (in 2 vols. 8vo., 1809), and contributed thirty -one papers to scientific collections. His catalogue of 1112 stars (1833) was of great value. See Mem. Roy. Astron. Soc. x. 357; Proc. Roy. Soc. iii. 434; Penny Cyclopaedia (De Morgan); F. W. Bessel, Pop. Vorlesungen, p. 543; Report Brit. Assoc. i. 128, 136 (Airy); Sir G. Airy's Autobiography, p. 127; Observatory, xiii. 204, xxii. 357; Annual Biography and Obituary (1837); R. Grant, Hist, of Phys. Astron. p. 491 ; Royal Society's Cat. Scient. Papers. POND, a small pool or body of standing water, a word often applied to one for which the bed has been artificially constructed. The word is a variant of " pound " (q.v.), an enclosure. PONDICHERRY, the capital of the French possessions in India, situated on the Coromandel or western coast, 122 m. by rail S. of Madras. The territory, which is entirely surrounded by the British district of South Arcot, has an area of 115 sq. m. with a population (1901) of 174,456. The chief crops are dry grains, rice, earth-nuts and a little indigo. The territory is traversed by a branch of the South Indian railway from Villa- puram. The town has a population of 27,448. It is well laid out with fine public buildings; the water-supply is derived from artesian wells. It has an open roadstead, with a small iron pier. The port is visited yearly by 500 vessels, and has trade of the value of about some £1,300,000. The principal imports are areca-nuts, wines and liqueurs, and the chief exports ground- nuts, oil, cotton fabrics and rice. Of the export trade more than one-half is with France, but of the import trade only one- fourth. The weaving of various fabrics forms the principal industry. Pondicherry was founded in 1683 by Francois Martin, on the site of a village given him by the governor of Gingee. In 1693 the Dutch took Pondicherry, but restored it, with the fortifica- tions greatly improved, in 1697, at the peace of Ryswick. In 1748 Admiral Boscawen laid siege to. it without success, but in 1761 it was taken by Colonel Coote from Lally. In 1763 it was restored to the French. In 1778 it was again taken by Sir Hector Munro, and its fortifications destroyed. In 1783 it was retransf erred to the French, and in 1793 recaptured by the English. The treaty of Amiens in 1802 restored it to the French, but it was retaken in 1803. In 1816 it was finally restored to the French. PONDO, a Kaffir people who have given their name to Pondo- land, the country comprising much of the seaboard of Kaffraria, Cape province, immediately to the south-west of Natal. The Pondo, who number about 200,000, are divided into several tribal groups, but the native government, since the annexation of the country to Cape Colony in 1894, has been subject to the control of the colonial authorities. (See KAFFIRS.) PONDWEED, a popular name for Potamogeton nalans, a cosmopolitan aquatic plant found in ponds, lakes and ditches, with broad, more or less oblong-ovate, olive-green, floating leaves. The name is also applied to other species of Potamo- geton, one of the characteristic genera of lakes, ponds and streams all over the world, but more abundant in temperate regions. It is the principal genus of the natural order of Monocotyledous Potamogetonaceae, and contains plants with slender branched stems, and submerged and translucent, or floating and opaque, alternate or opposite leaves, often with membranous united stipules. The small flowers are borne above the water in (After Wossidlo. From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bolanik.) Potamogeton natans. • 1, Apex of flowering shoot. 3, Flower viewed from the side. 2, Flower viewed from above. 4, Diagram of flower. axillary or terminal spikes; they have four stamens, which bear at the back four small herbaceous petal-like structures, and four free carpels, which ripen to form four small green fleshy fruits, each containing one seed within a hard inner coat; the seed contains a large hooked embryo. An allied genus Zannichellia (named after Zanichelli, a Venetian botanist), occurring in fresh and brackish ditches and pools in Britain, and also widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions, is known as horned pondweed, from the curved fruit. PONIARD, a dagger, particularly one of small size, used for stabbing at close quarters. The French word poignard, from PONIATOWSKI— PONS 61 which the English is a 16th-century adaptation, is formed from poing, fist, the clenched hand in which the weapon is grasped. (See DAGGER.) PONIATOWSKI, the name of a Polish princely family of Italian origin, tracing descent from Giuseppe Torelli, who married about 1650 an heiress of the Lithuanian family of Poniator, whose name he assumed. The first of the Poniatowskis to distinguish himself was STANISLAUS PONIATOWSKI (1677-1762), who only belonged to the family by adoption, being the reputed son of Prince Sapieha and a Jewess. He was born at Dereczyn in Lithuania, and was adopted by Sapieha's intendant, Poniatowski. With his father he attached himself to the party of Stanislaus Leszczynski, and became major-general in the army of Charles XII. of Sweden. After the defeat of Pultowa he conveyed Charles XII. across the Dnieper, and remained with him at Bender. From there he was sent to Constantinople, where he extracted from the sultan Achmet III. a promise to march to Moscow. When the grand vizier, Baltagi Mehemet, permitted the tsar Peter I. to retreat unharmed from the banks of the Pruth, Poniatowski exposed his treason. He rejoined Leszczynski in the duchy of Zweibriicken, Bavaria, of which he became governor. After the death of Charles XII. in 1718 he visited Sweden; and was subsequently reconciled with Leszczynski's rival on the throne of Poland, Augustus II., who made him grand treasurer of Lithuania in 1724. On the death of Augustus II. he tried to secure the reinstatement of Leszczynski, who then resumed his claims to the Polish crown. He was taken prisoner at Danzig by the Russians, and presently gave his allegiance to Augustus III., by whom he was made governor of Cracow. He died at Ryki on the 3rd of August 1762. His second son Stanislaus Augustus became king of Poland (see STANISLAUS II.). Of the other sons, Casimir (1721-1780) was his brother's chancellor; Andrew (1735-1773) entered the Austrian service, rising to the rank of feldzeugmeister; and Michael (1736-1794) became archbishop of Gnesen and primate of Poland. Joseph Anthony Poniatowski (q.i).}, son of Andrew, became one of Napoleon's marshals. STANISLAUS PONIATOWSKI (1757-1833), son of Casimir, shared in the aggrandisement of the family during the reign of Stanislaus II., becoming grand treasurer of Lithuania, starost of Podolia and lieutenant-general of the royal army. In 1793 he settled in Vienna, and subsequently in Rome, where he made a magnificent collection of antique gems in his house on the Via Flaminia. This collection was sold at Christie's in London in May 1839. He died in Florence on the I3th of February 1833, and with him the Polish and Austrian honours became extinct. His natural, but recognized, son, JOSEPH MICHAEL XAVTER FRANCIS JOHN PONIATOWSKI (1816-1873), w»s born at Rome and in 1847 was naturalized as a Tuscan subject. He received the title of prince in Tuscany (1847) and in Austria (1850). He had studied music under Ceccherini at Florence, and wrote numerous operas, in the first of which, Giovanni di Procida, he sang the title rdle himself at Lucca in 1838. He represented the court of Tuscany in Paris from 1848, and he was made a senator by Napoleon III., whom he followed to England in 1871. His last opera, Gelmina, was produced at Covent Garden in 1872. He died on the 3rd of July 1873, and was buried at Chislehurst. His son, Prince Stanislaus Augustus, married and settled in Paris. He was equerry to Napoleon III., and died in January 1908. PONIATOWSKI, JOSEPH ANTHONY (1763-1813), ^ Polish prince and marshal of France, son of Andrew PoniatowskiVnd the countess Theresa Kinsky, was born at Warsaw in 1763. Adopt- ing a military career, he joined the Imperial army when Austria declared war against the Turks in 1788, and distinguished himself at the storming of Sabac on the 25th of April, where he was seriously wounded. Recalled by his uncle King Stanis- laus when the Polish army was reorganized, he received the rank of major-general, and subsequently that of lieutenant-general, and devoted himself zealously to the improvement of the national forces. In 1789, when Poland was threatened by the armed intervention of Russia, he was appointed commander of the Ukraine division at Braclaw on Bug. After the proclama- tion of the constitution of the 3rd of May 1791 he was appointed commander-in-chief, with instructions to guard the banks of the Dniester and Dnieper. On the outbreak of the war with Russia, Prince Joseph, aided by Kosciuszko, displayed great ability. Obliged constantly to retreat, but disputing every point of vantage, he turned on the pursuer whenever he pressed too closely, and won several notable victories. At Polonna the Russians were repulsed with the loss of 3000 men; at Dubienka the line of the Bug was defended for five days against fourfold odds; at Zielence the Poles won a still more signal victory. Finally the Polish arms converged upon Warsaw, and were preparing for a general engagement when a courier from the capital informed the generals that the king had acceded to the confederation of Targowica (see POLAND: History) and had at the same time guaranteed the adhesion of the army. All hostilities were therefore to be suspended. After an indig- nant but fruitless protest, Poniatowski and most of the other generals threw up their commissions and emigrated. During the Kosciuszko rising he again fought gallantly for his country under his former subordinate, and after the fall of the republic resided as a private citizen at Warsaw for the next ten years. After Jena and the evacuation of the Polish provinces by Prussia, Poniatowski was offered the command of the National Guard; he set about reorganizing the Polish army, and on the creation of the grand duchy of Warsaw was nominated war minister. During the war of 1809, when an Austrian army corps under the archduke Ferdinand invaded the grand duchy, Poniatowski encountered them at the bloody battle of Radzyn, and though compelled to abandon Warsaw ultimately forced the enemy to evacuate the grand duchy, and captured Cracow. In Napoleon's campaign against Russia in 1812 Poniatowski commanded the fifth army corps; and after the disastrous retreat of the grand army, when many of the Poles began to waver in their allegiance to Napoleon, Poniatowski remained faithful and formed a new Polish army of 13,000 men with which he joined the emperor at Lutzen. In the campaign of 1813 he guarded the passes of the Bohemian mountains and defended the left bank of the Elbe. As a reward for his brilliant services at the three days' battle of Leipzig he was made a marshal of France and entrusted with the honourable but dangerous duty of covering the retreat of the army. Poniatowski heroically defended Leipzig, losing half his corps in the attempt, finally falling back slowly upon the bridge over the Elster which the French in the general confusion blew up before he reached it. Contesting every step with the overwhelming forces of the pursuers, he refused to surrender, and covered with wounds plunged into the river, where he died fighting to the last. His relics were conveyed to Poland and buried in Cracow Cathedral, where he lies by the side of Tadeusz Kosciuszko and Jan Sobieski. Poniatowski's M es souvenirs sur la campagne de 1792 (Lemberg, 1863) is a valuable historical document. See Stanislaw Kostka Boguslawski, Life of Prince Joseph Ponia- towski (Pol.; Warsaw, 1831); Franciszek Paszkowski, Prince Joseph Poniatowski (Pol.; Cracow, 1808); Correspondence of Poniatowski (ed. E. Raczynski, Posen, 1843); Bronislaw Dembinski, Stanislaus Augustus and Prince Joseph Poniatowski in the light of their Corre- spondence (Fr.; Lemberg, 1904); Szymon Askenazy, Prince Joseph Poniatowski (Pol.; Warsaw, 1905). (R. N. B.) PONS, JEAN LOUIS (1761-1831), French astronomer, was born at Peyres (Hautes Alpes) on the 24th of December 1761. He entered the Marseilles observatory in 1789, and in 1819 became the director of the new observatory at Marlia near Lucca, which he left in 1825 for the observatory of the museum at Florence. Here he died on the i4th of October 1831. Between 1801 and 1827 Pons discovered thirty-seven comets, one of which (observed on the 26th of November 1818) was named after J. F. Encke, who determined its remarkably short period. See M. R. A. Henrion, Annuaire biographique, i. 288 (Paris, 1834); Memoirs Roy. Astron. Soc. v. 410; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomie, p. 709; J. C. Poggendorff, Biog. lit. Handwdrterbuch. PONSARD— PONTANUS PONSARD, FRANQOIS (1814-1867), French dramatist, was born at Vienne, department of Isere, on the ist of June 1814. He was bred a lawyer, and his first performance in literature was a translation of Manfred (1837). His play Lucrece was represented at the Thedtre Francois on the ist of April 1843. This date is a kind of epoch in literature and dramatic history, because it marked a reaction against the romantic style of Dumas and Hugo. He received in 1845 the prize awarded by the Academy for a tragedy " to oppose a dike to the waves of romanticism." Ponsard adopted the liberty of the romantics with regard to the unities of time and place, but he reverted to the more sober style of earlier French drama. The tastes and capacities of the greatest tragic actress of the day, Rachel, suited his methods, and this contributed greatly to his own popularity. He followed up Lucrece with Agnes de Meranie (1846), Charlotte Corday (1850), and others. Ponsard accepted the empire, though with no very great enthusiasm, and received the post of librarian to the senate, which, however, he soon resigned, fighting a bloodless duel with a journalist on the subject. L'Honneur el I'argent, one of his most successful plays, was acted in 1853, and he became an Academician in 1855. For some years he did little, but in 1866 he obtained great success with Le Lion amoureux, another play dealing with the revolutionary epoch. His Galilee, which excited great opposition in the clerical camp, was produced early in 1867. He died in Paris on the 7th of July of the same year, soon after his nomination to the commandership of the Legion of Honour. Most of Ponsard's plays hold a certain steady level of literary and dramatic ability, but his popularity is in the main due to the fact that his appearance coincided with a certain public weariness of the extravagant and unequal style of 1830. His CEuvres completes were published in Paris (3 vols., 1865- 1876). See La Fin du theatre romantique et Francois Ponsard d'apres des documents inedits (1899), by C. Latreille. PONSONBY, JOHN (1713-1789), Irish politician, second son of Brabazon Ponsonby, ist earl of Bessborough, was born on the 2gth of March 1713. In 1739 he entered the Irish parliament and in 1744 he became first commissioner of the revenue; in 1746 he was appointed a privy councillor, and in 1756 Speaker of the Irish House of Commons. Belonging to one of the great families which at this time monopolized the government of Ireland, Ponsonby was one of the principal " undertakers," men who controlled the whole of the king's business in Ireland, and he retained the chief authority until the marquess Townshend became lord-lieutenant in 1767. Then followed a struggle for supremacy between the Ponsonby faction and the party dependent on Townshend, one result of this being that Ponsonby resigned the speakership in 1771. He died on the I2th of December 1789. His wife was Elizabeth, daughter of William Cavendish, 3rd duke of Devonshire, a connexion which was of great importance to the Ponsonbys. Ponsonby's third son, George Ponsonby (1755-1817), lord chancellor of Ireland, was born on the 5th of March 1755 and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. A barrister, he became a member of the Irish parliament in 1776 and was chancellor of the Irish exchequer in 1782, afterwards taking a prominent part in the debates on the question of Roman Catholic relief, and leading the opposition to the union of the parliaments. After 1800 Ponsonby represented Wicklow and then Tavistock in the united parliament; in 1806 he was lord chancellor of Ireland, and from 1808 to 1817 he was the official leader of the opposition in the House of Commons. He left an only daughter when he died in London on the 8th of July 1817. George Ponsonby's elder brother, William Brabazon Ponsonby, ist Baron Ponsonby (1744-1806), was also a leading Whig politician, being a member of the Irish, and after 1800, of the British parliament. In 1806 shortly before his death he was created Baron Ponsonby of Imokilly. Three of his sons were men of note. The eldest was John (c. 1770-1855), who succeeded to the barony and was created a viscount in 1839; he was ambassador at Constantinople from 1832 to 1837 and at Vienna from 1846 to 1850. The second son was Major- General Sir William Ponsonby (1772-1815), who, after serving in the Peninsular War, was killed at the battle of Waterloo whilst leading a brigade of heavy cavalry. Another son was Richard Ponsonby (1772-1853), bishop of Derry. Sir William Ponsonby's posthumous son William (1816-1861) became 3rd Baron Ponsonby on the death of his uncle John, Viscount Ponsonby; he died childless and was succeeded by his cousin William Brabazon Ponsonby (1807-1866), only son of the bishop of Derry, on whose death the barony of Ponsonby became extinct. Among other members of this family may be mentioned Major- General Sir Frederick Cavendish Ponsonby (1783-1837), son of the 3rd earl of Bessborough, a soldier who distinguished himself at the battles of Talavera, Salamanca and Vittoria, in the Peninsular War, and was wounded at Waterloo; he was governor of Malta from 1826 to 1835. His eldest son, Sir Henry Frederick Ponsonby (1825-1895), a soldier who served in the Crimea, is best remembered as private secretary to Queen Victoria from 1870 until a few months before his death. PONSON DU TERRAIL [PIERRE ALEXIS DE PONSON], VICOMTE DE (1820-1871), French romance writer, was born at Montmaur (Isere) on the 8th of July 1829. He was a prolific novelist, producing in the space of two years some seventy- three volumes. Among his most successful productions were Les Coulisses du monde (1853), Exploits de Rocambole (1859), Les Drames de Paris (1865) and Le Forgeron de la Cour-Dieu (1869). He died at Bordeaux on the 2oth of January 1871. PONT (or KYLPONT), ROBERT (1524-1606), Scottish reformer, was educated at St Andrews. In 1562 he was appointed minister at Dunblane and then at Dunkeld; in 1563, commis- sioner for Moray, Inverness and Banff. Then in succession he became minister of Birnie (1567), provost of Trinity College near Edinburgh (1571), a lord of session (1572), minister of St Cuthbert's, Edinburgh (1573) and at St Andrews (1581). Pont was a strenuous champion of ecclesiastical independence, and for protesting against parliamentary interference in church government he was obliged to leave his country. From 1584 to 1586 he was in England, but returning north he resumed his prominence in church matters and kept it until his death in 1606. His elder son Timothy Pont (i56o?-i6i4?) was a good mathematician, surveyor, and " the first projector of a Scottish atlas." PONTA DELGADA, the capital of an administrative district, comprising the islands of St Michael's and St Mary in the Portuguese archipelago of the Azores. Pop. (1900), 17,620. Ponta Delgada is built on the south coast of St Michael's, in 37° 40' N. and 25° 36' W. Its mild climate, and the fine scenery of its mountain background, render it very attractive to visitors; it is the commercial centre, and the most populous city of the archipelago. Besides the cathedral, it contains several inter- esting churches and monasteries, and an observatory. Formerly its natural inner harbour only admitted vessels of light draught, while larger ships were compelled to anchor in an open road- stead, which was inaccessible during the prevalence of southerly gales. But great improvements were effected after 1860 by the construction of a breakwater 2800 ft. long. PONT-A-MOUSSON, a town of northern France in the depart- ment of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nancy by rail. Pop. (1906), 12,282. The Moselle, which is canalized, divides the town into two quarters, united by a bridge of the late i6th century. The church of St Martin, dating from the i3th, i4th and 1 5th centuries, has a handsome facade with two towers, and in the interior a choir screen and Holy Sepulchre of the 1 5th century. The lower ecclesiastical seminary occupies the build- ing of an old Premonstratensian convent. There are several interesting old houses. The town has a communal college and engineering workshops, blast furnaces, and manufactures of lacquered ware, paper, cardboard, cables and iron-ware. Dating from the gth or loth century, Pont-a-Mousson constituted a lordship, which was made a marquisate in 1354. It was from 1572 to 1763 the seat of a well-known university. PONTANUS, JOVIANUS (1426-1503), Italian humanist and poet, was born in 1426 at Cerreto in the duchy of Spoleto, PONTARLIER— PONTECOULANT where his father was murdered in one of the frequent civil brawls which then disturbed the peace of Italian towns. His mother escaped with the boy to Perugia, and it was here that Pontano received his first instruction in languages and literature. Failing to recover his patrimony, he abandoned Umbria, and at the age of twenty-two established himself at Naples, which continued to be his chief place of residence during a long and prosperous career. He here began a close friendship with the distinguished scholar, Antonio Beccadelli, through whose in- fluence he gained admission to the royal chancery of Alphonso th_- Magnanimous. Alphonso discerned the singular gifts of the young scholar, and made him tutor to his sons. Pontano's connexion with the Aragonese dynasty as political adviser, military secretary and chancellor was henceforth a close one; and the most doubtful passage in his diplomatic career is when he welcomed Charles VIII. of France upon the entry of that king into Naples in 1495, thus showing that he was too ready to abandon the princes upon whose generosity his fortunes had been raised. Pontano illustrates in a marked manner the position of power to which men of letters and learning had arrived in Italy. He entered Naples as a penniless scholar. He was almost immediately made the companion and trusted friend of its sovereign, loaded with honours, lodged in a fine house, enrolled among the nobles of the realm, enriched, and placed at the very height of social importance. Following the example of Pomponio Leto in Rome and of Cosimo de' Medici at Florence, Pontano founded an academy for the meetings of learned and distinguished men. This became the centre of fashion as well as of erudition in the southern capital, and subsisted long after its founder's death. In 1461 he married his first wife, Adriana Sassone, who bore him one son and three daughters before her death in 1491. Nothing distinguished Pontano more than the strength of his domestic feeling. He was passionately attached to his wife and children; and, while his friend Beccadelli signed the licentious verses of Hermaphroditus, his own Muse celebrated in liberal but loyal strains the pleasures of conjugal affection, the charm of infancy and the sorrows of a husband and a father in the loss of those he loved. Not long after the death of his first wife Pontano took in second marriage a beautiful girl of Ferrara, who is only known to us under the name of Stella. Although he was at least sixty-five years of age at this period, his poetic faculty displayed itself with more than usual warmth and lustre in the glowing series ef elegies, styled Eridanus, which he poured forth to commemorate the rapture of this union. Stella's one child, Lucilio, survived his birth but fifty days; nor did his mother long remain to comfort the scholar's old age. Pontano had already lost his only son by the first marriage; therefore his declining years were solitary. He died in 1503 at Naples, where a remarkable group of terra-cotta figures, life-sized and painted, still adorns his tomb in the church of Monte Oliveto. He is there represented together with his patron Alphonso and his friend Sannazzaro in adoration before the dead Christ. As a diplomatist and state official Pontano played a part of some importance in the affairs of southern Italy and in the Barons' War, the wars with Rome, and the expulsion and restora- tion of the Aragonese dynasty. But his chief claim upon the attentions of posterity is as a scholar. His writings divide themselves into dissertations upon such topics as the " Liberality of Princes " or " Ferocity," composed in the rhetorical style of the day, and poems. He was distinguished for energy of Latin style, for vigorous intellectual powers, and for the faculty, rare among his contemporaries, of expressing the facts of modern life, the actualities of personal emotion, in language sufficiently classical yet always characteristic of the man. His prose treatises are more useful to students of manners than the similar lucubrations of Poggio. Yet it was principally as a Latin poet that he exhibited his full strength. An ambitious didactic composition in hexameters, entitled Urania, embodying the astronomical science of the age, and adorning this high theme with brilliant mythological episodes, won the admiration of Italy. It still remains a monument of fertile invention, exuberant facility and energetic handling of material. Not less excellent is the didactic poem on orange trees, De hortis Hesperi- dum. His most original compositions in verse, however, are elegiac and hendecasyllabic pieces on personal topics — the De conjugali amore, Eridanus, Tumuli, Naeniae, Baiae, &c. — in which he uttered his vehemently passionate emotions with a warmth of southern colouring, an evident sincerity, and a truth of painting from reality which excuse their erotic freedom. Pontano's prose and poems were printed by the Aldi at Venice. For his life see Ardito, Giovanni Pontano e i suoi tempi (Naples, 1871); for his place in the history of literature, Symonds, Renais- sance in Italy. G- A. S.) PONTARLIER, a frontier town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Doubs, 36 m. S.E. of Besancon by road. Pop. (1006), 7896. It is situated 2750 ft. above sea-level on the Doubs, about four miles from the Swiss frontier, and forms an important strategic point at the mouth of the defile of La Cluse, one of the principal passes across the Jura. The pass is defended by the modern fort of Larmont, and by the Fort de Joux, which was originally built in the loth century by the family of Joux and played a conspicuous part in the history of Franche-Comte. Pontarlier is the junction of railway lines to Neuchatel, Lausanne, Lons-le-Saunier, D61e and Besanc.on. A triumphal arch of the i8th century com- memorates the reconstruction of the town after the destructive fire of 1736. It was at Pontarlier that the French army of the East made its last stand against the Prussians in 1871 before crossing the Swiss frontier. The distillation of herbs, extensively cultivated for the manufacture of absinthe, kirsch and other liqueurs, is the chief industry. The town is the seat of a sub- prefect and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. PONT AUDEMER, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Eure, 39 m. N.W. of Evreux, on the Risle, a left-bank affluent of the Seine, and on the railway from Evreux to Honfleur. Pop. (1906), 5700. The church of St Ouen, which has fine stained glass of the i6th century, combines the late Gothic and Renaissance styles; its choir is Romanesque. Local institutions are the sub-prefec- ture, a tribunal of first instance, a board of trade-arbitration, a chamber and tribunal of commerce. Manufacturing industry is active, and includes the founding of malleable metal, a spur factory, the manufacture of glue and paper, cotton-spinning and various branches of leather manufacture. There is trade in flax, wool, grain, cattle, cider, paper, iron, wood and coal. The port has a length of over half a mile on the Risle, which is navigable for small vessels from this point toils mouth (10 m.). The town owes its name to Audomar, a Frank lord, who in the 7th or 8th century built a bridge over the Risle at this point. It was the scene of several provincial ecclesiastical councils in the i zth and i3th centuries and of meetings of the estates of Normandy in the I3th century. PONTE (Ital. for " bridge "), a rough game peculiar to the city of Pisa, in which the players, divided into two sides and provided with padded costumes, contended for the possession of one of the bridges over the Arno. The weapon used, both for offence and defence, was a kind of shield which served as a club as well. A history and description of the game may be found in William Heywood's Polio and Ponte (London, 1904). PONTECORVO, a city of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, on the Garigliano, about 48 m. from Caserta and 3 m. from Aquino on the railway from Rome to Naples. Pop. (1001), 10,518 (town); 12,492 (commune). The town is approached by a triumphal arch adorned with a statue of Pius IX. The princi- pality of Pontecorvo (about 40 sq. m. in extent), once an indepen- dent state, belonged alternately to the Tomacelli and the abbots of Monte Cassino. Napoleon bestowed it on Bernadotte in 1806, and in iSioit was incorporated with the French Empire. PONTECOULANT, LOUIS GUSTAVE LE DOULCET, COMTE DE (1764-1853), French politician, was born at Caen on the i?th of November 1764. He began a career in the army in 1778. 64 PONTEFRACT A moderate supporter of the revolution, he was returned to the Convention for the department of Calvados in 1792, and became commissary with the army of the North. He voted for the imprisonment of Louis XVI. during the war, and his banishment after the peace. He then attached himself to the party of the Gironde, and in August 1793 was outlawed. He had refused to defend his compatriot Charlotte Corday, who wrote him a letter of reproach on her way to the scaffold. He returned to the Convention on the 8th of March 1795, and showed an unusual spirit of moderation by defending Prieur de la Marne and Robert Lindet. President of the Convention in July 1795, he was for some months a member of the council of public safety. He was subsequently elected to the council of five hundred, but was suspected of royalist leanings, and had to spend some time in retirement before the establishment of the consulate. Becoming senator in 1805, and count of the empire in 1808, he organized the national guard in Tranche Comte in 1811, and the defence of the north-eastern frontier in 1813. At the first restoration Louis XVIII. made him a peer of France, and although he received a similar honour from Napoleon during the Hundred Days, he sat in the upper house under the Second Restoration. He died in Paris on the 3rd of April 1853, leaving memoirs and correspondence from which were extracted four volumes (1861- 1865) of Souvenirs historiques et parlementaires 1764-1848. His son Louis Adolphe Le Doulcet, comte de Pontecoulant (1794-1882), served under Napoleon in 1812 and 1814, and then emigrated to Brazil, where he took part in the abortive insurrec- tion at Pernambuco in 1817. He also organized a French volunteer contingent in the Belgian revolution of 1830, and was wounded at Louvain. The rest of his life was spent in Paris in the study of ancient music and acoustics. Among his works was one on the Musee instrumental du conservatoire de musique (1864). A younger brother, Philippe Gustave Le Doulcet, comte de Pontecoulant (1795-1874), served in the army until 1849, when he retired to devote himself to mathematics and astronomy. His works include Theorie analytique du systeme du monde (Paris, 1829-1846) and Traiti elementaire de physique celeste (2 vols., Paris, 1840). PONTEFRACT (pronounced and sometimes written " Pom- fret "), a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 21 m. S.S.W. from York, served by the Midland, North-Eastern and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1891), 9702; (1901), 13,427. It is well situated, mainly on an eminence, near the junction of the Aire and the Calder. The most important of the antiquarian remains are the ruins of the famous castle situated on a rocky height, originally covering with its precincts an area of over 8 acres, and containing in all eight round towers. The remains are principally of Norman date, and an unusual feature of the stronghold is the existence of various subterranean chambers in the rock. Below the castle is All Saints church, which suffered severely during the siege of the castle, but still retains some work of the 1 2th century. In 1837 the tower and transepts were fitted for divine service. The church of St Giles, formerly a chapel of ease to All Saints, but made parochial in the i8th century, is of Norman date, but most of the present structure is modern. The 17th-century spire was removed in 1707, and replaced by a square tower, which was rebuilt in 1797; the chan- cel was rebuilt in 1869. In Southgate is an ancient hermitage and oratory cut out of the solid rock, which dates from 1396. On St Thomas's Hill, where Thomas, earl of Lancaster, was beheaded in 1322, a chantry was erected in 1373, the site of which is now occupied by a windmill built of its stones. At Monkhill there are the remains of a Tudor building called the Old Hall, probably constructed out of the old priory of St John's. A grammar school of ancient foundation, renewed by Elizabeth and George III., occupies modern buildings. The town-hall was built at the close of the i8th century on the site of one erected in 1656, which succeeded the old moot-hall dating from Saxon times. Among other buildings are the court house, the market hall, the assembly rooms (a handsome building adjoining the town-hall), and large barracks. The foundation of the principal almshouse, that of St Nicholas, dates from before the Conquest. Trinity Hospital was founded by Sir Robert Knolles (d. 1407), an eminent military commander in the French wars of Edward III. At Ackworth, in the neighbourhood, there is a large school of the Society of Friends or Quakers (1778), in the foundation of which Dr John Fothergill (1712-1780) was a prime mover. There are extensive gardens and nurseries in the neighbourhood of Pontefract, and liquorice is largely grown for the manufacture of the celebrated Pomfret cakes. The town possesses ironfoundries, sack and matting manufactories, tanneries, breweries, corn mills and brick and terra-cotta works. The parliamentary borough, falling within the Osgoldcross division of the county, returns one member (before 1885 the number was two). The town is governed by a mayor, six alder- men and 1 8 councillors. Area, 4078 acres. The remains of a Roman camp have been discovered near Pontefract, but there is no trace of settlement in the town itself until after the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday Survey Tateshall (now Tanshelf, a suburb of the town) was the chief manor and contained 60 burgesses, while Kirkby, which after- wards became the borough of Pontefract, was one of its members. The change was probably owing to the fact that Ilbert de Lacy, to whom the Conqueror had granted the whole of the honour of Pontefract, founded a castle at Kirkby, on a site said to have been occupied by a fortification raised by Ailric, a Saxon thane. Several reasons are given for the change of name but none is at all satisfactory. One account -says that it was caused by a broken bridge which delayed the Conqueror's advance to the north, but this is known to have been at Ferrybridge, three miles away; a second says that the new name was derived from a Norman town called Pontfrete, which, however, never existed; and a third that it was caused by the breaking of a bridge in 1153 on the arrival of the archbishop of York, St William, when several people were miraculously preserved from drowning, although the town was already known as Pontefract in 1 140 when Archbishop Thurstan died there. The manor remained in the Lacy family until it passed by marriage to Thomas, duke of Lancaster, who was beheaded on a hill outside the town after the battle of Boroughbridge. His estates were restored to his brother Henry, earl of Lancaster, on the accession of Edward III., and the manor has since then formed part of the duchy of Lancaster. The town took part in most of the rebellions in the north of England, and in 1399 Richard II. was imprisoned and secretly murdered in the castle. During the Wars of the Roses the town was loyal to Henry VI., and several of the Yorkist leaders were executed here after the battle of Wakefield. It was taken by Robert Aske, leader of the Pilgrimage of Grace, in 1536. In 1642 the castle was garrisoned for Charles I. and sustained four sieges, the second, in 1644, being successful, but two years later it was retaken by the royalists, who held it until after the execution of the king, when they surrendered to General Lambert and the castle was destroyed. Roger de Lacy in 1194 granted a charter to the burgesses confirming their liberties and right to be a free borough at a fee-farm of i2d. yearly for every toft, granting them the same privileges as the burgesses of Grimsby, and that their reeve should be chosen annually by the lord of the manor at his court leet, preference being given to the burgesses if they would pay as much as others for the office. Henry de Lacy cofirmed this charter in 1278 and in 1484 Richard III. incorporated the town under the title of mayor and burgesses and granted a gild merchant with a hanse. His charter was withdrawn on the accession of Henry VII. and a similar one was granted, while in 1489 the king gave the burgesses licence to continue choosing a mayor as they had done in the time of Richard III. In 1606-1607 James I. confirmed the charter of Henry VII. and regulated the choice of the mayor by providing that he should be elected from among the chief burgesses by the burgesses themselves. The privilege of returning two members to parliament which had belonged to Pontefract at the end of the I3th century was revived in i62o-i62r on the grounds that the charter of 1606-1607 had restored all their privileges to the burgesses. Since the PONTEVEDRA— PONTIAC Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 one member only has been returned. Liquorice was largely grown as early as 1700-1701, when the corporation prohibited the sale of buds or sets of the plant. Richard III. by his incorporation charter granted the market rights in the borough to the burgesses, who still hold them under his charter. See Victoria County History : Yorkshire ; Eighth Report of the Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts (1870— 1897); Book of Entries of the Pontefract Corporation, 1653-1726 (ed. by Richard Holmes, 1882); Benjamin Boothroyd, The History of the Ancient Borough of Ponte- fract (1807); George Fox, The History of Pontefract (1827). PONTEVEDRA, a maritime province of north-western Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken from Galicia, and bounded on the N. by Corunna, E. by Lugo and Orense, S. by Portugal and W. by the Atlantic. Pop. (1900), 457,262; area, 1695 sq. m. Pontevedra is the smallest of the provinces of Spain except the three Basque Provinces; its density of population, 269-8 inhabitants per square mile, is only excelled in the provinces of Barcelona and Biscay (Vizcaya). Both of these are mining and manufacturing districts, while Pontevedra is dependent on agriculture and fisheries. The surface is everywhere moun- tainous, and consists almost entirely of arable land, pasture or forest. The coast-line is deeply indented; navigation is rendered difficult by the prevalence of fogs in summer and storms in winter. The river Mino (Portuguese Minho) forms the southern frontier, and is navigable by small ships as far as Salvatierra; and the province is watered by many smaller streams, all flowing, like the Mino, into the Atlantic. The largest of these are the UUa, which separates Pontevedra from Corunna, the Umia and the Lerez. Pontevedra has a mild climate, a fertile soil and a very heavy rainfall. Large agricultural fairs are held in the chief towns, and there is a considerable export trade in cattle to Great Britain and Portugal, hams, salt meat and fish, eggs, breadstuffs, leather and wine. Vigo is the headquarters of shipping, and one of the chief ports of northern Spain. There are also good harbours at Bayona, Carril, Marin, Villagarcia and elsewhere among the deep estuaries of the coast. At Tuy the Spanish and Portuguese railways meet, and from this town one line goes up the Mino valley to Orense, and another northward along the coast to Santiago de Compostela. PONTEVEDRA, the capital of the Spanish province of Ponte- vedra; on the Tuy-Corunna railway, and on the river Lerez, which here enters the Ria de Pontevedra, an inlet of the Atlantic. Pop. (1900), 22,330. The name of the town is derived from the ancient Roman bridge (pans velus) of twelve arches, which spans the Lerez near its mouth. Pontevedra is a picturesque town, mainly built of granite, and still partly enclosed by medieval fortifications. It contains handsome provincial and municipal halls erected in the igth century, and many convents, some of which have been converted into hospitals or schools. Marin and Sangenjo are ports on the Ria de Pontevedra, which is the seat of a thriving sardine fishery. There is an active trade in grain, wine and fruit ; cloth, hats, leather and pottery are manufactured. PONTIAC (c. 1720-1769), Indian chief of the Ottawa and leader in the " Conspiracy of Pontiac " in 1763-64, was born between 1712 and 1720 probably on the Maumee river, near the mouth of the Auglaize. His father was an Ottawa, and his mother an Ojibwa. By 1755 he had become a chief of the Ottawa and a leader of the loose confederacy of the Ottawa, Potawatomi .and Ojibwa. He was an ally of France and possibly commanded the Ottawa in the defeat (July 9, 1755) of General Edward Braddock. In November 1760 he met Major Robert Rogers, then on his way to occupy Michilimackinac and other forts surrendered by the French, and agreed to let the English troops pass unmolested on condition that he should be treated with respect by the British. Like other Indians he soon realized the difference between French and English rule — that the Indians were no longer welcomed at the forts and that they would ultimately be deprived of their hunting grounds by en- croaching English settlements. French hunters and traders encouraged Indian disaffection with vague promises of help from France; in 1762 an Indian "prophet" among the Delawares on the Muskingum preached a union of the Indians to expel the xxii. 3 English; and in that year (as in 1761) there were abortive con- spiracies to massacre the English garrisons of Detroit, Fort Niagara and Fort Pitt (now Pittsburg). Pontiac seems to have been chief of a magic association (the Atetai), and he took advan- tage of the religious fervour and the general unrest among the Indians to organize in the winter 'of 1762-63 a simultaneous attack on the English forts to be made in May 1763 at a certain phase of the moon. On the 27th of April 1763, before a meeting near Detroit of delegates from most of the Algonquian tribes, he outlined his plans. On the 7th of May, with 60 warriors, he attempted unsuccessfully to gain admission to Detroit, which then had a garrison of about 160 under Major Henry Glad win (1730-1791); and then besieged the fort from the 9th of May to the end of October. On the 28th of May reinforcements from Fort Niagara were ambuscaded near the mouth of the Detroit. In June the Wyandot and Potawatomi withdrew from the siege, but on the 29th of July they attacked reinforcements (280 men, including 20 of Rogers's rangers) from Fort Niagara under Captain James Dalyell (or Dalzell), who, however, gained the fort, and in spite of Gladwin's opposition on the 3ist of July attacked Pontiac's camp, but was ambuscaded on Bloody Run and was killed, nearly 60 others being killed or wounded. On the 1 2th of October the Potawatomi, Ojibwa and Wyandot made peace with the English; with the Ottawa Pontiac continued the siege until the 3oth of October, when he learned from Neyon de la Valliere, commandant of Fort Chartres (among the Illinois) that he would not be aided by the French. Pontiac then withdrew to the Maumee. Fort Pitt with a garrison of 330 men under Captain Simeon Ecuyer was attacked on the 22nd of June and was besieged from the 27th of July to the ist of August, when the Indians withdrew to meet a relief expedition of 500 men, mostly High- landers, under Colonel Henry Bouquet (1719-1766), who had set out from Carlisle, Pennsylvania, on the i8th of July, and relieved Fort Ligonier (on the site of the borough of Ligonier, Westmoreland county, Penn.) on the 2nd of August, but was surprised on the sth, and fought (5th and 6th) the battle of Bushy Run (25 m. S.E. of Fort Pitt), finally flanking and routing the Indians after tricking them by a feinted retreat of a part of his force. Bouquet reached Fort Pitt on the loth of August. At Michilimackinac (Mackinac), Michigan, on the 4th of June, the Indians gained admission to the fort by a trick, killed nearly a score of the garrison and captured the remainder, including Captain George Etherington, the commander, besides several English traders, including Alexander Henry (1739-1824).' Some of the captives were seized by the Ottawa, who had taken no part in the attack ; a part of these were released, and reached Montreal on the i3th of August. Seven of the prisoners kept by the Ojibwa were killed in cold blood by one of their chiefs. Fort Sandusky (on the site of Sandusky, Ohio) was taken on the 1 6th of May by Wyandot; and Fort St Joseph (on the site of the present Niles, Mich.) was captured on the 25th of May and n men (out of its garrison of 14) were massacred, the others with the commandant, Ensign Schlosser, being taken to Detroit and exchanged for Indian prisoners. On the 27th of May Fort Miami (on the site of Fort Wayne, Indiana) surrendered to the Indians after its commander, Ensign Holmes, had been treacher- ously killed. Fort Ouiatanon (about 5 m. south-west of the present Lafayette, Indiana) and Fort Presque Isle (on the site of Erie, Penn.) were taken by the Indians on the ist and i6th of June respectively; and Fort Le Boeuf (on the site of Waterford, 1 Henry, a native of New Brunswick, N.J., had become a fur- trader at Fort Michilimackinac in 1761. He was rescued by Wawatam, an Ottawa, who had adopted him as a brother; in 1764 he took part in Colonel John Bradstreet's expedition; in 1770, with Sir William Johnson, the duke of Gloucester and others, formed a Company to mine copper in the Lake Superior region; was a fur- trader again until 1796; and then became a merchant in Montreal. His Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories between the Years 1760 and 1776 (1809; reprinted 1901) is a valuable account of the fur trade and of his adventures at Michilimackinac. He is not to be confused with his nephew of the same name, also a fur-trader, whose journal was published in 1897 in 3 vols., as New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest. 66 PONTIAC— PONTIVY Penn.) was surprised on the i8th, but its garrison escaped, and seven (out of 13) got safely to Fort Pitt Fort Venango (near the site of the present Venango, Penn.) was taken and burnt about the same time by some Senecas (the only Iroquois in the conspiracy), who massacred the garrison and later burned the commander, Lieut. Gordon. About 500 Senecas on the I4th of September surprised a wagon train, escorted by 24 soldiers, from Fort Schlosser (2 m. above Niagara Falls), drove most of them over the brink of the Devil's Hole (below the cataract), and then nearly annihilated a party from Fort Niagara sent to the rescue. In 1763, although the main attacks on Detroit and Fort Pitt had failed, nearly every minor fort attacked was captured, about 200 settlers and traders were killed, and in property destroyed or plundered the English lost about £100,000, the greatest loss in men and property being in western Pennsylvania. In June 1764 Colonel John Bradstreet (1711-1774) led about 1 200 men from Albany to Fort Niagara, where at a great gather- ing of the Indians several treaties were made in July; in August he made at Presque Isle a treaty (afterwards annulled by General Thomas Gage) with some Delaware andShawnee chiefs; and in September made treaties (both unsatisfactory) with the Wyandot, Ottawa and Miami at Sandusky, and with various chiefs at Detroit. He sent Captain Howard to occupy the forts at Michilimackinac, Green Bay and Sault Ste Marie, and Captain Morris up the Maumee river, where he conferred with Pontiac, and then to Fort Miami, where he narrowly escaped death at the hands of the Miami; and with his men Bradstreet returned to Oswego in November, having accomplished little of value. An expedition of 1500 men under Colonel Bouquet left Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in August, and near the site of the present Tuscarawas, Ohio, induced the Indians to release their prisoners and to stop fighting — the practical end of the conspiracy. Pontiac himself made submission to Sir William Johnson on the 25th of July 1766 at Oswego, New York. In April 1769 he was murdered, when drunk, at Cahokia (nearly opposite St Louis) by a Kaskaskia Indian bribed by an English trader; and he was buried near the St Louis Fort. His death occasioned a bitter war in which a remnant of the Illinois was practically annihilated in 1770 at Starved Rock (between the present Ottawa and La Salle), Illinois, by the Potawatomi, who had been followers of Pontiac. Pontiac was one of the most remarkable men of the Indian race in American history, and was notable in particular for his power (rare among the Indians) of organization. See Francis Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac (2 vols., Boston, 1851; loth ed., 1896). PONTIAC, a city and the county-seat of Oakland county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the Clinton river, about 26 m. N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890), 6200; (1900) 9769, of whom 2020 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 14,532. It is served by the Grand Trunk and the Pontiac, Oxford & Northern railways (being the southern terminus of the latter), and by the Detroit & Pontiac and the North-Western electric inter-urban lines. In the sur- rounding country there are many small, picturesque lakes (the largest being Orchard, about 6 m. south-east of Pontiac, Cass and Elizabeth lakes), and there is good hunting and fishing in the vicinity. In- Pontiac is the Eastern Michigan Asylum for the insane (1878), with grounds covering more than 500 acres. The city has various manufactures, and the value of the factory products increased from $2,470,887 in 1900 to $3,047,422 in 1904, or 23-3%. Agricultural products, fruit and wool from the surrounding country are shipped in considerable quantities. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. Pontiac, named in honour of the famous Indian chief of that name, was laid out as a town in 1818, became the county-seat in 1820, was incorporated as a village in 1837, and was chartered in 1861. PONTIANUS, pope from 230 to 235. He was exiled by the emperor Maximinus to Sardinia, and in consequence of this sen- tence resigned (Sept. 28,235). HC was succeeded by Anteros. PONTIFEX. The collegium of the Pontifices was the most important priesthood of ancient Rome, being specially charged with the administration of the jus divinum, i.e. that part of the civil law which regulated the relations of the comrriunity with the deities recognized by the state officially, together with a general superintendence of the worship of gens and family. The name is clearly derived from pans and facere, but whether this should be taken as indicating any special connexion with the sacred bridge over the Tiber (Pans Sublicitts), or what the original meaning may have been, cannot now be determined. The college existed under the monarchy, when its members were probably three in number; they may safely be considered as legal advisers of the rex in all matters of religion. Under the republic they emerge into prominence under a ponlifex maximus, who took over the king's duties as chief administrator of religious law, just as his chief sacrificial duties were taken by the rex sacrorum; his dwelling was the regia, " the house of the king." During the republican period the number of pontifices increased, probably by multiples of three, until after Sulla (82 B.C.) we find them fifteen; for the year 57 B.C. we have a complete list of them in Cicero (Harusp. resp. 6, 12). Included in the collegium were also the rex sacrorum, the flamines, three assistant pontifices (minores), and the vestal virgins, who were all chosen by the pontifex maximus. Vacancies in the body of pontifices were originally filled by co-optation; but from the second Punic War onwards the pontifex maximus was chosen by a peculiar form of popular election, and in the last age of the republic this held good for all the members. They all held office for life. The immense authority of the college centred in the pontifex maximus, the other pontifices forming his consilium or advising body. His functions were partly sacrificial or ritualistic, but these were the least important ; the real power lay in the adminis- tration of the jus divinum, the chief departments of which may briefly be described as follows: (t) the regulation of all expiatory ceremonials needed as the result of pestilence, lightning, &c.; (2) the consecration of all temples and other sacred places and objects dedicated to the gods by the state through its magis- trates; (3) the regulation of the calendar both astronomically and in detailed application to the public life of the state; (4) the administration of the law relating to burials and burying-places, and the worship of the Manes, or dead ancestors; (5) the superin- tendence of all marriages by confarreatio, i.e. originally of all legal patrician marriages; (6) the administration of the law of adoption and of testamentary succession. They had also the care of the state archives, of the lists of magistrates, and kept records of their own decisions (commentarii) and of the chief events of each year (annales), It is obvious that a priesthood having such functions as these, and holding office for life, must have been a great power in the state, and for the first three centuries of the republic it is probable that the pontifex maximus was in fact its most powerful member. The office might be combined with a magistracy, and, though its powers were declaratory rather than executive, it may fairly be described as quasi-magisterial. Under the later republic it was coveted chiefly for the great dignity of the position; Julius Caesar held it for the last twenty years of his life, and Augustus took it after the 'death of Lepidus in 12 B.C., after which it became inseparable from the office of the reigning emperor. _ With the decay of the empire the title very naturally fell to the popes, whose functions as administrators of religious law closely resembled those of the ancient Roman priesthood, hence the modern use of " pontiff " and " pontifical." For further details consult Marquardt, Slaatsverwaltung, iii. 235 seq^ ! Wissowa, Religion und Kullus der Romer, 430 seq. ; Bouche'-Leclercq, Les Pontifes, passim. (W. W. F. *) PONTIVY, a town of western France, chief town of an arron- dissement in the department of Morbihan, 46 m. N.N.W. of Vannes by rail. Pop. (1906), 6312 (town); 9506 (commune). The town, situated on the Blavet, at its confluence with the Nantes-Brest canal, comprises two distinct parts — the old town and that to the south known as Napoleonville. The latter, built by order of Napoleon I., who desired to make it the military headquarters for Brittany, and consisting chiefly of barracks, subsequently gave its name to the whole town, but in 1871 the old name was resumed. The ancient castle (1485) of the dukes PONT-L'ABBE— PONTOON of Rohan, whose capital the town was, is occupied by the Musee le Brigant of art and archaeology. A monument to commem- orate the Breton-Angevin Union, the deputies of which met at Pontivy in 1790, was erected in 1894, and there are statues of Dr Guepin, a democrat, and General de Lourmel (d. 1854). The i has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a luce for boys. Pontivy had its origin in a monastery founded in the ;th century by St Ivy, a monk of Lindisfarnc. PONT-L'ABB6, a town of western France in the department of Finistere, 13 m. S.W. of Quimper by rail. Pop. (1906), of the town 4485, of the commune 6432. The town is situated on the right bank of the estuary or river of Pont-1'Abbe, 2 m. from the sru. Its port carries on fishing, imports timber, coal, &c., and exports mine-props and the cereals and vegetables of the neigh- bourhood. Of the old buildings of the town the chief is a church of the i4th, I5th and i6th centuries, once attached to a Carmelite convent; an old castle is occupied by the hotel de ville. The local costumes, trimmed with the bright-coloured embroideries for which the town is noted, are among the most striking in Brittany; the bigouden or head-dress of the women has given its name to the inhabitants. Pont-1' Ab.be carries on flour-milling and the extraction of chemicals from seaweed. PONTMARTIN, ARMAND AUGUSTIN JOSEPH MARIE FERRARD, COMTE DE (1811-1890), French critic and man of letters, was born at Avignon (Vaucluse) on the i6th of July 1811. Imbued by family tradition with legitimist sympathies, he began by attacking the followers of the encyclopaedists and their successors. In the A ssemblee nalionale he published his Causeries litteraires, a series of attacks on prominent Liberals, which created some sensation. Pontmartin was an indefatigable journalist, and most of his papers were eventually published in volume form: Contes et reveries d'un planteur de choux (1845); Causeries du samedi (1857-1860); Nouveaux samedis (1865-1881), &c. But the most famous of all his books is Les Jeudis de Mme. Charbonneau (1862), which under the form of a novel offered a series of malicious and witty portraits of contemporary writers. Pontmartin died at Avignon on the 29th of March 1890. See Hatzfeld and Meunier, Les Critiques litteraires du XIX' siide (1894). PONTOISE, a town of northern France, capital of an arron- dissement of the department of Seine-et-Oise, 18 m. N.W. of Paris on the railway to Dieppe. Pop. (1906), 7963. Pontoise is picturesquely situated on the right bank of the Oise where it is joined by the Viosne. The traffic on the main river is large, and the tributary drives numerous mills. Of the many churches that used to exist in the town two only remain: St Maclou, a church of the I2th century, altered and restored in the 15th and i6th centuries by Pierre Lemercier, the famous architect of St Eustache at Paris, and containing a fine holy sepulchre of the 1 6th century; and Notre-Dame, of the close of the i6th century, which contains the tomb of St Gautier, abbot of Meulan in the 1 2th century. At the top of the flight of steps by which St Maclou is approached is the statue of General Leclerc, a native of the town and husband of Pauline Bonaparte. Grain and flour are the principal staples of the trade; a well-known fair is held in Xovember. The town has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce and a communal college. At Meriel, near Pontoise, there are interesting remains of the Cistercian abbey of Le Val. Pontoise existed in the time of the Gauls as Brim Isarae (Bridge of the Oise). It was destroyed by the Normans in the 9th century, united with Normandy in 1032, and acquired by Philip I. in 1064. Capital of the French Vexin, it possessed an important stronghold and played a conspicuous part in the wars between the French and the dukes of Normandy and in the Hundred Years' War. The English took it in 1419, and again in 1437. In 1441 Charles VII. took it by storm after a three months' siege. After belonging to the count of Charolais down to the treaty of Conflans, it was given as a dowry to Jeanne of France when she was divorced by Louis XII. The parlement of Paris several times met in the town; and in 1561 the states- general convoked at Orleans removed thither after the death of Francis II. During the Fronde it offered a refuge to Louis XIV. and Mazarin. Henry III. made it an apanage for his brother the duke of Anjou. At a later period it passed to the duke of Conti. Down to the Revolution it remained a monastic town. PONTOON (Fr. ponton, from Lat. pans, a bridge), a flat- bottomed boat, used as a ferry boat or lighter; especially a boat of particular design intended to form part of a military bridge. In modern hydraulic engineering the words ponton and pontoon are used to designate hollow water-tight structures which are secured to sunken wrecks and bring them up to the surface, and also the hollow chambers which serve as gates for docks and sluices, and are lowered and raised by the admission and pumping out of water. Military Pontoon Bridges. — From time immemorial floating bridges of vessels bearing a roadway of beams and planks have been employed to facilitate the passage of rivers and arms of the sea. Xerxes crossed the Hellespont on a double bridge, one line supported on three hundred and sixty, the other on three hundred and fourteen vessels, anchored head and stern with their keels in the direction of the current. Darius threw similar bridges across the Bosporus and the Danube in his war against the Scythians, and the Ten Thousand employed a bridge of boats to cross the river Tigris in their retreat from Persia. Floating bridges have been repeatedly constructed over rivers in Europe and Asia, not merely temporarily for the passage of an army, but permanently for the requirements of the country; and to this day many of the great rivers in India are crossed, on the lines of the principal roads, by floating bridges, which are for the most part supported on boats such as are employed for ordinary traffic on the river. But light vessels which can be taken out of the water and lifted on to carriages are required for transport with an army in the field. Alexander the Great occasionally carried with his army vessels divided into portions, which were put together on reaching the banks of a river, as in crossing the Hydaspes ; he is even said to have carried his army over the Oxus by means of rafts made of the hide tents of the soldiers stuffed with straw, when he found that all the river boats had been burnt. Cyrus crossed the Euphrates on stuffed skins. The practice of carrying about skins to be inflated when troops had to cross a river, which was adopted by both Greeks and Romans, still exists in the East. In the 4th century the emperor Julian crossed the Tigris, Euphrates and other rivers by bridges of boats made of skins stretched over osier frames. In the wars of the i7th century pontoons are found as regular components of the trains of armies, the Germans using a leather, the Dutch a tin and the French a copper " skin " over stout timber frames. Modern military pontoons have been made of two forms, open as an undecked boat, or closed as a decked canoe or cylinder. During the Peninsular War the English employed open bateaux; but the experience gained in that war induced them to introduce the closed form. General Colleton devised a buoy pontoon, cylindrical with conical ends and made of wooden staves like a cask. Then General Sir Charles Pasley introduced demi-pon- toons, like decked canoes with pointed bows and square sterns, a pair, attached sternwise, forming a single " pier " of support for the roadway; they were constructed of light timber frames covered with sheet copper and were decked with wood; each demi-pontoon was divided internally into separate compartments by partitions which were made as water-tight as possible, and also supplied with the means of pumping out water; when trans- ported overland with an army a pair of demi-pontoons and the superstructure of one bay formed the load for a single carriage weighing 27-75 cwt- when loaded. The Pasley was superseded by the Blanshard pontoon, a tin coated cylinder with hemis- pherical ends, for which great mobility was claimed, two pon- toons and two bays superstructure being carried on one waggon, giving a weight of about 45 cwt., which was intended to be drawn by four horses. The Blanshard pontoon was long used in the British army, but was ultimately discarded; and British engineers came to the conclusion that it was desirable to return to the form of the open bateau to which the engineers of all the 68 PONTOON Continental armies had meanwhile constantly adhered. Captain Fowke, R.E., invented a folding open bateau, made of water- proof canvas attached to sliding ribs, so that for transport it could be collapsed like the bellows of an accordion and for use could be extended by a pair of stretchers. This was followed by the pontoon designed by Colonel Blood, R.E., an open bateau with decked ends and sides partly decked where the rowlock blocks were fixed. It consisted of six sets of framed ribs con- nected by a deep kelson, two side streaks, and three bottom streaks. The sides and bottom were of thin yellow pine with canvas secured to both surfaces by india-rubber solution, and coated outside with marine glue. The central interval between the pontoons in forming a bridge was invariably maintained at 1 5 ft. ; for the support of the roadway five baulks were ordinarily employed, but nine for the passage of siege artillery and the heaviest loads; they fitted on to saddles resting on central saddle beams. The pontoons were not immersed to within i ft. of the tops of their " coamings " when carrying ordinary loads, as of infantry in marching order " in fours " crowded at a check, or the i6-pounder R.M.L. gun of position weighing 43 cwt.; nor were they immersed to within 6 in. when carrying extraordinary loads, such as disorganized infantry, or the 64-pounder R.M.L. gun weighing 98 cwt. In designing this pontoon the chief points attended to were — (i) improvement in power of support, (2) simplification in bridge construction, (3) reduction of weight in transport, and (4) adaptation for use singly as boats for ferrying purposes. One pontoon with the superstructure for a single bay constituted a load for one waggon, with a total weight behind horses of about 40 cwt. The following table (from Ency. Brit, gth ed.) shows the powers of various pontoons in use by different nations in the past. Modern improvements are comparatively few. The " working power of support " has been calculated in most instances by deducting from the " available buoyancy " one-fourth for open and one-tenth for closed vessels: — In the English and French equipment the pontoons were originally made of two sizes, the smaller and lighter for the " advanced guard, the larger and heavier for the " reserve; " in both equipments the same size pontoon is now adopted for general requirements, the superstructure being strengthened when necessary for very heavy weights. The German army has an undivided galvanized iron pon- toon, 24 ft. 6 in. long, handy as a boat, but of inadequate buoyancy for heavy traffic, with the result that the span has to be diminished and ipso facto the waterway obstructed. The Austrian and Italian pontoons are made in three pieces, two with bows and a middle piece without; not less than two pieces are ordinarily employed, and the third is introduced when great supporting power is required, but in all cases a constant interval is maintained between the pontoons. On the other hand, in the greater number of pontoon equipments greater supporting power is obtained not by increasing the number of supports but by diminishing the central interval between the pontoons. Within certain limits it does not matter whether the buoyancy is made up of a large number of small or a small number of large vessels, so long as the waterway is not unduly contracted and the obstruction offered to a swift current dangerously increased; but it is to be remembered that pontoon bridges have failed as frequently from being washed away as from insufficient buoyancy. In Austria efforts have been made to diminish the weight of the Birago equipment by the substitution of steel for iron. The present pontoon, in three pieces, is of steel, and 39 ft. 4 in. long, like the old pattern. In the British army Colonel Blood's equipment was later modified by the introduction of a bipartite pontoon designed in 1889 by Lieut. Clauson, R.E. Each pontoon is carried on one waggon with a bay of superstructure, and consists of two sections, a bow-piece and a stern-piece, connected together by easily manipulated couplings of phosphor bronze. Decks and " coamings " are dispensed with, and the rowlock holes are sunk in a strong gunwale. The detach- able saddle-beam, which receives the load on the centre of the thwarts, is made in sections, so as to form a continuous saddle of any length required. The baulks (or road-bearers) and chesses (or planks) remain unaltered, but chess-holders and chess-bearers are added for use in constructing light bridges for infantry in file. In this kind of bridge each pontoon section is used separately, with a roadway of chesses placed longitudinally four abreast. In the normal or medium bridge two sections, and in heavy bridge three sections are joined together. The chief advantages of the / Pontoon. I ii 11 o^ Actual Buoyancy of Pontoon. Weight of Pontoon and one Bay of Superstructure . Available Buoyancy. Hi in a 111 Sss Power per lineal foot of Roadway. Greatest ordinary Load per foot lineal . Width of Roadway. Greatest possible load at i oo It) per foot superficial of roadway. Ft. Cub. Ft. tt> tb Ib ib Ft. Ib Ib Ft. tb Gribeauval : open bateau, oak 36-3 593 45.044 8,044 37,000 27,750 22-8 1,215 840 15-6 35,568 Austrian : open, wooden, 1799 27-0 354 22,123 3.332 18,791 14,093 16-6 849 560 11-4 18,924 Aust. -Birago: open, wooden; two pieces . 28-0 303 18,907 3,249 15,658 ",744 21-7 542 560 9-3 20,181 „ , ,, three „ . . . 39-4 445 27.791 3,884 23,907 17,930 21-7 827 560 9'3 20,181 ,, , iron; two pieces . 28-0 353 22,090 3,698 18,392 13,794 21-7 636 560 9-3 20,181 ,, three „ . . . . 39-4 530 33.135 4,501 28,634 21,476 21-7 991 560 9-3 20,181 French : open, wooden ; reserve 3°-9 325 20,286 3,608 16,678 12,509 19-7 635 560 10-5 20,685 „ , , advanced guard 19-7 156 9.734 1,506 8,228 6,171 16-4 376 560 9-3 15,252 „ , , general 30-9 321 20,065 3,153 16,912 12,684 19-7 644 560 9-8 19,306 Prussian : open, wooden ; open order .... 23-7 164 10,226 2,393 7,833 5,875 15-3 384 560 9-9 15,147 „ , „ close order .... 23-7 164 10,226 2,213 8,013 6,010 II-2 535 560 9-9 1 1, 088 ,, , iron ; open order . 247 214 13.385 2,209 11,176 8,382 15-3 56i 560 9.9 15,147 ,, , ,, close order .... 24-7 214 13.385 2,029 n,356 8,517 1 1 -2 759 500 9-9 1 1, 088 Italian : open wooden ; one piece .... 19-6 283 17,660 3,582 14,078 io,559 26-3 402 560 9-8 25,774 ,, „ ,, two pieces .... 39-2 565 35,320 4,572 30,748 23,061 26-3 878 560 9-8 25,774 ,, modified ; one piece .... 24-6 "*2S 20,290 •2.4.OI 16,889 12,669 2VO 551 560 9-8 22.540 „ „ two pieces 49-2 o o 649 40.58o O'T1 4,489 36,091 27,068 •"•O v 23-0 1,178 O*-"-* 560 9-8 »U*t" 22,540 Russian \ °Pen' canvas on I open order . 2I-O 209 13,042 2,355 10,687 8,015 16-6 493 560 10-4 17,264 I wooden framework; \ close order . 2I-O 209 13.042 2,083 io,959 8,219 11-7 70S 560 10-4 12,168 Belgian: open, iron; one piece 24-8 297 18,584 3,336 15,248 11.436 19-7 580 560 9-5 18,715 ,, ,, „ two pieces 49-2 595 37.168 4,548 32,620 24,465 19-7 1,244 560 9-5 18,715 AmpriYan J india-rubber, three; ) open order . m | cylinders connected ; \ close order . 2O-O 20-0 130 '30 8,125 8,125 1,980 1,824 6,145 6,301 5.530 5.761 18-0 14-7 307 393 580 560 II-O II-O 19,800 18,370 English Pontoons. Peninsular ( open, tin ; reserve .... 18-9 209 13,092 2,374 10,718 8,039 16-8 477 560 IO-O 16,800 equipment 1 „ „ advanced guard . I5'1 1 20 7,520 1,654 5,866 4,400 14-0 3>4 560 9-0 12,600 Pasley: closed demi-canoe; copper . . . . 25-0 141 8,781 2,103 6,678 6,oto 12-5 481 560 10-0 12,500 Blanshard : cylinder, tin ; open order .... 22-5 109 6,785 i, 600 5,l85 4,667 12-5 373 560 IO-O 12,500 ,, ,, ,, close order .... 22-5 109 6,785 1,408 5,377 4,839 8-3 58i 560 IO-O 8,300 „ . „ ,, light pattern . 15-5 26 1,640 34° 1,300 1,170 5'3 220 280 7-o 3-710 Fowke: open, collapsible, canvas; open order 22-O 134 8,460 1,246 7-214 5,4" IO-O 54i 560 IO-O 10,000 Forbes: closed, spherangular, tin; open order 24-2 128 7,977 1,689 6,288 5,659 II-O 514 560 1O-O 11,000 Blood : open, wooden ; general 21-6 280 17 SOO 2 "JOO 15,200 i^.^so 15-0 890 560 Ht-O 15,000 / »G"" * »o^^ *O'O*J j 7 ^«« PONTOPPIDAN, E. — PONTORMO 69 equipment are (i) the buoyancy of the piers can be proportionec to the weight of traffic and to the roughness of the water; (2 owing to the special design of the bows, boats and rafts are easy to row, while the pontoons in bridge oppose little resistance to the current, and so require less anchor power; (3) transport rafts, pier- IH- ids and flying bridges can be constructed with great ease, owing to the flush gunwales on which baulks can rest if necessary; (4) the pontoon sections are convenient to handle, easy to ship or to transport by rail, and can readily be replaced singly if damaged in bridge. A canoe pontoon and superstructure adapted for pack transport has also been adopted from designs by Colonel (Sir) Elliott Wood, C.B., R.E. _ The pontoon consists of four sections laced together, each section being a framework of wood covered with waterproof sheeting. Three pontoons and eight composite planks form a " unit," from which can be constructed 48 ft. of bridge for infantry in file, 84 ft. for infantry in single file, or a raft to carry ij men or an empty wagon. For the British army in India the standard pontoon for many years was the Pasley; it was seldom used, however, for boats could almost always be procured on the spot in sufficient numbers where- ever a floating bridge had to be constructed. Later an equipment was prepared for the Indian army of demi-pontoons, similar to the Blood pontoon cut in half, and therefore more mobile; each has a bow and a square stern, and they are joined at the stems when required to form a " pier " ; they are fitted with movable covers and can therefore be used in much rougher water than pontoons of the home pattern, and their power of support and breadth of roadway are the same. The Chitral Relief Expedition of 1895, however, revealed certain defects. The shape of the bow was unsuited to rapid currents; the balance was not satisfactory, and the copper sheathing cracked. Experiments were then undertaken with the bipartite pontoon. The india-rubber pontoon does not appear to have been generally employed even in America, where it was invented. The engineer officers with the army of the Potomac, after full experience of the india-rubber pontoon and countless other inventions of American genius, adopted the French equipment, which they found " most excellent, useful and reliable for all military purposes." The Russians, in crossing the Danube in their war with Turkey in 1878, employed the Austrian equipment. Aluminium pontoons have been tried in Germany, but have not been adopted. For light bridging work the Berthon and other collapsible boats have been adopted in Germany and Great Britain, especially for cavalry work in advance of the army. The German folding boat is made of wood framework and canvas skin; two boats are easily carried on one " folding-boat wagon." The total length of the three sections together is 21 ft. 6 in. The British field troop R.E., attached to cavalry, carries two collapsible boats 18 ft. 6 in. long. The methods of constructing pontoon bridges have been simpli- fied of late years in most armies, and are usually restricted to (l) adding pontoons one by one to the head of the bridge; (2) con- necting rafts of two or more pontoons into bridge by intermediate bays of superstructure; and (3) swinging across the river a bridge previously prepared alongside the shore. The formation of a bridge from rafts touching one another consumes an excessive amount of equipment, and opposes unnecessary resistance to the stream ; it s therefore being discarded in most armies. " Booming out " the bridge bay by bay from the shore until the head reaches the opposite bank is unsuited for rapid currents, and is almost obsolete except for light infantry bridges. In every army the pontoon service is in the hands of technical specialists.1 But there are many other forms of military bridging, in which the specialist only supervises the work of the rdinary soldier, or indeed, takes no part. whatever. Troops of all arms are expected to be familiar with certain methods of rough temporary bridging. In the British service the forms of temporary timber bridge usually employed are called trestle, lock and floating. The trestle bridge in its various forms con- sists of a series of two-legged or three-legged trestles carrying the road-bearers and chesses which form the roadway. Trestles can be improvised, but some are carried, ready for use, by mobile engineer units and they are frequently combined with pontoon bridges at the shore ends, where holding ground for the feet of the trestles is found. Lock bridges never touch water, forming single spans over a chasm. These consist of spars made into frames of which the feet rest in the banks of the ver and the heads are interlocked, the whole being securely lashed. Another type of frame-bridge is the cantilever, which has been used in Indian frontier expeditions to bridge swift 1 In Germany, however, as mentioned below, light bridging material has been placed in the hands of the cavalry. This tendency accordance with the needs of modern armies, will probably ome more pronounced in the future. It began with the pro- ion ot demolition equipment for the cavalry pioneers. steep-banked streams. Improvised suspension bridges are also used. Floating bridges are made not only of pontoons but also of boats of all sorts, casks lashed together, and rafts. They are almost always combined with one or two bays of trestle bridging at the shore ends. The organization of bridging personnel in different armies shows as much divergence of opinion as the design of pontoon equipment. In Great Britain, since the divisional reorganization, the bridging trains have been assigned to the " army troops," which include two " bridging trains, ' totalling 14 officers and 454 men with 92 vehicles, most of them six-horsed. Each train carries 32 pontoons and 32 bays of superstructure, as well as 16 trestles and 8 bays of the appropriate superstructure, and can construct 200 yds. of medium bridge in all. Besides these trains the divisional engineer units (2 field companies per division) bear with them in all 4 pontoons and 4 trestles, with the necessary bays of superstructure, their total bridging capacity being about 40 yds. of medium bridge. In France each army corps has a bridging train which admits of the construction of bridges to the extent «f about 120 yds. of medium and 140 yds. of light bridging and bears besides 2 " advanced guard " trains which can provide 33 yds. of medium bridging each. Besides the corps trains there are also " army " trains, five in all, which can furnish 280 yds. of medium bridging apiece. These would be allotted in accordance with the requirements of particular campaigns. In Germany the increasing importance attached to independent cavalry operations has led to the assignment of a folding-boat wagon to every cavalry regiment. The regimental equipment provides for a ferry, capable of taking 25 to 30 infantrymen, one artillery vehicle or four horses at one journey, a foot-bridge 22 to 35 yds. in length, or a light bridge of 8 to 13 yds. By assembling the material of a whole cavalry division of 6 regiments, a foot-bridge of no to 210 yds. or a light bridge of 57 to 70 yds. can be constructed. The corps bridging train of a German army corps can construct 140 yds. of medium or 170 yds. of light bridging, and each of the two divisional trains, 40 yds. of medium and 48 yds. of light bridging. PONTOPPIDAN, ERIK (1698-1764), Danish author, was born at Aarhus on the 24th of August 1698. He studied divinity at the university of Copenhagen, and for some time acted as a travelling tutor. In 1735 he became one of the chaplains of the king. In 1738 he was made professor extra- ordinary of theology at Copenhagen, and in 1745 bishop of Bergen, Norway, where he died on the zoth of December 1764. His principal works are: Theatrum Daniae veteris el modernae (410, 1730), a description of the geography, natural history, an- tiquities, &c., of Denmark; Gesta et vestigia danorum extra Daniam (3 vols. 8vo, 1740), a laborious but uncritical work; Annales ecclesiae danicae (3 vols., 1741-1747); Marmora danica selectiora (2 vols. fol., 1739-1741); Glossarium norvegicum (1749); Del forste forsog Norges naturlige historic (410, 1752-1754); Eng. trans., Natural History of Norway (2 vols., 1755), containing curious accounts, often referred to, of the Kraaken, sea-serpent, and the like; Origines hafnienses (1760); Menoza (3 vols., 1742-1743), a religious novel. His Danske Alias (7 vols. 410), an historical and topographical account of Denmark, was mostly posthumous. See an article by S. M. Gjellerup in Danish Biografisk Lexikon (vol. xiii., 1899). PONTOPPIDAN, HENRIK (1857- ), Danish author, son of a pastor, was born at Fredericia on the 24th of July 1857. He studied physics and mathematics at the university of Copen- hagen, and when he was eighteen he travelled on foot through Germany and Switzerland. His novels show an intimate acquaintance with peasant life and character, the earlier ones showing clear evidence of the influence of Kjelland. An excellent example of his work is in the trilogy dealing with the history of Emanuel Hansted, a theorizing radical parson who marries a peasant wife. These three stories, Muid (" Soil." 1891), Del Forjaeltede Land (" The Promised Land," 1892), and Dommens Dag (1895) are marked by fine discrimination and great narrative power. Among his other works are Fra Hylterne [i&&l),Folkelivsskildringer (2 partsi 1888-1800), and Skyer (1890). He began in 1898 a new series in Lykke Per. the story of a typical [utlander. See an article of Niels Moller in Dansk Biografisk Lexikon (vol. xiii., 1899). PONTORMO, JACOPO DA (1494-155?), whose family name was Carucci, Italian painter of the Florentine school, was born at Pantormo in 1494, son of a painter of ordinary ability, was apprenticed to Leonardo da Vinci, and afterwards took lessons rom Piero di Cosimo. At the age of eighteen he became a PONTREMOLI— PONTUS journeyman to Andrea del Sarto, and was remarked as a young man of exceptional accomplishment and promise. Later on, but still in early youth, he executed, in continuation of Andrea's labours, the " Visitation," in the cloister of the Servi in Florence — one of the principal surviving evidences of his powers. The most extensive series of works which he ever undertook was a set of frescoes in the church of S. Lorenzo, Florence, from the " Creation of Man to the Deluge," closing with the " Last Judgment." By this time, towards 1546, he had fallen under the dangerous spell of Michelangelo's colossal genius and super- human style; and Pontormo, after working on at the frescoes for eleven years, left them incomplete, and the object of general disappointment and disparagement. They were finished by Angelo Bronzino, but have long since vanished under whitewash. Among the best works of Pontormo are his portraits, which include the likenesses of various members of the Medici family; they are vigorous, animated and highly finished. He was fond of new and odd experiments both in style of art and in method of painting. From Da Vinci he caught one of the marked physio- gnomic traits of his visages, smiles and dimples. At one time he took to direct imitation or reproduction of Albert Diirer, and executed a series of paintings founded on the Passion subjects of the German master, not only in composition, but even in such peculiarities as the treatment of draperies, &c. Pontormo died of dropsy on the 2nd of January 1557, mortified at the ill success of his frescoes in S. Lorenzo; he was buried below his work in the Servi. 'PONTREMOLI, a town and bishop's see of the province of Massa and Carrara, Tuscany, Italy, in the upper valley of the Magra, 25 m. N. by E. of Spezia by rail and 49 m. S.S.W. of Parma, 843 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 4107 (town); 14,570 (commune). It has a 17th-century cathedral. The church of the Annunziata with its Augustinian monastery is interesting. There are also mineral springs. The town, which is well situated among the mountains, was an independent republic in the I2th and i3th centuries, and in 1495 was sacked by the troops of Charles VIII. of France. It was much damaged by an earthquake in 1834. PONTUS, a name applied in ancient times to extensive tracts of country in the north-east of Asia Minor bordering on the Euxine (Black Sea), which was often called simply Pantos (the Main), by the Greeks. The exact signification of this purely territorial name varied greatly at different times. The Greeks used it loosely of various parts of the shores of the Euxine, and the term did not get a definite connotation till after the establishment of the kingdom founded beyond the Halys during the troubled period following the death of Alexander the Great, about 301 B.C., by Mithradates I., Ktistes, son of a Persian satrap in the service of Antigonus, one of Alexander's successors, and ruled by a succession of kings, mostly bearing the same name, till 64 B.C. As the greater part of this kingdom lay within the immense region of Cappadocia, which in early ages extended from the borders of Cilicia to the Euxine, the kingdom as a whole was at first called " Cappadocia towards the Pontus " (jrpis rcS ILWtd), but afterwards simply " Pontus," the name Cappadocia being henceforth restricted to the southern half of the region previously included under that title. Under the last king, Mithradates Eupator, commonly called the Great, the realm of Pontus included not only Pontic Cappadocia but also the seaboard from the Bithynian frontier to Colchis, part of inland Paphlagonia, and Lesser Armenia (see under MITHRA- DATES). With the destruction of this kingdom by Pompey in 64 B.C., the meaning of the name Pontus underwent a change. Part of the kingdom was now annexed to the Roman Empire, being united with Bithynia in a double province called " Pontus and Bithynia": this part included (possibly from the first, but certainly from about 40 B.C. onwards) only the seaboard between Heracleia (Eregli) and Amisus (Samsun), the ora Pontica. Hereafter the simple name Pontus without qualification was regularly employed to denote the half of this dual province, especially by Romans and people speaking from the Roman point of view; it is so used almost always in the New Testament. But it was also frequently used to denote (in whole or part) that portion of the old Mithradatic kingdom which lay between the Halys (roughly) and the borders of Colchis, Lesser Armenia, Cappadocia and Galatia — the region properly designated by the title " Cappadocia towards the Pontus," which was always the nucleus of the Pontic kingdom. This region is regarded by the geographer Strabo (A.D. 19-20), himself a native of the country, as Pontus in the strict sense of the term (Geogr. p. 678). Its native population was of the same stock as that of Cappadocia, of which it had formed a part, an Oriental race often called by the Greeks Leucosyri or White Syrians, as distinguished from the southern Syrians, who were of a darker complexion, but their precise ethnological relations are uncertain. Geographically it is a table-land, forming the north-east corner of the great plateau of Asia Minor, edged on the north by a lofty mountain rim, along the foot of which runs a fringe of coast-land. The table-land consists of a series of fertile plains, of varying size and elevation separated from each other by upland tracts or mountains, and it is drained almost entirely by the river Iris (Yeshil Irmak) and its numerous tributaries, the largest of which are the Scylax (Tchekerek Irmak) with many affluents and the Lycus (Kalkid Irmak), all three rising in the highlands near, or on, the frontier of Armenia Minor and flowing first in a westerly and then in a north-westerly direction to merge their waters in a joint stream, which (under the name of the Iris) pierces the mountain-wall and emerges on the east . of Amisus (Samsun). Between the Halys and the Iris the mountain rim is comparatively low and broken, but east of the Iris it is a continuous lofty ridge (called by the ancients Pary- adres and Scydises), whose rugged northern slopes are furrowed by torrent beds, down which a host of small streams (among them the Thermodon, famed in Amazon story) tumble to the sea. These inaccessible slopes were inhabited even in Strabo's time by wild, half-barbarous tribes, of whose ethnical relations we are ignorant — the Chalybes (identified by the Greeks with Homer's Chalybes), Tibareni, Mosynoeci and Macrones, on whose manners and condition some light is thrown by Xenophon (Anab. V). But the fringe of coast-land from Trebizond westward is one of the most beautiful parts of Asia Minor and is justly extolled by Strabo for its wonderful productiveness. The sea-coast, like the rest of the south shore of the Euxine, was studded with Greek colonies founded from the 6th century onwards: Amisus, a colony of Miletus, which in the 5th century received a body of Athenian settlers, now the port of Samsun; Cotyora, now Ordu; Cerasus, the later Pharnacia, now Kerasund; and Trapezus (Trebizond), a famous city from Xenophon's time till the end of the middle ages. The last three were colonies of Sinope, itself a Milesian colony. The chief towns in the interior were Amasia, on the Iris, the birthplace of Strabo, the capital of Mithradates the Great, and the burial-place of the earlier kings, whose tombs still exist; Comana, higher up the river, a famous centre of the worship of the goddess Ma (or Cybele); Zela, another great religious centre, refounded by Pompey, now Zileh; Eupatoria, refounded by Pompey as Magnopolis at the junction of the Lycus and Iris; Cabira, Pompey's Diospolis, afterwards Neocaesarea, now Niksar; Sebastopolis on the Scylax, now Sulu Serai; Sebasteia, now Srvas; and Megalopolis, a foundation of Pompey, somewhere in the same district. The history of this region is the history of the advance of the Roman Empire towards the Euphrates. Its political position between 64 and 41 B.C., when Mark Antony became master of the East, is not quite certain. Part of it was handed over by Pompey to client princes: the coast-land east of the Halys (except the territory of Amisus) and the hill-tribes of Paryadres were given, with Lesser Armenia, to the Galatian chief Deiotarus, with the title of king; Comana was left under the rule of its high-priest. The rest of the interior was parti- tioned by Pompey amongst the inland cities, almost all of which were founded by him, and, according to one view, was included together with the seaboard west of Amisus and the corner of north- east Paphlagonia possessed by Mithradates in his new province PONTUS DE TYARD— PONTYPRIDD Pontus-Bithynia. Others maintain that only the seaboard W;IN included in the province, the inland cities being constituted self-governing, " protected " communities. The latter view is more in conformity with Roman policy in the East, which did not usually annex countries till they reached (under the rule of client princes) a certain level of civilization and order, but it is difficult to reconcile with Strabo's statements (p. 541 sqq.)- In any case, during the years following 40 B.C. all inland Pontus was handed over, like north-east Paphlagonia, to native dynasts. The Pontic possessions of Deiotarus (d. 40 B.C.) were given with additions (e.g. Cabira) in 39 B.C. to Darius, son of I'harnaces, and in 36 B.C. to Polemon, son of a rhetorician of Laodicea on the Lycus. The high-priest of Comana, Lycomedes, received an accession of territory and the royal title. The territories of Zela and Megalopolis were divided between Lyco- medes, the high-priest of Zela and Ateporix, who ruled the principality of Carana (later Sebastopolis). Amasia and Amisus were also given to native princes. After the battle of Actium (31 B.C.) Augustus restored Amisus as a " free city " to the province of Bithynia-Pontus, but made no other serious change. Polemon retained his king- dom till his death in 8 B.C., when it passed to his widow Pytho- doris. But presently the process of annexation began and the Pontic districts were gradually incorporated in the empire, each being attached to the province of Galatia, then the centre of Roman forward policy, (i) The western district was an- nexed in two sections, Sebastopolis and Amasia in 3-2 B.C., and Comana in A.D. 34-35. To distinguish this district from the province Pontus and Polemon's Pontus, it was henceforth called Pontus galalicus (as being the first part attached to Galatia). (2) Polemon's kingdom, ruled since A.D. 38 by Pole- mon II., grandson of the former king, was annexed by Nero in A.D. 64-65, and distinguished by the title of Pontus polemoniacus, which survived for centuries. [But the simple name Pontus, hitherto commonly used to designate Polemon's realm, is still employed to denote this district by itself or in conjunction with Pontus Galaticus, where the context makes the meaning clear (e.g. in inscriptions and on coins).] Polemoniacus included the sea-coast from the Thermodon to Cotyora and the inland cities Zela, Magnopolis, Megalopolis, Neocaesarea and Sebasteia (according to Ptolemy, but apparently annexed since 2 B.C., according to its coins). (3) Finally, at the same time (A.D. 64) was annexed the remaining eastern part of Pontus, which formed part of Polemon's realm but was attached to the province Cappadocia and distinguished by the epithet cappadodcus. These three districts formed distinct adminis- trative divisions within the provinces to which they were attached, with separate capitals Amasia, Neocaesarea and Trapezus; but the first two were afterwards merged in one, sometimes called Pontus mediterraneus, with Neocaesarea as capital, probably when they were definitively transferred (about A.D. 114) to Cappadocia, then the great frontier military province. With the reorganization of the provincial system under Diocletian (about A.D. 295), the Pontic districts were divided up between four provinces of the dioecesis pontica: (i) Paphla- gonia, to which was attached most of the old province Pontus; (2) Diospontus, re-named Helenopontus by Constantine, con- taining the rest of the province Pontus and the adjoining dis- trict, eight cities in all (including Sinope, Amisus and Zela) with Amasia as capital; (3) Pontus Polemoniacus, containing Comana, Polemonium, Cerasus and Trapezus with Neocaesarea as capital; and (4) Armenia Minor, five cities, with Sebasteia, as capital. This rearrangement gave place in turn to the Byzantine system of military districts (themes). Christianity was introduced into the province Pontus (the Ora pontka) by way of the sea in the ist century after Christ and was deeply rooted when Pliny governed the province (A.D. 111-113). But the Christianization of the inland Pontic districts began only about the middle of the 3rd century and was largely due to the missionary zeal of Gregory Thaumaturgus, bishop of Neocaesarea. See Ramsay, Histor. Geogr. of Asia Minor (1890); Anderson and Cumont, Studia pontica (1903 et seq.); Babelon and Reinach, Recueil des monnates d'Asie min., t. i. (1904) ; H. Grdgoire, " Voyage dans le Pont " &c. in Bull, de corres. hell. (1909). (J- G. C. A.) PONTUS DE TYARD (c. 1521-1605), French poet and member of the Pleiade (see DAURAT), was seigneur of Bissy in Burgundy, where he was born in or about 1521. He was a friend of Antoine Heroet and Maurice Sceve, and to a certain extent anticipated Ronsard and Joachim Du Bellay. His Erreurs amoureuses, originally published in 1549, was augmented with other poems in successive editions till 1573. On the whole his poetry is inferior to that of his companions, but he was one of the first to write sonnets in French (the actual priority belongs to Melin de St Gelais). It is also said that he introduced the sestine into France, or rather reintroduced it, for it was originally a Provencal invention. In his later years he gave himself up to the study of mathematics and philosophy. He became bishop of Chalons-sur-Sa&ne in 1578, and in 1587 appeared his Discours phUosophiques. He was a zealous defender of the cause of Henry III. against the pretensions of the Guises. This attitude brought down on him the vengeance of the league; he was driven from Chalons and his chateau at Bissy was plundered. He survived all the members of the Pleiade and lived to see the onslaught made on their doctrines by Malherbe. Pontus resigned his bishopric in 1594, and retired to the chateau de Bragny, where he died on the 23rd of September 1605. His Oeuvres poetiques may be found in the Pleiade fran^aise (1875) of M. Ch. Marty-Laveaux. PONTYPOOL, a market town in the northern parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 8 m. N. of Newport, served by the Great Western, London & North-Western, and Rhymney railways. Pop. of urban district (1901), 6126. It is beautifully situated on an acclivity above the Afon Lwyd, a tributary of the Usk. Its prosperity is due to its situation on the edge of the great coal- and iron-field of Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire. The earliest record of trade in iron is in 1588, but it was developed chiefly in the beginning of the i8th century by the family of Hanbury, the proprietors of Pontypool Park. Pontypool was formerly famed for its japanned goods, invented by Thomas Allwood, a native of Northampton, who settled in the town in the reign of Charles II., but the manu- facture has long been transferred elsewhere. The town and neighbourhood contain large forges and iron mills for the manu- facture of iron-work and tin-plate. Water communication is afforded with Newport by the Monmouthshire Canal. On the south-east of Pontypool is the urban district of Panteg, including Griffithstown, with a population (1901) of 7484. PONTYPRIDD, a parish, market town, and urban district, in the eastern parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, Wales, situated on the Taff at its junction with the Rhondda, on the Taff Vale railway, and on the Glamorganshire Canal, 12 m. N.N.W. from Cardiff, 128. from Merthyr-Tydfil, and 169 by rail from London. It is also connected with Newport by a Great Western line i8J m. long. Pop. (1901), 32,316. It receives its name from a remarkable bridge of one arch spanning the Taff, erected in 1755 by William Edwards, a self-taught mason. The bridge is a perfect segment of a circle, the chord being 140 ft., and the height at low water 36 ft. A three-arched bridge was erected close to it in 1857. The town is built at the junc- tion of the three parishes of Llanwonno, Llantwit Fardre and Eglwysilan, out of portions of which Glyntaff was formed into an ecclesiastical parish in 1848, and from this Pontypridd was carved in 1884. The urban district was constituted into a civil parish in 1894. The church of St Catherine, built in 1868, enlarged in 1885, is in early Decorated style; other places of worship are the Baptist, Calvinistic Methodist, Congrega- tional, and Wesleyan chapels. The principal secular buildings are a masonic hall, town-hall built above the market, free library (1890), county intermediate school (1895) and court-house. Near the town is a far-famed rocking-stone 9^ tons in weight, known as the Maen Chwyf, round which a circle of small stones was set up in the middle of the igth century under the direction PONY— POOLE, R. S. of Myvyr Morganwg, who used to style himself archdruid of Wales. The place became, for a time, famous as a meeting place for neo-Druidic gatherings. Pontypridd was an insig- nificant village till the opening of the Taff Vale railway into the town in 1840, and it owed its progress chiefly to the de- velopment of the coal areas of the Rhondda Valley, for which district it serves as the market town and chief business centre. It also possesses anchor, chain, and cable works, chemical works, and iron and brass foundries. Pontypridd has, jointly with Rhondda, a stipendiary magistrate since 1872. PONY (from the Lowland Scots powney, probably from O. Fr. pouleriet, diminutive of poulain, a colt or foal; Late Lat. pullanus, Lat. pullus, a young animal), a horse of a small breed, sometimes confined to such as do not exceed 13 hands in height, but generally applied to any horse under 14 hands (see HORSE). The word is of frequent use as a slang term — e.g. for a sum of £25; for a liquor measure or glass containing less than a half-pint; and in America for a literal translation of a foreign or classical author, a " crib." PONZA (anc. Poniiae), the principal of a small group of islands belonging to Italy. Pop. (1901), 4621. The group is of volcanic origin, and includes Palmarola (anc. Palmaria), Zannone (Sinonia), Ventotene (Pandateria, pop. in 1901, 1986) and San Stefano. It is situated about 20 m. S. of Monte Circeo and 70 m. W. of Naples, and belongs partly to the province of Caserta and partly to that of Naples (Ventotene). There is regular communication with Naples by steamer, and in summer with Anzio. The islands rise to a height of about 70 ft. above sea- level. They are now penal settlements, and their isolated character led to their being similarly used in ancient times. A colony with Latin rights was founded on Pontiae in 313 B.C. Nero, Germanicus's eldest son, and the sisters of Caligula, were confined upon it; while Pandateria was the place of banishment of Julia, daughter of Augustus, of her daughter Agrippina the elder, and of Octavia, the divorced wife of Nero. POOD, a Russian weight, equivalent to 40 ft Russian and about 36 Ib avoirdupois. A little more than 62 poods go to the ton. The word is an adaptation of the Low German or Norse pund, pound. POOL, (i) A pond, or a small body of still water; also a place in a river or stream where the water is deep and still, so applied in the Thames to that part of the river known as The Pool, which reaches from below London Bridge to Limehouse. The word in Old English was pdl, which may be related to pull or pyll, and the similar Celtic words, e.g. Cornish pol, a creek, common on the Bristol Channel and estuary of the Severn, on the English side in the form " pill." A further connexion has been suggested with Lat. palus, marsh; Gr. 7117X65, mud. (2) A name for the stakes, penalties, &c., in various card and other games when collected together to be paid out to the winners; also the name of a variety of games of billiards (q.v.). This word has a curious history. It is certainly adapted from Fr. poule, hen, chicken, apparently a slang term for the stakes in a game, possibly, as the New English Dictionary suggests, used as a synonym for plunder, booty. " Chicken-hazard " might be cited as a parallel, though that has been taken to be a cor- ruption of " chequeen," a form of the Turkish coin, a sequin. When the word came into use in English at the end of the i7th century, it seems to have been at once identified with " pool," pond, as Fr. fiche (ficher, to fix), a counter, was with "fish," counters in card games often taking the form of " fish " made of mother-of-pearl, &c. " Pool," in the sense of a common fund, has been adopted as a commercial term for a combination for the purpose of speculating in stocks and shares, the several owners of securities " pooling " them and placing them under a single control, and sharing all losses and profits. Similarly the name is given to a form of trade combination, especially in railway or shipping companies, by which the receipts or profits are divided on a certain agreed-upon basis, for the purpose of avoiding competition (see TRUSTS). POOLE, MATTHEW (1624-1679), English Nonconformist theologian, was born at York, educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and from 1649 till the passing of the Act of Unifor- mity (1662) held the rectory of St Michael le Querne, London. Subsequent troubles led to his withdrawal to Holla'nd, and he died at Amsterdam in 1679. The work with which his name is principally associated is the Synopsis crUicorum biblicorum (5 vols. fol., 1669-1676), in which he summarizes the views of one hundred and fifty biblical critics. He also wrote English Anno- tations on the Holy Bible, as far as Isa. Iviii. — a work which was completed by several of his Nonconformist brethren, and published in 2 vols. fol. in 1683. POOLE, PAUL FALCONER (1806-1879), English painter, was born at Bristol in 1806. Though self-taught his fine feeling for colour, poetic sympathy and dramatic power gained for him a high position among British artists. He exhibited his first work in the Royal Academy at the age of twenty-five, the sub- ject being " The Well," a scene in Naples. There was an interval of seven years before he next exhibited his " Farewell, Farewell " in 1837, which was followed by the " Emigrant's Departure," " Hermann and Dorothea " and " By the Waters of Babylon." In 1843 his position was made secure by his " Solomon Eagle," and by his success in the.Cartoon Exhibition, in which he received from the Fine Art Commissioners a prize of £300 sterling. After his exhibition of the " Surrender of Syon House " he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1846, and was made an academician in 1861. He died in 1879. Poole's subjects divide themselves into two orders — one idyllic, the other dramatic. Of the former his " May Day " (1852) is a typical example. Of both styles there were excellent examples to be seen in the small collection of his works shown at Burlington House in the Winter Exhibition of 1883-1884. Among his early dramatic pictures was " Solomon Eagle ex- horting the People to Repentance during the Plague of 1665," painted in 1843. To this class belongs also the " Messenger announcing to Job the Irruption of the Sabeans and the Slaughter of the Servants " (exhibited in 1850), and " Robert, Duke of Normandy and Arietta " (1848). Finer examples of his more mature power in this direction are to be found in his " Prodigal Son," painted in 1869; the " Escape of Glaucusand lone with the blind girl Nydia from Pompeii" (1860); and " Cunstaunce sent adrift by the Constable of Alia, King of Northumberland," painted in 1868. More peaceful than these are the " Song of Troubadours " (painted in 1854) and the " Goths in Italy " (1851), the latter an important historical work of great power and beauty. Of a less lofty strain, but still more beautiful in its workmanship, is the " Seventh Day of the Decameron," painted in 1857. In this picture Poole rises to his full height as a colourist. In his pastorals he is soft and tender, as in the " Mountain Path " (1853), the " Water-cress Gatherers " (1870), the " Shepston Maiden " (1872). But when he turns to the grander and 'more sublime views of nature his work is bold and vigorous. Fine examples of this style may be seen in the " Vision of Ezekiel " of the National Gallery, " Solitude " (1876), the "Entrance to the Cave of Mammon" (1875), the " Dragon's Cavern" (1877), and perhaps best of all in the "Lion in the Path " (1873), a great representation of mountain and cloud form. POOLE, REGINALD STUART (1832-1895), English archae- ologist and orientalist, was born in London on the 27th of January 1832. His father was the Rev. Edward Poole, a well- known bibliophile. His mother, Sopha, authoress of The Englishwoman in Egypt (1844), was the sister of E. W. Lane, the Arabic scholar, with whom R. S. Poole lived in Cairo from 1842 to 1849, thus imbibing an early taste for Egyptian antiquities. In 1852 he became an assistant in the British Museum, and was assigned to the department of coins and medals, of which in 1870 he became keeper. In that capacity he did work of the highest value, alike as a writer, teacher and administrator. In 1882 he was largely responsible for founding the Egypt Exploration Fund, and in 1884 for starting the Society of English Medallists. He retired in 1893, and died on the 8th of February 1895. Some of Poole's best work was done in his articles for the Ency. Brit, (gth ed.) on Egypt, Hieroglyphics POOLE— POOP 73 and Numismatics, and considerable portions have been retained in the present edition, even though later research has been active in his sphere of work; he also wrote for Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, and published several volumes dealing with his special subjects. He was for some time professor of archae- ology at University College, London, and also lecturer at the Royal Academy. His elder brother, EDWARD STANLEY POOLE (1830-1867), who was chief clerk in the science and art department at South Kensington, was an Arabic scholar, whose early death cut short a promising career. His two sons, Stanley Lane-Poole (b. 1854), professor of Arabic in Trinity College, Dublin, and Reginald Lane-Poole (b. 1857), keeper of the archives at Oxford, lecturer in diplomatic, and author of various historical works, carried on the family tradition of scholarship. POOLE, a municipal borough, county in itself, market town and seaport in the eastern parliamentary division of Dor- setshire, England, 113^ m. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 19,463. It is picturesquely situated on a peninsula between Holes Bay and the shallow irregular inlet of Poole Harbour. There are several modern churches, a guildhall, public library and school of art. Poole Harbour, extending inland 6 m., with a general breadth of 4 m., has a very narrow entrance, and is studded with low islands, on the largest of which, Brownsea or Branksea, is a castle, transformed into a residence, erected as a defence of the harbour in Tudor times, and strengthened by Charles I. Potters' clay is worked here. At low water the harbour is entirely emptied except a narrow channel, when there is a depth of 8J ft. There are some valuable oyster beds. There is a considerable general coasting trade, and clay is exported to the Staffordshire potteries. Some shipbuilding is carried on, and there are manufacturers of cordage, netting and sail- cloth. The town also possesses potteries, decorative tileworks, iron foundries, agricultural implement works and flour-mills. Poole Park, containing 40 acres of land and 62 acres of water, was acquired in 1887 and 1889, and Branksome Park, of 40 acres, in 1895. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 1 8 councillors. Area, 5333 acres. Although the neighbourhood abounds -in British earth- works and barrows, and there are traces of a Roman road lead- ing from Poole to Wimborne, Poole (La Pole) is not mentioned by the early chroniclers or in Domesday Book. The manor, part of that of Canford, belonged in 1086 to Edward of Salis- bury, and passed by marriage to William Longespde, earl of Salisbury, thence to Edmund de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and with his heiress to Thomas, earl of Lancaster, and so to the Crown. Poole is first mentioned in a writ of 1 224, addressed to the bailiffs and good men of La Pole, ordering them to retain all ships within their port. Entries in the Patent Rolls show that Poole had considerable trade before William de Longespee, earl of Salis- bury, granted the burgesses a charter about 1248 assuring to them all liberties and free customs within his borough. The bailiff was to be chosen by the lord from six men elected by the burgesses, and was to hold pleas for breach of measures and assizes. It is uncertain when the burgesses obtained their town at the fee-farm rent of £8, 135. 4d. mentioned in 1312. The mayor, bailiffs and good men are first mentioned in 1311 and were required to provide two ships for service against Robert de Brus. In 1372 the burgesses obtained assize of bread and ale, and right to hold the courts of the lord of the manor, the prepositus being styled his mayor. The burgesses were licensed in 1433 to fortify the town; this was renewed in 1462, when the mayor was given cognisance of the staple. Elizabeth incorporated Poole in 1569 and made it a separate county; Charles II. gave a charter in 1667. The corporation was suspended after a writ of quo warranto in 1686, the town being governed by the commission of the peace until the charters were renewed in 1688. Poole returned two members to parliament in 1362 and 1368, and regularly from 1452 to 1867, when the representation was reduced, ceasing in 1885. It is uncertain when the Thursday market was granted, but the present fairs on the Feasts of SS Philip and James and All Saints were granted in 1453- Poole, as the headquarters of the Parliamentary forces in Dorset during the Civil War, escaped the siege that crippled so many of its neighbours. When Charles II. visited the town in 1665 a large trade was carried on in stockings, though the prosperity of Poole still depended on its usefulness as a port. POONA, or PUNA, a city and district of British India, in the Central division of Bombay. The city is at the confluence of the Mutha and Mula rivers, 1850 ft. above sea-level and 1 19 m. S.E. from Bombay on the Great Indian Peninsula railway. Municipal area, about 4 sq. m.; pop. (1001), 153,320. It is pleasantly situated amid extensive gardens, with a large num- ber of modern public buildings, and also many temples and palaces dating from the i6th to the igth century. The palace of the peshwas is a ruin, having been destroyed by fire in 1827. From its healthy situation Poona has been chosen not only as the headquarters of the 6th division of the Southern army, but also as the residence of the governor of Bombay during the rainy season, from June to September. The native town, along the river bank, is somewhat poorly built. The European quarter, including the cantonment, extends north-west towards Kirkee. The waterworks were constructed mainly by the munificence of Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy. Poona was never a great centre of trade or manufacture though still noted for brass-work, jewelry and other articles of luxury. Cotton-mills, paper- mills, a brewery (at Dapuri), flour-mills, factories of ice and mineral waters, and dairy farms furnish the chief industries. Educational institutions are numerous. They include the government Deccan College, with a law class; the aided Fer- gusson college; the government colleges of science and agricul- ture; high schools; training schools for masters and mistresses; medical school; and municipal technical school. The recent history of Poona has been painfully associated with the plague. During 1897, when the city was first attacked, the death-rate rose to 93 pef 1000 in Poona city, 71 per 1000 in the canton- ment, and 93 per 1000 in Kirkee. The DISTRICT OF POONA has an area of 5349 sq. m. Popula- tion (1901), 995,330, showing an increase of 18% after the dis- astrous famine of 1876-1877, but a decrease of 7% in the last decade. Towards the west the country is undulating, and numerous spurs from the Western Ghats enter the district; to the east it opens out into plains. It is watered by many streams which, rising in the ghats, flow eastwards until they join the Bhima, a river which intersects the district from north to south. The principal crops are millets, pulses, oil-seeds, wheat, rice, sugar- cane, vegetables and fruit (including grapes). The two most important irrigation works in the Deccan are the Mutha canal, with which the Poona waterworks are connected, and the Nira canal. There are manufactures of cotton, silk and blankets. The district is traversed by the Great Indian Peninsula railway, and also by the Southern Mahratta line, which starts from Poona city towards Satara. It is liable to drought, from which it suffered severely in 1866-1867, 1876-1877, and again in 1896-1897. In the 1 7th century the district formed part of the Mahom- medan kingdom of Ahmadnagar. Sivaji was born within its boundaries at Junnar in 1627, and he was brought up at Poona town as the headquarters of the hereditary fief of his father. The district thus was the early centre of the Mahratta power; and when Satara became first the capital and later the prison of the descendants of Sivaji, Poona continued to be the seat of government under their hereditary ministers, with the title of peshwa. Many stirring scenes in Mahratta history were enacted here. Holkar defeated the last peshwa under its walls, and his flight to Bassein led to the treaty by which he put himself under British protection. He was reinstated in 1802, but, unable to maintain friendly relations, he attacked the British at Kirkee in 1817, and his kingdom passed from him. POOP (Lat. puppis, stern), the stern or after-part of a ship; in the i6th and 1 7th centuries a lofty and castellated deck. The verb " to poop " is used of a wave breaking over the stern of a vessel. 74 POORE— POOR LAW POORE (or POOR), RICHARD (d. 1237), English bishop, was a son of Richard of Ilchester, bishop of Winchester. About 1197 he was chosen dean of Sarum and, after being an un- successful candidate for the bishoprics of Winchester and of Durham, he became bishop of Chichester in 1214. In 1217 he was translated to Salisbury, where he succeeded his elder brother, Herbert Poore, and in 1228 to Durham. He died at Tarrant Monkton, Dorset, said by some to be his birthplace, on the isth of April 1237. Poore took some part in public affairs, under Henry III., but the great work of his life was done at Salisbury. Having in 1219 removed his see from Old to New Sarum, or Salisbury, he began the building of the magnificent cathedral there; he laid the foundation stone in April 1220, and during his episcopate he found money and forwarded the work in other ways. For the city the bishop secured a charter from Henry III. and he was responsible for the plan on which it was built, a plan which to some extent it still retains. He had something to do with drawing up some statutes for his cathedral; he is said to be responsible for the final form of the " use of Sarum," and he was probably the author of the Ancren Riwle, a valuable " picture of contemporary life, manners and feeling " written in Middle English. His supposed identity with the jurist, Ricardus Anglicus, is more doubtful. POOR LAW. The phrase " poor law " in English usage denotes the legislation embodying the measures taken by the state for the relief of paupers and its administration. The history of the subject and its problems generally are dealt with in the article CHARITY AND CHARITIES, and other information will be found in UNEMPLOYMENT and VAGRANCY. This article will deal only with the practice in the United Kingdom as adopted after the reform of the poor law in 1834 and amended by subsequent acts. This reform was brought about mainly by the rapid increase of the poor rate at the beginning of the 19th century, showing that a change was necessary either in the poor law as it then existed or in the mode of its adminis- tration. A commission was appointed in 1832 " to make diligent and full inquiry into the practical operation of the laws for the relief of the poor in England and Wales, and into the manner in which those laws were administered, and to report their opinion as to what beneficial alterations could be made." The com- missioners reported " fully on the great abuse of the legislative provision for the poor as directed to be employed by the statute of Elizabeth," finding "that the great source of abuse was the outdoor relief afforded to the able-bodied on their own account or on that of their families, given either in kind or in money." They also reported that " great maladministration existed in the workhouses." To remedy the evils they proposed con- siderable alterations in the law, and the principal portion of their suggestions was embodied in the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834. By virtue of this act three commissioners were appointed (originally for five years, but subsequently con- tinued from time to time) , styled " the poor law commissioners for England and Wales," sitting as a board, and appointing assistant commissioners and other officers. The administration of relief according to the existing laws was subject to their direction and control, and to their orders and regulations for the government of workhouses and the guidance and control of guardians and vestries and the keeping and allowing of accounts and contracts, without interfering with ordinary relief in individual cases. The whole of England and Wales was divided into twenty-one districts, to each of which an assistant commissioner was appointed. The commissioners under their powers formed poor law unions by uniting parishes for general administration, and building workhouses, guardians elected by the ratepayers (or ex officio) having the general government and administration of relief. The expense was apportioned to each parish on settled principles and rules, with power, however, to treat the united parishes as one for certain purposes. Out- door relief might be given, on the order of two justices, to poor persons wholly unable to work from old age or infirmity. The obstacles which the act had to contend with in London chiefly arose from the confusion and perplexity of jurisdiction which existed in the one hundred and seventy parishes com- prised within the city of London and the metropolitan district, some of these containing governing bodies of their own; in some the parish business was professedly managed by open vestries, in others by select vestries, and in addition to these there were elective vestries, while the majority of the large parishes were managed under local acts by boards of directors, governors and trustees. These governing bodies executed a great variety of functions besides regulating the management of the poor. The power, patronage and the indirect advantages which arose from the administration of the local funds were so great that much opposition took place when it was proposed to interfere by constituting a board to be annually chosen and freely elected by the ratepayers, on which the duty of regulating the expen- diture for the relief of the poor was to depend. The general management of the poor was, however, on a somewhat better footing in London than in the country. The act of 1834 was rather to restore the scope and intention of the statute of Elizabeth by placing its administration in the hands of responsible persons chosen by the ratepayers, and themselves controlled by the orders of a central body, than to create a new system of poor laws. The agents and instruments by which the administration of relief is afforded are the fol- lowing. The description applies to the year 1910, but, as noticed below, the question of further reform was already to the fore, and the precise direction in which changes should go was a highly controversial matter. The guardians of the poor regulate the cases and description of relief within the union; a certain number of guardians are elected from time to time by the ratepayers. The number was formerly determined by the central board,1 by whom full directions as to the mode of election were given. In addition to those elected there were ex officio guardians, principally local magistrates. However, both these and nominated guardians were done away with by the Local Government Act 1894. The plural vote (which gave to the votes of the larger ratepayers a higher value) was also abolished; and in place of the old property qualification for the office of guardian a ratepaying or residential qualification was sub- stituted. In urban districts the act in other respects left the board of guardians untouched, but in rural districts it inaugu- rated a policy of consolidating local authorities. In the rural districts the district council is practically amalgamated with the guardians, for, though each body retains a separate corporate existence, the district councillors are the guardians, and guar- dians as such are no longer elected. These electoral changes, extremely democratic in their character, brought about no marked general change in poor law administration. Here and there abrupt changes of policy were made, but the difficulty of bringing general principles to bear on the administration of the law remained much as before. The guardians hold their meetings frequently, according to the exigencies of the union. Individual cases are brought to their notice— most cases of resident poor by the relieving officer of the union; the case of casual paupers by him or by the work- house officers by whom they were admitted in the first instance. The resident poor frequently appear in person before the guar- dians. The mode of voting which the guardians follow in respect to any matter they differ on is minutely regulated, and all their proceedings, as well as those of their officers, are entered in pre- scribed books and forms. They have a clerk, generally a local solicitor of experience, who has a variety of responsible duties in advising, conducting correspondence and keeping books of 'After an intermediate transfer in 1847 of the powers of the poor law commissioners, and the constitution of a fresh board styled " commissioners for administering the laws for relief of the poor in England," it was found expedient to concentrate in one department of the government the supervision of the laws relating to the public health, the relief of the poor and local government; and this concentration was in 1871 carried out by the establishment (by Act of Parliament 34 & 35 Viet. c. 70) of the local government board. POOR LAW 75 accounts, and carrying out the directions of the guardians, who in their turn are subject to the general or special regulations of the local government board. It may be mentioned here that the chief difficulty in under- standing the English poor law arises from the fact that there are three authorities, each of them able to alter its administration fundamentally. The poor law is not only the creation of statutes passed by parliament; it is also controlled by the subordinate jurisdiction of the local government board, which in virtue of various acts has the power to issue orders. In a single year the local government board may issue nearly two thousand orders, over a thousand of them having special reference to the poor law. It is not possible therefore even to summarize the mass of subordinate legislation. A third source of authority is the local board of guardians, which, within the discretion allowed to it by statutes and orders, can so variously administer the law that it is difficult to understand how procedure so fundamentally different can be based on one and the same law. This elasticity, admirable or mischievous, as we choose to regard it, is the most characteristic feature of the English poor law system. The various officers of the union, from the medical officers to workhouse porters, including masters and matrons of workhouses, are generally appointed by the guardians, and the areas, duties and salaries of ah1 the paid officers may be prescribed by the local government board. Among a multitude of miscellaneous duties and powers of the guardians, apart from the ordinary duties of ordering or refusing relief in individual cases and superintending the officers of the union, the duties devolve on them of considering the adjustment of contributions to the common, fund whether of divided or added parishes, and matters affecting other unions, the building of workhouses and raising of money for that and other purposes, the taking of land on lease, the hiring of buildings, special provisions as to superannuation and allowances to officers, the maintenance and orders as to lunatics apart from individual instances, and the consideration of questions of settlement and removal. A paramount obligation rests on the guardians to attend to the actual visitation of workhouses, schools and other institutions and places in which the poor are interested, and to call attention to and report on any irregularity or neglect of duty. Guardians may charge the rates with the expenses of attending conferences for the discussion of matters con- nected with their duties (Poor Law Conferences Act 1883). In relation to expenditure the guardians have very considerable but restricted powers. Their accounts are audited by district auditors appointed by the local government board. Overseers of the poor are still appointed under the statute of Elizabeth, and the guardians cannot interfere with the ap- Orerseers P°intment- As, however, the relief of the poor is administered by boards of guardians, the principal duties of overseers relate to the making and collection of rates and payments. The guardians, by order of the local govern- ment board, may appoint assistant overseers and collectors. The conditions of persons entitled to relief are indicated by the terms of the statute of Elizabeth. If they fall within the definitions there given they have right to relief. , ? . , .;, i i i- r fundamental principle with respect to legal relief of the poor is that the condition of the pauper ought to be, on the whole, Igss eligible than that of the independent labourer. The pauper has no just ground for complaint, if, while his physical wants are adequately provided for, his condition is less eligible than that of the poorest class of those who contribute to his support. If a state of destitution exists, the failure of third persons to perform their duty, as a husband, or relative mentioned in the statute of Elizabeth, neglecting those he is under a legal obligation to support, is no answer to the application. The relief should be afforded, and is often a condition precedent to the right of parish officers to take proceedings against the relatives or to apply to other poor unions. The duty to give immediate relief must, however, vary with the circumstances. The case of wanderers under circumstances not admitting of delay may be different from Conditions that of persons resident on the spot where inquiry as to all the circumstances is practicable. The statute of Elizabeth con- templated that the relief was to be afforded to the poor resi- dent in the parish, but it is contrary to the spirit of the law that any person shall be permitted to perish from starvation or want of medical assistance. Whoever is by sudden emergency or urgent distress deprived of the ordinary means of subsistence has a right to apply for immediate relief where he may happen to be. Persons comprehended within this class are called " casual poor," although the term " casuals " is generally used in reference to vagrants who take refuge for a short time in the " casual wards " of workhouses. Various tests are applied to ascertain whether applicants are really destitute. Labour tests are applied to the able-bodied, and workhouse tests are applied to those to whom entering a workhouse is made a condition of relief. As to the nature and kind of relief given under the poor laws the great distinction restored rather than introduced by the amendment of the poor law system in 1834 was Nature and giving all relief to able-bodied persons of their Kind of families in well-regulated workhouses (that is to *e/te/- say, places where they may be set to work according to the spirit and intention of the statute of Elizabeth), and confining outdoor relief to the impotent — that is, all except the able- bodied and their families. Although workhouses formed a conspicuous feature in legislation for the poor from an early period, the erection of those buildings for unions throughout the country where not already provided followed immediately on the amendment of the system in 1834. Since that time there has been a constant struggle between the pauper class and the administrators of the law, the former naturally wishing to be relieved at their own homes, and in many instances choosing rather to go without aid than to remove within the walls of the workhouse. Relief given in a workhouse is termed " in (or indoor) maintenance " relief, and when given at the homes of the paupers is termed " outdoor relief." Admission to a workhouse may be by a written order of the board of guardians, or by the master or matron (or in their absence by the porter) without an order in any case of sudden or urgent necessity, or provisionally by a relieving :7 officer, or overseer or churchwarden. Any person who is brought by a policeman as having been found wandering in a state of destitution may be admitted. It is to be observed generally, with respect to all persons who may apply for admission into the workhouse under circumstances of urgent necessity, that thc-ir destitution, coupled with the fact of being within the union cr parish, entitles them to relief, altogether independently of their ' settlement, if they have one, which is a matter for subsequent inquiry. The regulations for the government of workhouses fall under two classes: (i) those which are necessary for the maintenance of good order in any building in which considerable numbers of persons of both sexes and of different ages reside; (2) those which are necessary in order that these establishments may not be alms- houses, but workhouses in the proper meaning of the term. The inmates of a workhouse are necessarily separated into certain classes. In no well-managed institution of this sort, in any country, are males and females, the old and the young, the healthy and the sick, indiscriminately mixed together. Guardians are required to divide the paupers into certain classes, and to subdivide any one or more of these classes in any manner which may be advisable, and which the internal arrangements of the workhouse admit ; and the guardians are required from time to time, after consulting the medical officer, to make necessary arrangements with regard to per- sons labouring under any disease of body or mind, and, so far as cir- cumstances permit, to subdivide any of the enumerated classes with reference to the moral character or behaviour or the previous habits of the inmates, or to such other grounds as may seem expedient. The separation of married couples was long a vexed question, the evils on the one hand arising from the former unrestricted practice being very great, while on the other hand the separation of old couples was felt as a great hardship, and by express statutory ^pro- vision in 1847 husband and wife, both being above the age of sixty, received into a workhouse cannot be compelled to live separate and apart from each other (10 & n Viet. c. 109, § 23). This exemption was carried somewhat further by contemporaneous orders of the board, under which guardians were not compelled to separate infirm couples, provided they had a sleeping apartment separate from that of other paupers; and in 1876 guardians were empowered, at their discretion, to permit husband and wife where either of them is POOR LAW infirm, sick or disabled by any injury, or above sixty years of age to live together, but every such case must be reported to the local government board (39 & 40 Viet. c. 61, § 10). The classification of children apart from adult paupers is per- emptory. Even in those unions where what is called a workhouse school is maintained the children are kept in detached parts of the building, and do not associate with the adult paupers. The separate school is built on a separate and often distant site. Some- times the separate school is one building, sometimes detached " blocks," and sometimes a group of cottage homes. There still remain ten district schools. In some places an experiment which is called the scattered homes system has been adopted. This consists in lodging-homes for the children placed in different parts of the town, from which the children attend the local public ele- mentary schools. In the rural districts and in less populous unions the children generally attend the local public elementary school. To these expedients boarding-out must be added. The above refers of course only to those children who as inmates are under the charge of the guardians. Outdoor paupers are responsible for the education of their children, but guardians cannot legally continue outdoor relief if the children are not sent regularly to school. The tendency too has been to improve administrative methods with reference to children. Two important orders on the subject of the boarding-out of poor- law children were issued in 1889. By the Boarding of Children in Unions Order, orphan and deserted children can be boarded out with suitable foster-parents in the union by all boards of guardians except those in the metropolis. This can be done either through a voluntary committee or directly. By the Boarding Out Order, orphan and deserted children may be boarded out by all boards of guardians without the limits of their own unions, but in all cases this must be done through the offices of properly constituted local boarding-out committees. The sum payable to the foster-parents is not to exceed 43. per week for each child. The local committee require to be approved by the Local Government Board. The question of the education of poor law children was much discussed in later years. During the early years of the central authority, it was the object of the commissioners to induce boards of guardians to unite in districts for educational purposes. This was advocated on grounds of efficiency and economy. It was very unpopular with the local authorities, and the number of such districts has never exceeded a dozen. In London, where this aggregation was certainly less desirable than in rural unions, several districts were formed and large district schools were built. Adverse criticism, by Mrs Nassau Senior in 1874, and by a department committee appointed twenty years later, was directed against these large, or, as they are invidiously called, barrack schools. The justice of this condemnation has been disputed, but it seems probable that some of these schools had grown too large. Many of these have been dissolved by order of the local government board on the application of the unions concerned. This con- demnation of some schools has in certain quarters been extended to all schools, and is construed by others as an unqualified recommendation of boarding out, a method of bringing up poor law children obviously requiring even more careful supervision than is needed in the publicity of a school. Other acts to be noted are the Poor Law Act 1889 and the Custody of Children Act 1891, § 3. The evil of allowing children who have been reputably brought up in poor law schools to relapse into vicious habits on return to the custody of unworthy parents has been the subject of frequent remark. By the act of 1889, guardians are authorized to detain children who are under their charge, as having been deserted by their parents, up to the age of 1 6 if boys and of 18 if girls. By the Poor Law Act 1899 the principle is extended to orphans and the children of bad parents chargeable to the rates. The act of 1891 goes further, and enacts that where a parent has (a) abandoned or deserted his child, or (6) allowed his child to be brought up by another person at that person's expense, or by the guardians of a poor law union for such a length of time and in such circumstances as to satisfy the court that the parent was unmindful of his parental duties, the court shall not make an order for the delivery of the child to the parent unless the parent has satisfied the court that, having regard to the welfare of the child, he is a fit person to have the custody of the child. Casual and poor wayfarers admitted by the master and matron are kept in a separate ward and dieted and set to work in such manner as the guardians by resolution direct; and whenever any vagrants or mendicants are received into a workhouse they are usually (as a precaution necessary for preventing the introduction of infectious or contagious diseases) kept entirely separate from the other inmates, unless their stay exceeds a single night. For the guidance of guardians an important circular was issued from the local government board on the I5th of March 1886. It stated that while " the board have no doubt that the powers which the guardians possess are fully sufficient to enable them to deal with ordinary pauperism, and to meet the demand for relief from the classes who usually seek it," yet " these provisions do not in all cases meet the emergency. What is required to relieve artisans and others who have hitherto avoided poor law assistance, and who are temporarily deprived of employment, is — (i) Work which will not involve the stigma of pauperism; (2) work which all can per- form, whatever may have been their previous occupations; (3) work which does not compete with that of other labourers at present in employment; and lastly, work which is not likely to interfere with the resumption of regular employment in their own trades by those who seek it." The circular went on to recommend that guardians should confer with the local authorities, " and endeavour to arrange with the latter for the execution of works on which unskilled labour may be immediately employed." The conditions of such work were (1) the men to be employed must be recommended by the guardians; (2) the wages must be less than the wages ordinarily paid for such work. The circular was widely distributed. Many boards that were inclined in that direction regarded it as an encouragement to open or to promote the opening of relief works. Others, again, looked closely at the conditions, and declared roundly that it was impos- sible to fulfil them. A poor law authority, they said, cannot give relief which will not subject the recipients to the legal (if any) and economic disabilities attaching to the receipt of poor law relief. Work which all can perform can only be found in the shape of task-work under adequate supervision. If the work is of a useful and necessary character, it must compete with the labour of others belonging to the trades affected. If the relief works are opened by authorities other than the poor law guardians, the conditions that the men were only to be employed when recommended by the guardians, and then paid less than the current rate of wages, were calculated, it was urged, to secure bad work, discontent, and all the " stigma of pauperism." The ambiguity of the circular indeed was such, that both action and inaction seem amply justified by it. In the administration of medical relief to the sick, the objects kept in view are: (i) to provide medical aid for persons who are really destitute, and (2) to prevent medical relief from generating or encouraging pauperism, and with this view to withdraw from the labouring classes, as well as from the administrators of relief and the medical officers, all motives for applying for or administering medical relief, unless where the circumstances render it absolutely necessary. Unions are formed into medical districts limited in area and population, to which a paid medical officer is appointed, who is furnished with a list of all such aged and infirm persons and persons permanently sick or disabled as are actually receiving relief and residing within the medical officer's district. Every person named in the list receives a ticket, and on exhibiting it to' the medical officer is entitled to advice, attendance and medicine as his case may require. Medical outdoor relief in connexion with dispen- saries is regulated in asylum districts of the metropolis by the Metropolitan Poor Act 1867 (30 & 31 Viet. c. 6). In connexion with medical relief must be noted the Medical Relief Disqualifica- tion Removal Act 1885. This act relieved voters from disquali- fication which would otherwise attach in consequence of the receipt by them or their families of medical or surgical assistance, or of medicine, at the expense of the poor rate. This does not apply to guardian elections, and it does not include persons who, in addition to medical relief, receive nourishment or other relief from the poor rate. The provisions which require the removal of the names of paupers from the electoral roll are, it is understood, very perfunctorily carried out. The Outdoor Relief Friendly Societies Act 1894 authorized guardians, in calculating the proper allowance to be made, to disregard an income derived from a friendly society, and to give relief as if the applicant in receipt of such an allowance was wholly destitute. This act is a curious illustration of the English poor law system. In earlier years, notably in what is known as Paget's letter (22nd Rep. Poor Law Board, p. 108), the central board, had, in answer to inquiry, pointed out that such preferential treatment given to men receiving benefit, insufficient to maintain them, from a friendly society, could not in equity be withheld from persons in receipt of an adequate benefit, or from those whose savings took the form of a deposit in a bank, of a share in a co-operative society, or of cottage property; and further, that an engagement on the part of guardians to supplement insufficient allowance from a friendly society was a bounty on inadequate and insolvent friendly society finance. The central board went so far as to say that relief given in such disregard of the pauper's income was illegal. They had, however, issued no peremptory order on the subject, nor had guardians been surcharged for neglect of the rule. The local authorities followed their own discretion, and a very general practice was to reckon friendly society allowances at half their value. The above act set aside the central board's earlier interpretation of the law. It made, however, no attempt to enforce its procedure on the numerous boards of guardians who regard the course thereby authorized as contrary to'public policy. A lunatic asylum is required to be provided by a county or borough for the reception of pauper lunatics, with a committee of visitors who, among other duties, fix a weekly sum to .„„.<»„« • • i f , ? j • • j* * i Lunatics- be charged for the lodging, maintenance, medicine and clothing of each pauper lunatic confined in such asylum. Several .acts were passed. The Lunacy Act 1890 consolidated the acts affecting lunatics. It was further amended by the Lunacy Act 1891. POOR LAW 77 An explanatory letter issued by the local government board will be found in the zoth Annual Report, p. 23. The tendency of this and of all recent legislation for an afflicted class has been to increase the care and the safeguards for their proper treatment. A settlement is the right acquired in any one of the modes pointed out by the poor laws to become a recipient of the benefit of those laws in that parish or place where the right has been last acquired. No relief is given from the poor rates of a parish to any person who does not reside within the union, except where such person TheQues- being casually within a parish becomes destitute by tloa ol sudden distress, or where such person is entitled to ••Settle- receive relief from any parish where non-resident meat." under justice's order (applicable to persons undef orders of removal and to non-resident lunatics), and except to >ws and legitimate children where the widow was resident with her husband at the time of his death out of the union in which she not settled, or where a child under sixteen is maintained in a workhouse or establishment for the education of pauper children nut situate in the union, and in some other exceptional cases. Immediately before the passing of the Poor Law Amendment \i t 1834 settlements were acquired by birth, hiring and service, apprenticeship, renting a tenement, estate, office or payment of rates. In addition to these an acknowledgment (by certificate), by relief or acts of acquiescence) has practically the effect of a settle- ment, for, if unexplained, such an acknowledgment stops the parish from disputing a settlement in the parish acknowledging. The Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 abolished settlement by hiring and service (or by residence under it) and by serving an office, and by apprenticeship in the sea service. Moreover the guardians of a union might agree (subject to the approval of the commissioners) (hat all the parishes forming it should for the purposes of settle- ment be considered as one parish. It is to be observed that, for the purposes of relief, settlement and removal and burial, the workhouse of any parish is considered i uated in the parish to which each poor person is chargeable. There may be a settlement by parentage, for legitimate children take the settlement of their father, or if he has no settlement they arc' entitled to the settlement of their mother; and it is only when both these sources fail discovery that their right of settlement by birth accrues; for until the settlement of the father or mother has been ascertained the settlement of a legitimate child, like that of a bastard, is in the place where the birth took place. A settlement attaches to those persons who have a settlement of some kind. Foreigners born out of the country and not acquiring any in one of the modes pointed out must be provided for, if requiring relief, where they happen to be. As the burden of maintaining the poor is thrown on the parish of settlement, when the necessity for immediate relief arises in another parish, the important question arises whether the pauper can be removed ; for, although the parish where the pauper happens to be must afford immediate relief without waiting for removal, the parish of settlement cannot in general be charged with the cost unless the pauper is capable of being removed. The question of removability is distinct from settlement. A pauper often acquires a status or irremovability without gaining a settlement. _ Irremovability is a principle of great public importance quite irrespective of the incident of cost as between one parish or another. Before the introduction of a status of irremovability removal might take place (subject to powers of suspension in case of sickness and otherwise) after any interval during which no legal settlement was obtained; mere length of residence without concurrent cir- cumstances involving the acquisition of a settlement on obtaining relief gave no right to a person to remain in the parish where he resided. In 1846 it was enacted that no person should be removed nor any warrant granted for the removal of any person from any parish in which such persons had resided for five years (9 & lo Viet. c. 66). In 1861 three years was submitted for five (24 & 25 Viet. c. 55); mil only four years later one year was substituted for three (28 & -'i Viet. c. 79). Apart from these reductions of time in giving the status of irremovability, actual removals to the parish of settle- ment were narrowed by provisions giving to residence in any part of a union the same effect as a residence in any parish of that union (24 & 25 Viet. c. 55). On the other hand the time during which parish relief is received, or during which the person is in any poorhouse or hospital or in a prison, is excluded from the computa- tion of time (9 & 10 Viet. c. 66). The removability as well as the settlement of the family, i.e. of the wife and unemancipated children, are practically subject to one and the same general rule. Wherever any person has a wife or children having another settlement, they are removable where he is removable, and are not removable from any parish or place from which he is not removable (n & 12 Viet. c. 211). It is to be borne in mind that no person exempted from liability to be removed acquires, by reason of such exemption, any settle- ment in any parish ; but a residence for three years gives a qualified settlement (39 & 40 Viet. C. 6l). The cost of relief of paupers rendered irremovable is borne by the common fund of the union (I i & 12 Viet. c. 1 10, § 3) as union expenses (§ 6), and any question arising in the union with reference to the charging relief may be referred to and decided by the local govern- ment board (§ 4). The poor rate is the fund from which the cost of relief is princi- pally derived. The statute of Elizabeth (extended in some respects as to places by 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 12) embraced poorgmte two classes of persons subject to taxation — occupiers of real property and inhabitants in respect of personal property, although the rateability under the latter head was reluctantly conceded by the courts of law, and was in practice only partially acted upon. As regards occupiers of land and houses, the correct principles as to the persons liable to be rated were, after many erroneous views and decisions, established by the House of Lords in 1865 in the case of the Mersey docks. The only occupier exempt from the operation of the act of Elizabeth is the Crown, on the general prin- ciple that such liabilities are not imposed on the sovereign unless expressly mentioned, and that principle applies to the direct and immediate servants of the Crown, whose occupation is the occupa- tion of the Crown itself. If there is a personal private beneficial occupation, so that the occupation is by the subject, that occupa- tion is rateable. Thus for apartments in a royal palace, gratui- tously assigned to a subject, who occupies them by permission of the sovereign but for the subject's benefit, the latter is rateable; on the other hand, where a lease of private property is taken in the name of a subject, but the occupation is by the sovereign or his subjects on his behalf, no rate can be imposed. So far the ground of exemption is perfectly intelligible, but it has been carried a good deal further, and applied to many cases in which it can scarcely be said naturally, but only theoretically, that the sovereign or the servants of the sovereign are in occupation. A long series of cases have established that when property is occu- pied for the purposes of the government of the country, including under that head the police, and the administration of justice, no one is rateable in respect of such occupation. And this applies not only to property occupied for such purposes by the servants of the great departments of state and the post office, the Horse Guards, and the Admiralty, in all which cases the occupiers might strictly be called the servants of the Crown, but to county buildings occupied for the assizes and for the judge's lodgings, to stations for the local constabulary, to jails and to county courts where undertakings are carried out by or for the government and the government is in occupation; the same principles of exemption have been applied to property held by the office of works. When the property is not de facto occupied by the Crown or for the Crown, it is rateable ; and, although formerly the uses of property for public purposes, even where the Crown was not constructively interested in the way above pointed out, was treated as a ground for exemption, it is now settled that trustees who are in law the tenants and occupiers of valuable property in trust for public and even charitable purposes, such as hospitals or lunatic asylums, are in principle rateable notwithstanding that the buildings are actually occupied by paupers who are sick or insane, and that the notion that persons in the legal occupation of valuable property are not rateable if they occupy in a merely fiduciary character cannot be sustained. With respect to the particular person to be rated where there is a rateable occupation, it is to be observed that the tenant, as dis- tinguished from the landlord, is the person to be rated under the statute of Elizabeth ; but occupiers of tenements let for short terms may deduct the poor rate paid by them from their rents, or the vestries may order such owners to be rated instead of the occupiers ; such payments or deductions do not affect qualification and fran- chises depending on rating (Poor Rate Assessment and Collection Act 1869 and Amendment Act 1882). To be rated the occupation must be such as to be of value, and in this sense the word beneficial occupation has been used in many cases. But it is not necessary that the occupation should be bene- ficial to the occupier; for, if that were necessary, trustees occupying for various purposes, having no beneficial occupation, would not be liable, and their general liability has been established as indicated in the examples just given. As to the mode and amount of rating it is no exaggeration to say that the application of a landlord-and-tenant valuation in the terms already given in the Parochial Assessment Act, with the deductions there mentioned, has given rise to litigation on which millions of pounds have been spent with respect to the rating of railways alone, although the established principle applied to them, after much consideration, is to calculate the value of the land as increased by the line. The Parochial Assessment Act referred to (6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 96), comprising various provisions as to the mode of assessing the rate so far as it authorized the making of a valuation, was repealed in 1869, in relation to the metropolis, and other provisions made for securing uniformity of the assessment of rateable property there (32 & 33 Viet. c. 67). The mode in which a rate is made and recovered may be concisely stated thus. The guardians appoint an assessment committee_of their body for the investigation and supervision of valuations, which are made out in the first instance by the overseers according to specific regulations and in a form showing among other headings the gross POOR LAW estimated rental of all property and the names of occupiers anc owners, and the rateable value after the deductions specified in the Assessment Act already mentioned, and as prescribed by the centra board. This valuation list, made and signed by the overseers, is published, and all persons assessed or liable to be assessed, and other interested parties, may, including the officers of other parishes inspect and take copies of and extracts from that list. A multitude of provisions exist in relation to the valuation and supplemental valuation lists. Objections on the ground of unfairness or incorrect- ness are dealt with by the committee, who hold meetings to hear and determine such objections. The valuation list, where approved by the committee, is delivered to the overseers, who proceed to make the rate in accordance with the valuation lists and in a prescribed form of rate book. The parish officers certify to the examination and comparison of the rate book with the assessments, and obtain the consent of justices as required by the statute of Elizabeth. This consent or allowance of the rate is merely a ministerial act, and if the rate is good on the face of it the justices cannot inquire into its validity. The rate is then published and open to inspection. Appeals may be made to special or quarter sessions against the rate, subject to the restriction that, if the objection were such that it might have been dealt with on the valuation lists, no appeal to sessions is permitted unless the valuation list has been duly objected to and the objector had failed to obtain such relief in the matter as he deemed to be just. In the metropolis a common basis of value for the purposes of government and local taxation is provided, including the promotion of uniformity in the assessment of rateable property. Provision is made for the appointment of an assessment committee by guardians or vestries, and for the preparation of valuation lists, and the deposit and distribution of valuation lists, and for the periodical revision of valuation lists. Many endeavours have been made to readjust the burden of local expenditure. The system of making grants from the national taxes in aid of local rates has been extended. The principle of the metropolitan common poor fund, a device for giving metropolitan grants assessed on the whole of London in aid of the London local poor law authorities, has been followed, mutatis mutandis, in the relations between the national and the local exchequers. At the time of the repeal of the corn laws, Sir Robert Peel expressed an opinion that this fiscal change necessitated some readjustment of local rates. In that year, 1846, a beginning of grants from the national exchequer in aid of local expenditure was made. The salaries of poor-law teachers, medical officers and auditors were provided from the larger area of taxation, and in 1867 the salaries of public vaccinators were added to the list. In 1874 a grant of 45. per head per week was made for each pauper lunatic passed by the guardians to the care of a lunatic asylum. By the Local Government Act 1888, supplemented by the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act 1890, this principle was more widely extended. The various grants in aid were abolished, and in substitution the proceeds of certain specified taxes were set aside for local purposes. From this source, the gross amount of which of course varies, there are now distributed to local poor-law authori- ties some 43. a week for lunatics in asylums, and allowances based on their average expenditure in previous years in salaries of officials and other specified charges. In London, in order not to conflict with the operation of the common poor fund, which had already spread these charges over a wide area, the grant takes the form of a sum equivalent to about 4d. per diem for each indoor pauper. The number on which this calculation is based is not, however, to be the actual number, but the average of the last five years previous to the passing of the act. By this legislation something like one- quarter of the total expenditure on poor law relief is obtained from national taxes as opposed to local rates. By the Agricultural Rates Act 1896 the occupier of agricultural land was excused one-half of certain rates, including the poor rate. The deficiency is supplied by a contribution from the national exchequer. Meanwhile, the spending authority continue to be elected by the local ratepayers. In this connexion two further anomalies deserve notice. By the Poor Rate Assessment and Collection Act 1869 owners who compound to pay the rates in respect of tenement property are entitled to certain deductions by way of commission. Such payments by the owner are constructively payments by the occupier, who thereby is to be deemed duly rated for any qualifi- cation or franchise. Under these arrangements a large number of electors do not contribute directly to the rate. A converse process is also going on, whereby the ownership of an important and increasing body of property is practically unrepresented. This is due to the great growth of property in the hands of railway companies, docks and limited liability companies generally. The railways alone are said to pay considerably over 13 % of the local taxation of the country, and they have no local representation. There is, in fact, in local administration a divorce between repre- sentation and taxation to a greater extent than is generally supposed, and it is impossible not to connect the fact with the rapid growth of local expenditure and indebtedness. Royal Commission of 1905-1909— The main points of the system of English poor relief, as still in force in 1910, are as outlined above. That it has been inadequate in dealing with the various problems of unemployment and pauperism, which the constantly changing conditions of the industrial world necessarily evolve had however been long acknowledged. Accordingly, in 1905 a royal commission was appointed to inquire into the working of the law relating to the relief of poor persons, and into the various means adopted outside of the poor laws for meeting distress arising from want of employment, particularly during the periods of severe industrial depression. The commis- sion took voluminous evidence * and its report was issued in 1 The appendix volumes to the Report of the Royal Commission number thirty-four. Their contents are as follows- vol. i. English Official Evidence, minutes of evidence mainly of the officers of the Local Government Board for England and Wales; vol. ii. London Evidence, minutes of evidence mainly of London witnesses ; vol. iii. Associations and Critics, minutes of evidence mainly of critics of the Poor Law and of witnesses representing Poor Law and Charitable Associations; vol. iv Urban Centres, minutes of evidence containing the oral and written evidence of the British Medical Association and of witnesses from the following provincial urban centres — Liverpool and Manchester districts, West Yorkshire, Midland Towns; vol. v. Minutes of Evidence containing the oral and written evidence of witnesses from urban centres in the following districts — South Wales and North Eastern Counties; vol. vi. Minutes of Evidence relating to Scotland; vol. vii. Minutes of Evidence containing the oral and written evidence of witnesses from various rural centres in the South Western, Western and Eastern Counties, from the parish of Poplar Borough and from the National Con- ference of Friendly Societies; vol. viii. Minutes of Evidence con- taining the oral and written evidence of witnesses relating chiefly to the subject of " unemployment "; vol. ix. Evidence of further witnesses on the subject of unemployment; vol. x. Minutes of Evidence relating to Ireland ; vol. xi. Miscellaneous Papers. Com- munications from Boards of Guardians and others, &c., vol. xii. Reports, Memoranda and Tables prepared by certain of the Commissioners; vol. xiii. Diocesan Reports on the Methods of administering charitable assistance and the extent and intensity of poverty in England and Wales; vol. xiv. Report on the Methods and Results of the present system of administering indoor and outdoor poor law medical relief in certain unions in England and Wales, by Dr J. C. McVail; vol. xv. Report on the Administrative Relation of Charity and the Poor Law, and the extent and the actual and potential utility of Endowed and Voluntary Charities in England and Scotland, by A. C. Kay and H. V. Toynbee; vol. xvi. Reports on the Relation of Industrial and Sanitary Conditions to Pauperism, by Steel Maitland and Miss R. E. Squire ; vol. xvii. Reports on the effect of Outdoor Relief on Wages and the Conditions of Employment, by Thomas Jones and Miss Williams; vol. xviii. Report on the Condition of the Children who are in receipt of the various forms of Poor Law Relief in certain Unions in London and in the Provinces, by Dr Ethel Williams and Miss Longman and Miss Phillips; vol. xix. Reports on the Effects of Employment or Assistance given to the Unemployed since 1886 as a means of relieving distress outside the Poor Law in London, and generally throughout England and Wales, and in Scotland and Ireland, by Cyril Jackson and Rev. J. C. Pringle; vol. xx. Report on Boy Labour in London and certain other typical towns, by Cyril Jackson, with a Memorandum from the General Post Office on the Conditions of Employment of Telegraph Messengers; vol. xxi. Reports on the Effect of the Refusal of Out-Relief on the Applicants for such Relief, by Miss G. Harlock; vol. xxii. Report on the Overlapping of the work of the Voluntary General Hospitals with that of Poor Law Medical Relief in certain districts of London, by Miss M. B. Roberts; vol. xxiii. Report on the Condition of the Children who are in receipt of the various forms of Poor Law Relief in certain parishes in Scotland, by Dr C. T. Parsons and Miss Longman and Miss Phillips; vol. xxiv. Report on a Comparison of the Physical Condition of " Ordinary " Paupers in certain Scottish Poorhouses with that of the Able-bodied Paupers in certain English Workhouses and Labour Yards, by Dr C. T. Parsons; vol. xxv. Statistical Memoranda and Tables relating to England and Wales, prepared t>y the Staff of the Commission and by Government Departments and others, and Actuarial Reports; vol. xxvi. Documents relating more especially to the administration of charities; vol. xxvii. Replies by Distress Committees in England and Wales to Questions circulated on the subject of the Unemployed Workmen Act 1905; vol. xxviii. Reports of Visits to Poor Law and Charitable Institutions and to Meetings of Local Authorities in the United Kingdom; vol. xxix. Report on the Methods of Administering Charitable Assistance and the extent and intensity of Poverty in Scotland, prepared by the Committee on Church Interests appointed by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland ; vol. xxx. Documents relating especially to Scotland; vol. xxxi. Statistical Memoranda and Tables relating to Ireland, &c.; vol. xxxii. Report on Visits laid by the Foreign Labour Colonies Committee of the Commis- iion to certain Institutions in Holland, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland; vol. xxxiii. Foreign and Colonial Systems of Poor POOR LAW 79 1909. It consists of a majority report, signed by the chairman and 13 other members, and a minority report signed by 4 dis- sentient members. To this report and its appendices those who wish to obtain an exhaustive account of the working ol tlu- English poor law must necessarily have recourse. The " majority " report opens with a statistical survey ol poor law problems, gives an historical sketch of the poor laws Majority down to 1834, and proceeds to deal in detail with Report. the historical development and present condition of the various branches of the poor law under their appro- priate headings: (a) the central authority; (b) the local authority; (c) the officers of the local authority; (d) areas of administration; (e) indoor relief; (/) outdoor relief; (g) the aged; (h) the children; (i) the able-bodied under the poor law and (j) the causes of pauperism. Other portions of the report deal with medical relief, distress due to unemployment, and charities and the relief of distress. In reviewing these various subjects the commission lay bare the main defects of the present system, which they briefly summarize as follows: — i. The inadequacy of existing poor law areas to meet the growing needs of administration. ii. The excessive size of many boards of guardians, iii. The absence of any general interest in poor law work and poor law elections, due in great part to the fact that poor law stands in no organic relation to the rest of local govern- ment. iv. The lack of intelligent uniformity in the application of principles and in general administration. v. The want of proper investigation and discrimination in dealing with applicants. vi. The tendency in many boards of guardians to give out- door relief without plan or purpose. vii. The unsuitability of the general workhouse as a test or deterrent for the able-bodied; the aggregation in it of all classes without sufficient classification; and the absence of any system of friendly and restorative help. viii. The lack of co-operation between poor law and charity, ix. The tendency of candidates to make lavish promises of out-relief and of guardians to favour their constituents in its distribution. x. General failure to attract capable social workers and leading citizens. xi. The general rise in expenditure, not always accompanied by an increase of efficiency in administration. xii. The want of sufficient control and continuity of policy on the part of the central authority. The commission stated that these defects have produced a want of confidence in the local administration of the poor law, and that they have been mainly the cause of the introduction of other forms of relief from public funds which are unaccom- panied by such conditions as are imperatively necessary as safeguards. The commission proceed to formulate a scheme of reform, the main features of which are summarized below: — Public Assistance.— --The commissioners state that the name " poor law " has gathered about it associations of harshness, and still more of hopelessness, which might seriously obstruct the reforms they recommend, and they suggest that the title " public assistance " better expresses the system of help outlined in their report. They propose the abolition of the existing boards of guardians, the separation of their duties into two categories, and the calling into existence of two bodies for the discharge of the two sets of functions, viz. a local authority, known as the public assistance authority, with an area conterminous with the area of the county or county borough, for central administration and control; and local committees in existing union area.- for dealing with applications, investigating and supervising cases and under- taking such other duties as may be delegated by the public assistance authority. They recommend that the public assistance authority should be a statutory committee of the County Council, with one-half of its members appointed by the council from persons who are members of the council, and the other half of its members appointed by the council from outside their number, and to consist of persons experienced in the local administration of public assistance or Relief, with a memorandum on the Relief of Famines in India; vol. xxxiv. Alphabetical Lists of Oral and Non-oral Witnesses. other cognate work, women to be eligible for appointment in either case. Working in co-operation with the public assistance authorities are to be voluntary aid councils and committees (the former super- vising, the latter executive) for aiding persons in distress whose cases do not appear to be suitable for treatment by the public assistance committee. The commission epitomize what they consider to be the main principles of a reformed poor law. They are (i) that the treatment of the poor who apply for public assistance should be adapted to the needs of the individual, and\ if institutional, should be governed by classification; (2) that the public adminis- tration established for the assistance of the poor should work in co-operation with the local and private charities of the district; (3) that the system of public assistance thus established should include processes of help which would be preventive, curative, and restorative, and (4) that every effort should be made to foster the instincts of independence and self-maintenance amongst those assisted. They proceed to recommend : — Indoor or " Institutional " Relief. — That general workhouses should be abolished. That indoor relief should DC given in separate institutions appropriate to the following classes of applicants, viz. (a) children, (b) aged and infirm, (c) sick, (d) able-bodied men, (e\ able-bodied women, (/) vagrants, and (g) feeble-minded and epileptics. Powers of removal to and detention in institutions should be given, with proper safeguards, to the public assistance authority. The treatment of inmates should be made as far as possible curative and restorative. Outdoor Relief or " Home Assistance." — This should be given only after thorough inquiry, except in cases of sudden and urgent necessity; it should be adequate to meet the needs of those to whom it is given; persons so assisted should be subject to supervision; that such supervision should include in its purview the conditions, moral and sanitary, under which the recipient is living; that voluntary agencies should be utilized as far as possible for the personal care of individual cases, and that there should be one uniform order governing outdoor relief or home assistance. Children. — Effective steps should be taken to secure that the maintenance of children in the workhouse be no longer recognized as a legitimate way of dealing with them. Boarding-out might and should be greatly extended. Power to adopt children of vicious parents should be more frequently exercised and accom- panied by a strict dealing with the parent, and the public assistance authorities should retain supervision of adopted children up to the age of twenty-one. A jocal government board circular of June 1910 to boards of guardians embodied many of the recommenda- tions of the commission. Some recommendations, of course, the guardians are not empowered, under existing legislation, to carry out. The Aged. — As regards institutional relief, the aged should have accommodation and treatment apart from the able-bodied, and be housed on a separate site, and be further subdivided into classes as far as practicable with reference to their physical condition and their moral character. As regards outdoor relief, greater care should be taken to ensure adequacy of relief. Medical Relief or Assistance. — A general system of provident dispensaries should be established, of which existing voluntary outdoor medical organizations should be invited to form an integral part, and every inducement should be offered to the working classes below a certain wage to become, or continue to be, members of a provident dispensary. Unemployment. — The commission review the social and industrial developments since 1834, deal with the new problems, criticize the existing methods of relief, and on their summing up of the new Factors and developments, arrive at the conclusions: (a) that there is an increasing aggregation of unskilled labour at the great ports ind in certain populous districts; (b) that this aggregation of low-grade labour is so much in excess of the normal local wants as to promote and perpetuate under-employment, and (c) that this normal condition of under-employment, when aggravated by periodic contraction of trade or by inevitable changes in methods of pro- duction, assumes such dimensions as to require special machinery and organization for its relief and treatment. The commission Droceed to make the following recommendations: — Labour Exchanges. — A national system of labour exchanges should be established and worked by the board of trade for the jeneral purpose of assisting the mobility of labour and of collecting iccurate information as to unemployment. (These were established :>y the Labour Exchanges Act 1909; see UNEMPLOYMENT.) Education and Training of the Young for Industrial Life. — The ;ducation in the public elementary schools should be much less iterary and more practical, and better calculated than at present to adapt the child to its future occupation. Boys should be kept at school until the age of fifteen; exemption below fifteen should be granted only for boys leaving to learn a skilled trade, and there should be school supervision till sixteen and replacing in school if not jroperly employed. Regularization of Employment. — Government departments and ocal and public authorities should be enjoined to regularize their work as far as possible, and to endeavour, as far as possible, to undertake their irregular work when the general demand for labour is slack. 8o POPAYAN Unemployment Insurance. — The establishment and promotion of unemployment insurance, especially amongst unskilled and unorganized labour, is of paramount importance in averting distress arising from unemployment, and is of such national im- portance as to justify, under specified conditions, contributions from public funds towards its furtherance. The commission further state that this insurance can best be promoted by utilizing the agency of existing trade organizations, or of organizations of1 a similar character. They are of opinion that no scheme of unemployment insurance, either foreign or British, which has been brought before them, is so free from objections as to justify them in recommending it for general adoption. Labour Colonies. — The commission recommend their establish- ment and use. (For .these see VAGRANCY.) Four out of the seventeen members of the commission, being unable to agree with their colleagues, issued a separate report, which is very nearly as voluminous as that of the Report* majority. Their recommendations were more drastic than those of the majority, and had for their aim not a reform of the poor law as it exists, but its entire break- up. The minority agree with the majority in recommending the abolition of workhouses, but instead of setting up new authorities, they consider that the duties of the guardians should be transferred to the county authorities, with an appropriate distribution among four existing committees of the county council. They recommend that the education committee become responsible for the entire care of children of school age. That the health committee should care for the sick and permanently incapacitated, infants under school age, and the aged requiring institutional care. The asylums committee should have charge of the mentally defective and the pension committee of the aged to whom pensions are awarded. The minority consider there should be some systematic co- ordination, within each local area, of all forms of public assis- tance and, if possible, of all assistance dispensed by voluntary agencies, and they recommend the appointment, by the county or county borough council, of one or more responsible officers, called " registrars of public assistance." Their duties would be to keep a register of all persons receiving any form of public assistance within their districts; they would assess the charge to be made on individuals liable to pay any part of the cost of the service rendered to them or their dependants, and re- cover the amount thus due. They would also have to consider the proposals of the various committees of the council for the payment of out-relief, or, as the minority prefer to term it, " home aliment." Other various duties are allotted to them in the report. The subject of unemployment was considered by the minority and they made the following recommendations: — Ministry of Labour. — The duty of organizing the national labour market should be placed upon a minister responsible to parliament. The ministry of labour should have six distinct and separately organized divisions; viz. the national labour exchange; the trade insurance division; the maintenance and training division; the industrial regulation division; the emigration and immigration division, and the statistical division. National Labour Exchange. — The function of the national labour exchange should be, not only, (a) to ascertain and report the surplus or shortage of labour of particular kinds, at particular places; and (6) to diminish the time and energy now spent in looking for work, and the consequent leaking between jobs; but also (c) so to dovetail casual and seasonal employments as to arrange for practical con- tinuity of work for those now chronically unemployed. Absorption of Surplus Labour. — To reduce the surplus of labour the minority recommend (a) that no child should be employed, in any occupation whatsoever, below the age of fifteen; no young person under eighteen tor more than thirty hours per week, and all so employed should be required to attend some suitable public institution for not less than thirty hours per week for physical training and technical education; (6) the hours of labour of railway, omnibus and tramway employees should be reduced to a maximum of sixty, if not of forty-eight in any one week; and (c) wage-earning mothers of young children should be withdrawn from the industrial world by giving them sufficient public assistance for the support of their families. Regularization of the National Demand for Labour. — In order to meet the periodically recurrent general depressions of trade the government should take advantage of there being at these periods as much unemployment of capital as there is unemployment of labour; that it should definitely undertake, as far as practicable, the regularization of the national demand for labour; and that it should, for this purpose, and to the extent of at least £4,000,000 a year, arrange a portion of the ordinary work required by each department on a ten years' programme; £4.0,000,000 worth of work for the decade being then put in hand, not by equal annual instal- ments, but exclusively in the lean years of the trade cycle; being paid for out of loans for short terms raised as they are required, and being executed with the best available labour, at standard rates, engaged in the ordinary way. That in this ten years' programme there should be included works of afforestation, coast protection and land reclamation; to be carried out by the board of agriculture exclusively in the lean years of the trade cycle; by the most suitable labour obtainable, taken on in the ordinary way at the rates locally current for the work, and paid for out of loans raised as required. Trade Union Insurance. — In view of its probable adverse effect on trade union membership and organization the minority com- missioners cannot recommend the establishment of any plan of government or compulsory insurance against unemployment. They recommend, however, a government subvention not exceeding one half of the sum actually paid in the last preceding year as out- of-work benefit should be offered to trade unions or other societies providing such benefit. Maintenance and Training. — For the ultimate residuum of men in distress from want of employment the minority recommend that maintenance should be freely provided, without disfranchise- ment, on condition that they submit themselves to the physical and mental training that they may prove to require. Suitable day training depots or residential farm colonies should be estab- lished, where the men's whole working time would be absorbed in such varied beneficial training of body and mind as they proved capable of; their wives and families being, meanwhile, provided with adequate home aliment. AUTHORITIES. — The Report and Evidence of the Royal Com- mission of 1905—1909 is a library in itself on the subject of pauperism. The contents of the various volumes are given supra. Other im- portant publications are Report and Evidence of Royal Commission on Aged Poor (1895) ; Report and Evidence of Select Committee of House of Commons on Distress from Want of Employment (1895); Report of Departmental Committee on Vag'ancy (1906). See also the references in the bibliography to CHARITY AND CHARITIES; and Sir G. Nicholls and T. Mackay, A History of the English Poor Law (3 vols., 1899) ; the publications of the Charity Organization Society ; Reports of Poor Law Conferences. For list of subjects discussed, see index to Report of Central Conferences. POPAYAN, a city of Colombia, capital of the department of Cauca, about 240 m. S.W. of Bogota, on the old trade route between that city and Quito, in 2° 26' N., 76° 49' W. Pop. (1870), 8485; (1906, estimate), 10,000. Popayan is built on a great plain sloping N.W. from the foot of the volcano Purace, near the source of the Cauca and on one of its small tribu- taries, 5712 ft. above the sea. Its situation is singularly pic- turesque, the Purace rising to an elevation of 15,420 ft. about 20 m. south-east of the city, the Sotara volcano to approxi- mately the same height about the same distance south by east, and behind these at a greater distance the Pan de Azucar, 15,978 ft. high. The ridge forming the water-parting between the basins of the Cauca and Patia rivers crosses between the Central and Western Cordilleras at this point and culminates a few miles to the south. Popayan is the seat of a bishopric dating from 1547, whose cathedral was built by the Jesuits; and in the days of its prosperity it possessed a university of considerable reputation. It has several old churches, a college, two seminaries founded about 1870 by the French Lazarists, who have restored and occupy the old Jesuit convent, and a mint established in 1749. The city was at one time an important commercial and mining centre, but much of its importance was lost through the transfer of trade to Cali and Pasto, through the decay of neighbouring mining industries, and through political disturbances. Earth- quakes have also caused much damage to Popayan, especially those of 1827 and 1834. The modern city has some small manufacturing industries, including woollen fabrics for cloth- ing, but its trade is much restricted, and its importance is political rather than commercial. Popayan was founded by Sebastian Benalcazar in 1 538 on the site of an Indian settlement, whose chief, Payan, had the un- usual honour of having his name given to the usurping town. In 1558 it received a coat of arms and the title of " Muy noble y muy leal " from the king of Spain — a distinction of great POPE 81 Various significance in that disturbed period of colonial history. It is noted also as the birthplace of Caldas, the Colombian naturalist, and of Mosquera, the geographer. There are hot sulphurous springs near by on the flanks of the volcano Purace, especially at Coconuco, which are much frequented by Colombians. POPE (Or. irdiriraj, post-classical Lat. papa, father), an ecclesiastical title now used exclusively to designate the head of the Roman Catholic Church. In the 4th and 5th 1 centuries it was frequently used in the West of any bishop (Du Cange, s.v.); but it gradually came to be reserved to the bishop of Rome, becoming his official title. In the East, on the other hand, only the bishop of Alexandria seems to have used it as a title; but as a popular term it was applied to priests, and at the present day, in the Greek Church and in Russia, all the priests are called pappas, which is also translated " pope." Even in the case of the sovereign pontiff the word pope is officially only used as a less solemn style: though the ordinary signature and heading of briefs is, e.g. " Pius P.P.X.," the signature of bulls is " Pius episcopus ecclesiae catholicae," and the heading, " Pius epi- scopus, servus servorum Dei," this latter formula going back to the time of St Gregory the Great. Other styles met with in official documents are Pontifex, Summus pontifex, Romanus pontifex, Sanctissimus, Sanctissimus pater, Sanctissimus domi- nus noster, Sanctitas sua, Beatissimus pater, Beatitudo sua; while the pope is addressed in speaking as " Sanctitas vestra," or " Beatissime pater." In the middle ages is also found " Dominus apostolicus " (cf. still, in the litanies of the saints), or simply " Apostolicus." The pope is pre-eminently, as successor of St Peter, bishop of Rome. Writers are fond of viewing him as representing all the degrees of the ecclesiastical hierarchy; they say that he is bishop of Rome, metropolitan of the °f,Jt"rls' Roman province, primate of Italy, patriarch of the western Church and head of the universal Church. This is strictly correct, but, with the exception of the first and last, these titles are seldom to be found in documents. And if these terms were intended to indicate so many degrees in the exercise of jurisdiction they would not be correct. As a matter of fact, from the earliest centuries (cf. can. 6 of Nicaea, in 325), we see that the popes exercised a special metropolitan juris- diction not only over the bishops nearest to Rome, the future cardinal bishops, but also over all those of central and southern Italy, including Sicily (cf. Duchesne, Origines du culte, ch. i), all of whom received their ordination at his hands. Northern Italy and the rest of the western Church, still more the eastern Church, did not depend upon him so closely for their administra- tion. His influence was exercised, however, not only in dogmatic questions but in matters of discipline, by means of appeals, petitions and consultations, not to mention spon- taneous intervention. This state of affairs was defined and developed in the course of centuries, till it produced the present state of centralization, according to a law which can equally be observed in other societies. In practice the different degrees of jurisdiction, as represented in the pope, are of no importance: he is bishop of Rome and governs his diocese by direct episcopal authority; he is also the head of the Church, and in this capacity governs all the dioceses, though the regular authority of each bishop in his own diocese is also ordinary and immediate, i.e. he is not a mere vicar of the pope. But the mode of exercise of a power and its intensity are subject to variation, while the power remains essentially the same. This is the case with the power of the pope Primacy. j i . and his primacy, the exercise and manifestation of which have been continually developing. This primacy, a primacy of honour and jurisdiction, involving the plenitude of power over the teaching, the worship, the discipline and administration of the Church, is received by the pope as part of the succession of St Peter, together with the episcopate of Rome. The whole episcopal body, with the pope at its head, should be considered as succeeding to the apostolic college, presided over by St Peter; and the head of it, now as then, as personally invested with all the powers enjoyed by the whole body, including the head. Hence the pope, as supreme in mat- ters of doctrine, possesses the same authority and the same in- fallibility as the whole Church; as legislator and judge he pos- sesses the same power as the episcopal body gathered around and with him in oecumenical council. Such are the two essential prerogatives of the papal primacy: infallibility in his supreme pronouncements in matters of doctrine (see INFALLIBILITY); and immediate and sovereign jurisdiction, under all its aspects, over all the pastors and the faithful. These two privileges, having been claimed and enjoyed by the popes in the course of centuries, were solemnly denned at the Vatican Council by the constitution " Pastor aeternus " of the i8th of July 1870. The two principal passages in it are the following, (i) In the matter of jurisdiction: " If any one say that the Roman Pontiff has an office merely of inspection and direction, and not the full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the whole Church, not only in matters of faith and morals, but also as regards discipline and the government of the Church scattered through- out the whole world; or that he has only the principal portion and not the plenitude of that supreme power; or that his power is not ordinary and immediate, as much over each and every church as over each and every pastor and believer: anathema sit." (2) In the matter of infallibility: " We decree that when the Roman Pontiff speaks ex cathedra, that is to say, when, in his capacity as Pastor and Doctor of all Christians he defines, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, a certain doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church, he enjoys, by the divine assistance promised to him in the Blessed Peter, that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer has thought good to endow His Church in order to define its doctrine in matters of faith and morals; consequently, these definitions of the Roman Pontiff are irreformable in themselves and not in consequence of the consent of the Church." For the history of the papacy, and associated questions, see PAPACY, CONCLAVE, CURIA ROMANA, CARDINAL, &c. The ordinary costume of the pope is similar to that of the other clergy and bishops, but white in colour; his shoes alone are different, being low open shoes, red in colour, with a cross embroidered on the front; these are what are called the " mules," a substitute for the compagi of ancient times, formerly reserved to the pope and his clergy (cf. Duchesne, op. cit. ch. n, 6). Over this costume the pope wears, on less solemn occasions, the lace rochet and the red mozetta, bordered with ermine, or the camauro, similar to the mozetta, but with the addition of a hood, and over all the stole embroidered with his arms. The pope's liturgical costume consists, in the first place, of all the elements comprising that of the bishops: stockings and sandals, amice, alb, cincture, tunicle and dalmatic, stole, ring, gloves, chasuble or cope, the latter, however, with a morse ornamented with precious stones, and for head-dress the mitre (see VESTMENTS). The tiara (ecame warmly attached to him, is dated the 8th of December 1713. Swift had been a leading member of the Brothers' Dlub, from which the famous Scriblerus Club seems to have >een an offshoot. The leading members of this informal 84 POPE, ALEXANDER literary society were Swift, Arbuthnot, Congreve, Bishop Atterbury, Pope, Gay and Thomas Parnell. Their chief object was a general war against the dunces, waged with great spirit by Arbuthnot, Swift and Pope. The estrangement from Addison was completed in connexion with Pope's translation of Homer. This enterprise was definitely undertaken in 1713. The work was to be published by subscription, as Dryden's Virgil had been. Men of all parties subscribed, their unanimity being a striking proof of the position Pope had attained at the age of twenty-five. It was as if he had received a national commission as by general consent the first poet of his time. But the unanimity was broken by a discordant note. A member of the Addison clique, Tickell, attempted to run a rival version. Pope suspected Addison's instigation; Tickell had at least Addison's encourage- ment. Pope's famous character of Addison as " Atticus " in the Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot (ii. 193-215) was, however, in- spired by resentment at insults that existed chiefly in his own imagination, though Addison was certainly not among his warmest admirers. Pope afterwards claimed to have been magnanimous, but he spoiled his case by the petty inventions of his account of the quarrel. The translation of Homer was Pope's chief employment for twelve years. The new pieces in the miscellanies published in 1717, his "Elegy on an Unfortunate Lady," and his " Eloisa to Abelard," were probably written some years before their publication. His " Eloisa to Abelard " was based on an English translation by John Hughes of a French version of the Letters, which differed very considerably from the original Latin. The Iliad was delivered to the subscribers in instal- ments in 1715, 1717, 1718 and 1720. Pope's own defective scholarship made help necessary. William Broome and John Jortin supplied the bulk of the notes, and Thomas Parnell the preface. For the translation of the Odyssey he took Elijah Fenton and Broome as coadjutors, who between them trans- lated twelve out of the twenty-four books.1 It was completed in 1725. The profitableness of [the work was Pope's chief temptation to undertake it. His receipts for his earlier poems had totalled about £150, but he cleared more than £8000 by the two translations, after deducting all payments to coadjutors — a much larger sum than had ever been received by an English author before. The translation of Homer had established Pope's reputation with his contemporaries, and has endangered it ever since it was challenged. Opinions have varied on the purely literary merits of the poem, but with regard to it as a translation few have differed from Bentley's criticism, " A fine poem, Mr Pope, but you must not call it Homer." His collaboration with Broome (q.v.) and Fenton (q.v.) 2 involved him in a series of recriminations. Broome was weak enough to sign a note at the end of the work understating the extent of Fenton's assist- ance as well as his own, and ascribing the merit of their trans- lation, reduced to less than half its real proportions, to a regular revision and correction — mostly imaginary — at Pope's hands. These falsehoods were deemed necessary by Pope to protect himself against possible protests from the subscribers. In 1722 he edited the poems of Thomas Parnell, and in 1725 made a considerable sum by an unsatisfactory edition of Shake- speare, in which he had the assistance of Fenton and Gay. Pope, with his economical habits, was rendered independent by the pecuniary success of his Homer, and enabled to live near London. The estate at Binfield was sold, and he removed with his parents to Mawson's Buildings, Chiswick, in 1716, and in 1719 to Twickenham, to the house with which his name is associated. Here he practised elaborate landscape gardening on a small scale, and built his famous grotto, which was really a tunnel under the road connecting the garden with the lawn on the Thames. He was constantly visited at Twickenham by his intimates, Dr John Arbuthnot, John Gay, Bolingbroke 1 I, 4, 19 and 20 are by Fenton; 2, 6, 8, II, 12, 16, 18, 23, with notes to all the books, by Broome. 1 The correspondence with them is given in vol. viii. of Elwin and Courthope's edition. (after his return in 1723), and Swift (during his brief visits England in 1726 and 1727), and by many other friends of the Tory party. With Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, he was on terms of affectionate intimacy, but he blundered in his evidence when he was called as a witness on his behalf in 1723. In 1717 his father died, and he appears to have turned to the Blounts for sympathy in what was to him a very serious bereavement. He had early made the acquaintance of Martha and Teresa Blount, both of them intimately connected with his domestic history. Their home was at Mapledurham,. near Reading, but Pope probably first met them at the house of his neighbour, Mr Englefield of Whiteknights, who was their grandfather. He begun to correspond with Martha Blount in 1712, and after 1717 the letters are much more serious in tone. He quarrelled with Teresa, who had apparently injured or prevented his suit to her sister; and although, after her father's death in 1718, he paid her an annuity, he seems to have regarded her as one of his most dangerous enemies. His friendship with Martha lasted all his life. So long as his mother lived he was unwearying in his attendance on her, but after her death in 1733 his association with Martha Blount was more constant. In defiance of the scandal-mongers, they paid visits together at the houses of common friends, and at Twickenham she spent part of each day with him. His earlier attachment to Lady Mary Wortley Montagu was apparently a more or less literary passion, which perished under Lady Mary's ridicule. The year 1725 may be taken as' the beginning of the third period of Pope's career, when he made his fame as a moralist and a satirist. It may be doubted whether Pope had the stay- ing power necessary for the composition of a great imaginative work, whether his crazy constitution would have held together through the strain. He toyed with the idea of writing a grand epic. He told Spence that he had it all in his head, and gave him a vague (and it must be admitted not very promising) sketch of the subject and plan of it. But he never put any of it on paper. He shrank as with instinctive repulsion from the stress and strain of complicated designs. Even his prolonged task of translating weighed heavily on his spirits, and this was a much less formidable effort than creating an epic. He turned rather to designs that could be accomplished in detail, works of which the parts could be separately laboured at and put together with patient care, into which happy thoughts could be fitted that had been struck out at odd moments and in ordinary levels of feeling. Edward Young's satire, The Universal Passion, had just appeared, and been received with more enthusiasm than any thing published since Pope's own early successes. This alone would have been powerful inducement to Pope's emulous tem- per. Swift was finishing Gulliver's Travels, and came over to England in 1726. The survivors of the Scriblerus Club — Swift, Pope, Arbuthnot, and Gay — resumed their old amusement of parodying and otherwise ridiculing bad writers, especially bad writers in the Whig interest. Two volumes of their Mis- cellanies in Prose and Verse were published in 1727. A third volume appeared in 1728, and a fourth was added in 1732. According to Pope's own history of the Dunciad, an Heroic Poem in Three Books, which first appeared on the 28th of May 1728, the idea of it grew out of'this. Among the Miscellanies was a " Treatise of the Bathos or the Art of Sinking in Poetry," in which poets were classified, with illustrations, according to their eminence in the various arts of debasing instead of elevating their subject. No names were mentioned, but the specimens of bathos were assigned to various letters of the alphabet, which, the authors boldly asserted, were taken at random. But no sooner was the treatise published than the scribblers proceeded to take the letters to themselves, and in revenge to fill the news- papers with the most abusive falsehoods and scurrilities they could devise. This gave Pope the opportunity he had hoped for, and provided him with an excuse for the personalities of the Dunciad, which had been in his mind as early as 1720. Among the most prominent objects of his satire were Lewis POPE, ALEXANDER Theobald, Colley Gibber, John Dennis, Richard Bentley, Aaron Hill and Bernard Lintot, who, in spite of his former relations with Pope, was now classed with the piratical Edmund Curll. The book was published with the greatest precautions. It was anonymous, and professed to be a reprint of a Dublin edition. When the success of the poem was assured, it was republished in 1729, and a copy was presented to the king by Sir Robert Walpole. Names took the place of initials, and a defence of the satire, written by Pope himself, but signed by his friend William Cleland, was printed as " A letter to the Publisher." Various indexes, notes and particulars of the attacks on Pope made by the different authors satirized were added. To avoid any danger of prosecution, the copyright was assigned to Lord Oxford, Lord Bathurst and Lord Burlington, whose position rendered them practically unassailable. We may admit that personal spite influenced Pope at least as much as disinte- >1 zeal for the honour of literature, but in the dispute as to the comparative strength of these motives, a third is apt to be overlooked that was probably stronger than either. This was an unscrupulous elfish love of fun, and delight in the creations of a humorous imagination. Certainly to represent the Dun- dad as the outcome of mere personal spite is to give an exag- gerated idea of the malignity of Pope's disposition, and an utterly wrong impression of the character of his satire. He was not, except in rare cases, a morose, savage, indignant satirist, but airy and graceful in his malice, revengeful perhaps and excessively sensitive, but restored to good humour as he thought over his wrongs by the ludicrous conceptions with which he invested his adversaries. The most unprovoked assault was on Richard Bentley, whom he satirized in the reconstruction and enlargement of the Dunciad made in the last years of his life at the instigation, it is said, of William Warburton. In the earlier editions the place of hero had been occupied by Lewis Theobald, who had ventured to criticize Pope's Shake- speare. In the edition which appeared in Pope's Works (1742), he was dethroned in favour of Colley Gibber, who had just written his Letter from Mr Gibber to Mr Pope inquiring into the motives that might induce him in his satyrical writings to be so frequently fond of Mr Gibber's name (1742). Warburton's name is attached to many new notes, and one of the preliminary dissertations by Ricardus Aristarchus on the hero of the poem seems to be by him. The four epistles of the Essay on Man (1733) were also intimately connected with passing controversies. They belong to the same intellectual movement with Butler's Analogy — the effort of the i8th century to put religion on a rational basis. But Pope was not a thinker like Butler. The subject was suggested to him by Henry St John, Lord Bolingbroke, who had returned from exile in 1723, and was a fellow-member of the Scriblerus Club. Bolingbroke is said — and the statement is supported by the contents of his posthumous works — to have furnished most of the arguments. Pope's contribution to the controversy consisted in brilliant epigram and illustra- tion. In this didactic work, as in his Essay on Criticism, he put together on a sufficiently simple plan a series of happy sayings, separately elaborated, picking up the thoughts as he found them in miscellaneous reading and conversation, and trying only to fit them with perfect expression. His readers were too dazzled by the verse to be severely critical of the sense. Pope himself had not comprehended the drift of the arguments he had adopted from Bolingbroke, and was alarmed when he found that his poem was generally interpreted as an apology for the free-thinkers. Warburton is said to have qualified its doctrines as " rank atheism, " and asserted that it was put together from the " worst passages of the worst authors." The essay was soon translated into the chief European languages, and in 1737 its orthodoxy was assailed by a Swiss professor, Jean Pierre de Crousaz. in an Examen de I'essay de M. Pope sur ritomme. Warburton now saw fit to revise his opinion of Pope's abilities and principles — for what reason does not appear. In any case he now became as enthusiastic in his praise of Pope's orthodoxy and his genius as he had before been scornful, and proceeded to employ his unrivalled powers of sophistry in a defence of the orthodoxy of the conflicting and inconsequent positions adopted in the Essay on Man. Pope was wise enough to accept with all gratitude an ally who was so useful a friend and so dangerous an enemy, and from that time onward Warburton was the authorized commentator of his works. The Essay on Man was to have formed part of a series of philosophic poems on a systematic plan. The other pieces were to treat of human reason, of the use of learning, wit, education and riches, of civil and ecclesiastical polity, of the character of women, &c. Of the ten epistles of the Moral Essays, the first four, written between 1731 and 1735, are connected with this scheme, which was never executed. There was much bitter, and sometimes unjust, satire in the Moral Essays and the Imitations of Horace. In these epistles and satires, which appeared at intervals, he was often the mouth- piece of his political friends, who were all of them in opposition to Walpole, then at the height of his power, and Pope chose the object of his attacks from among the minister's adherents. Epistle III., " Of the Use of Riches," addressed to Allen Bath- urst, Lord Bathurst, in 1732, is a direct attack on Walpole's methods of corruption, and on his financial policy in general; and the two dialogues (1738) known as the " Epilogue to the Satires," professedly a defence of satire, form an eloquent attack on the court. Pope was attached to the prince of Wales's party, and he did not forget to insinuate, what was indeed the truth, that the queen had refused the prince her pardon on her deathbed. The " Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot " contains a de- scription of his personal attitude towards the scribblers and is made to serve as a " prologue to the satires." The gross and unpardonable insults bestowed on Lord Hervey and on Lady Mary Wortley Montagu in the first satire " to Mr Fortescue " provoked angry retaliation from both. The description of Timon's ostentatious villa in Epistle IV., addressed to the earl of Burlington, was generally taken as a picture of Canons, the seat of John Brydges, duke of Chandos, one of Pope's patrons, and caused a great outcry, though in this case Pope seems to have been innocent of express allusion. Epistle II., addressed to Martha Blount, contained the picture of Atossa, which was taken to be a portrait of Sarah Jennings, duchess of Marlborough. One of the worst imputations on Pope's character was that he left this passage to be published when he had in effect received a bribe of £1000 from the duchess of Marl- borough for its suppression through the agency of Nathanael Hooke (d. 1763). As the passage eventually stood, it might be applied to Katherine, duchess of Buckingham, a natural daughter of James II. Pope may have altered it with the intention of diverting the satire from the original object. He was scrupulously honest in money matters, and always in- dependent in matters of patronage; but there is some evidence for this discreditable story beyond the gossip of Horace Wal- pole (Works, ed. P. Cunningham, i. cxliv.), though not suffi- cient to justify the acceptance it received by some of Pope's biographers. To appreciate fully the point of his allusions requires an intimate acquaintance with the political and social gossip of the time. But apart from their value as a brilliant strongly-coloured picture of the time Pope's satires have a permanent value as literature. It is justly remarked by Mark Pattison ' that " these Imitations are among the most original of his writings." The vigour and terseness of the diction is still unsurpassed in English verse. Pope had gained complete mastery over his medium, the heroic couplet, before he used it to express his hatred of the political and social evils which he satirized. The elaborate periphrases and superfluous orna- ments of his earlier manner, as exemplified in the Pastorals and the Homer, disappeared; he turned to the uses of verse the ordinary language of conversation, differing from everyday speech only in its exceptional brilliance and point. It is in these satires that his best work must be sought, and by them that his position among English poets must be fixed. It was 1 In his edition of the Satires and Epistles (1866). 86 POPE, ALEXANDER the Homer chiefly that Wordsworth and Coleridge had in their eye when they began the polemic against the " poetic diction " of the 1 8th century, and struck at Pope as the arch-corrupter. They were historically unjust to Pope, who did not originate this diction, but only furnished the most finished examples of it. At the beginning of the igth century Pope still had an ardent admirer in Byron, whose first satires are written in Pope's couplet. The much abused pseudo-poetic diction in substance consisted in an ambition to " rise above the vulgar style," to dress nature to advantage — a natural ambition when the arbiters of literature were people of fashion. If one com- pares Pope's " Messiah " or " Eloisa to Abelard," or an im- passioned passage from the Iliad, with the originals that he paraphrased, one gets a more vivid idea of the consistence of pseudo-poetic diction than could be furnished by pages of an- alysis. But Pope merely made masterly use of the established diction of his time, which he eventually forsook for a far more direct and vigorous style. A passage from the Guardian, in which Philips was commended as against him, runs: " It is a nice piece of art to raise a proverb above the vulgar style and still keep it easy and unaffected. Thus the old wish, ' God rest his soul,' is very finely turned: — • ' Then gentle Sidney liv'd, the shepherd's friend, Eternal blessings on his shade attend ! ' ' Pope would have despised so easy a metamorphosis as this at any period in his career, and the work of his coadjutors in the Odyssey may be distinguished by this comparative cheapness of material. Broome's description of the clothes-washing by Nausicaa and her maidens in the sixth book may be compared with the original as a luminous specimen. Pope's wit had won for him the friendship of many distin- guished men, and his small fortune enabled him to meet them on a footing of independence. He paid long visits at many great houses, especially at Stanton Harcourt, the home of his friend Lord Chancellor Harcourt; at Oakley, the seat of Lord Bathurst; and at Prior Park, Bath, where his host was Ralph Allen. With the last named he had a temporary disagree- ment owing to some slight shown to Martha Blount, but he was reconciled to him before his death. He died on the 3oth of May 1744, and he was buried in the parish church of Twickenham. He left the income from his property to Martha Blount till her death, after which it was to go to his half-sister Magdalen Rackett and her children. His unpublished MSS. were left at the discretion of Lord Boling- broke, and his copyrights to Warburton. If we are to judge Pope, whether as a man or as a poet, with human fairness, and not merely by comparison with standards of abstract perfection, there are two features of his times that must be kept steadily in view — the character of political strife in those days and the political relations of men of letters. As long as the succession to the Crown was doubtful, and political failure might mean loss of property, banishment or death, politicians, playing for higher stakes, played more fiercely and unscrupulously than in modern days, and there was no con- trolling force of public opinion to keep them within the bounds of common honesty. Hence the age of Queen Anne is pre- eminently an age of intrigue. The government was almost as unsettled as in the early days of personal monarchy, and there was this difference — that it was policy rather than force upon which men depended for keeping their position. Secondly, men of letters were admitted to the inner circles of intrigue as they had never been before and as they have never been since. A generation later Walpole defied them, and paid the rougher instruments that he considered sufficient for his purpose in solid coin of the realm; but Queen Anne's statesmen, whether from difference of tastes or difference of policy, paid their prin- cipal literary champions with social privileges and honourable public appointments. Hence men of letters were directly in- fected by the low political morality of the unsettled time. And the character of their poetry also suffered. The most promi- nent defects of the age — the lack of high and sustained imagination, the genteel liking for " nature to advantage dressed," the incessant striving after wit — were fostered, if not generated, by the social atmosphere. Pope's own ruling passion was the love of fame, and he had no scruples where this was concerned. His vanity and his childish love of intrigue are seen at their worst in his petty manoeuvres to secure the publication of his letters during his lifetime. These intricate proceedings were unravelled with great patience and ingenuity by Charles Wentworth Dilkc, when the false picture of his relations with his contemporaries which Pope had imposed on the public had been practically accepted for a century. Elizabeth Thomas, the mistress of Henry Cromwell, had sold Pope's early letters to Henry Cromwell to the bookseller Curll for ten guineas. These were published in Curll's Miscellanea in 1726 (dated 1727), and had considerable success. This surreptitious publication seems to have suggested to Pope the desirability of publishing his own correspondence, which he immediately began to collect from various friends on the plea of preventing a similar clandestine transaction. The publication by Wycherley's executors of a posthumous volume of the dramatist's prose and verse fur- nished Pope with an excuse for the appearance of his own correspondence with Wycherley, which was accompanied by a series of unnecessary deceptions. After manipulating his cor- respondence so as to place his own character in the best light, he deposited a copy in the library of Edward, second earl of Oxford, and then he had it printed. The sheets were offered to Curll by a person calling himself P.T., who professed a desire to injure Pope, but was no other than Pope himself. The copy was delivered to Curll in 1735 after long negotiations by an agent who called himself R. Smythe, with a few originals to vouch for their authenticity. P. T. had drawn up an adver- tisement stating that the book was to contain answers from various peers. Curll was summoned before the House of Lords for breach of privilege, but was acquitted, as the letters from peers were not in fact forthcoming. Difficulties then arose between Curll and P. T., and Pope induced a bookseller named Cooper to publish a Narrative of the Method by which Mr Pope's Private Letters were procured by Edmund Curll, Book- seller (1735). These preliminaries cleared the way for a show of indignation against piratical publishers and a " genuine " edition of the Letters of Mr Alexander Pope (1737, fol. and 4to). Unhappily for Pope's reputation, his friend Caryll, who died before the publication, had taken a copy of Pope's letters before returning them. This letter-book came to light in the middle of the igth century, and showed the freedom which Pope permitted himself in editing. The correspondence with Lord Oxford, preserved at Longleat, afforded further evidence of his tortuous dealings. The methods he employed to secure his correspondence with Swift were even more discreditable. The proceedings can only be explained as the measures of a desperate man whose maladies seem to have engendered a passion for trickery. They are related in detail by Elwin in the introduction to vol. i. of Pope's Works. A man who is said to have " played the politician about cabbages and turnips," and who " hardly drank tea without a stratagem," was not likely to be straightforward in a matter in which his ruling passion was concerned. Against Pope's petulance and " general love of secrecy and cunning " have to be set, in any fair judg- ment of his character, his exemplary conduct as a son, the affection with which he was regarded in his own circle of intimates, and many well-authenticated instances of genuine and continued kindliness to persons in distress. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Various collected editions of Pope's Works appeared during his lifetime, and in 1751 an edition in nine volumes was published by a syndicate of booksellers " with the commentaries of Mr Warburton." Warburton interpreted his editorial rights very liberally. By his notes he wilfully misrepresented the meaning of the allusions in the satires, and made them more agreeable to his friends and to the court, while he made opportunities for the gratifi- cation of his own spite against various individuals. Joseph Warton's edition in 1797 added to the mass of commentary without giving much new elucidation to the allusions of the text, which even Swift, with his exceptional facilities, had found obscure. In 1769-1807 an edition was issued which included Owen Ruffhead's Life of Alexander POPE, A.— POPE, SIR T. Pope (1769), inspired by Warburton. The notes of many com- nifiitators, with some letters and a memoir, were included in the v of Alexander Pope, edited by W. L. Bowles (10 vols., 1806). Hi- Poetical Works were edited by Alexander Dyce (1856); by R. Carruthers (1858) for Bohn's Library; by A. W. Ward (Globe Edition, ••> '782). Warton had a sincere appreciation of Pope's work, but he began the reaction which culminated with the romantic writers of the beginning of the igth century, and set the fashion of an undue disparagement of Pope's genius as a poet with enduring effects on popular opinion. Thomas Campbell's criticism in his Specimens of the British Poets provoked a controversy to which William Hazlitt, Byron and W. L. Bowles contributed. For a discussion of Pope's position as one of the great men of letters in the i8th century who emancipated themselves from patronage, see A. Heljame, Le Public et les hommes de lettres en An^leterre au dix- huiticme sikcle (1881); a section of Isaac D'lsraeh's Quarrels of Authors is devoted to Pope's literary animosities; and most impor- tant contributions to many vexed questions in the biography of Pope, especially the publication of his letters, were made by C. W. Dilke in Notes and Queries and the Athenaeum. These articles were reprinted by his grandson, Sir Charles Dilke, in 1875, as The Papers of a Critic. (W. M.; M. BR.) POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835), Irish actor and painter, was born in Cork, and was educated to follow his father's profession of miniature painting. He continued to paint miniatures and exhibit them at the Royal Academy as late as 1821; but at an early date he took the stage, first appearing in London as Oroonoko in 1785 at Covent Garden. He remained at this theatre almost continuously for nearly twenty years, then at the Haymarket until his retirement, playing leading parts, chiefly tragic. He was particularly esteemed as Othello and Henry VIII. He died on the 22nd of March 1835. Pope was thrice married. His first wife, Elizabeth Pope (c. 1744- 1797), a favourite English actress of great versatility, was billed before her marriage as Miss Younge. His second wife, Maria Ann Pope (1775-1803), also a popular actress, was a member of an Irish family named Campion. His third wife, Clara Maria Pope (d. 1838), was the widow of the artist Francis Wheatley, and herself a skilful painter of figures and of flowers. POPE, JANE (1742-1818), English actress, daughter of a London theatrical wig-maker, who began playing in a Lilli- putian company for Garrick in 1756. From this she speedily developed into soubrette roles. She was Mrs Candour in The School for Scandal at its first presentation (1777), and thereafter she had many important parts confided to her. She was the life-long friend of Mrs Clive, and erected the monument at Twickenham to the latter's memory. She was not only an admirable actress, but a woman of blameless life, and was praised by all the literary critics of her day — unused to such a combination. She died on the 3oth of July 1818. POPE, JOHN (1822-1892), American soldier, was the son of Nathaniel Pope (1784-1850), U.S. judge for the district of Illinois, and was born at Louisville, Kentucky, on the i6th of March 1822. He graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1842 and was assigned to the engineers. He served in the Mexican War, receiving the brevets of ist lieutenant and captain for his conduct at Monterey and Buena Vista. Sub- sequently he was engaged in engineering and exploring work, mainly in New Mexico, and in surveying the route for a Pacific railroad. He was commissioned captain in 1856. He was actively opposed to the Buchanan administration, and a speech which he made in connexion with the presidential campaign of 1860 caused him to be summoned before a court-martial. Early in the Civil War he was placed, as a brigadier-general U.S.V., in charge of the district of Missouri, which by vigorous campaigning against guerrilla bands and severe administration of the civil population he quickly reduced to order. In 1862, along with the gunboat flotilla (commanded by Commodore A. H. Foote) on the Mississippi, Pope obtained a great success by the capture of the defences of New Madrid and Island No. 10, with nearly 7000 prisoners. Pope subsequently joined Halleck, and hi command of the Army of the Mississippi took part in the siege of Corinth. He was now a major-general U.S.V. The repu- tation he had thus gained as an energetic leader quickly placed him in a high command, to which he proved to be quite unequal. The " Army of Virginia," as - his new forces were styled, had but a brief career. At the very outset of his Virginian campaign Pope, by a most ill-advised order, in which he con- trasted the performances of the Western troops with the failures of the troops in Virginia, forfeited the confidence of his officers and men. The feeling of the Army of the Potomac (which was ordered to his support) was equally hostile, and the short opera- tions culminated in the disastrous defeat of the second battle of Bull Run. Pope was still sanguine and ready for another trial of strength, but he was soon compelled to realize the impossibility of retrieving his position, and resigned the command. Bitter controversy arose over these events. Halleck, the general-in- chief, was by no means free from blame, but the public odium chiefly fell upon generals McClellan and Fitz-John Porter, against whom Pope, while admitting his own mistakes, made grave charges. Pope was not again employed in the Civil War, but in command of the Department of the North-West he showed his former skill and vigour in dealing with Indian risings. In 1865 he was made brevet major-general U.S.A. (having become brigadier-general on his appointment to the Army of Virginia), and he subsequently was in charge of various military districts and departments until his retirement in 1886. In 1882 he was promoted to the full rank of major-general U.S.A. General Pope died at Sandusky, Ohio, on the 23rd of September 1892. He was the author of various works and papers, including railway reports (Pacific Railroad Reports vol. iii.) and The Campaign of Virginia (Washington, 1865). POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559), founder of Trinity College, Oxford, was born at Deddington, near Banbury, Oxfordshire, probably in 1507, for he was about sixteen years old when his father, a yeoman farmer, died in 1523. He was educated at Banbury school and Eton College, and entered the court of chancery. He there found a friend and patron in the lord- chancellor Thomas Audley. As clerk of briefs in the star chamber, warden of the mint (1534-1536), clerk of the Crown in chancery (1537), and second officer and treasurer of the court for the settlement of the confiscated property of the smaller religious foundations, he obtained wealth and influence. In this last office he was superseded in 1541, but from 1547 to 1553 he was again employed as fourth officer. He himself won by grant or purchase a considerable share in the spoils, for nearly thirty manors, which came sooner or later into his possession, were originally church property. " He could have rode," said Aubrey, " in his owne lands from Cogges (by Witney) to Banbury, about 18 miles." In 1537 he was knighted. The religious changes made by Edward VI. were repugnant to him, but at the beginning of Mary's reign he became a member of the privy council. In 1556 he was sent to reside as guardian in Elizabeth's house. As early as 1555 he had begun to arrange for the endowment of a college at Oxford, for which he bought the site and buildings of Durham College, the Oxford house of the abbey of Durham, from Dr George Owen and William Martyn. He received a royal charter for the establishment and endowment of a college of the " Holy and Undivided Trinity " on the 8th of March 1556. The foundation provided for a president, twelve fellows and eight scholars, with a schoolhouse at Hooknorton. The number of scholars, was subsequently increased to twelve, the schoolhouse being given up. On the 28th of March the members of the college were put in possession of the site, and they were formally admitted on the 2gth of May 1556. Pope died at Clerkenwell on the 29th of January 1559, and was buried at St Stephen's, 88 POPE-JOAN— POPILIA, VIA Walbrook; but his remains were subsequently removed to Trinity College, where his widow erected a semi-Gothic alabaster monument to his memory. He was three times married, but left no children. Much of his property was left to charitable and religious foundations, and the bulk of his Oxfordshire estates passed to the family of his brother, John Pope of Wroxton, and his descendants, the viscounts Dillon and the earls of Guilford and barons North. The life, by H. E. D. Blakiston, in the Diet. Nat. Biog., corrects many errors in Thomas Walton's Life of Sir Thomas Pope (1772). Further notices by the same authority are in his Trinity College (1898), in the " College Histories " Series, and in the English Historical Review (April, 1896). POPE-JOAN, a round game of cards, named after a legendary female Pope of the gth century. An ordinary pack is used, from which the eight of diamonds has been removed, and a special round board in the form of eight compartments, named respec- tively Pope- Joan, Matrimony, Intrigue, Ace, King, Queen, Knave and Game (King, Queen and Knave are sometimes omitted). Each player — any number can play — contributes a stake, of which one counter is put into the divisions Ace, King, Queen, Knave and Game, two into Matrimony and Intrigue, and the rest into Pope- Joan. This is called " dressing the board." The cards are dealt round, with an extra hand for " stops," i.e. cards which stop, by their absence, the completion of a suit; thus the absence of the nine of spades stops the playing of the ten. The last card is turned up for trumps. Cards in excess may be dealt to " stops," or an agreed number may be left for the purpose, so that all players may have an equal number of cards. If an honour or " Pope " (nine of diamonds) is turned up, the dealer takes the counters in the compartment so marked. Sometimes the turning-up of Pope settles the hand, the dealer taking the whole pool. The Ace is the lowest card, the King the highest. The player on the dealer's left plays a card and names it; the player who has the next highest then plays it, till a stop is played, i.e. a card of which no one holds the next highest. All Kings are of course stops, also the seven of diamonds; also the cards next below the dealt stops, and the cards next below the played cards. After a stop the played cards are turned over, and the player of the stop (the card last played) leads again. The player who gets rid of all his cards first takes the counters in " Game," and receives a counter from each player for every card left in his hand, except from the player who may hold Pope but has not played it. The player of Ace, King, Queen or Knave of trumps takes the counters from that compartment. If King and Queen of trumps are in one hand, the holder takes the counters in " Matrimony "; if a Queen and Knave, those in " Intrigue "; if all three, those in the two compartments; if they are in different hands these counters are sometimes divided. Unclaimed stakes are left for the next pool. Pope is sometimes considered a universal " stop." POPERINGHE, an ancient town of West Flanders, 12 m. W. of Ypres. Pop. (1904), 11,680. It contains a fine church of the nth century, dedicated to St Betin. In the i4th century it promised to become one of the principal communes in Flanders; but having incurred the resentment of Ypres on a matter of trade rivalry it was attacked and captured by the citizens of that place, who reduced it to a very subordinate position. There are extensive hop gardens, bleaching grounds and tanneries in the neighbourhood of the town. POPHAM, SIR HOME RIGGS (1762-1820), British admiral, was the son of Stephen Popham, consul at Tetuan, and was his mother's twenty-first child. He entered the navy in 1778, and served with the flag of Rodney till the end of the war. In 1783 he was promoted lieutenant, and was for a time engaged on survey service on the coast of Africa. Between 1787 and 1793 he was engaged in a curious series of adventures of a commercial nature in the Eastern Sea — sailing first for the Imperial Ostend Company, and then in a vessel which he purchased and in part loaded himself. During this time he took several surveys and rendered some services to the East India Company, which were officially acknowledged; but in 1793 his ship was seized, partly on the ground that he was carrying contraband and partly because he was infringing the East India Company's monopoly. His loss was put at £70,000, and he was entangled in litigation. In 1805 he obtained compensation to the amount of £25,000. The case was a hard one, for he was undoubtedly sailing with the knowledge of officials in India. While this dispute was going on Popham had resumed his career as a naval officer. He served with the army under the duke of York in Flanders as " superintendent of Inland Navigation " and won his confidence. The protection of the duke was exercised with so much effect that Popham was promoted commander in 1794 and post captain in 1795. He was now engaged for years in co-operating in a naval capacity with the troops of Great Britain and her allies. In the Red Sea he was engaged in transporting the Indian troops em- ployed in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. His bills for the repair of his ship at Calcutta were made the excuse for an attack on him and for charging him with the amount. It was just the time of the general reform of the dockyards, and there was much suspicion in the air. It was also the case that St Vincent did not like Popham, and that Benjamin Tucker (1762-1829), secretary to the admiralty, who had been the admiral's secretary, was his creature and sycophant. Popham was not the man to be snuffed out without an effort. He brought his case before Parliament, and was able to prove that there had been, if not deliberate dishonesty, at least the very grossest carelessness on the part of his assailants. In 1806 he co-operated with Sir David Baird in the occupation of the Cape. He then persuaded the authorities that, as the Spanish Colonies were discontented, it would be easy to promote a rising in Buenos Ayres. The attempt was made with Popham's squadron and 1400 soldiers; but the Spanish colonists, though discontented, were not disposed to accept British help, which would in all probability have been made an excuse for establishing dominion. They rose on the soldiers who landed, and took them prisoners. Popham was recalled, and censured by a court martial for leaving his station; but the City of London presented him with a sword of honour for his endeavours to " open new markets," and the sentence did him no harm. He held other commands in con- nexion with the movements of troops, was promoted rear admiral in 1814, and made K.C.B. in 1815. He died at Cheltenham on the loth of September 1820, leaving a large family. Popham was one of the most scientific seamen of his time. He did much useful survey work, and was the author of the code of signals adopted by the admiralty in 1803 and used for many years. POPHAM, SIR JOHN (c. 1531-1607), English judge, was born at Huntworth, in Somerset, about 1531. He was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, and called to the bar at the Middle Temple. Concerning his early life little is known, but he was probably a member of the parliament of 1558. He was recorder of Bristol, and represented that city in parliament in 1571 and from 1572 to 1583. He was elected Speaker in 1580, and in 1581 became attorney-general, a post which he occupied until his appoint- ment as lord chief justice in 1592. He presided at the trials of Sir Walter Raleigh and Guy Fawkes. Towards the end of his life Popham took a great interest in colonization, and was instrumental in procuring patents for the London and Plymouth companies for the colonization of Virginia. Popham was an advocate, too, of transportation abroad as a means of punishing rogues and vagabonds. His experiment in that direction, the Popham colony, an expedition under the leadership of his brother George (c. 1550-1608), had, however, but a brief career in its settlement (1607) on the Kennebec river. Popham died on the loth of June 1607, and was buried at Wellington, Somerset. See Foss, Lives of the Judges; ]. Winsor, History of America, vol. iii. POPILIA (or POPILLIA), VIA, the name of two ancient roads in Italy, (i) A highroad running from the Via Appia at Capua to Regium, a distance of 321 m. right along the length of the peninsula, and the main road through the interior of the country, not along the coast. It was built in 159 B.C. by the censor M. Popilius Laenias or in 132 B.C. by the consul P. Popilius. (2) A POPINJAY— POPLAR 89 highroad from Ariminum to Aquileia along the Adriatic coast. ii no doubt originally came into use when Aquileia was founded frontier fortress of Italy in 181 B.C., and Polybius gives the distance correctly as 1 78 m. In 13 2 it was reconstructed (munila) by the consul P. Popilius, one of whose milestones has been found near Atria. It ran along the shore strip (Lido) from Ari- minum to Ravenna (33 m.), where it was usual in imperial times for travellers to take ship and go by canal to Altinum (?.».), and there resume their journey by road, though we find the stations right through on the Tabula Peutingeriana, and Narses marched in 552 from Aquileia to Ravenna. (T. As.) POPINJAY (O. Fr. papegai, or popingay, onomatopoeic, original), an old name for a parrot. Except in its transferred sense of a dressed-up, vain or conceited, empty-headed person, the word is now only used historically of a representation or image of a parrot swinging from a high pole and used as a mark for archery or shooting matches. This snooting at the popinjay ARCHERY) was formerly a favourite sport. " Popinjay " is still the proper heraldic term for a parrot as a bearing or charge. POPLAR, an eastern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded N. by Hackney, S. by the river Thames, and W. by Stepney and Bethnal Green, and extending E. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901), 168,822. The river Lea, which the eastern boundary generally follows, is believed to have been crossed towards the north of the modern borough by a Roman road, the existence of which is recalled by the district-name of Old Ford; while Bow (formerly Stratford- le-Bow or Stratford-atte-Bowe) was so named from the " bow " or arched bridge which took the place of the ford in the time of Henry II. South of these districts lies Bromley; in the south- east the borough includes Blackwall; and a deep southward bend of the Thames here embraces the Isle of Dogs. Poplar falls within the great area commonly associated with a poor and densely crowded population under the name of the " East End." It is a district of narrow, squalid streets and mean houses, among which, however, the march of modern improvement may be seen in the erection of model dwellings, mission houses and churches, and various public buildings. In the north a part of Victoria Park is included. In Blackwall and the Isle of Dogs streets give place to the extensive East and West India Docks (opened in 1806) and Millwall Dock, with shipbuilding, engineering, chemical and other works along the river. Blackwall has been a shipping centre from early times. From the south of the Isle of Dogs (the portion called Cubitt Town) a tunnel for foot- passengers (1902) connects with Greenwich on the opposite shore of the Thames, and lower down the river is the fine Black- wall tunnel, carrying a wide roadway, completed by the London County Council in 1897 at a cost, inclusive of incidental expenses, of £1,383,502. Among institutions the Poplar Accidents Hospital may be mentioned. Near the East India Docks is the settlement of St Frideswide, supported by Christ Church, Oxford. In Canning Town, which continues this district of poverty across the Lea, and so outside the county of London, are Mansfield House, founded from Mansfield College, Oxford; and a Women's Settlement, especially notable for its medical work. The metropolitan borough of Poplar includes the Bow and Bromley and the Poplar divisions of the Tower Hamlets parliamentary borough, each returning one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 7 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 2327-7 acres. POPLAR (Lat. Populus), the name of a small group of catkin- bearing trees belonging to the order Salicaceae. The catkins of the poplars differ from those of the nearly allied willows in the presence of a rudimentary perianth, of obliquely cup-shaped form, within the toothed bracteal scales; the male flowers contain from eight to thirty stamens; the fertile bear a one- celled (nearly divided) ovary, surmounted by the deeply cleft stigmas; the two-valved capsule contains several seeds, each furnished with a long tuft of silky or cotton-like hairs. The leaves are broader than in most willows, and are generally either deltoid or ovate in shape, often cordate at the base, and frequently with slender petioles vertically flattened. Many of the species attain a large size, and all are of very rapid growth. The poplars are almost entirely confined to the north temperate zone, but a few approach or even pass its northern limit, and they are widely distributed within that area; they show, like the willows, a partiality for moist ground and often line the river-sides in otherwise treeless districts. There are about twenty species, but the number cannot be very accurately defined — several, usually regarded as distinct, being probably merely variable forms of the same type, and the ease with which the trees inter- cross has led to the appearance of many hybrids. All yield a soft, easily-worked timber, which, though very perishable when exposed to weather, possesses sufficient durability when kept dry to give the trees a certain economic value. Many of the species are used for paper-making. Of the European kinds one of the most important and best marked forms is the white poplar or abele, P. alba, a tree of large size, with rounded spreading head and curved branches, which, like the trunk, are covered with a greyish white bark, becoming much furrowed on old stems. The leaves are ovate or nearly round in general outline, but with deeply waved, more or less lobed and indented margins and cordate base; the upper side is of a dark green tint, but the lower surface is clothed with a dense white down, which likewise covers the young shoots — giving, with the bark, a hoary aspect to the whole tree. As in all poplars, the catkins expand in early spring, long before the leaves unfold; the ovaries bear four linear stigma lobes; the capsules ripen in May. A nearly related form, which may be regarded as a sub-species, canescens, the grey poplar of the nurseryman, is distinguished from the true abele by its smaller, less deeply cut leaves, which are grey on the upper side, but not so hoary beneath as those of P. alba; the pistil has eight stigma lobes. Both trees occasionally attain a height of 90 ft. or more, but rarely continue to form sound timber beyond the first half- century of growth, though the trunk will sometimes endure for a hundred and fifty years. The wood is very white, and, from its soft and even grain, is employed by turners and toy-makers, while, being tough and little liable to split, it is also serviceable for the construction of packing cases, the lining of carts and waggons, and many similar purposes; when thoroughly seasoned it makes good flooring planks, but shrinks much in drying, weighing about 58 Ib per cubic foot when green, but only 33$ Ib when dry. The white poplar is an ornamental tree, from its graceful though somewhat irregular growth and its dense hoary foliage; it has, however, the disadvantage of throwing up numerous suckers for some yards around the trunk. The grey and white poplars are usually multiplied by long cuttings; the growth is so rapid in a moist loamy soil that, according to Loudon, cuttings 9 ft. in length, planted beside a stream, formed in twelve years trunks 10 in. in diameter. Both these allied forms occur throughout central and southern Europe, but, though now abundant in England, it is doubtful whether they are there indigenous. P. alba suffers much from the ravages of wood-eating larvae, and also from fungoid growths, especially where the branches have been removed by pruning or accident. P. nigra, the black poplar, is a tree of large growth, with dark, deeply-furrowed bark on the trunk, and ash-coloured branches; the smooth deltoid leaves, serrated regularly on the margin, are of the deep green tint which has given name to the tree; the petioles, slightly compressed, are only about half the length of the leaves. The black poplar is common in central and southern Europe and in some of the adjacent parts of Asia, but, though abundantly planted in Britain, is not there indigenous. The wood is of a yellowish tint. In former days this was the preva- lent poplar in Britain, and the timber was employed for the purposes to which that of other species is applied, but has been superseded by P. monilifera and its varieties; it probably fur- nished the poplar wood of the Romans, which, from its lightness and soft tough grain, was in esteem for shield-making; in con- tinental Europe it is still in some request; the bark, in Russia, is used for tanning leather, while in Kamchatka it is sometimes 9o POPLIN— POPOCATEPETL ground up and mixed with meal; the gum secreted by the buds was employed by the old herbalists for various medicinal purposes, but is probably nearly inert; the cotton-like down of the seed has been converted into a kind of vegetable felt, and has also been used in paper-making. A closely related form is the well-known Lombardy poplar, P. fasligiata, remarkable for its tall, cypress-like shape, caused by the nearly vertical growth of the branches. Probably a mere variety of the black poplar, its native land appears to have been Persia or some neighbouring country; it was unknown in Italy in the days of Pliny, while from remote times it has been an inhabitant of Kashmir, the Punjab, and Persia, wheie it is often planted along loadsides for the purpose of shade; it was probably brought from these countries to southern Europe, and derives its popular name from its abundance along the banks of the Po and other rivers of Lombardy, where it is said now to spring up naturally from seed, like the indigenous black poplar. It was introduced into France in 1749, and appears to have been grown in Germany and Britain soon after the middle of the last century, if not earlier. The Lombardy poplar is valuable chiefly as an orna- mental tree, its timber being of very inferior quality; its tall, erect growth renders it useful to the landscape-gardener as a relief to the rounded forms of other trees, or in contrast to the horizontal lines of the lake or river-bank where it delights to grow. In Lombardy and France tall hedges are sometimes formed of this poplar for shelter or shade, while in the suburban parks of Britain it is serviceable as a screen for hiding buildings or other unsightly objects from view; its growth is extremely rapid, and it often attains a height of 100 ft. and upwards, while from 70 to 80 ft. is an ordinary size in favourable situa- tions. P. canadensis, the " cotton-wood " of the western prairies, and its varieties are perhaps the most useful trees of the genus, often forming almost the only arborescent vegetation on the great American plains. It is a tree of rather large growth, sometimes 100 ft. high, with rugged grey trunk 7 or 8 ft. in diameter, and with the shoots or young branches more or less angular; the glossy deltoid leaves are sharply pointed, somewhat cordate at the base, and with flattened petioles; the fertile catkins ripen about the middle of June, when their opening capsules discharge the cottony seeds which have given the tree its common western name; in New England it is sometimes called the " river poplar." The cotton-wood timber, though soft and perishable, is of value in its prairie habitats, where it is frequently the only available wood either for carpentry or fuel ; it has been planted to a considerable extent in some parts of Europe, but in England a form of this species known as P. monilifera is generally preferred from its larger and more rapid growth. In this well-known variety the young shoots are but slightly angled, and the branches in the second year become round; the deltoid short-pointed leaves are usually straight or even rounded at the base, but sometimes are slightly cordate; the capsules ripen in Britain about the middle of May. This tree is of extremely rapid growth, and has been known to attain a height of 70 ft. in sixteen years; it succeeds best in deep loamy soil, but will flourish in nearly any moist but well-drained situation. The timber is much used in some rural districts for flooring, and is durable for indoor purposes when protected from dry-rot; it has, like most poplar woods, the property of resisting fire better than other timber. The native country of this form has been much disputed ; but, though still known in many British nurseries as the " black Italian poplar," it is now well ascer- tained to be an indigenous tree in many parts of Canada and the States, and is a mere variety of P. canadensis; it seems to have been first brought to England from Canada in 1772. In America it seldom attains the large size it often acquires in England, and it is there of less rapid growth than the prevailing form of the western plains; the name of " cotton-wood " is locally given to other species. P. macrpphylla or candicans, commonly known as the Ontario poplar, is remarkable for its very large heart-shaped leaves, some- times 10 in. long; it is found in New England and the milder parts of Canada, and is frequently planted in Britain; its growth is extremely rapid in moist land ; the buds are covered with a balsamic secretion. _The true balsam poplar, or tacamahac, P. balsamifera, abundant in most parts of Canada and the northern States, is a tree of rather large growth, often of somewhat fastigiate habit, with round shoots and oblong-ovate sharp-pointed leaves, the base never cordate, the petioles round, and the disk deep glossy green above but somewhat downy below. This tree, the " Hard " of the Canadian voyageur, abounds on many of the river sides of the north- western plains; it occurs in the neighbourhood of the Great Slave Lake and along the Mackenzie River, and forms much of the drift- wood of the Arctic coast. In these northern habitats it attains a large size; the wood is very soft; the buds yield a gum-like balsam, from which the common name is derived; considered valuable as an antiscorbutic, this is said also to have diuretic properties; it was formerly imported into Europe in small quantities under the name of " baume focot," being scraped off in the spring and put into shells. This balsam gives the tree a fragrant odour when the leaves are unfolding. The tree grows well in Britain, and acquires occasionally a considerable size. Its fragrant shoots and the fine yellow green of the young leaves recommend it to the ornamental planter. It is said by Aiton to have been introduced into Britain about the end of the 1 7th century. P. euphratica, believed to be the weeping willow of the Scriptures, is a large tree remarkable for the variability in the shape of its leaves, which are linear in young trees and vigorous shoots, and broad and ovate on older branches. It is a native of North Africa and Western and Central Asia, including North-West India. With the date palm it is believed to have furnished the rafters for the buildings of Nineveh. POPLIN, or TABINET, a mixed textile fabric consisting of a silk warp with a weft of worsted yarn. As the weft is in the form of a stout cord the fabric has a ridged structure, like rep, which gives depth and softness to the lustre of the silky surface. Poplins are used for dress purposes, and for rich upholstery work. The manufacture is of French origin; but it was brought to England by the Huguenots, and has long been specially associated with Ireland. The French manufacturers distinguish between popelines unies or plain poplins and popelines d dis- positions or £cossaises, equivalent to Scotch tartans, in both of which a large trade is done with the United States from Lyons. POPOCATEPETL (Aztec popoca " to smoke," tepetl " moun- tain "), a dormant volcano in Mexico in lat. 18° 59' 47" N., long. 98° 33' i* W., which with the neighbouring Ixtaccihuatl (Aztec " white woman ") forms the south-eastern limit of the great basin known as the " Valley of Mexico." As it lies in the state of Puebla and is the dominating feature in the views from the city of that name, it is sometimes called the Puebla volcano. It is the second highest summit in Mexico, its shapely, snow-covered cone rising to a height of 17,876 ft., or 438 ft. short of that of Orizaba. This elevation was reported by the Mexican geological survey in 1895, and as the Mexican Geo- graphical Society calculated the elevation at 17,888 ft., it may be accepted as nearly correct. The bulk of the mountain con- sists of andesite, but porphyry, obsidian, trachyte, basalt, and other similar rocks are also represented. It has a stratified cone showing a long period of activity. At the foot of the eastern slope stretches a vast lava field — the " malpays " (malapais) of Atlachayacatl — which, according to Humboldt, lies 60 to 80 ft. above the plain and extends 18,000 ft. east to west with a breadth of 6000 ft. Its formation must be of great antiquity. The ascent of Popocatepetl is made on the north- eastern slope, where rough roads are kept open by sulphur carriers and timber cutters. Describing his ascent in 1904, Hans Gadow states that the forested region begins in the foot- hills a little above 8000 ft., and continues up the slope to an elevation of over 13,000 ft. On the lower slopes the forest is composed in great part of the long-leaved Pinus liophylla, accompanied by deciduous oaks and a variety of other trees and shrubs. From about 9500 ft. to 11,500 ft. the Mexican " oyamel," or fir (Abies religiosa) becomes the principal species, interspersed with evergreen oak, arbutus and elder. Above this belt the firs gradually disappear and are succeeded by the short- leaved Pinus montezumae, or Mexican " ocote " — one of the largest species of pine in the republic. These continue to the upper tree-line, accompanied by red and purple Pcntslemon and light blue lupins in the open spaces, some ferns, and occasional masses of alpine flowers. Above the tree line the vegetation continues only a comparatively short distance, consisting chiefly of tussocks of coarse grass, and occasional flowering plants, the highest noted being a little Draba. At about 14,500 ft. horses are left behind, though they could be forced farther up through the loose lava and ashes. On the snow-covered cone the heat of the sun is intense, though the thermometer recorded a temperature of 34° in September. The reflection of light from the snow is blinding. The rim of the crater is reached at an elevation of about 17,500 ft. Another descrip- tion places the snow-line at 14,268 ft., and the upper tree-line POPPER— POPPY OIL 91 a thousand feet lower. A detailed description of the volcano published by the Mexican geological survey in 1895 accord- ing to which the crater is elliptical in form, 2008 by 1312 ft., and i depth of 1657 ft. below the summit of the highest pinnacle and 673 ft. below the lowest part of the rim, which is very irregular in height. The steep, ragged walls of the crater show a great variety of colours, intensified by the light from the deep blue sky above. Huge patches of sulphur, some still smouldering, are everywhere visible, intermingled with the white streaks of snow and ice that fill the crevices and cover the ledges of the black rocks. The water from the melted snow forms a small lake at the bottom of the crater, from which it filters through fissures to the heated rocks below and thence escapes as steam or through other fissures to the mineral springs at the moun- tain's base. The Indian sulphur miners go down by means 'of ladders, or are lowered by rope and windlass, and the mineral is sent down the mountain side in a chute 2000 to 3000 ft. Some observers report that steam is to be seen rising from fissures in the bottom of the crater, and all are united in speaking of the fumes of burning sulphur that rise from its depths. That volcanic influences are still present may be inferred from the circumstance that the snow cap on Popocatepetl disappeared just before the remarkable series of earthquakes that shook the whole of central Mexico on the 3oth and 315! of July 1909. It is believed that Diego de Ordaz was the first European to reach the summit of Popocatepetl, though no proof of this remains further than that Cortes sent a party of ten men in 1519 to ascend a burning mountain. In 1522 Francisco Montano made the ascent and had himself let down into the crater a depth of 40x3 or 500 ft. No second ascent is recorded until April and November iS.'7 (see Brantz Mayer, Mexico, vol. ii.). Other ascents were made in 1834, 1848 and subsequent years, members of the Mexican geological survey spending two days on the summit in 1895- POPPER, DAVID (1846- ), Bohemian violoncellist, was born at Prague, and educated musically at the conservatorium there, adopting the 'cello as his professional instrument. He was soon recognized, largely through von Bulow, as one of the finest soloists of the time, and played on tours throughout the European capitals. In 1872 he married the pianist Sophi Menter, from whom he was separated in 1886. In 1896 he became professor at the Royal Conservatoire at Budapest. He published various works, mainly compositions for the 'cello, together with four volumes of studies arranged as a violoncello school. POPPO, ERNST FRIEDRICH (1794-1866), German classical scholar and schoolmaster, was born at Guben in Brandenburg on the I3th of August, 1794. In 1818 he was appointed director of the gymnasium at Frankfort -on-the-Oder, where he died on the 6th of November 1866, having resigned his post three years before. Poppo was an extremely successful teacher and organizer, and in a few years doubled the number of pupils at the gymnasium. He is chiefly known, however, for his exhaustive and complete edition of Thucydides in four parts (n vols., 1821-1840), containing (i.) prolegomena on Thucydides as an historian and on his language and style (Eng. trans, by G. Burges, 1837), accompanied by historical and geographical essays; (ii.) text with scholia and critical notes; (iii.) commentary on the text and scholia; (iv.) indices and appendices. For the ordinary student a smaller edition (1843-1851) was prepared, revised after the author's death by J. M. Stahl (1875-1889). See R. Schwarze in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic and authorities there referred to. POPPY, in botany, a genus of plants known botanically as Papai-er, the type of the family or natural order Papaveraceae. They are annual and perennial erect herbs containing a milky juice, with lobed or cut leaves and generally long-stalked regular showy flowers, which are nodding in the bud stage. The sepals, very rarely three, which are two in number, fall off as the flower opens, the four (very rarely five or six) petals, which are crumpled in the bud stage, also fall readily. The numerous stamens surround the ovary, which is composed of 4 to 16 carpels and is surmounted by a flat or convex rayed disk bearing the stigmas. The ovary is incompletely divided into many chambers by the ingrowth of the placentas which bear numerous ovules and form in the fruit a many-seeded short capsule opening by small valves below the upper edge. The valves are hydroscopic, responding to increase in the amount of moisture in the atmo- sphere by closing the apertures. In dry weather the valves open, and the small seeds are ejected through the pores when the capsule is shaken by the wind on its long stiff slender stalk. The flowers contain no honey and are visited by pollen-seeking insects, which alight on the broad stigmatic surface. The genus contains about 40 species, mostly natives of central and south Europe and temperate Asia. Five species are British; P. Rhoeas is the common scarlet poppy found in cornfields and waste places. Cultivated forms of this, with exquisite shades of colour and without any blotch at the base of the petals, are known as Shirley poppies. P. somniferum, the opium poppy, with large white or blue-purple flowers, is widely cultivated (see OPIUM). The Oriental poppy (P. orienlale) and its several varieties are fine garden plants, having huge bright crimson flowers with black blotches at the base. Many hybrid forms of varying shades of colour have been raised of late years. The Iceland poppy (P. undicaule), is one of the showiest species, having grey-green pinnate leaves and flowers varying in colour from pure white to deep orange-yellow, orange-scarlet, &c. Specially fine varieties with stalks 18-24 in- high are cultivated on a large scale by some growers for market. The Welsh poppy belongs to an allied genus, Meconopsis; it is a perennial herb with a yellow juice and pale yellow poppy-like flowers. It is native in the south-west and north of England, and in Wales; also in Ireland. The prickly poppy (Argemone grandiflora) is a fine Mexican perennial with large white flowers. To the same family belongs the horned poppy, Glaucium luteum, found in sandy sea-shores and characterized by the waxy bloom of its leaves and large golden-yellow short-stalked flowers. Another member of the family is Eschscholtzia cali- fornica, a native of western North America, and well-known in gardens, with orange-coloured flowers and a long two-valved fruit pod. The plume poppy (Bocconia cordate and B. microcarpa) are ornamental foliage plants of great beauty. The cyclamen poppy (Eomecon chionantha) is a pretty Chinese perennial, having roundish slightly lobed leaves and pure white flowers about 2 in. across. The tree poppy (Dendromecon rigidum) is a Calif ornian shrub about 3 ft. high, having golden-yellow flowers about 2 in. across. The Californian poppy (Platystemon cali- fornicus) is a pretty annual about a foot high, having yellow flowers with 3 sepals and 6 petals; and the white bush poppy (Romneya Coulteri) is a very attractive perennial and semi- shrubby plant 2-8 ft. high, with pinnatind leaves and large sweet scented white flowers often 6 in. across. POPPY HEADS, a term, in architecture, given to the finials or other ornaments which terminate the tops of bench ends, either to pews or stalls. They are sometimes small human heads, sometimes richly carved images, knots of foliages or finials, and sometimes fleurs-de-lis simply cut out of the thickness of the bench end and chamfered. The term is probably derived from the French poupee, doll, puppet, used also in this sense, or from the flower, from a resemblance in shape. POPPY OIL (Oleum papavcris), a vegetable oil obtained by pressure from the minute seeds of the garden or opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. The white-seeded and black-seeded varieties are both used for oil-pressing; but, when the production of oil is the principal object of the culture, the black seed is usually preferred. The qualities of the oil yielded by both varieties and the proportion they contain (from 50 to 60%) are the same. By cold pressing seeds of fine quality yield from 30 to 40% of virgin or white oil (huile blanche), a transparent limpid fluid with a slight yellowish tinge, bland and pleasant to taste, and with almost no perceptible smell. On second pressure with the aid of heat an additional 20 to 25% of inferior oil (huile de fabrique or huile russe) is obtained, reddish in colour, possessed POPULATION of a biting taste, and a linseed-like smell. The oil belongs to the linoleic or drying series, having as its principal constituent linolein; and it possesses greater drying power than raw linseed oil. Its specific gravity at 15° C. is 0-925. Poppy oil is a valu- able and much used medium for artistic oil painting. The fine qualities are largely used in the north of France (huile d' ceillette) and in Germany as a salad oil, and are less liable than olive oil to rancidity. The absence of taste and characteristic smell in poppy oil also leads to its being much used for adulterating olive oil. The inferior qualities are principally consumed in soap- making and varnish-making, and for burning in lamps. The oil is very extensively used in the valley of the Ganges and other opium regions for food and domestic purposes. By native methods in India about 30 % of oil is extracted, and the remain- ing oleaginous cake is used as food by the poor. Ordinary poppy-oil cake is a valuable feeding material, rich in nitrogenous constituents, with an ash showing an unusually large proportion of phosphoric acid. The seed of the yellow horned poppy, Glaucium luteum, yields from 30 to 35% of an oil having the same drying and other properties as poppy oil; and from the Mexican poppy, Argemone mcxicana, is obtained a non-drying oil used as a lubricant and for burning. POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; popular -e, to populate), a term used in two different significations, (i) for the total number of human beings existing within certain area at a given time, and (2) for the " peopling " of the area, or the influence of the various forces of which that number is the result. The popu- lation of a country, in the former sense of the word, is ascertained by means of a census (q.v.), which periodically records the number of people found in it on a certain date. Where, as is generally the case, detail of sex, age, conjugal condition and birthplace is included in the return, the census results can be co-ordinated with those of the parallel registration of marriages, births, deaths and migration, thus forming the basis of what are summarily termed vital statistics, the source of our information regarding the nature and causes of the process of " peopling," i.e. the movement of the population between one census and another. Neither of these two operations has yet reached perfection, either in scope or accuracy, though the census, being the subject of special and concentrated effort, is generally found the superior in the latter respect, and is in many cases taken in countries where registration has not yet been introduced. The countries where neither is in force ate still, unfortunately, very numerous. The Population of the World, and its Geographical Distribution. — Man is the only animal which has proved able to pass from dependence upon its environment to a greater or less control over it. He alone, accordingly, has spread over every quarter of the globe. The area and population of the world, as a whole, have been the subject of many estimates in scientific works for the last three centuries and are still to a considerable extent matters of rough approximation. Every decade, however, brings a diminution of the field of conjecture, as some form of civilized administration is extended over the more backward tracts, and is followed, in due course, by a survey and a census. It is not necessary, therefore, to cite the estimates framed before 1882, when a carefully revised summary was published by Boehm and H. Wagner. Since then the laborious investigations of P. F. Levasseur and L. Bodio have been completed in the case of Europe and America, and, for the rest of the world, the figures annually brought up to date in the Statesman's Year Book may be taken to be the best avail- able. From these sources the abstract at foot of page has been derived. The principal tracts still un- measured and unenumerated (in any strict sense) in the Old World are the Turkish Empire, Persia, Afghanistan, China and the Indo-Chinese peninsula and nearly nine-tenths of Africa. In the same category must be placed a considerable proportion of central, southern and Polar America (see CENSUS). There is little of the world which is entirely uninhabited; still less permanently uninhabitable and unlikely to be required to support a population in the course of the expansion of the race beyond its present abodes. Probably the polar regions alone do not fall within the category of the poten- tially productive, as even sandy and alkaline desert is rendered habitable where irrigation can be introduced; and vast tracts of fertile soil adapted for immediate exploitation, especially in the temperate zones, both north and south, only remain unpeopled because they are not yet wanted for colonization. The geographical distribution of the population of the world is therefore extremely irregular, and, omitting from consideration areas but recently colonized, the density is regulated by the means of subsistence within reach. " La population," says G. de Molinari, " a tendance de se proportionner a son debouche." These, in their turn, depend mainly upon the character of the people who inhabit the country. Even amongst savages there are few communities, and those but sparse, which subsist entirely upon what is directly provided by nature. As human intelli- gence and industry come into play the means of livelihood are proportionately extended; population multiplies, and with this multiplication production increases. Thus, the higher densities are found in the eastern hemisphere, within the zone in which arose the great civilizations of the world, or, roughly speaking, between north parallels 25 and 40 towards the east, and 25 and 55 in the west. Here large areas with a mean density of over 500 to the sq. m. may be found either supported by the food directly produced by themselves, as in the great agricultural plains of the middle kingdom of China and the Ganges valley and delta; or else, as in western Europe, relying largely upon food from abroad, purchased by the products of manufacturing industry. In the one class the density is mainly rural, in the other it is chiefly due to the . concentration of the population into large urban aggregates. It is chiefly from the populations of the south-west of Europe that the New World is being colo- nized; but the territories over which the settlers and their recruits from abroad are able to scatter are so extensive that even the lower densities of the Old World have not yet been attained, except in a few tracts along the eastern coasts of Australia and North America. Details of area and population are given under the headings of the respective countries, and the only general point in connexion with the relation between these two facts which may be mentioned here is the need to bear in mind that the larger the territory the less likely is its mean density-figure to be typical or really representative. Even in the case of small and comparatively homogeneous countries such as Holland, Belgium or Saxony there is considerable deviation from the mean in the density of the respective component subdivisions, a difference which when extended over more numerous aggre- gates often renders the general mean misleading or of little value. Distribution of Population by Sex. — After geographical dis- persion, the most general feature amongst the human race is its division by sex. The number of speculations as to the nature of this distinction has been, it is said, well-nigh doubled since Drelincourt, in the i8th century, brought together 262 " ground- less hypotheses," and propounded on his own part a theory TABLE I. Continent. Sq. m. in thousands (1907)-. Population, in thousands. Population per sq. m. (1907). Unascertained Percentage of : 1882. 1907. Area un- surveyed. Population Unenumerated. Europe . Asia . Africa . . America . Oceania . 3,828* J5.773 1 1, 507 17,208* 3.448 327.743 795.591 205,823 100,415 4.232 405.759 918,324 126,734 149.944 5,881 io6f 58 II 9t i-7 2-5* 43-2 90-1 50-0* 5-4 i-3 59-4 77-4 9-1 19-6 Total . . 5L/64 1 ,433,804 1,606,542 3i-7t 50-4* 41-4 Including Polar regions. t Excluding Polar regions. POPULATION 93 which has since been held to be the 263rd in the series. It is not proposed to deal here with incidents appertaining to the " ante-natal gloom," and we are concerned only with human beings when once they have been born. In regard to the division of these into male and female, the first point to be noted is that, in all communities of western civilization, more boys are born than girls. The excess ranges from 20 to 60 per thousand. In Greece and Rumania it is exceptionally high, and in some Oriental or semi-Oriental countries it is said to give place to a deficit, though in the latter case the returns are probably not trustworthy. From the more accurate statistics available it appears that the excess of male births varies amongst different races and also at different times in the same community. It is high in new colonies and amongst the Latin races, with the exception of the French. These, with the English, show a much smaller excess of boy-births than the average of western Europe, and the proportion, moreover, seems to be somewhat declining in both these countries and in Belgium, from causes which have not yet been ascertained. As the mortality amongst boys, especially during the first year, is considerably above that of the other sex, numerical equilibrium between the two is estab- lished in early youth, and in most cases girls outnumber boys, except for a few years between twelve and sixteen. Then follows the chequered period of the prime of life and middle age, during which the liability of men to industrial accidents, war and other causes of special mortality, irrespective of their greater incli- nation to emigrate, is generally sufficient to outweigh the dangers of childbirth or premature decay among the women, who tend, accordingly, to predominate in number at this stage. In old age, again, their vitality rises superior to that of the men, and they continue to form the majority of the community. The general results are an excess of females over males throughout western Europe: but though the relative proportions vary from time to time, remaining always in favour of what is conventionally called the weaker sex, it is impossible, owing to disturbing factors like war and migration, to ascertain whether there is any general tendency for the proportion of females to increase or not. In comparatively new settlements, largely fed by immigration, the number of males is obviously likely to be greater than that of females, but in the case of countries in Asia and eastern Europe in which also a considerable deficiency of the latter sex is indi- cated by the returns, it is probable that the strict seclusion imposed by convention on women and the consequent reticence regarding them on the part of the householders answering the official inquiry tend towards a short count. On the other hand, the lower position there assigned to women and the very considerable amount of hard work exacted from them, may cause them to wear out earlier than under higher conditions, though not to the extent implied in the statistics. In the TABLE II. Bd g* Jj E. Country. \l ?l Country. S~* IB •i-" '& 8 *a Is i2 Sweden 1 Norway ] Finland 1049 1064 1022 946 944 948 Galicia . Hungary Rumania . 1019 1009 964 941 949 902 I Denmark f England •f Scotland 1 Ireland 1053 1069 1057 1028 95° 966 956 946 . Greece . Servia . Bulgaria Russia . 921 946 959 879 945 927 ("Holland I Belgium 1 Germany L Austria . (France . Italy . 1025 1013 1029 1042 1033 IOII 950 956 95° 947 960 947 (Europe) f Russia (Asia) ) Japan . 1 India I Egypt . f United States IOII 893 983 963 967 958 948 Spam Portugal 1049 "093 938 899 Canada J Argentine . 952 893 — • I Cape Colony 977 — Australia 906 950 L •• New Zealand . 900 following table the latest available information on this head is given for representative countries of western and eastern Europe, the East and the New World. Distribution by Age. — Few facts are more uncertain about an individual than the number of years he will live. Few, on the contrary, as was pointed out by C. Babbage, are less subject to fluctuation than the duration of life amongst people taken in large aggregates. The age-constitution of a community does indeed vary, and to a considerable extent, in course of time, but the changes are usually gradual, and often spread over a genera- tion or more. At the same time, it must be admitted that those which have recently taken place amongst most of the communities of western Europe are remarkable for both their rapidity and their extent; and are probably attributable, in part at least, to influences which were almost inoperative at the time when Babbage wrote. The distribution of a population amongst the different periods of life is regulated, in normal circumstances, by the birth-rate, and, as the mortality at some of the periods is far greater than at others, the death-rate falls indirectly under the same influence. The statistics of age, there- fore, may be said to form a link between those of the population, considered as a fixed quantity, as at a census, and those which record its movement from year to year. To the correct interpre- tation of the latter, indeed, they are essential, as will appear below. Unfortunately, the return of age is amongst the less satisfactory results of a general enumeration, though its inaccu- racy, when spread over millions of persons, is susceptible of correction mathematically, to an extent to make it serve its purpose in the directions above indicated. The error in the original return generally arises from ignorance. An illiterate population is very prone to state its age in even multiples of five, and even where education is widely spread this tendency is not altogether absent, as may be seen from the examples given in TABLE III. Number returned at each age per 10,000 of Population. United States, Russia, 1897. Age. Germany, i nfirt 1900. India, 1 yiAJ. Native Asia, 1891 Females. Whites. Negroes. Europe. Females. 19 I 80 196 204 1 66 112 64 20 182 200 252 223 385 505 21 181 191 204 M3 "3 54 29 130 146 119 92 60 42 3<> 149 170 218 269 456 624 31 145 125 76 74 74 30 49 88 72 62 45 3» 12 5" 94 84 156 196 257 386 51 89 61 38 35 34 12 59 62 43 30 25 18 IO 60 70 49 '05 163 179 281 61 60 33 15 22 25 II Table III. Deliberate mis-statements, too, are not unknown, especially amongst women. This has been repeatedly illustrated in the English census reports. Irrespective of the wish of women between 25 and 40 to return themselves as under 25, there appears to be the more practical motive of obtaining better terms in industrial insurance, whilst an overstatement of age often has, it is said, the object of getting better wages in domestic service, or better dietary in the workhouse! In all countries, moreover, there seems to be an inclination to exaggerate longevity after the three score years and ten have been passed. In order to minimize the results of such inaccuracy, the return of ages is compiled in aggregates of five or ten years and then redistributed over single years by the method of differences. The present purpose being merely to illustrate the variation of distribution amongst a few representative countries, it is unnecessary to enter into more detail than such as will serve to distinguish the proportions of the population in main divisions of life. Thus it may be said that in the west of Europe about one-third of the people, roughly speaking, are under fifteen; about one-half, between that age and fifty, and the remaining sixth older than fifty. The middle period 94 POPULATION may conveniently be extended to sixty and subdivided at forty, as is done in Table IV. The differences between the several countries in their age-constitution can best be appreciated by reference to some recognized general standard. The one here adopted is the result of the co-ordination of a long series of enumerations taken in Sweden during the last century and a half, prepared by Dr G. Sundbarg of Stockholm. It is true that for practical use in connexion with vital statistics for a given period, the aggregate age-distribution of the countries concerned would be a more accurate basis of comparison, but the wide period covered by the Swedish observations has the advantage of eliminating temporary disturbances of the balance of ages, and may thus be held to compensate for the compara- tively narrow geographical extent of the field to which it relates. TABLE IV. Country. Census Year. Per 1000 of Population. Under 15. 15-40. 40-60. Over 60. Standard . — 336 3S9 192 S3 Sweden . 1900 324 366 191 119 Norway . M 354 36i 176 109 Finland . ,f 345 386 187 82 Denmark " 339 376 1 86 99 England . I9OI 324 423 179 74 Scotland . ,, 334 416 173 77 Ireland . It 304 407 180 109 Holland . . . 1899 348 384 175 93 Belgium . 1900 3>7 404 184 95 Germany it 348 395 179 78 Austria . " 344 402 182 72 France 1901 261 389 226 124 Italy . . . ,, 341 366 196 97 Portugal . 1900 338 375 191 96 Galicia „ 377 399 178 46 Hungary ,, 356 379 189 76 Servia ,, 419 395 142 44 Bulgaria ,, 414 322 172 92 Greece 1889 393 400 155 52 Russia (Europe) 1897 350 385 1 80 85 India (males) 1891 391 399 163 47 Japan 1898 335 384 >93 88 United States . 1900 334 422 169 75 Canada . 1901 346 409 1 68 77 Australasia . „ 349 43i «57 63 Cape Colony 1904 4'5 409 129 47 As regards correspondence with the standard distribution, it will be noted that Finland, the next country to Sweden geo- graphically, comes after Japan, far detached from northern Europe by both race and distance, and is followed by Portugal, where the conditions are also very dissimilar. The other Scandinavian countries, Norway and Denmark, appear, like Sweden itself in the present day, to bear in their age-distribution distinct marks of the emigration of adults, or, at least, the temporary absence from home of this class at the time of enume- ration. The same can be said of Italy in its later returns and of Germany in those before 1895. On the contrary, the effect of the inflow of adult migrants is very marked, as is to be expected, in the returns for the new countries, such as the United States, Canada and Australasia. In the case of the Old World, the divergence from the standard which most deserves notice is the remarkable preponderance of the young in all the countries of eastern Europe, as well as in India, accompanied by an equally notable deficiency of the older elements in the population. Again, there are in the west two well-known instances of deficient reinforcement of the young, France and Ireland, in which countries the proportion of those under 15 falls respectively 75 and 32 per mille below the standard; throwing those over 60 up to 41 and 26 per mille above it. The table does not in- clude figures for earlier enumerations, but one general character- istic in them should be mentioned, viz. the far higher proportion borne in them of the young, as compared with the mere recent returns. In England, for instance, those under 15 amounted to 360 per mille in 1841, against 324 sixty years later. In Ireland the corresponding fall has been still more marked, from 382 to 304. The ratio in France was low throughout the ipth century, and during the last half fell only from 273 to 261, raising the proportion of the old above that resulting in northern Europe and Italy from emigration. It is remarkable that the same tendency for the proportion of the young to fall off is perceptible in new countries as well as in the older civilizations, setting aside the influence of immigration at the prime of life in depressing the proportion of children. The possible causes of this wide- spread tendency of the mean age of a western community to increase appertain to the subject of the movement of the population, which is dealt with below. The Movement of Population. — " The true greatness of a State " says Bacon, " consisteth essentially in population and breed of men "; and an increasing population is one of the most certain signs of the well-being of a community. Successive accretions, however, being spread over so long a term as that of human life, it does not follow that the population at any given time is necessarily the result of contemporary prosperity. Con- versely, the traces left by a casual set-back, such as famine, war, or an epidemic disease, remain long after it has been succeeded by a period of recuperation, and are to be found in the age- constitution and the current vital statistics. Population is continually in a state of motion, and in large aggregates the direction is invariably towards increase. The forces underlying the movement may differ from time to time in their respective intensity, and, in highly exceptional cases, may approach equilibrium, their natural tendencies being interrupted by special causes, but the instances of general decline are confined to wild and comparatively small communities brought into contact with alien and more civilized races. The factors upon which the growth of a population depend are internal, operating within the community, or external, arising out of the relations of the community with other countries. In the latter case, population already in existence is transferred from one territory to another by migration, a subject which will be referred to later. Far more important is the vegetative, or " natural " increase, through the excess of births over deaths. The principal influences upon this, in civilized life, are the number of the married, the age at which they marry or bear children, the fertility of marriages and the duration of life, each of which is in some way or other connected with the others. Marriage. — In every country a small and generally diminish- ing proportion of the children is born out of wedlock, but the primary regulator of the native growth of a community is the institution of marriage. Wherever, it has been said, there is room for two to live up to the conventional standard of comfort, a marriage takes place. So close, indeed, up to recent times, was the connexion held to be between the prosperity of the country and the number of marriages, that Dr W. Farr used to call the latter the barometer of the former. The experience of the present generation, however, both in England and other countries, seems to justify some relaxation of that view, as will appear below. The tendency of a community towards matri- mony, or its " nuptiality," as it is sometimes termed, is usually indicated by the ratio to the total population of the persons married each year. For the purpose of comparing the circum- stances of the same community at successive periods this method is fairly trustworthy, assuming that there has been no material shifting of the age-proportions during the intervals. It is not a safe guide, however, when applied to the comparison of different communities, the age-composition of which is probably by no means identical, but in consideration of its familiarity it has been adopted in the first section of Table V. below, at three periods for each of the countries selected as representative. One of the features which is prominent throughout the return is that in every country except Belgium the rate per mille attained a maximum in the early seventies, and has since shown POPULATION 95 a descending tendency, notwithstanding the fact, noted in the preceding paragraph, that the youthful population, which, of course, weighs down the rate, has also been relatively decreasing. Countries of Oriental and semi-Oriental habits have not been n, owing to the difference in their marriage system from that of western Europe. It may be mentioned, however, in passing, that their marriage rate is generally considerably higher than that here indicated, as may be seen from the example of Galicia, which is here shown separately from cis-Leithian Austria. TABLE years of age and decreases rapidly as that period is left behind. A Swedish return of 1896-1900 shows that the annual births per thousand wives of 20-25 are fewer by nearly 17% than those of wives under 20. Between 25 and 30 the number falls off by one- fifth, and after 40 by about 44%. In the countries mentioned in Table V. the average proportion borne by wives under 30 to the total under 45 is just over one-third. That proportion is exceeded in southern Europe, where women develop earlier, and in Galicia. In England and France it stands at V. Country. Per 1000 of Population. Persons Married Yearly. Women, 15 to 45 (1900). Men, 20-50. 1861-1870. 1871-1875. 1895-1904. Total. Married. Unmarried. Unmarried. I3-I 13-3 15-5 14-9 16-7 14-0 10-5 16-4 17-0 15-0 16-1 15-6 15-2 19-7 14-0 14-6 17-9 15-9 17-1 14-9 10-7 16-6 18-9 I5-! 177 16-9 15-6 19-7 I2-O 13-2 I4-I 14-6 15-8 14-3 IO-I 14-9 16-4 16-4 15-7 15-2 14-4 17-6 215 218 219 221 250 242 235 218 226 230 227 228 214 225 88 91 I03 104 "7 1 02 76 96 114 1 08 106 1 20 116 125 «3 1 02 "5 in 127 135 153 118 107 "7 i«5 IOO 92 94 83 71 70 81 77 90 125 82 76 85 85 82 71 67 Holland ( irrmany Austria (W.) ...... Italy Galicia In the opposite direction will be noted the case of Ireland, where the rate is abnormally low; and returns more recent than those included in the table show that of late the rates in Sweden and Norway have also fallen to but little above n per mille. In regard to the necessity of taking into consideration the factor of age in the return of marriage-rates, an example may be here given from the data for England. The rate taken upon the total population was 16-7 per mille in 1870-1871 and 15-3 in 1905; by excluding the population under fifteen the corre- sponding figures are 57-2 and 46-6 per mille. Thus the decline, which by the first method is only 8%, becomes, by the second, 19%; and if the age-distribution of 1905 were reduced to that of the earlier period, the difference would increase to -22%, the most accurate figure of the three. For the present purpose it is sufficient to connect the rate of marriage with that of births by using as a basis for the former the number of women of conceptive age, or between 15 and 45 years old. The propor- tion of these is given in the latter portion of the table. Again taking England as an example, the women of the above ages bore the proportion to the total population of 23% in 1871 and had risen to 25% in 1901; but at the former time, 49-6% were married, whilst thirty years later, only 46-8 were thus situated. The table also shows that the proportion of the women of the ages in question who were married exceeds half only in Italy, France and Germany, not to mention Galicia. In other countries the average proportion is about 45%. In Sweden and Norway it is only 41 and in Ireland less than a third. In Scandinavia, and perhaps in Italy, the rate may be affected by the emigration of adult males, but the later columns of the table indicate that this is not the cause of the low rate in Ireland, which appears to be mainly due to abstinence from marriage at the ages specified. Next to the proportion of the married to the total marriageable the most important factor connected with the natural increase of the population is the age at which marriage takes place. Where the proportion of the married is high, the average age of the wives is low, and early marriage is conducive to relatively rapid increase. In the first place, the interval between genera- tions is shortened, and the elder is contemporaneous with the younger for a longer period. Then, again, the fecundity of women amongst western peoples is at its maximum between 18 and 25 36. In Ireland and Sweden it is only 28, and in Denmark, Holland and Norway, too, it is below the average. The registrar- general of England has pointed out a marked tendency towards the postponement of marriage in that country. Between 1876 and 1905, for instance, the proportion of minors married receded by 43% in the case of men and 32% amongst women. The mean age of husbands married in 1873 was 25-6 years and of wives 24-2, whereas thirty years later the corresponding ages were 28-6 and 26-4. The general results of the decline of the marriage-rate and the postponement of marriage upon the natural growth of population will be discussed in connection with the birth-rate, though the statistics available do not permit of the accurate measurement of the respective influence of these factors, and there are others, too, which have to be taken into consideration, as will appear below. Births. — Apart from the information which the statistics of birth furnish as to the growth of population, they have, like those of marriage, and perhaps to even a greater extent, a special social interest from their bearings upon the moral con- ditions of the community to which they relate. It is in their former capacity, however, that they enter into the present sub- ject. A birth-rate, taken as it usually is upon the total popu- lation, old and young, is open to the objections made above respecting the marriage-rate, and with even more force, as the basis is itself largely the product of the fact which is being measured by it. The internal variations of the rate in a single community, however, can be fairly indicated in this way, as is done in Table VI., which, it is to be noted, refers to those born alive only and excludes the still-born, statistics regarding whom are incomplete. The crude birth-rate, it will be noted, is in general harmony with that of marriage. In the countries where the former is high the rate of marriage is also above the average. In eastern Europe, so far as the figures can be trusted, this is markedly the case, and the birth-rates range between 39 per mille in Hungary and 49 in Russia, where the tradition of encouraging prolificity amongst the peasantry has not been effaced. Among the lower rates which prevail in western Europe, however, the connexion is not so direct, and a low birth-rate is some- times found with a relatively higher marriage rate and vice versa, a deviation from the natural course of events which will 96 POPULATION be discussed presently. The birth-rate, like the marriage-rate, seems to have reached its acme in the seventies, except in the three southern countries, France, Italy and Spain. The decline since the above period is very marked and exceeds that noted in the case of the rate of marriage. It is worth noting, too, that the fall in the crude birth-rate is not confined to the Old World, but has attracted Special attention in Australia and New Zealand, where a rate of 40 per mille in the period 1861-1870 has now given place to one of 26. In Massachusetts and other of the older settlements of the United States, moreover, the same feature has been the subject of investigation. other than abstinence from marriage, at all events at the princi- pal reproductive period; and perhaps to a decrease in marriage or remarriage after middle life, a period of which the weight in the age-distribution has been increasing of late. On the other hand, the postponement of marriage in the case of women of conceptive ages is a tendency which seems to be growing in other countries as well as in England and undoubtedly has a depressing effect upon the rate of births. It would conduce, therefore, to further accuracy in the comparison of the rates of different countries if the latter were to be correlated with greater subdivision of the ages amongst wives between 15 and 45. The proportion of wives below 30 to the total of that group was TABLE VI. Country. (A) Born alive, per 1000 of Total Population. (B) Legitimate Births, per 1000 Wives, 15 to 45 years old. (C) Illegitimate Births, per 1000 Unmarried and Widowed Women, 15 to 45. 1841-1850. 1861-1870. 1871-1875. 1900-1905. 1880-1882. 1890-1892. 1900-1902. 1896-1900. Sweden 3i-i 31-4 30-7 26-7 293 280 269 23-4 Norway 30-7 3°-9 30-3 29-7 314 307 303 16-9 Finland 35-5 34-7 37-o 32-2 3°9 301 18-0 Denmark . 3°-5 31-0 30-8 29-7 287 278 259 23-6 England . 34-6 36-0 36-0 29-0 286 264 235 8-8 Scotland . 34-8 35-o 29-7 3ii 296 272 14-1 Ireland — 26-1 26-4 23-2 283 288 289 3-9 Holland . . . 33-o 35-3 36-1 32-1 347 339 315 9-0 Belgium . 30-5 31-6 32-4 28-5 313 285 251 18-9 Germany 36-1 37-2 38-9 35-5 310 3°' 284 27-7 Austria (W.) . 35-9 35-7 37-2 34-2 281 292 284 41-7 France 27-3 26-3 25-5 21-7 196 173 157 18-1 Italy . . . . — 37-5 36-9 33-5 276 283 269 2I-I Spain . ... — • 37-8 36-5 34-8 258 264 259 — The crude rates which have been discussed above afford no explanation of this change, nor do they always illustrate its full extent. It is necessary, therefore, to eliminate the difference in the age-constitution of the countries in question by excluding from the field of observation, as before, all except possible mothers, basing the rate upon the respective numbers of women of the conceptive age, that is between 15 and 45. The pro- portion borne by this group to the total population is in most cases fairly up to that set forth by Dr Sundbarg in his standard. It is well above it in all three parts of the United Kingdom and falls materially below it only in Scandinavia and Italy. Indeed, during the last generation, this proportion has been in most cases slightly increased, in consequence of the fall of the birth-rate which set in anterior to this period. The stock, then, from which wives are drawn is ample. The question remains, how far advantage is taken of it. According to the Sundbarg standard the percentage married is 48. As has been shown in the preceding paragraph, this is surpassed in Italy, France and Germany, and approached in most of the rest, with the exception of Sweden, Norway and Scotland, which are six or seven points below it, and Ireland, where less than a third are married. The proportion married, moreover, has slightly increased since 1880, except in the United Kingdom. In England the marriage-rate (on the age basis) fell off by 4-6% and in Scotland by 2%, whilst the crude birth-rate declined by 15 and n % respectively. In Ireland the case was different, as the marriage-rate declined by 12% and the birth-rate by no more than 5-7 %. In New South Wales and New Zealand, too, the marriage-rates fell off in the same period by n and 28% respectively, whilst the decline in the birth-rates amounted to 35 and 31 %. In the above countries, therefore, abstinence from matrimony may be said to have been a factor of some importance in the decline. On the continent of Europe, however, looking at the divergence in direction between the crude marriage-rate and that corrected to an age-basis, it is not improbable that the decline in the former may be attributable to some cause mentioned in connexion with the marriage-rate, and in the figures relating to some 30 years back some traces can be found of a connexion between a high birth-rate and a high proportion of young wives. In the present day, however, these indications do not appear, so it would seem that the tendency in question had been interrupted by some other influence, a point to which reference will be made below. If abstinence from marriage and the curtailment of the reproductive period by postponement of marriage be insufficient to account for the material change which has taken place in the birth-rate within the last few decades, it is clear that the latter must be attributable to the diminished fertility of those who are married. On this question the figures in the second portion of Table VI. throws some light. Here the annual number of legitimate births is shown in its proportion to the mean number of married women of conceptive age at each of the three latest enumerations. The rate, it will be seen, has fallen in all the countries specified, except for a slight increase of 2 % in Ireland and an almost stationary condition in Austria and Spain. The decline in Italy and Norway is small, but in France, where for a long time the fertility of the population has been very much below that of any other European country, the birth-rate thus calculated fell by nearly 20%, the same figure being approached in Belgium, where however, the fertility of married women is considerably greater. The case of England is remarkable. In the earlier period its crude birth and marriage-rates were above the average and its proportion of young wives well up to it. Its fertility-rate, however, which was by no means high in 1880, fell by nearly 18% by 1901, and since that date a further fall is reported by the registrar-general, to 24%, leaving the rate below that of all the other European countries except France. The States of Australasia, again, have experienced a decline even more marked. In 1880-1882 their fertility-rate ranged from 300 to 338, a low proportion for a new country, but nearly up to the European standard. By 1900-1902, however,the rate had fallen in all the larger States by from 23 to 31% and the POPULATION 97 highest rate recorded, 253 per thousand conceptive wives, was lower than that of any European country except France and Belgium. The cessation of assisted immigration early in the life of the present generation is alleged to have had considerable influence upon the rate, in Victoria, at least, owing to the curtail- ment of the supply of adult women of the more conceptive ages ami the ageing of those who had reached the country at an earlier date. But neither this nor the diminution of the marriage- rate amongst women of those ages suffices to account for more than a fraction of the decline. The same tendency, moreover, is traceable in the New England States of America, so far as statistics are available. It has been held by some that a phenomenon so widely diffused over the western world must be attributable to physio- logical causes, such as alcoholism, syphilis, the abuse of narcotics and so on. Herbert Spencer, again, before the decline in question set in, put forward the hypothesis that " the ability to maintain individual life and the ability to multiply vary in- versely "; in other words, the strain upon the nervous system involved in the struggle for life under the conditions of modern civilization, by reacting on the reproductive powers, tends towards comparative sterility. These theories, however, being supported, according to the authorities of to-day, by no evidence, statistical or other, need not be here considered. Nor, again, can the decline in fertility be connected with any diminution of material prosperity. On the contrary, the fertility-rate appears to be best maintained in countries by no means distinguished for their high standard of living, such as Spain, Italy, Ireland, and, perhaps, Austria. In this respect Holland stands by itself; but in the others mentioned, with the exception of Ireland, both marriage and birth-rates are high and there has been a comparatively insignificant fall in prolifi- city. The decline has been greatest where the standard of comfort is notoriously high, as in the United States, England and Australasia; also in France, where the general wellbeing reaches probably a lower depth in the community than in any other part of Europe. The comparison of the rates in France with those of Ireland is an instructive illustration of the point under consideration. In France more than half the women of conceptive age are married: in Ireland less than a third, and the proportion of youthful wives in the latter is 28% below that in France. In both the crude birth-rate is far below that of any other European country. But the fertility of the Irish wife exceeded that of her French compeer by 44% in 1880 and by no less than 84% twenty years later. So steady, indeed, has been the prolificity of Ireland, that from being ninth on the list at the earlier period mentioned, it is now inferior only to Holland and perhaps Finland in this respect. It need not be assumed, however, that because these rates cannot be associated with the comparative degree of prosperity attained by the individual community they are altogether inde- pendent of the economic factors mainly contributing to that condition, such as trade, employment and prices. It is difficult, indeed, if not impracticable, to disentangle the effects which should be respectively attributed to influences so closely related to each other; but, of the three, prices alone tend to sufficient uniformity in their course in different countries to justify a supposition that they are in some way connected with a phenom- enon so widely diffused as that of the decline in marriage and fertility. It is not improbable, therefore, that the fall in whole- sale prices which, with temporary interruptions, persisted between 1870 and looo, in general harmony with the other movement, may have conduced to reluctance on the part of those who have enlarged their notions of the standard of comfort to en- danger their prospects of enjoying it by incurring the additional expenses of family life. Matrimony may be postponed, or, when entered upon, may be rendered a lighter burden upon the bread- winner. The economic element in the situation, which is imposed upon the individual by circumstances, is thus modified voluntarily into a moral or prudential consideration. In this case diminished prolificity where unaccompanied by a decrease in the number of marriages at reproductive ages, is attributable xxn. 4 to the voluntary restriction of child-bearing on the part of the married. This explanation of the decline is supported by the almost unanimous opinion of the medical profession in the countries in question, and substantial evidence can be found everywhere of the extensive prevalence of the doctrine and practice of what has been termed, in further derogation of the repute of the " much misrepresented Malthus," Neomal- thusianism. Preventive measures of this kind have long been in use in France, with the result shown in Tables V. and VI., and from that country they have spread, mostly since 1870, nearly all over western Europe, as well as to the Anglo- Saxon world beyond the seas; but are scarcely apparent in countries where the Roman church has a strong hold on the people. It is generally held that the practice of thus limiting families usually prevails, in the first instance, among the better- off classes, and in time niters down, as " the gospel of comfort " is accepted by those of less resources, until the prolificity of the whole community is more or less affected by it. The registrar general for England, indeed, has stated that whilst no more than about 17% of the decline in the birth-rate can be attributed to abstinence or postponement of marriage, nearly 70% should be ascribed to voluntary restriction. The question of illegitimate births is the last to be here mentioned. It appears to be connected to a considerable extent with the subject dealt with above. In nearly every country the rate of these births has of late years shown a marked fall, which is by some ascribed to the adoption of the same expedients in illicit intercourse as are becoming conventional amongst the married. The rates given at the end of Table VI. are calculated upon the number of women most likely to produce them, that is, the spinsters, widows and divorced of conceptive age. In comparing the different countries, it may be noted that in some parts of Europe the rate is raised by the inclusion of the off- spring of marriages not registered as demanded by law, though duly performed in church. Then, again, the possibility of legitimization by subsequent marriage tends to raise the rate. Italy and Scotland may be taken as examples of these two influences, and in Germany, too, the rates in Saxony and Bavaria, which are among the highest in Europe, are in part due to the non-registration of marriages sanctioned by religious ceremony only. The low rates in Ireland, Holland and England are especially noticeable, and in the last named, the decrease between 1870 and 1905 amounted to more than 50%, not, however, entirely due, it is said, to improved morality. Deaths. — The forces tending towards the natural growth of population, which have been described above, differ from that which acts in the opposite direction in two material features. Marriage and child-bearing, in the first place, are operative amongst a fraction of the population only — those of conceptive age; whereas to the Urn of Death, as Dr Farr expressed it, all ages are called upon to contribute in their differing degrees. Then, again, the former are voluntary acts, entirely under the control of the individual; but mortality, though not beyond human regulation, is far less subject to it, and in order to have sub- stantial results the control must be the outcome of collective rather than individual co-operation. The course of the marriage and birth-rates, set forth above, affords evidence that the control over both has been exercised of recent years to an un- precedented extent, and it will appear from what is stated below, that partly owing to this cause, partly, also, to improved hygienic conditions in western life, there has been an even more pronounced decline in the rate of mortality. The general results of both upon the natural increase of population in the countries selected for illustration of this subject will be found at the end of this paragraph. For the purpose of showing this, the crude death-rate, taken, like that of births, upon the whole population, without distinction of age or sex, will suffice. Where, however, the tendency to mortality, not its results, is in question, both the above factors must be taken into account, as they have been above in distinguishing the rate of fertility from that of births. The process of correcting the mere numbers of annual deaths per thousand of population into a form which renders 98 POPULATION the return comparable with those for communities differently constituted is somewhat complicated, but it is amply justified by its necessity in adapting the figures to the important services they perform in actuarial and sanitary science. This subject can only be dealt with here in outline. In the first place, sex must be distinguished, because, from infancy upwards, except between the ages of 10 and 20, the mortality amongst females is considerably less than amongst the other sex, and appears, too, to be declining more rapidly. So far as adult life is con- cerned this superior vitality is no doubt attributable to com- parative immunity from the risks and hardships to which men are exposed, as, also, to the weaker inclination of women towards intemperance of different kinds. Thus, though the generally higher proportion of females in the community may seldom be enough to depress more than slightly the death-rate as a whole, it has a substantial effect upon it at the ages where women are in more marked numerical predominance, as in later life, and in places where the number of domestic servants is unusually great. Age is a factor still more important than sex in a return intended to serve as an index of mortality. The liability to death is extremely high amongst infants, decreasing with every month of life during the first year, but continuing above the mean rate until about the age of five. From the latter period until the fifteenth or sixteenth year vitality is at its best. The death-rate then gradually rises, slowly till 25, more rapidly later, when, from about 45 onward deterioration asserts itself more pronouncedly, and by three score years and ten the rate begins to exceed that of childhood. Thus, all other considera- tions being set aside, mortality tends to vary inversely with the proportion of the population at the healthy period 5 to 25. As the replenishment of this group depends upon the conditions prevailing at the earlier ages, it is to the mortality in childhood that most weight, from the standpoint of hygiene, must be attached. In most European countries not much less than half the annual deaths take place amongst children below five years of age, upon the total number of whom the incidence falls to the extent of from 40 to 1 20 per mille. The greater part of this is debitable, as just pointed out, to the first year, in which the mortality, calculated upon the number of births, ranged, in the decennium 1895-1904, between 70 per mille, in the exceptionally favourable circumstances of the Australasian States, to nearly 270 in European Russia. It should be remarked, in passing, that these rates are enormously higher amongst illegitimate children than amongst those born in wedlock, and that the proportion of still-born amongst the former is also in excess of that amongst the latter by some 50%. Infantile mortality is higher, too, in urban tracts, especially those associated with manufacturing industries. In Table VII. below, in which the crude rate alone is dealt with, evidence will be found of the general decline which has taken place in the mortality, thus expressed in different countries. The difference in the rates for the various countries must not be taken as a measure of difference in mortality, since, as accord- ing to the table, much of it is ascribable to difference in age- constitution. At the same time, where the range is very wide, as between the rates in Scandinavia and Australia, and those in southern and eastern Europe, the variation, to a great extent, cannot be accounted for otherwise than by difference in hygienic conditions, more especially in the light thrown by the figures of infantile mortality in the second part of the table. The variations from period to period in the same country are more instructive. They show that in the 35 years covered the death- rate has generally declined by over 20%. The exceptional cases are, first, Ireland and Norway, with their emigrating tendencies; then Spain, where the returns have probably to be discounted for improved registration, and France, where the population is all but stationary. In Finland the death-rate at the earlier period taken for the comparison was abnormally swollen by epidemic disease, and if it be set on one side the decline appears to have been in harmony with that in its Scan- dinavian neighbours. The decline in mortality has been much greater than that in the crude birth-rate everywhere except in France, Australia, and, of course, Ireland; and it is only in the two former that it has been exceeded by that in the fertility- rate. The standard mortality of each community is deduced from a life-table, representing a " generation " of people assumed to be born at the same moment and followed throughout their hypothetical lif e, in the light of the distribution by age ascertained TABLE VII. (C) Decline per cent. (A) Death per 1000 of Total (B) Deaths under one 'Probable Country. Population. year per 1000 Births. 1861-1870 to 1895-1904. Fertility- rate. Lifetime. 1841-1850. 1861-1870. 1895-1904. 1874-1883. 1895-1904. Death- rate. Birth- rate. 1880-188210 1900-1902. Years. Sweden .... 20-6 20-2 15-8 128 98 21-7 15-0 8-2 52-3 Norway .... 18-2 18-0 iS-i 104 90 10-5 3'9 3'5 52-2 Finland . . . . 23-5 32-6 18-7 164 134 42-6 2 7-2 42-8 Denmark 20-5 19-8 15-8 141 127 2O-6 4-2 9-3 47-8 England .... 23-7 24-0 17-2 149 150 28-3 19-4 17-8 45-9 Scotland 21-8 17-3 122 126 2O-6 14-7 12-5 46-2 Ireland . . . . — 16-6 18-0 96 103 +8-4 ii-i +2-1 — Holland . . . . 26-2 25-4 17-0 2O4 '47 33-o 9-0 9-2 27-8 Belgium . 24-4 23-8 17-8 148 156 25-2 98 19-8 45-1 Germany 26-8 26-9 20-8 208 » 198 3 22-6 4-6 8-4 40-7 Austria (W) . . 29-8 29-1 24-0 255 224 17-5 4-2 — France . 23-2 23-6 20-4 165 153 13-5 17-5 19-8 47-4 Italy 30-9 22'7 208 170 26-5 10-7 2-5 43-o Spain . — 30-6 27-8 182 9-1 8-0 Hungary 33-o 27-4 216 17-0 6-2 40-1 Galicia . . . . — 33-5 27-8 — 17-0 2-3 — Servia . . . . — 30-9 23-6 154 23-6 9.9 — — Russia (Eur.) — 37-1 31-2 267 268 15-9 2-2 — — N. S. Wales . . — 16-2 n-7 1 08 27-7 32-2 30-7 51-2 Victoria . . . . — 16-7 13-3 105 20-4 37-2 24-1 — New Zealand — 13-2 9-8 "7 79 25-7 35-1 24-5 55-4 1 Mean after lifetime at birth. ! Finland from 1850-1891, decrease 20-4. * Prussia only; Saxony, 284 and 272; Bavaria, 308 257. POPULATION 99 through the census and the number of deaths at each age observed for as many years, generally from 10 to 20, as suffice to furnish a trustworthy average. The population thus dealt with is supposed to be stationary, that is, the loss by death at each age is at once made good by the addition of an equal number of the same age, whilst the survivors pass on to the age above. Of the many calculations set forth in these valuable tables there is only room here to refer to the " afterlifetime " for such countries as it is available, which is quoted in the last column of Table VII. It shows the average number of years which persons of a given age, or, as here, of all ages, will live, on the assumption that they are subject to the calculated probabilities of survival. It is sometimes known as the " expectation of life," a term, however, which involves a mathematical hypothesis now discarded. The relation between the birth and the death rates has been the subject of much analysis and controversy. Observation has demonstrated that the two rates are generally found to move along parallel lines. A high birth-rate is accompanied by high mortality; conversely, when one is low, so is the other. A birth- rate continuously in excess of the death-rate tends to lower the latter through the supply it affords of people annually reaching the more healthy ages. If the supply be diminished, the narrower field open to the risks of infancy has the immediate effect of further decreasing the mortality. In course of time, however, TABLE VIII. Serial order Per 1000 of Population. Country. according to formula * Annual ex- cess of Births over Deaths. Total annual increase. Approximate loss by emigration. 1895-1904. 1861- 1871. 1895- 1904. 1861- 1871. 1891- 1901. 1861- 1871. 1891- 1901. Sweden . 7 1 1 -2 10-9 7-7 7-i 3'7 3'7 Norway . 4 12-9 14-6 7'9 n-3 5-1 2-7 Finland . 10 2-1 13-5 1-3 i i • i I-O 2-3 Denmark. 5 II-I 13-9 10-4 "•5 °-3 1-3 England . 8 13-6 n-8 12-5 "•5 i-i O-2 Scotland . 9 13-0 n-9 9-3 10-6 3-6 1-2 Ireland . 13 9-6 5-2 -6-9 -5-4 15-0 10-7 Holland . . . 6 9.9 15-1 8-4 12-7 2-O 1-5 Belgium . ii 7-8 10-7 7'4 9-8 I-I O-I Germany . 12 10-3 14-7 7-8 13-2 2'5 0-7 Austria (W.) . . 16 7-9 10-2 5-6 0-8 o-5 France . 18 2-7 1-3 2-8 1-6 + 0-2 + 1-0 Italy. . . . '5 6-5 10-8 6-0 6-2 0-9 4-6 Spam. 19 7-7 7-0 5'i 4-9 2-1 0-4 Russia 20 12-7 17-5 u-7 13-5 0-7 1-6 Hungary . Servia 18 8-5 13-6 "•5 16-5 8-2 9-8 14-4 0-4 0-9 0-6 Galicia 17 10-9 15-6 10-9 10-4 O-I 4-1 New South Wales 2 24-8 1 6- 1 36-9 18-4 + I2-I + 2-3 Victoria . 3 247 12-7 30-8 5'2 + 6-1 7-5 New Zealand i 27-0 16-3 63-0 19-0 +36-0 4- 2-7 under the same influence, those passing from their prime into the second period of danger acquire a numerical preponderance which throws its weight upon the general death-rate and tends to raise it. It is assumed that throughout the above course the hygienic conditions of life remain unchanged. If, however, they undergo marked improvement, the duration of life is extended and both birth and death-rates, being spread over a wider field of the living, tend to decrease. On the other hand, an accidental set-back to population, such as that caused by famine or a disastrous war, leaves room which an increasing birth-rate hastens to occupy. A similar result follows in a lesser degree a wave of emigration. Examples of all the above tendencies may be gleaned from the returns of the countries named in the table, though space does not admit of their exhibtion. In both France and Germany, for instance, the process of replenish- ment after a great war can be traced both early and late in the i pth century. In England, the decrease in " natality " is in itself enough to account for the decline in the death-rate, apart from any considerations of improved hygiene. In France, on the contrary, the low natality having been so long continued, has raised the death-rate, by reason of the balance of propor- tion having been shifted by it from youth and the prime of life to old age. It may be inferred from the above that a high birth- rate does not imply a high rate of increase of population, any more than does a decreasing mortality, but the two rates must be considered in their relations to each other. The death-rate, however, is often taken by itself as the measure of the relatively favourable conditions or otherwise of the different countries; but it indicates at best the maintaining power of the community, whereas the increasing power, as manifested in the birth-rate, has also to be taken into account. Here, again, it is not sufficient to rely upon the mere rate of natural growth, or the difference between the two rates, since this may be the same in a community where both the rates are very high as in one where they are relatively low, a distinction of considerable importance. It has been suggested by Dr Rubin of Copenhagen, that if the death rate (d) be squared and divided by the birth-rate (6), due influence is allowed to each rate respectively, as well as to the difference in the height of the rates in different countries (Journ. R. Statist. Soc., London, 1897, p. 154). The quotient thus obtained decreases as the conditions are more favourable, and, on the whole, it seems to form a good index to the merit of the respective countries from the standpoint of vital forces. The first column of Table VIII. shows the order in which the countries mentioned are found to stand according to the above test. The three Australasian states head the list in virtue of their remarkably low death-rate, which outweighs the relative paucity of their births. The next countries in order all belong to north-western Europe, and their index-quotients are all very close to each other. Sweden falls below its geographical neighbours owing to its low birth-rate, and Finland because of its higher mortality. England and Scotland, in spite of their higher birth-rates, are kept below Scandinavia by the higher death-rate, but their birth-rate places them above Belgium. Ireland and France are pulled down by their low natality. The latter, with the same mortality as Germany, stands far below it for the above reason, as Ireland is raised by its lower death- rate above the prolific countries of eastern Europe. The rate of natural growth is given in the second part of the table. In the case of two of the Australasian states, of Holland, Finland, Spain and Italy, the order is in accord with that given by the test applied above, and the difference between the two in Austria, Ireland and France is not large. The great difference between the serial rank occupied in the respective lists by Russia, Servia and Galicia, with remarkably high rates of natural growth, as well as that found in the case of most of the other countries in question, shows that this factor is by no means a trustworthy guide in the estimate of hygienic balance. Migration. — Passing from the internal factors in the move- ment of population, the influence has to be taken into account of the interchange of population between different countries. The net results of such exchange can be roughly estimated by comparing the rate of natural growth with that of the total increase of the community between one census and another, as set forth in Table VIII., in the last section of which the approxi- mate loss by emigration, as calculated by Dr Sundbarg, is given. It will be seen that the only European country which gains by the exchange is France, and there the accretion is almost insig- nificant. Between many of the countries there is a good deal of migration which is only seasonal or temporary, according to the demand for labour. From Russia, too, there is a stream of colonization across the Urals into western Siberia, and amongst the western Mediterranean populations there is constant IOO POPULONIUM— PORCH migration to North Africa The greatest drain from Europe, however, has been across the sea to the United States, Canada and Australasia, especially to the first-named. Dr Sundbarg's returns give about 28 millions as the number which left Europe by sea during the igth century, of whom all but 4 millions emigrated during the last half of that period. Between 1821 and 1904, about 22 millions landed from Europe in the United States; about 23 millions in Canada; 2 millions in Australia, besides a good number in Brazil, the Argentine and South Africa. The return of birthplace which usually forms part of the census inquiry, affords supplementary information on the subject of immigration. In Canada, for instance, those born abroad numbered 17 % of the population in 1871, and about 13 % thirty years later. In New South Wales, the correspond- ing figures were 41 and 28 %, and in Victoria 55 and 27. In New Zealand the consequences of the cessation of special encourage- ment to emigration were still more marked, the foreign-born declining in proportion from 63 to 33 %. On the other hand, in the United States, from 9-7 % in 1850 the proportion rose to 13-7 in 1900, and has since reached still higher figures, as has been the case recently in Canada also. Up to the early 'nineties the greater part of the immigrants into America were furnished by Germany, Ireland and Great Britain, but for the next fifteen years the place of those countries was taken by Italy and eastern Europe. The general results of the two movements in Europe have been thus summarised by Dr Sundbarg: — TABLE IX. Annual rate per 1000 of population. 1801-1850. 1850-1900. Births. Deaths. Births above Deaths. Census Increase. Births. Deaths. Births above Deaths. Census Increase. Europe, N.W. S.W. E. . Total Europe 35-4 33-6 45-9 26-5 28-3 38-1 8-9 5-3 7-8 8-1 5-2 7-7 34-4 31-4 46-2 23-4 26-3 34-7 II-O 5-i n-5 8-6 4'3 10-6 38-6 31-2 7-4 7-1 38-0 28-4 9-6 8-2 United States Canada . Australasia . — — — 29-9 38-7 85-9 — — 24-0 16-2 48-2 Differences tend to be smoothened out, of course, in dealing •with a population so large and varied as that of a continent, but the figures suffice to show the contrast between the early part of the century and the period following the great migratory movements to the new goldfields. In the countries receiving the stream of newcomers, the intercensal rate of increase was obviously very different from those of the older countries, though it seems to have largely spent itself or been counteracted by other influences. The latest rates, for instance, were only 18 per mille per annum in Australia; n in Canada and 19 in the United States. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A very full bibliography up to 1899 is appended to von Fircke's Bevolkerungslehre und Bevolkerungspolitik. Reference may also be made to Matthews Duncan, Fecundity, Fertility and Sterility (ed. 1871); Newsholme, Elements of Vital Statistics (ed. 1899), and his paper on birth-rates, Journ. R. Statist. Soc. (1906); W. Farr, Vital Statistics (1885) ; Coghlan, Report on Decline in Birth- rate, New^ South Wales (1903), and report of Royal Commission on that decline (1904) ; Bonar, Malthus and his Work (1885) ; Bertillon, Elements^ de demographie; Gamier, Du Principe de population; de Molinari, Ralentissement du mouvement de la population; Bertheau, Essai sur les lots de la population; Starkenburg, Die Bevolkerungs- Wissenschaft; Stieda, Das sexual Verhdltniss der Geborenen; Rubin and Westergaard, Statistik der Ehen; Westergaard, Die Lehre von der Mortalilat und Morbilitat, and Die Grundzuge der Theorie der Statistik ; Gonnard, L' Emigration europeenne. (J. A. B.) POPULONIUM (Etruscan Pupluna), an ancient seaport town of Etruria, Italy, at the north end of the peninsular of Monte Massoncello, at the south end of which is situated the town of Piombino (q.v.). The place, almost the only Etruscan town built directly on the sea, was situated on a lofty hill1 now crowned by a conspicuous medieval castle and a poor modern village (Populonia). Considerable remains of its town walls, of large irregular, roughly rectangular blocks (the form is that of the natural splitting of the schistose sandstone), still exist, enclosing a circuit of about 13 m. The remains existing within them are entirely Roman— ra row of vaulted substructions, a water reservoir and a mosaic with representations of fishes. Strabo mentions the existence here of a look-out tower for the shoals of tunny-fish. There are some tombs outside the town, some of which, ranging from the Villanova period (gth century B.C.) to the middle of the 3rd century B.C., were explored in 1908. In one, a large circular tomb, were found three sepulchral couches in stone, carved in imitation of wood, and a fine statuette in bronze of Ajax committing suicide. Close by was found a horse collar with 14 bronze bells. The remains of a temple, devastated in ancient times (possibly by Dionysius of Syracuse in 384 B.C.), were also discovered, with fragments of Attic vases of the 5th century B.C., which had served as ex votos in it. Coins of the town have also been found in silver and copper. The iron mines of Elba, and the tin and copper of the mainland, were owned and smelted by the people of Populonia; hot springs too lay some 6 m. to the E. (Aquae Populaniae) on the high road — Via Aurelia — along the coast. At this point a road branched off to Saena (Siena). According to Virgil the town sent a contingent to the help of Aeneas, and it furnished Scipio with iron in 205 B.C. It offered considerable resistance to Sulla, who took it by siege; and from this dates its decline, which Strabo, who describes it well (v. 2, 6, p. 223), already notes as beginning, while four centuries later Rutilius describes it as in ruins. The harbour, however, continued to be of some importance, and the place was still an episcopal see in the time of Gregory the Great. SeeG. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883, ii. 212 sqq.); I. Falchi in Notizie degli Scavi (1903-1904); L. A. Milan!, ibid. (1908), 199 sqq. PORBANDAR, a native state of India, in the Kathiawar political agency, Bombay, extending along the S.W. coast of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Area, 636 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 82,640, showing a decrease of 4 % in the decade. Estimated gross revenue, £65,000; tribute, £3,233. The chief, whose title is rana, is a Jethwa Rajput. Limestone is largely exported to Bombay. This limestone is used for buildings in Porbandar without mortar, and is said to coalesce into a solid block under the influence of moisture. The town of PORBANDAR is the maritime terminus of the Kathiawar railway system. Pop. (1901), 24,620. A large trade is conducted in native boats as far as the east coast of Africa. PORCELAIN, the name of that kind of ceramic ware which is characterized by a translucent body, also loosely used for the finer kinds of ware generally, popularly known as " china " (see CERAMICS). The French porcelaine, from which the word comes into English, is an adaptation of the Italian porcellana, a cowrie-shell, the beautifully polished surface of which caused the name to be applied to the ware. The Italian word is generally taken to be from pqrcella, diminutive of porco, pig, from a sup- posed resemblance of the shell to a pig's back. PORCH (through the Fr. porche, from Lat. porticus; the Ital. equivalent is portico, corresponding to the Gr. vapdri^; Ger. Vorhalle), a covered erection forming a shelter to the entrance door of a large building. The earliest known are the two porches of the Tower of the Winds at Athens; there would seem to have been one in front of the entrance door of the villa of Diomede outside the gate at Pompeii; in Rome they were 1 It commands a fine view, and Corsica is sometimes visible, though not Sardinia, as Strabo (and following him, Lord Macaulay) erro- neously state. PORCUPINE— PORDENONE, IL 101 probably not allowed, but on either side of the entrance door of a mansion, porticoes set back behind the line of frontage were provided, according to F. Mazois, as shelters from sun and rain for those who paid early visits before the doors were opened. In front of the early Christian basilicas was a long arcaded porch called " narthex " (q.v.) In later times porches assume two forms — one the projecting erection covering the entrance at the west front of cathedrals, and divided into three or more doorways, &c., and the other a kind of covered chamber open at the ends, and having small windows at the sides as a protection from rain. These generally stand on the north or south sides of churches, though in Kent there are a few instances (as Snodland and Boxley) where they are at the west ends. Those of the Nor- man period generally have little projection, and are sometimes so flat as to be little more than outer dressings and hood- moulds to the inner door. They are often richly ornamented, and, as at Southwell in England and Kelso in Scotland, have rooms over, which have been erroneously called parvises. Early English porches are much longer, and in larger buildings fre- quently have rooms above; the gables are generally bold and high pitched. In larger buildings also, as at Wells, St Albans, &c., the interiors are as rich in design as the exteriors. Decorated and Perpendicular porches partake of much the same character- istics, the pitch of roof, mouldings, copings, battlements, &c., being, of course, influenced by the taste of the time. The later porches have rooms over them more frequently than in earlier times; these are often approached from the lower storey by small winding stairs, and sometimes have fire-places, and are supposed to have served as vestries; and sometimes there are the remains of a piscina, and relics of altars, as if they had been used as chantry chapels. It is probable there were wooden porches at all periods, particularly in those places where stone was scarce ; but, as may be expected from their exposed position, the earliest have decayed. At Cobham, Surrey, there was one that had ranges of semicircular arches in oak at the sides, of strong Norman character. It is said there are several in which portions of Early English work are traceable, as at Chevington in Suffolk. In the Decorated and later periods, however, wooden porches are common, some plain, others with rich tracery and large boards; these frequently stand on a sort of half storey of stone work or bahut. The entrance porches at the west end of cathe- drals are generally called portals, and where they assume the character of separate buildings, are designated galilees; e.g. the porticoes on the west side of the south transept of Lincoln Cathedral, and at the west end of the nave of Ely Cathedral, and the chapel at the west end of Durham Cathedral. The finest example in England of an open projected porch is that of Peterborough Cathedral, attached to the Early Norman nave. The term " porch " is also given to the magnificent portals of the French cathedrals, where the doors are so deeply recessed as to become porches, such as those of Reims, Amiens, Chartres, Troyes, Rouen, Bourges, Paris, and Beauvais cathedrals, St Ouen, Rouen, and earlier Romanesque churches, as in St Trophime, Aries and St Gilles. Many, however, have detached porches in front of the portals, as in Notre Dame at Avigon, Chartres (north and south), Noyon, Bourges (north and south), St Vincent at Rouen, Notre Dame de Louviers, the cathedrals of Albi and Le Puy, and in Germany those of Spires and Regens- burg, and the churches of St Laurence and St Sebald at Nuremberg. (R. P. S.) PORCUPINE (Fr., porc-(pic, "spiny pig"), the name of the largest European representative of the terrestrial rodent mammals, distinguished by the spiny covering from which it takes its name. The European porcupine (Hystrix cristata) is the typical representative of a family of Old World rodents, the Hystrkidae, all the members of which have the same protective covering. These rodents are characterized by the imperfectly rooted cheek-teeth, imperfect clavicles or collar-bones, cleft upper lip, rudimentary first front-toes, smooth soles, six teats and many cranial characters. They range over the south of Europe, the whole of Africa, India and the Malay Archipelago as far east as Borneo. They are all stout, heavily-built animals, with blunt rounded heads, fleshy mobile snouts, and coats of thick cylindrical or flattened spines, which form the whole covering of their body, and are not intermingled with ordinary hairs. Their habits are strictly terrestrial. Of the three genera Hystrix is characterized by the inflated skull, in which the nasal chamber is often considerably larger than the brain-case, and The Porcupine (Hystrix cristata). the short tail, tipped with numerous slender-stalked open quills, which make a loud rattling noise whenever the animal moves. The common porcupine (H. cristata), which occurs throughout the south of Europe and North and West Africa, is replaced in South Africa by H. africaeaustralis and in India by the hairy- nosed porcupine (H . lencura) . Besides these large crested species, there are several smaller species without crests in north-east India, and the Malay region from Nepal to Borneo. The genus Atherura includes the brush-tailed porcupines which are much smaller animals, with long tails tipped with bundles of flattened spines. Two species are found in the Malay region and one in West Africa. Trichys, the last genus, contains two species, T. fasctculaia of Borneo and T. macrotis of Sumatra, both externally very like, Atherura, but differing from the members of that genus in many cranial characteristics. In the New World the porcupines are represented by the members of the family Erethizontidae, or Coendidae, which have rooted molars, complete collar-bones, entire upper lips, tuberculated soles., no trace of a first front-toe, and four teats. The spines are mixed with long soft hairs. They are less strictly nocturnal in their habits; and with one exception live entirely in trees, having in correspondence with this long and power- ful prehensile tails. They include three genera, of which the first is represented by the Canadian porcupine (Erethizon dorsatus), a stout, heavily-built animal, with long hairs almost or quite hiding its spines, four front- and five hind-toes, and a short, stumpy tail. It is a native of the greater part of Canada and the United States, wherever there is any remnant of the original forest left. Synetheres, or Coendu, contains some eight or ten species, known as tree-porcu- pines, found throughout tropical South America, with one extending into Mexico. They are of a lighter build than the ground-porcupines, with short, close, many-coloured spines, often mixed with hairs, and prehensile tails. The hind-feet have only four toes, owing to the suppression of the first, in place of which they have a fleshy pad on the inner side of the foot, between which and the toes boughs and other objects can be firmly grasped as with a hand. Chaetomys, distinguished by the shape of its skull and the greater complexity of its teeth, contains C. subspinosus, a native of the hottest parts of Brazil. (W. H. F.; R. L.«) PORDENONE, IL (1483-1539), an eminent painter of the Vene- tian school, whose correct name was Giovanni Antonio Licinio, or Licino. He was commonly named D Pordenone from having been born in 1483 at Corticelli, a village near Pordenone (q.v.) in Italy. He ultimately dropped the name of Licinio, having quarrelled with his brothers, one of whom had wounded him in the hand; he then called himself Regillo, or De Regillo. His signature runs " Antonius Portunaensis," or " De Portunaonis." He was created a cavaliere by Charles V. As a painter Licinio was a scholar of Pellegrino da S. Daniele, but the leading influence which governed his style was that of Giorgione; the popular story that he was a fellow-pupil with Titian under Giovanni Bellini is incorrect. The district 102 PORDENONE— PORISM about Pordenone had been somewhat fertile in capable painters; but Licinio excelled them all in invention and design, and more especially in the powers of a vigorous chiaroscurist and flesh painter. Indeed, so far as mere flesh-painting is concerned he was barely inferior to Titian in breadth, pulpiness and tone; and he was for a while the rival of that great painter in public regard. The two were open enemies, and Licinio would sometimes affect to wear arms while he was painting. He excelled Giorgione in light and shade and in the effect of relief, and was distinguished in perspective and in portraits; he was equally at home in fresco and in oil-colour. He executed many works in Pordenone and elsewhere in Friuli, and in Cremona and Venice; at one time he settled in Piacenza, where is one of his most celebrated church pictures, " St Catherine disputing with the Doctors in Alexandria "; the figure of St Paul in connexion with this picture is his own portrait. He was formally invited by Duke Hercules II. of Ferrara to that court; here soon after- wards, in 1539, he died, not without suspicion of poison. His latest works are comparatively careless and superficial; and generally he is better in male figures than in female — the latter being somewhat too sturdy — and the composition of his subject- pictures is scarcely on a level with their other merits. Pordenone appears to have been a vehement self-asserting man, to which his style as a painter corresponds, and his morals were not unexceptionable. Three of his principal scholars were Bernar- dino Licinio, named II Sacchiense, his son-in-law Pomponio Amalteo, and Giovanni Maria Calderari. The following may be named among Pordenone's works: the picture of " S Luigi Giustiniani and other Saints," originally in S Maria dell' Orto, Venice; a " Madonna and Saints " (both of these in the Venice academy) ; the " Woman taken in Adul- tery," in the Berlin museum; the " Annunciation," at Udine, regarded by Vasari as the artist's masterpiece, now damaged by restoration. In Hampton Court is a duplicate work, the " Painter and his Family "; and in Burghley House are two fine pictures now assigned to Pordenone — the " Finding of Moses " and the " Adoration of the Kings." These used to be attributed to Titian and to Bassano respectively. PORDENONE, a town of the province of Udine, Venetia, Italy, 30 m. W. by S. of Udine on the railway to Treviso. Pop. (1901), 8425 (town); 12,409 (commune). It was the birthplace of the painter generally known as II Pordenone (.). Paintings from his brush adorn the cathedral (which has a fine brick campanile), and others are preserved in the gallery of the town hall. Cotton industries are active, and silk and pottery are manufactured. PORE, a small opening or orifice, particularly used of the open- ings of the ducts of the sweat-glands in the skin or of the stomata in the epidermis of plants or those through which the pollen or seed are discharged from anthers or seed capsules. The word is an adaptation through the French from Lat. porus, Gr. iropas, passage. In the sense of to look closely at, to read with persistent or close attention, " pore " is of obscure origin. It would seem to be connected with " peer," to look closely into, and would point to an O. Eng. purian or pyrian. There is no similar word in Old French. PORFIRIUS, PUBLILIUS OPTATIANUS, Latin poet, possibly a native of Africa, flourished during the 4th century A.D. He has been identified with Publilius Optatianus, who was prae- fectus urbi (329 and 333), and is by some authorities included amongst the Christian poets. For some reason he had been banished, but having addressed a panegyric to the Emperor Constantine the Great, he was allowed to return. Twenty- eight poems are extant under his name, of which twenty were included in the panegyric. They have no value except as curiosities and specimens of perverted ingenuity. Some of them are squares (the number of letters in each line being equal), certain letters being rubricated so as to form a pattern or figure, and at the same time special verses or maxims; others represent various objects (a syrinx, an organ, an altar); others have special peculiarities in each line (number of words or letters) ; while the 28th poem (the versus anacyclici) may be read back- wards without any effect upon sense or metre. A complimentar letter from the emperor and letter of thanks from the author ar also extant. The best edition of the poem is by L. Muller (1877). See also O. Seeck, " Das Leben des Dichters Porphyrius " Rheinisches Museum (1908), Ixiii. 267. PORISM. The subject of porisms is perplexed by the multitude of different views which have been held by geometer as to what a porism really was and is. The treatise which ha given rise to the controversies on this subject is the Porisms < Euclid, the author of the Elements. For as much as we knov of this lost treatise we are indebted to the Collection of Pappu of Alexandria, who mentions it along with other geometrical treatises, and gives a number of lemmas necessary for under- standing it. Pappus states that the porisms of Euclid are neither theorems nor problems, but are in some sort intermediate, so that they may be presented either as theorems or as problems; and they were regarded accordingly by many geometers, who looked merely at the form of the enunciation, as being actually theorems or problems, though the definitions given by the older writers showed that they better understood the distinction between the three classes of propositions. The older geometers regarded a theorem as directed to proving what is proposed, a problem as directed to constructing what is proposed, and finally a porism as directed to finding what is proposed (eij iropifffjiov airrov TOV Trportivofnevov) . Pappus goes on to say that this last definition was changed by certain later geometers, who defined a porism on the ground of an accidental characteristic as r6 \elirov mddkati roTruoD Secop^aros, that which falls short of a locus-theorem by a (or in its) hypothesis. Proclus points out that the word was used in two senses. One sense is that of " corollary," as a result unsought, as it were, but seen to follow from a theorem. On the " porism " in the other sense he adds nothing to the definition of " the older geometers " except to say (what does not really help) that the finding of the center of a circle and the finding of the greatest common measure are porisms (Proclus, ed. Friedlein, p. 301). Pappus gives a complete enunciation of a porism derive from Euclid, and an extension of it to a more general case. This porism, expressed in modern language, asserts that — given four straight lines of which three turn about the points in which they meet the fourth, if two of the points of intersection of these lines lie each on a fixed straight line, the remaining point of inter- section will also lie on another straight line. The general enuncia- tion applies to any number of straight lines, say (n+i), of which « can turn about as many points fixed on the («+ 1 ) th. These : straight lines cut, two and two, in %n(n-i) points, %n(n-i) being a triangular number whose side is (n-i). If, then, they are made to turn about the n fixed points so that any (n-i) of their \n (»-i) points of intersection, chosen subject to a certain limitation, lie on (n-i) given fixed straight lines, then each of the remaining points of intersection, % (n-i) (n-i) in number, describes a straight line. Pappus gives also a complete enuncia- tion of one porism of the first book of Euclid's treatise. This may be expressed thus: If about two fixed points P, Q we make turn two straight lines meeting on a given straight line L, and if one of them cut off a segment AM from a fixed straight line AX, given in position, we can determine another fixed straight line BY, and a point B fixed on it, such that the segment BM' made by the second moving line on this second fixed line measured from B has a given ratio X to the first segment AM. The rest of the enunciations given by Pappus are incomplete, and he merely says that he gives thirty-eight lemmas for the three books of porisms; and these include 171 theorems. The lemmas which Pappus gives in connexion with the porisms are interesting historically, because he gives (i) the fundamental theorem that the cross or an harmonic ratio of a pencil of four straight lines meeting in a point is constant for all transversals; (2) the proof of the harmonic properties of a com- plete quadrilateral; (3) the theorem that, if the six vertices of a hexagon lie three and three on two straight lines, the three points of concourse of opposite sides lie on a straight line. POROS— PORPHYRY 103 During the last three centuries this subject seems to have had great fascination for mathematicians, and many geometers have attempted to restore the lost porisms. Thus Albert Girard says in his Trade de trigonometrie (1626) that he hopes to publish a restora- tion. About the same time P. de Format wrote a short work under the title Porismatum euclidaeorum renovata doctrina et sub forma isagoges recentioribus geometris exhibita (see Oeuvres de Fermat, \., . 1891); but two at least of the five examples of porisms which ves do not fall within the classes indicated by Pappus. Robert Simson was the first to throw real light upon the subject. He first eded in explaining the only three propositions which Pappus indicates with any completeness. This explanation was published in the Philosophical Transactions in 1723. Later he investigated the subject of porisms generally in a work entitled De porismatibus :!us; quo doctrinam porismatum satis explicatam, et in posterum ab oblivione tiitam fore sperat auctor, and published after his death in a volume, Roberti Simson opera quaedam reliqua (Glasgow, 1776). •m's treatise, De porismatibus, begins with definitions of theorem, problem, datum, ponsm and locus. Respecting the porism Simson that Pappus's definition is too general, and therefore he will substitute for it the following: " Porisma est propositio in qua proponitur demonstrare rem aliquam vel plures datas esse, cui vel quibus, ut et cuilibet ex rebus innumcris non quidem datis, sed quae ad ea quae data sunt eandem habent relationem, convenire Mendum est affectionem quandam communem in propositione •iptam. Porisma etiam in forma problematis enuntiari potest, si nimirum ex quibus data demonstranda sunt, invenienda proponan- tur." A locus (says Simson) is a species of porism. Then follows a Latin translation of Pappus's note on the porisms, and the proposi- tions which form the bulk of the treatise. These are Pappus's thirty-eight lemmas relating to the porisms, ten cases of the proposi- tion concerning four straight lines, twenty-nine porisms, two pro- blems in illustration and some preliminary lemmas. John Play- memoir (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1794, vol. Hi.), a sort of sequel to Simson's treatise, had for its special object the inquiry into the probable origin of porisms — that is, into the steps which led the ancient geometers to the discovery of them. Playfair remarked that the careful investigation of all possible particular cases of a proposi- tion would show that (l) under certain conditions a problem becomes impossible; (2) under certain other conditions, indeterminate or capable of an infinite number of solutions. These cases could be enunciated separately, were in a manner intermediate between theorems and problems, and were called " porisms." Playfair accordingly denned a porism thus: " A proposition affirming the possibility of finding such conditions as will render a certain problem indeterminate or capable of innumerable solutions." Though this definition of a porism appears to be most favoured in England, Simson's view has been most generally accepted abroad, and has the support of the great authority of Michael Chasles. However, in Lioui'Me's Journal de mathematiques pures et appliquees (vol. xx., July, 1855), P. Breton published Recherches novvelles sur les porismes d'Euclide, in which he gave a new translation of the text of Pappus, and sought to base thereon a view of the nature of a porism more closely conforming to the definitions in Pappus. This was followed in the same journal and in La Science by a controversy between Breton and A. J. H. Vincent, who disputed the interpretation given by the former of the text of Pappus, and declared himself in favour of the idea of Schooten, put forward in his Mathematicae exercita- tiones (1657), in which he gives the name of " porism" to one section. According to F. van Schooten, if the various relations between straight lines in a figure are written down in the form of equations or proportions, then the combination of these equations in all possible ways, and of new equations thus derived from them leads to the discovery of innumerable new properties of the figure, and here we have " porisms." The discussions, however, between Breton and Vincent, in which C. Housel also joined, did not carry forward the work of restoring Euclid's Porisms, which was left for Chasles. His work (Les Trois livres de porismes d'Euclide, Paris, 1860) makes full use of all the material found in Pappus. But we may doubt its being a successful reproduction of Euclid's actual work. Thus, in view of the ancillary relation in which Pappus's lemmas generally stand to the works to which they refer, it seems incredible that the first seven out of thirty-eight lemmas should be really equivalent .(as Chasles makes them) to Euclid's first seven Porisms. Again, Chasles seems to have been wrong in making the ten cases of the four-line Porism begin the book, instead of the intercept-Porism fully enunciated by Pappus, to which the " lemma to the first Porism " relates intelligibly, being a particular case of it. An inter- esting hypothesis as to the Porisms was put forward by H. G. Zeuthen (Die Lehre von den Kegelschnitten im Altertum, 1886, ch. viii.). Observing, e.g., that the intercept-Porism is still true if the two fixed points are points on a conic, and the straight lines drawn through them intersect on the conic instead of on a fixed straight line, Zeuthen conjectures that the Porisms were a by-product of a fully developed protective geometry of conies. It is a fact that Lemma 31 (though it makes no mention of a conic) corresponds exactly to Apollonius's method of determining the foci of a central conic (Conies, iii. 45-47 with 42). The three porisms stated by Diophantus in his Arithmetics are propositions in the theory of numbers which can all be enunciated in the form " we can find numbers satisfying such and such condi- tions"; they are sufficiently analogous therelore to the geometrical porism as defined in Pappus and Proclus. A valuable chapter on porisms (from a philological standpoint) is included in J. L. Hciberg's Litterargeschichtliche Studien iiber Euklid (Leipzig, 1882); and the following books or tracts may also be mentioned: Aug. Richter, Porismen nach Simson bearbeitet (Elbing, 1837); M. Cantor, " Ueber die Porismen des Euklid und deren Divinatoren," in Schlomilch's Zeitsch. f. Math. u. Phy. (1857), and Literaturzeitung (1861), p. 3 seq. ; Th. Leidenfrost, Die Porismen des Euklid (Programm der Realschule zu Weimar, 1863); Fr. Buch- binder, Euclids Porismen und Data (Programm der kgl. Landesschule Pforta, 1866). (T. L. H.) POROS, or PORO (" the Ford "), an island off the east coast of the Morea, separated at its western extremity by only a narrow channel from the mainland at Troezen, and consisting of a mass of limestone rock and of a mass of trachyte connected by a slight sandy isthmus. The town looks down on the beautiful harbour between the island and the mainland on the south. The ancient Calauria, with which Poros is identified, was given, according to the myth, by Apollo to Poseidon in exchange for Delos; and it became in historic times famous for a temple of the sea-god, which formed the centre of an amphictyony of seven maritime states — Hermione, Epidaurus, Aegina, Athens, Prasiae, Nauplia, and Orchomenus. Here Demosthenes took sanctuary with " gracious Poseidon," and, when this threatened to fail him, sought death. The building was of Doric architecture and lay on a ridge of the hill commanding a fine view of Athens and the Saronic Gulf, near the middle of the limestone part of the island. The site was excavated in 1894, and traces of a sacred agora with porticoes and other buildings, as well as the temple, have been found. In the neighbourhood of Poros-Calauria are two small islands, the more westerly of which contains the ruins of a small temple, and is probably the ancient Sphaeria or Hiera mentioned by Pausanias as the seat of a temple of Athena Apaturia. The English, French, and Russian plenipotentiaries met at Poros in 1828 to discuss the basis of the Greek government. See Chandler, Travels; Leake, Morea; Le Bas, Voyage archi- ologique; Curtius, Peloponnesos; Pouillon-Boblaye, Recherches; Bursian, Geographic von Griechenland; Rangabe " Ein Ausflug nach Poros," in Deutsche Revue (1883) ; and S. Wide, in Mitteilungen d. deutsch. Inst. Athen. (1895), vol. xx. PORPHYRIO, POMPONIUS, Latin grammarian and com- mentator on Horace, possibly a native of Africa, flourished during the 2nd century A.D. (according to others, much later). His scholia on Horace, which are still extant, mainly consist of rhetorical and grammatical explanations. It is not probable that we possess the original work, which must have suffered from alterations and interpolations at the hands of the copyists of the middle ages, but on the whole the scholia form a valuable aid to the student of Horace. Ed. W. Meyer (1874) ; A. Holder (1894); see also C- F- Urba> Meletemataporphyrionea(i&8$);}L. Schweikert, De Porphyrionis . . . scholiis Horatianis (1865) ; F. Pauly, Quaestiones criticae de . . . Por- phyrionis commentariis Horatianis (1858). PORPHYRY (IIop<£i>ptos) (A.D. 233-*:. 304), Greek scholar, historian, and Neoplatonist, was born at Tyre, or Batanaea in Syria. He studied grammar and rhetoric under Cassius Long- inus (q.v.). His original name was Malchus (king), which was changed by his tutor into Porphyrius (clad in purple), a jesting allusion to the colour of the imperial robes (cf . porphyro- genitus, born in the purple). In 262 he went to Rome, attracted by the reputation of Plotinus, and for six years devoted himself to the study of Neoplatonism. Having injured his health by overwork, he went to live in Sicily for five years. On his return to Rome, he lectured on philosophy and endea- voured to render the obscure doctrines of Plotinus (who had died in the meantime) intelligible to the ordinary understanding. His most distinguished pupil was lamblichus. When advanced in years he married Marcella, a widow with seven children and an enthusiastic student of philosophy. Nothing more is known of his life, and the date of his death is uncertain. Of his numerous works on a great variety of subjects the following are extant : Life of Plotinus and an exposition of his teaching in the 104 PORPHYRY irpAj ri J/OIJTO (Sententiae ad intelligibilia ducentes, Aids to the study of the Intelligibles). The Life of Pythagoras, which is incomplete, probably formed part of a larger history of philosophy (i\6aoos iaropla, in four books) down to Plato. His work on Aristotle is represented by the Introduction (doaywyii) to and Commentary (ittfyriffis, in the form of questions and answers) on the Categories. The first, translated into Latin by Boetius, was extensively used in the middle ages as a compendium of Aristotelian logic; of the second only fragments have been preserved. His Xpovucd, a chronological work, extended from the taking of Troy down to A.D. 270; to it Eusebius is indebted for his list of the Macedonian kings. The treatise i\6\oyos laropia is called an impdaais (lecture) by Eusebius, who in his Praeparatio evangelica (x. 3) has preserved a considerable extract from it, treating of plagiarism amongst the ancients. Other grammatical and literary works are 'O/zTjpufd fijT^Mura (Quaestiones hornericae); and De antro nymph- arum, in which the description in the Odyssey (xiii. 102-112) is explained as an allegory of the universe. The Jltpi diroxfls kti4/i>\wi> (De abstinentia) , on abstinence from animal food, is especially valuable as having preserved numerous original statements of the old philosophers and the substance of Theophrastus's n«pl «fi£as (De philosophia ex oraculis haurienda), in which he expressed his belief in the responses of the oracles of various gods as confirming his theosophical views. Porphyry is well known as a violent opponent of Christianity and defender of Paganism; of his KarA Xpurriai'Sn' (Adversus Christianas) in 15 books, perhaps the most important of all his works, only fragments remain. Counter-treatises were written by Eusebius of Caesarea, Apollinarius (or Apollinaris) of Laodicea, Methodius of Olympus, and Macarius of Magnesia, but all these are lost. Porphyry's view of the book of Daniel, that it was the work of a writer in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, is given by Jerome. There is no proof of the assertion of Socrates, the ecclesiastical historian, and Augustine, that Porphyry was once a Christian. There is no complete edition of the works of Porphyry. Separate editions : Vita Plotini in R. Volkmann's edition of the Enneades of Plotinus (1883) ; Sententiae, by B. Mommert (1907) ; Vita Pythagorae, De antro nympharum, De abstinentia, Ad Marcellam, by A. Nauck (1885); " Isagoge et in Aristotelis categorias commentarium," by A. Busse in Commentaria in Aristotelem graeca (1887), iv; I, with the translation of Boetius (ed. with introd., S. Brandt, 1906) ; fragments of the Chronica in C. W. Muller, Frag. hist, grace. (1849), iii. 688; Quaestiones hornericae, by H. Schrader (1880, 1890); Letter to Anebo in W. Pharthey's edition of lamblichus De mysteriis (1857); De philosophia ex oraculis haurienda, by G. Wolff (1856); fragments of the Adversus Christianas by A. Georgiades (Leipzig, 1891); English trans, of the De abstinentia, De antro nympharum and Sententiae, by Thomas Taylor (1823) ; of the Sententiae by T. Davidson in the Journal of Speculative Philosophy, iii. (1869); of the De abstinentia by S. Hibberd (1857), and of the Ad Marcellam by A. Zimmern (1896). On Porphyry and his works generally see Fabricius, Bibliotheca graeca (ed. Harles), v. 725; Eunapius, Vita philosophorum-, article in Sui'das; Lucas Holstemus, De vita et scnptis Porphyrii (Cam- bridge, 1655); J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship (1906), i. 343; W. Christ, Gesch. der griechischen Litleratur (1898), § 621 ; M. N. Bouillet, Porphyre, son role dans I'ecole neoplatonicienne (1864); A. I. Kleffner, Porphyrius der Neuplatoniker und Christenfeind (Paderborn, 1896); on his philosophy, T. Whittaker, The Neo- Platonists (Cambridge, 1901), and NEOPLATONISM. PORPHYRY (Gr. irop^iipeos, Lat. purpureus, purple), in petrology, a beautiful red volcanic rock which was much used by the Romans for ornamental purposes when cut and polished. The famous red porphyry (porfido rosso antico) came from Egypt, but its beauty and decorative value were first recognized by the Romans in the time of the emperor Claudius. It was obtained on the west coast of the Red Sea, where it forms a dike 80 or 90 ft. thick. For a long time the knowledge of its source was lost, but the original locality, marked by many ancient quarries, has been re-discovered at Jebel Dhokani and the stone is again an article of commerce. In a dark red ground-mass it contains many small white or rose-red plagioclase felspars, black shining prisms of hornblende, and small plates of iron oxide. The red colour of the felspars and of the ground-mass is unusual in rocks of this group, and arises from the partial conversion of the plagioclase felspar into thulite and manganese-epidote. These minerals also occur in thin veins crossing the rock. Many specimens show effects of crushing and in extreme cases this produced brecciation. Another famous porphyry, hardly less beautiful, is the verde antique, porfido verde antico, or marmor lacedaemonium viride of Pliny, which was obtained between Lebetsova and Marathonisi in Peloponnesus. It has the same structure as the red porphyry as it contains large white or green felspars in a fine ground-mass. The green colour arises from the abundant formation of chlorite and epidote in the large felspars and throughout the rock. In ancient times it was much used as an ornamental stone, these two varieties of porphyry making a fine contrast with one another. Green porphyries are not so rare as red. A similar rock is obtained at Lambay Island near Dublin. They are still used extensively, especially for small ornaments. Large pieces are difficult to obtain free from flaws, and marble is preferred for mural work, not only because of the greater variety of patterns but also because it is much softer and more easily cut and polished. Many igneous rocks possess the structure which characterizes these porphyries (see PETROLOGY, Plate JIL): the presence of scattered crystals of larger size in a fine-grained ground-mass. Most lavas, and many of the rocks which occur as dikes and sills, have porphyritic structure. These may be called porphyries and this term has consequently been applied to a great variety of rocks, e.g. diorite-porphyry, granite-porphyry, greenstone- porphyry, augite-porphyry, liebenerite-porphyry, &c. More recently the use of the term has been restricted to a series of rocks which are of intrusive origin and contain much porphyritic felspar (with or without quartz or nepheline). The porphyritic intrusive rocks with large crystals of augite, olivine, biotite, and hornblende are for the most part grouped under the lampro- phyres; while the term porphyry is rarely now applied to any of the effusive rocks or lavas. Furthermore, it has become usual to subdivide the intrusive porphyries into two classes; in one of these the phenocrysts are mainly orthoclase, in the other mainly plagioclase felspar. The first series is known as the " porphyries," while the second group is called " porphy- rites." There are porphyries which correspond chemically and mineralogically to granites, syenites, and nepheline-syenites; while the porphyrites form a parallel series to the diorites, norites and gabbros. In each case the porphyritic type occurs generally as dikes and thin sheets which consolidated beneath the surface but probably at no great depth (hypabyssal rocks); while granite, gabbro and the other holocrystalline non-por- phyritic rocks belong to the plutonic or abyssal group which cooled very slowly at great depths and under enormous pressure. The principal subdivisions of the group are the granite-porphyries, the syenite-porphyries and the elaeolite-porphyries. In all of them porphyritic orthoclase or alkali felspar is the characteristic mineral. The granite-porphyries and quartz-porphyries (q.v.) consist mainly of orthoclase, quartz and ferro-magnesian mineral, usually biotite but sometimes hornblende, augite or enstatite. Granite-porphyries are exceedingly common in all regions where acid intrusive rocks occur. Many granite masses are surrounded by dikes of this kind, and in some cases the chilled margin of a granite consists of typical porphyry. The syenite-porphyries, like the syenites, are less common than the granite-porphyries and granites. They are characterized by an abundance of orthoclase and a scarcity or absence of quartz. The phenocrysts are orthoclase (and oligoclase), biotite, hornblende or augite ; the ground-mass is principally alkali felspar with sometimes a little quartz. In many specimens the felspars of the second generation form a mosaic of ill-shaped grains, in others they are little rectangular crystals which may have a fluxion arrangement (orthophyric type of ground-mass). Some of the rocks formerly known as orthoclase-porphyries belong to this group; others are ancient trachytic lavas (orthophyres). Closely related to the syenite-porphyries is the rhomben-porphyry of south Norway and West Africa. In these the large felspars have rhomb-shaped sections owing to their peculiar crystalline development. Olivine, augite and biotite occur in these rocks, but there is no quartz or soda-lime felspar. The porphyritic felspars contain both soda and potash and belong to anorthoclase. Rhomben-porphyries occur as dikes connected with the syenites (laurvikites of southern Norway), and many ice-borne boulders of these rocks have been found among the drift deposits of the east of England. Elaeolite- and leucite- (syenite) porphyries form apophyses and dikes around nepheline- and leucite-syenite intrusions. The former contain porphyritic nepheline which is often weathered to soft, PORPOISE 105 finely crystalline aggregates of white mica and other secondary products as in the well-known liebenerite-porphyry of Tirol and nic-.c<:kite-porphyry of Greenland. The felspars of these rocks .in- albite, ortnoclase and anorthoclase, and they often con- i.iiu soda-augite and amphiboles. Elaeojite-porphyries occur .ilc.MK with nepheline-syenites in such districts as the Serra de Monchique, south Norway, Kola, Montreal. Allied to them are the tinguaites (so called from the Serra de Tingua, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil), which are pale green rocks with abundant alkali felspar nepheline, needles of green aegirine, and sometimes biotite and cancrinite. As a rule, however, these are not porphyritic. Some authors group the tinguaites with the aplites rather than the por- phyries. Grorudites are quartz-tinguaites free from nepheline, .nid snlvsbergites are tinguaitic rocks in which neither quartz nor .•line occur. The two last varieties have been described from the Christiania district in Norway, but tinguaites are known with nepheline-syenites in many parts of the world, e.g. Norway, Brazil, : cigal, Canada, Sweden, Greenland. The following analyses of porphyries of different types will show hemical composition of a few selected examples: — I., Elvan or granite porphyry (with pinite after cordierite) — Prah sands, Cornwall. II., Granophyre — Armboth, Cumberland. III., Granophyre — Carrock Fell, Cumberland. IV., Rhomben-porphyry — Tonsterg, Norway. V., Elaeolite porphyry — Beemerville, New Jersey. VI., Tinguaite — Kola. VII., Grorudite — Assynt, Scotland. Porphyrites. — The porphyrites as above mentioned are intrusive or hypabyssal rocks of porphyritic texture, with phenocrysts of plagioclase felspar and hornblende, biotite or augite (sometimes also quartz) in a fine ground-mass. The name has not always been used in this sense, but formerly signified rather decomposed andesitic and basaltic lavas of Carboniferous age and older. Both the red porphyry and the green porphyry of the ancients are more properly classified in this group than with the granite-porphyries, as their dominant felspar is plagioclase and they contain little or no primary quartz. Porphyrites occur as dikes which accompany masses of diorite, and are often called diorite-porphyrites; they differ from diorites in few respects except their porphyritic structure. The phenocrysts are plagioclase, often much zoned with central kernels of bytownite or labradorite and margins of oligoclase or even orthoclase. In a special group there are corroded blebs or porphyritic quartz: these rocks are called quartz-porphyrites, and are distinguished from the granite-porphyries by the scarcity or absence of orthoclase. The hornblende of the porphyrites is often green but sometimes brown, resembling that of the lamprophyres, a group from which the porphyrites are separated by their containing phenocrysts of felspar, which do not occur in normal lamprophyres. Augite, when present, is nearly always pale green; it is not so abundant as hornblende. Dark brown biotite is very common in large hexagonal plates. Muscovite and olivine are not represented in these rocks. The ground-mass is usually a crystalline aggregate of granular felspar in which plagioclase dominates, though orthoclase is rarely absent. The Alpine dike rocks known as ortlerites and suldenites are porphyrites containing much green or brown hornblende and augite; these, however, hardly require a dis- tinctive designation. Diorite-porphyrites have almost as wide a distribution as granite-porphyries, and occur in all parts of the world where intrusions of granite and diorite have been injocted; they are in fact among the commonest hypabyssal rocks. To gabbros and norites certain types of porphyrite correspond which have the same mineral and chemical composition as the parent rocks but with a porphyritic instead of granitic structure. Gabbro-porphyrites are not numerous; or rather most of these rocks are described as porphyritic basalts and dolcrites. The beerbachites are finely granular dike rocks resembling gabbros SiO, AI,0, Fe.0, FeO CaO MgO K.O Na,0 H,O I. II. III. 64-94 61-58 5<>AS I7-50 18-84 16-70 0-69 4-68 5-9= 3-94 7'»3 2-59 6-59 5-97 2-83 2-04 3-25 3-" 1-49 1-91 3-44 4-27 2-78 1-36 o-54 SiO, A120, Fe,O, FeO MgO CaO K,O Na2O H,O I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. 72-51 67-18 71-60 58-82 45-18 54-46 75-20 13-31 16-65 13-60 21-06 23-31 19-96 12-65 tr. o-55 2-40 3-26 3-87 2-15 0-70 1-50 1-54 0-21 1-38 1-45 O-6i 0-26 O-6o 2-35 2-30 3-03 4-62 2-12 O-6O 6-65 2-91 3-53 3-70 11-16 8-68 4-14 o-43 4-03 5-55 6-83 5-94 2-76 5-67 0-60 o-75 0-70 1-26 1-14 5-20 O-I2 6-II 2-34 1 3-33 1-53 | 0-28 in all respects except in their being less coarsely crystalline. Norite-porphyrites have porphyritic plagioclase (labradorite usually) with hypersthene or bronzite, often altered to bastite. They accompany norite masses in Nahe (Prussia) and Tirol. They have vitreous forms which are described as andesitic- pitchstones or hypersthene-andesites. I , Quartz-porphyrite — Lippenhof, Schwarzwald. II., Porphyrite — Esterel, France. III., Norite-porohyrite — Klausen, Tirol. (J. S. F.) PORPOISE (sometimes spelled Porpus and Porpesse), a name derived from the O. Fr. porpeis, for porc-peis, i.e. pig-fish, Lat. porcus, pig, and piscis, fish; the mod. Fr. marsouin is borrowed from the Ger. meerscfrwein, although the word is commonly used by sailors to designate all the smaller cetaceans, especially those numerous species which naturalists call "dolphins," it is properly restricted to the common porpoise of the British seas (Phocaena communis, or P, phocaena). The porpoise, when full grown, attains a length of 5 ft. or more; the dimensions of an adult female specimen from the FIG. i. — The Common Porpoise (Phocaena communis). English Channel being: length from nose to notch between the flukes of the tail, 62 J in.; from the nose to the front edge of the dorsal fin, 29 in.; height of dorsal fin, 4^ in.; length of base of dorsal fin, 8 in.; length of pectoral fin, 9} in.; breadth of pectoral fin, 3^ in.; breadth of tail flukes, 13 in. The head is rounded in front, and differs from that of dolphins in not having the snout produced into a distinct " beak " separated from the forehead by a groove. The under jaw projects about half an inch beyond the upper. The mouth is wide, bounded by stiff immobile lips, and curves slightly upwards at the hinder end. The eye is small, and the external ear represented by a minute aperture, scarcely larger than would be made by a pin, about 2 in. behind the eye. The dorsal fin, near the middle of the back, is low and triangular. The flippers are of moderate size, and slightly sickle-shaped. The upper-parts are dark grey or nearly black according to the light in which they are viewed and the state of moisture or otherwise of the skin; the under-parts pure white. The line of demarca- tion between these colours is not distinct, washes or splashes of grey encroaching upon the white on the sides, and varies some- what in different individuals. Usually it passes from the throat (the anterior part of which, with the whole of the under jaw, is dark) above the origin of the flipper, along the middle of the flank, and descends again to the middle line before reaching the tail. Both sides of the flippers and flukes are black. The an- terior edge of the dorsal fin is furnished with a row of small rounded horny spines or, rather, tubercles, of variable number. One of io6 PORPORA— PORSON the most characteristic anatomical distinctions between the porpoise and other members of the Delphinidae is the form of the teeth (numbering twenty-three to twenty-six on each side of each jaw), which have expanded, flattened, spade-like crowns, with more or less marked vertical grooves, giving a tendency to a bilobed or often trilobed form (fig. 2). The porpoise, which is sociable and gregarious, is usually seen in small herds, and frequents coasts, bays and estuaries rather FIG. 2. — Teeth of Porpoise. (Twice natural size.) than the open ocean. It is the commonest cetacean in the seas round the British Isles, and not infrequently ascends the Thames, having been seen as high as Richmond; it has also been observed in the Seine at Neuilly, near Paris. It frequents the Scandinavian coasts, entering the Baltic in the summer; and is found as far north as Baffin's Bay and as far west as the coasts of the United States. Southward its range is more limited than that of the dolphin, as, though common on the Atlantic coasts of France, it is not known to enter the Mediterranean. It feeds on mackerel, pilchards and herrings and, following the shoals, is often caught by fishermen in the nets along with its prey. In former times it was a common article of food in England and France, but is now rarely if ever eaten, being valuable only for the oil obtained from its blubber. Its skin is sometimes used for leather and boot-thongs, but the so-called " porpoise-hides " are generally obtained from the beluga. The Black Sea porpoise (P. relicta) is a distinct species. A third species, from the American coast of the North Pacific, has been described under the name of Phocaena vomerina, and another from the mouth of the Rio de la Plata as P. spinipennis. Nearly allied is Neophocaena phocaenoides, a small species from the Indian Ocean and Japan, with teeth of the same form as those of the por- poise, but fewer in number (eighteen to twenty on each side), of larger size, and more distinctly notched or lobed on the free edge. It is distinguished from the common porpoise externally by its black hue and the absence of a dorsal fin. (See CETACEA.) (R. L.*) PORPORA, NICCOLA [or NICCOLO] ANTONIO (1686-1767), Italian operatic composer and teacher of singing, was born in Naples on the igth of August 1686. He was educated at the Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Loreto. His first opera, Basilio, was produced at Naples; his second, Berenice, at Rome. Both were successful, and he followed them up by innumerable compositions of like character; but his fame rests chiefly upon his unequalled power of teaching singing. At the Conservatorio di Sant' Onofrio and the Poveri di Gesu Cristo he trained Farinelli, Caffarelli, Mingotti, Salimbeni, and other celebrated vocalists. Still his numerous engagements did not tempt him to forsake composition. In 1725 he visited Vienna, but the Emperor Charles VI. disliked his florid style, especially his con- stant use of the trillo, and refused to patronize him. After this rebuff he settled in Venice, teaching regularly in the schools of La Pieta and the Incurabili. In 1729 he was invited to London as a rival to Handel; but his visit was unfortunate. Little less disastrous was his second visit to England in 1734, when even the presence of his pupil, the great Farinelli, failed to save the dramatic company of Lincoln's Inn Fields theatre, known as the " Opera of the Nobility," from ruin. The sequence of dates and visits in Porpora's life are variously stated by different biographers. The electoral prince of Saxony and king of Poland had invited him to Dresden to become the singing master of the electoral princess, Maria Antonia, and in 1748 he is supposed to have been made Kapellmeister to the prince. Difficult relations, however, with Hasse and his wife resulted in his departure, of which the date is not known. From Dresden he is said to have gone to Vienna, where he gave lessons to Joseph Haydn (?.».), and then to have returned in 1759 to Naples. ' From this time Porpora's career was a series of misfortunes. His last opera, Camilla, failed; and he became so poor that the expenses of his funeral were paid by subscription. Yet at the moment of his death in 1767 Farinelli and Caffarelli were living in splendour on fortunes for which they were largely indebted to the excellence of the old maestro's teaching. In George Sand's Consuelo much use is made of a romantic version of the life of young Haydn and his relations with the heroine, Porpora's pupil, and with Porpora himself. A good linguist and a man of considerable literary culture, Porpora was also celebrated for his power of repartee. His operas are, on the whole, tedious and conventional; but he produced some good work in the form of instrumental music and chamber-cantatas. A series of six Latin duets on the Passion (accessible in a modern edition published by Breitkopf and Haertel) is remarkable for dignity and beauty. PORRIDGE (an altered form of " pottage," Fr. potage, soup, that which is cooked in a pot), a food made by stirring meal, especially oatmeal, in boiling water and cooking it slowly until the whole becomes soft. The dish and its name are particularly identified with Scotland; in Ireland it is commonly known as " stir-about." The former application to a broth made of vegetables or of meat and vegetables thickened with barley or other meal is obsolete, and the earlier " pottage " is the usual word employed. The form " porridge " apparently dates from the i6th century. In " porringer," a porridge-bowl, the n is inserted as in " passenger," " messenger." PORSENA (or PORSENNA), LARS, king of Clusium in Etruria. He is said to have undertaken an expedition against Rome in order to restore the banished Tarquinius Superbus to the throne. He gained possession of the Janiculum, and was prevented from entering Rome only by the bravery of Horatius Codes (q.v.). Porsena then laid siege to the city, but was so struck by the courage of Mucius Scaevola that he made peace on condition that the Romans restored the land they had taken from Veii and gave him twenty hostages. He subsequently returned both the land and the hostages (Livy, ii. 0-15; Dion. Halic., v. 21-34; Plutarch, Poplicola, p. 16-19). This story is probably an attempt to conceal a great disaster and to soothe the vanity of the Romans by accounts of legendary exploits. According to other authorities, the Romans were obliged to surrender the city, to acknowledge Porsena's supremacy by sending him a sceptre, a royal robe, and an ivory chair, to abandon their territory north of the Tiber, to give up their arms, and in future to use iron for agricultural purposes only. It is curious that, in spite of his military success, Porsena made no attempt to restore the Tarquinian dynasty. Hence it is suggested that the attack on Rome was merely an incident of the march of the Etruscans, driven southward by the invasion of upper Italy by the Celts, through Latium on their way to Campania. This would account for its transitory effects, and the speedy recovery of the Romans from the blow. With the departure of Porsena all traces of Etruscan sovereignty disappear and Rome is soon vigorously engaged in the prosecution of various wars (see Tacitus, Hist. iii. 72; Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 39 [14]; Dion. Halic. v. 35, 36, vii. 5). The tomb at Chiusi described by Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 19) as that of Porsena cannot have been his burial-place (see CLUSIUM). For a critical examination of the story, see Schwegler, Romische Geschichte, bk. xxi. 18; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of Early Roman History, ch. xii. 5 ; W. Ihne, Hist, of Rome, vol. i. ; E. Pais, Storia di Roma, i. ch. iv. (1898). Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome gives a dramatic version of the story. PORSON, RICHARD (1750-1808), English classical scholar, was born on Christmas Day 1759 at East Ruston, near North Walsham, in Norfolk, the eldest son of Huggin Person, parish clerk. His mother was the daughter of a shoemaker named Palmer, of the neighbouring village of Bacton. He was sent first to the village school at Bacton, kept by John Woodrow, and afterwards to that of Happisburgh kept by Mr Summers. PORSON 107 Here his extraordinary powers of memory and aptitude for arithmetic were soon discovered; his skill in penmanship, which attended him through life, was due to the care of Summers, who became early impressed with his abilities, and long after- wards stated that during fifty years of scholastic life he had never come across boys so clever as Person and his two brothers. He was well grounded in Latin by Summers, remaining with him for three years. His father also took pains with his education, making him repeat at night the lessons he had learned in the day. Hi- would frequently repeat without making a mistake a lesson which he had learned one or two years before and had never seen in the interval. For books he had only what his father's cottage supplied — a book or two of arithmetic, Greenwood's England, Jewell's Apology, and an odd volume of Chamber's Cyclopaedia picked up from a wrecked coaster, and eight or ten volumes of the Universal Magazine. When Person was eleven years old the Rev. T. Hewitt, the curate of East Ruston and two neighbouring villages, took charge of his education. Mr Hewitt taught him with his own boys, taking him through the ordinary Latin authors, Caesar, Terence, Ovid and Virgil; before this he had made such progress in mathematics as to be able to solve ques- tions out of the Ladies' Diary. In addition to this Hewitt brought him under the notice of Mr Norris of Witton Park, who sent him to Cambridge and had him examined by Professor Lambert, the two tutors of Trinity, Postlethwaite and Collier, and the well-known mathematician Atwood, then assistant tutor; the result was so favourable a report of his knowledge and abilities that Mr Norris determined to provide for his educa- tion so as to fit him for the university. This was in 1773. It was found impossible to get him into Charterhouse, and he was entered on the foundation of Eton in August 1774. Of his Eton life Person had no very pleasant recollections, but he was popular among his schoolfellows; and two dramas he wrote for performance in the Long Chamber were remembered many years later. His marvellous memory was of course noticed; but at first he seems to have somewhat disappointed the expectations of his friends, as his composition was weak, and his ignorance of quantity kept him behind several of his inferiors. He went to Eton too late to have any chance of succeeding to a scholarship at King's College. In 1777 he suffered a great loss from the death of his patron Mr Norris; but contributions from Etonians to aid in the funds for his maintenance at the university were rapidly supplied, and he found a successor to Norris in Sir George Baker, the physician, at that time president of the college of physicians. Chiefly through his means Person was entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, as a pensioner on the 28th of March 1778, matriculating in April. It is said that what first biassed his mind towards critical researches was the gift of a copy of Toup's Longinus by Dr Davies, the head master of Eton, for a good exercise; but it was Bentley and Richard Dawes to whom he looked as his immediate masters. His critical career was begun systematically while an under- graduate. He became a scholar of Trinity in 1780, won the Craven university scholarship in 1781, and took his degree of B.A. in 1782, as third senior aptime, obtaining soon afterwards the first chancellor's medal for classical studies. The same year he was elected Fellow of Trinity, a very unusual thing for a junior bachelor of arts, as the junior bachelors were rarely allowed to be candidates for fellowships, a regulation which lasted from 1667 when Isaac Newton was elected till 1818 when Connop Thirlwall became a fellow. Person graduated M.A. in 1785. Having thus early secured his independence, he turned his thoughts to publication. The first occasion of his appearing in print was in a short notice of Schutz's Aeschylus in Maty's Review, written in 1783. This review contains several other essays by his hand; especially may be mentioned the reviews of R. F. Brunck's Aristophanes (containing an able summary of the poet's chief excellencies and defects), Weston's Hermes- iaiMx, and Huntingford's Apology for the Monostrophics. But it was to the tragedians, and especially to Aeschylus, that his mind was then chiefly directed. He began a correspondence with David Ruhnken, the veteran scholar of Leiden, requesting to be favoured with any fragments of Aeschylus that Ruhnken had come across in his collection of inedited lexicons and gram- marians, and sending him, as a proof that he was not under- taking a task for which he was unequal, some specimens of his critical powers, and especially of his restoration of a very corrupt passage in theSupplices (673-677) by the help of a nearly equally corrupt passage of Plutarch's Eroticus. As the syndics of the Cambridge press were proposing to re-edit Thomas Stanley's Aeschylus, the editorship was offered to Person; but he declined to undertake it on the conditions laid down, namely, of reprint- ing Stanley's corrupt text and incorporating all the variorum notes, however worthless. He was especially anxious that the Medicean MS. at Florence should be collated for the new edition, and offered to undertake the collation at an expense not greater than it would have cost if done by a person on the spot ; but the syndics refused the offer, the vice-chancellor (Mr Torkington, master of Clare Hall) observing that Person might collect his MSS. at home. In 1786, a new edition of Hutchinson's Anabasis of Xenophon being called for, Person was requested by the publisher to supply a few notes, which he did in conjunction with the Rev. W. Whiter, editor of the Etymologicon universale. These give the first specimen of that neat and terse style of Latin notes in which he was afterwards without a rival. They also show his intimate acquaintance with his two favourite authors, Plato and Athenaeus, and a familiarity with Eustathius's commentary on Homer. In 1787 the Notae breves ad Toupii emendaliones in Suidatn were written, though they did not appear till 1790 in the new edition of Toup's book published at Oxford. These first made Person's name known as a scholar of the first rank, and carried his fame beyond England. The letters he received from Christian G. Heyne and G. Hermann preserved in the library of Trinity College, and written before his Euripides was published, afford proof of this. In his notes he points out the errors of Toup and others; at the same time he speaks of Toup's book as " opus illud aureum," and states that his writing the notes at all is due to the admiration he had for it. They contain some brilliant emendations of various authors; but the necessity of having Toup's own notes with them has prevented their ever being reprinted in a separate form. During this year, in the Gentleman's Magazine, he wrote the three letters on Hawkins's Life of Johnson which have been reprinted by Mr Kidd in his Tracts and Criticisms of Parson, and in a volume of Person's Correspondence. They are admirable specimens of the dry humour so characteristic of the writer, and prove his intimate acquaintance with Shakespeare and the other English dramatists and poets. In the same periodical, in the course of 1788 and 1789, appeared the Letters to Archdeacon Travis, on the spurious verse I John v. 7 (collected in 1 790 into a volume), which must be considered to have settled the question. Gibbon's verdict on the book, that it was " the most acute and accurate piece of criticism since the days of Bentley," may be considered as somewhat partial, as it was in defence of him that Porson had entered the field against Travis. But in the masterly sketch of Gibbon's work and style in the preface Porson does not write in a merely flattering tone. It is to be wished that on such a subject the tone of levity had been modified. But Porson says in his preface that he could treat the subject in no other manner, if he treated it at all: " To peruse such a mass of falsehood and sophistry and to write remarks upon it, without sometimes giving way to laughter and sometimes to indignation, was, to me at least, impossible." Travis has no mercy shown him, but he certainly deserved none. One is equally struck with the thorough grasp Porson displays of his subject, the amount of his miscellaneous learning, and the humour that pervades the whole. But it was then the unpopular side: the publisher is said to have lost money by the book; and one of his early friends, Mrs Turner of Norwich, cut down a legacy she had left Porson to £30 on being told that he had written what was described to her as a book against Christianity. io8 PORSON During the years that followed he continued to contribute to the leading reviews, writing in the Monthly Review the articles on Robertson's Parian Chronicle, Edwards's Plutarch, and R. Payne Knight's Essay on the Greek Alphabet. He gave assistance to William Beloe in one or two articles in the British Critick, and probably wrote also in the Analytical Review and the Critical Review. In 1792 his fellowship was no longer tenable by a layman; and, rather than undertake duties for which he felt himself unfit, and which involved subscription to the Articles (though he had no difficulty as to signing a statement as to his conformity with the liturgy of the Church of England when elected Greek professor), he determined not to take holy orders, which would have enabled him to remain a fellow, and thus deprived himself of his only means of subsistence. He might have been retained in the society by being appointed to a lay fellowship, one of the two permanent lay fellowships which the statutes then permitted falling vacant just in time. It is said that this had been promised him, and it was certainly the custom in the college always to appoint the senior among the existing laymen, who otherwise would vacate his fellowship. But the master (Dr PostlethwaiteJ, who had the nomination, used his privilege to nominate a younger man (John Heys), a nephew of his own, and thus Person was turned adrift without any means of support. A subscription was, however, got up among his friends to provide an annuity to keep him from actual want; Cracherode, Cleaver Banks, Burney and Parr took the lead, and enough was collected to produce about £100 a year. He accepted it only on the condition that he should receive the interest during his lifetime, and that the principal, placed in the hands of trustees, should be returned to the donors at his death. When this occurred they or their survivors refused to receive the money, and it was with part of this sum that, in 1816, the Person prize was founded to perpetuate his name at Cambridge. The remainder was devoted to the foundation of the Porson scholarship in the same univer- sity. This scholarship was first awarded in 1855. After the loss of his fellowship he continued chiefly to reside in London, having chambers in Essex Court, Temple — occasion- ally visiting his friends, such as Dr Goodall at Eton and Dr Samuel Parr at Hatton. It was at Dr Goodall's house that the Letters to Travis were written, and at one period of his life he spent a great deal of time at Hatton. While there he would generally spend his mornings in the library, and for the most part in silence; but in the evenings, especially if Parr were away, he would collect the young men of the house about him, and pour forth from memory torrents of every kind of literature. The charms of his society are described as being then irresistible. In 1792 the Greek professorship at Cambridge became vacant by the resignation of Mr Cooke. To this Porson was elected without opposition, and he continued to hold it till his death. The duties then consisted in taking a part in the examinations for the university scholarships and classical medals. It was said he wished to give lectures; but lecturing was not in fashion in those days, and he did far more to advance the knowledge and study of the Greek language by his publications than he could have done by any amount of lecturing. It must be re- membered that the emoluments of the professorship were only £40 a year. The authors on which his time was chiefly spent were the tragedians, Aristophanes, Athenaeus, and the lexicons of Suidas, Hesychius and Photius. This last he twice tran- scribed (the first transcript having been destroyed by a fire at Perry's house, -which deprived the world of much valuable matter that he had written on the margins of his books) from the original among the Gale MSS. in the library of Trinity College. Of the brilliancy and accuracy of his emendations on Aristophanes, the fragments of the other comic poets, and the lexicographers he had a pleasing proof on one occasion when he found how often in Aristophanes he had been anticipated by Bentley, and on another when Schow's collation of the unique MS. of Hesychius appeared and proved him right in " an incredible number " of instances. In 1795 there appeared from Foulis's press at Glasgow an edition of Aeschylus in folio, printed with the same types as the Glasgow Homer, without a word of preface or anything to give a clue to the editor. Many new readings were inserted in the text with an asterisk affixed, while an obelus was used to mark many others as corrupt. It was at once recognized as Person's work; he had superintended the printing of a small edition in two vols. 8vo, but this was kept back by the printer and not issued till 1806, still without the editor's name. There are corrections of many more passages in this edition than in the folio; and, though the text cannot be considered as what would have gone forth if with his name and sanction, yet more is done for the text of Aeschylus than had been accomplished by any preceding editor. It has formed the substratum for all subse- quent editions. It was printed from a copy of Pauw's edition corrected, which is preserved in the library of Trinity College. Soon after this, in 1797, appeared the first instalment of what was intended to be a complete edition of Euripides — an edition of the Hecuba. In the preface he pointed out the correct method of writing several words previously incorrectly written, and gave some specimens of his powers on the subject of Greek metres. The notes are very short, almost entirely critical; but so great a range of learning, combined with such felicity of emendation whenever a corrupt passage was encountered, is displayed that there was never any doubt as to the quarter whence the new edition had proceeded. He avoided the office of interpreter in his notes, which may well be wondered at on recollecting how admirably he did translate when he condescended to that branch of an editor's duties. His work, however, did not escape attack; Gilbert Wakefield had already published a Tragoediarum delectus; and, conceiving himself to be slighted, as there was no mention of his labours in the new Hecuba, he wrote a " diatribe extemporalis " against it, a tract which for bad taste, bad Latin and bad criticism it would not be easy to match. Gottfried Hermann of Leipzig, then a very young man, who had also written a work on Greek metres, which Dr Elmsley has styled " a book of which too much ill cannot easily be said," issued an edition of the Hecuba, in which Person's theories were openly attacked. Porson at first took no notice of either, but went on quietly with his Euripides, publishing the Orestes in 1798, the Phoenissae in 1799 and the Medea in i8oi,the last printed at the Cambridge press, and with the editor's name on the title-page. But there are many allu- sions to his antagonists in the notes on such points as the final v, the use of accents, &c.; and on v. 675 of the Medea he holds up Hermann by name to scorn in caustic and taunting language. And it is more than probable that to Hermann's attack we owe the most perfect of his works, the supplement to the preface to the Hecuba, prefixed to the second edition published at Cambridge in 1802. The metrical laws promulgated are laid down clearly, illustrated with an ample number of examples, and those that militate against them brought together and corrected, so that what had been beyond the reach of the ablest scholars of preceding times is made clear to the tyro. The laws of the iambic metre are fully explained, and the theory of the pause stated and proved, which had been only alluded to in the first edition. A third edition of the Hecuba appeared in 1808, and he left corrected copies of the other plays, of which new editions appeared soon after his death ; but these four plays were all that was accomplished of the projected edition of the poet. Porson lived six years after the second edition of the Hecuba was published, but his natural indolence and procrastination led him to put off the work. He found time, however, to execute his collation of the Harleian MS. of the Odyssey, published in the Grenville Homer in 1801, and to present to the Society of Antiquaries his wonderful conjectural restoration of the Rosetta stone. In 1806, when the London Institution was founded (then in the Old Jewry, since removed to Finsbury Circus), he was appointed principal librarian with a salary of £200 a year and a suite of rooms; and thus his latter years were made easy as far as money was concerned. PORT— PORTADOWN 109 Among his most intimate friends was Perry, the editor of the Morning Chronicle; and this friendship was cemented by his marriage with Perry's sister, Mrs Lunan, in November 1796. The marriage was a happy one for the short time it lasted, as Person became more attentive to times and seasons, and would have been weaned from his habits of drinking; but she sank in a decline a few months after her marriage (April 12, 1797), and he returned to his chambers in the Temple and his old habits. Perry's friendship was of great value to him in many ways; but it induced him to spend too much of his time in writing for the Morning Chronicle; indeed he was even accused of " giving up to Perry what was meant for mankind," and the existence of some of the papers he wrote there can be only deplored. For some months before his death he had appeared to be failing: his memory was not what it had been, and he had some symptoms of intermittent fever; but on the igth of September 1808 he was seized in the street with a fit of apoplexy, and after partially recovering sank in the 2Sth of that month at the age of forty-nine. He was buried in Trinity College, close to the statue of Newton, at the opposite end of the chapel to where rest the remains of Bentley. In learning Person was superior to Valckenaer, in accuracy to Bentley. It must be remembered that in his day the science of comparative philology had scarcely any existence; even the com- parative value of MSS. was scarcely considered in editing an ancient author. With many editors MSS. were treated as of much the same value, whether they were really from the hand of a trustworthy scribe, or what Bentley calls " scrub manuscripts," or " scoundrel copies." Thus, if we are to find fault with Person's way of editing, it is that he does not make sufficient difference between the MSS. he uses, or point out the relative value of the early copies whether in MS. or print. Thus he collates minutely Lascans's edition of the Medea, mentioning even misprints in the text, rather from its rarity and costliness than from its intrinsic value. And his wonderful quickness at emendation has sometimes led him into error, which greater investigation into MSS. would have avoided; thus, in his note on Eur., Phoem. 1373 an error, perhaps a misprint (« for M«)I in the first edition of the scholiast on Sophocles has led him into an emendation of v. 339 of the Trackiniae which clearly will not stand. But his most brilliant emendations, such as some of those on Athenaeus, on the Supplices of Aeschylus, or, to take one single instance, that on Eur. Helen. 751 (oW "EXevos for obbkv ye ; see Maltby's Thesaurus, p. 299), are such as convince the reader of their absolute certainty; and this power was possessed by Person to a degree no one else has ever attained. No doubt his mathematical training had something to do with this; frequently the process may be seen by which the truth has been reached. A few words are called for on his general character. No one ever more loved truth for its own sake; few have sacrificed more rather than violate their consciences, and this at a time when a high standard in this respect was not common. In spite of his failings, few have had warmer friends; no one more willingly communicated his knowledge and gave help to others; scarcely a book appeared in his time or for some years after his death on the subjects to which he devoted his life without acknowledging assistance from him. And, if it be remembered that his life was a continued struggle against poverty and slight and ill-health, rather than complain that he did little, we should wonder how he accomplished so much. His library was divided into two parts, one of which was sold by auction; the other, containing the transcript of the Gale Photius, his books' with MS. notes, and some letters from foreign scholars, was bought by Trinity College for 1000 guineas. His notebooks were found to contain, in the words of Bishop Blomfield, " a rich treasure of criticism in every branch of classical literature— ^every- thing carefully and correctly written and sometimes rewritten — quite fit to meet the public eye, without any diminution or addition." They have been carefully rearranged, and illustrate amongother things his extraordinary penmanship and power of minute and accurate writing. Much remains unpublished. J. H. Monk, his successor as Greek professor, and C. J. Blomfield (both afterwards bishops) edited the Adversaria, consisting of the notes on Athenaeus and the Greek poets, and his prelection on Euripides; P. P. Dobree, after- wards Greek professor, the notes on Aristophanes and the lexicon of Photius. Besides these, from other sources, Professor T. Gaisford edited his notes on Pausanias and Suidas, and Mr Kidd collected his scattered reviews. And, when Bishop Burgess attacked his literary character on the score of his Letters to Trains, Professor Turton (afterwards Bishop of Ely) came forward with a vindication. The chief sources for Person's life will be found in the memoirs in the Gentleman's Magazine for September and October 1808, and other periodicals of the time (mostly reprinted in Barker's Porson- iana; London, 1852) ; Dr Young's memoir in former editions of the Ency. Brit, (reprinted ibid, and in his works); Weston's (utterly worthless) Short Account of the late Mr Richard Parson (London, 1808; reissued with a new preface and title-page in 1814); Dr Clarke's narrative of his last illness and death (London, 1808; reprinted in the Classical Journal) ; Kidd's " Imperfect Outline of the Life of R.P.," prefixed to his collection of the Tracts and Criticisms; Beloe's Sexagenarian (not trustworthy), vol. i. (London, 1817); Barker's Parriana, vol. ii. (London, 1829); Maltby's " Porsoniana," published by Dyce in the volume of Recollections of the Table-Talk of Samuel Rogers (London, 1856) ; a life in the Cambridge Essays for 1857 by H. R. Luard; and a lengthy life by J. S. Watson (London, 1861). See also R. C. jebb in Diet. Nat. Biog., and J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, ii. 424-430 (with copy of portrait by Hoppner; 1908). The dates of Person's published works are as follows: Nolae in Xenophontis anabasin (1786); Appendix to Toup (1790); Letters to Travis (1790); Aeschylus (1795, 1806); Euripides (1797-1802); collation of the Harleian MS. of the Odyssey (1801); Adversaria (Monk and Blomfield, 1812); Tracts and Criticisms (Kidd, 1815); Aristophanica (Dobree, 1820); Notae in Pausaniam (Gaisford, 1820); Photii lexicon (Dobree, 1822); Notae in Suidam (Gaisford, 1834) ; Correspondence (Luard, edited for the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, 1867). Dr. Turton's vindication appeared in 1827. (H. R.L.;J. E. S.*) PORT, (i) (From the Lat. portus, harbour), a place to which ships may resort for the unloading or taking in of cargo, or for shelter, a harbour, also a town possessing such a harbour, a " seaport," or " seaport town," especially one where custom- house officers are stationed. As the name of a dark red Portu- guese wine, the word is a shortened form of Oporto, i.e. the port, the chief centre of the wine-shipping trade of Portugal (see WINE). (2) (Through the Fr. porte, from Lat. porta, gate), an entrance or opening, not often used in the sense of gate, except in such compounds as " sallyport," cf. " portcullis," and in the derivative " porter," a keeper of a door or gate, especially of a public building, hotel, college, &c. The most general use of the word is for an opening for the admission of light and air in a ship's side, and formerly in ships of war for an embrasure for cannon, a " port-hole." For the application of the word to the left side of a ship, taking the place of the earlier " larboard," and its disputed origin, see STARBOARD AND LARBOARD. (3) (Through the Fr. porter, from Lat. portare, to carry, bear), properly outward bearing or deportment, whence " portly," originally of dignified or majestic bearing, now chiefly used in the sense of stout or corpulent. The verb " to port " is only used as a military term " to port arms," i.e. to hold the rifle across and close to the body, the barrel being placed opposite to the left shoulder. Derivatives are " port-fire " (Fr. porte-feu), a fuse for firing rockets, &c., and formerly for the discharge of artillery, and " porter," i.e. one who carries a burden, particularly a servant of a railway company, hotel, &c., who carries passengers' luggage to and from a station, &c. The term " porter " has been applied, since the i8th century, to a particular form of beer, dark brown or almost black in colour (see BEER and BREWING). The finer kinds of this beer are generally now known as " stout." The name is almost certainly due to the fact that it was from the first a favourite drink among the London " porters," the street carriers of goods, luggage, &c., and in early uses the drink is called porter's ale, porter's beer, or porter-beer. PORT ADELAIDE, a port of Adelaide county, South Australia, 7^ m. by rail N.W. of Adelaide. Pop. of the town and suburbs (1901), 20,089. It is situated on an estuary 9 m. from St Vincent Gulf and is the principal shipping port of South Australia. Its wharves, equipped with steam and travelling cranes, and tram- ways, are 2\ m. in extent; it has docks and a number of patent slips capable of taking up vessels of 300 to 1500 tons. There are also piers at Semaphore and Larg's Bay, on the other side of Lefevre's Peninsula some 2 m. distant, which are connected with Port Adelaide by rail. The industries comprise silver and copper smelting, brewing, sawmilling, ropemaking, flourmilling, sugar-refining and yacht-building. The harbour is protected by two forts known as the Fort Glanville batteries. The suburbs, which are connected with the town by tramways, are Alberton, Queenstown, Yatala, Rosewater and Kingston-on-the-Hill. PORTADOWN, a market town of county Armagh, Ireland, on the river Bann and the Great Northern railway, 25 m. W.S.W. of Belfast. Pop. (1901), 10,092. It is a junction of I IO PORTAELS— PORTALIS lines from Dublin, Clones and Omagh. The Bann, which is connected with the Newry Canal and falls into Lough Neagh 5 m. north of the town, is navigable for vessels of 90 tons burden. It is crossed at Portadown by a stone bridge of seven arches, originally built in 1764, but since then re-erected. The manu- facture of linen and cotton is carried on, and there is a con- siderable trade in pork, grain and farm produce. In the reign of Charles I. the manor was bestowed on John Obyns, who erected a mansion and a few houses, which were the beginning of the town. A grain-market was established in 1780. The town is governed by an urban district council. PORTAELS, JEAN FRANCOIS (1818-1895), Belgian painter, was born at Vilvorde (Brabant), 'in Belgium, on the 3oth of April 1818. His father, a rich brewer, sent him to study in the Brussels Academy, and the director, Francois Navez, ere long received him as a pupil in his own studio. About 1841 Portaels went to Paris, where he was kindly received by Paul Delaroche. Having returned to Belgium, he carried off the Grand Prix de Rome in 1842. He then travelled through Italy, Greece, Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, the Lebanon, Judaea, Spain, Hungary and Norway. On his return to Belgium in 1847 Portaels succeeded H. Vanderhaert as director of the academy at Ghent. In 1849 he married the daughter of his first master, Navez, and in 1850 settled at Brussels; but as he failed in obtaining the post of director of the academy there, and wished, nevertheless, to carry on the educational work begun by his father-in-law, he opened a private studio-school, which became of great importance in the development of Belgian art. He again made several journeys, spending some time in Morocco; he came back to Brussels in 1874, and in 1878 obtained the directorship of the academy which had so long been the object of his ambition. Portaels executed a vast number of works. Decorative paint- ings in the church of St Jacques-sur-Caudenberg; biblical scenes, such as " The Daughter of Sion Reviled " (in the Brussels Gallery), " The Death of Judas," " The Magi travelling to Bethlehem," " Judith's Prayer," and " The Drought in Judaea "; genre pictures, among which are " A Box in the Theatre at Budapest" (Brussels Gallery), portraits of officials and of the fashionable world, Oriental scenes and, above all, pictures of fancy female figures and of exotic life. " His works are in general full of a facile grace, of which he is perhaps too lavish," wrote Theophile Gautier. Yet his pleasing and abundant productions as a painter do not constitute Portaels's crowning merit. The high place his name will fill in the history of contemporary Belgian art is due to his influence as a learned and clear-sighted instructor, who formed, among many others, the painters E. Wauters and E. Agneesens, the sculptor Ch. van der Stappen, and the architect Licot. He died at Brussels on the 8th of February 1895. See E. L. de Taeye, Peintres beiges contempora ins ; J. du Jardin, L'Artflamand. (F. K.*) PORTAGE, a city and the county-seat of Columbia county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Wisconsin river, about 85 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 5143; (1900) 5459, of whom 1184 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 5440. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Minneapolis, St Paul 6 Sault Ste Marie railways. The city is situated at the west end of the government ship canal connecting the Fox and Wisconsin rivers, and river steamboats ply during the open season between Portage and Green Bay and intermediate points in the Fox River Valley, Portage being the head of navigation on the Fox. Portage is in the midst of a fertile farming region, and has a trade in farm and dairy products and tobacco. Its manufactures include brick, tile, lumber, flour, pickles, knit goods, steel tanks and marine engines and launches, and there are several tobacco warehouses and grain elevators. As the Fox and Wisconsin rivers are here only 2 m. apart, these rivers were the early means of communication between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi river. The first Europeans known to have visited the site of the city were Radisson and Groseilliers, who crossed the portage in 1655. The portage was used by Mar- quette and Joliet on their way to the Mississippi in 1673, and a red granite monument commemorates their passage. About 1712 the Fox Indians disputed the passage of the portage, precipitating hostilities which continued intermittently until 1743. The first settler was Lawrence Earth, who engaged in the carrying trade here in 1793. Jacques Vieau established a trading post here in 1797, and by 1820 it was a thriving depot of the fur trade. During the Red Bird uprising (1827) a tem- porary military post was established by Major William Whistler of the U.S. army. Fort Winnebago was begun in the following year, was remodelled and completed by Lieut. Jefferson Davis in 1832, and was subsequently abandoned. It was from there in the same year that the final and successful cam- paign against Black Hawk was begun. After several failures the Fox- Wisconsin canal was completed in 1856, and in June of that year the " Aquila," a stern-wheeler, passed through the canal on its way from Pittsburg to Green Bay. The shifting channel of the Wisconsin has retarded navigation, and the canal has never been as important commercially as was expected. PORTAGE LA PRAIRIE, a port of entry and the chief town of Portage la Prairie county, Manitoba, Canada, situated 50 m. W. of Winnipeg, on the Canadian Pacific and Canadian Northern railways, at an altitude of 854 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901), 3901. It is in the midst of a fine agricultural district, into which several branch railways extend, and carries on a large export trade in grain and other farm produce. PORTALEGRE, an episcopal city, capital of the district of Portalegre, Portugal; 8 m. N. of Portalegre station, on the Lisbon-Badajoz-Madrid railway. Pop. (1900), 11,820. Portal- egre is the Roman Amaea or Ammaia, and numerous Roman and prehistoric remains have been discovered in the neighbourhood. The principal buildings are the cathedral, the ruined Moorish citadel and two more modern forts. The administrative district of Portalegre, in which the rearing of swine, the pro- duction of grain, wine and oil, and the manufacture of woollen and cotton goods and corks are the principal industries, coincides with the northern part of the ancient province of Alemtejo (q.v.). Pop. (1900), 124,443; area, 2405 sq. m. PORTALIS, JEAN ETIENNE MARIE (1746-1807), French jurist, came of a bourgeois family, and was born at Bausset in Provence on the ist of April 1746. He was educated by the Oratorians at their schools in Toulon and Marseilles, and then went to the university of Aix; while a student there he published his first two works, Observations sur Emile in 1763 and Des Prejuges in 1764. In 1765 he became an miocat at the parlement of Aix, and soon obtained so great a reputation that he was in- structed by the due de Choiseul in 1770 to draw up the decree authorizing the marriage of Protestants. From 1778 to 1781 he was one of the four assessors or administrators of Provence. In November 1793, after the republic had been proclaimed, he came to Paris and was thrown into prison, being the brother- in-law of Joseph Jerome Simeon, the leader of the Federalists in Provence. He was soon removed through the influence of B. de V. Barere to a maison de sante, where he remained till the fall of Robespierre. On being released he practised as a lawyer in Paris; and in 1795 he was elected by the capital to the Con- seil des Anciens, becoming a leader of the moderate party opposed to the directory. As a leader of the moderates he was proscribed at the coup d'etat of Fructidor, but, unlike General Charles Pichegru and the marquis de Barbe'-Marbois, he managed to escape to Switzerland, and did not return till Bonaparte became First Consul. Bonaparte made him a conseiller d'etat in 1800, and then charged him, with F, D. Tronchet, Bigot de Preameneu, and Jacques de Maleville, to draw up the Code Civil. Of this commission he was the most industrious member, and many of the most important titles, notably those on mar- riage and heirship, are his work. In 1801 he was placed in charge of the department of cultes or public worship, and in that capacity had the chief share in drawing up the provisions of the Concordat. In 1803 he became a member of the Institute, in 1804 minister of public worship, and in 1805 a knight grand cross of the Legion of Honour. He soon after became totally PORTARLINGTON— PORT AUGUSTA in blind; and after an operation he died at Paris on the 2Sth of August 1807. 1 he work of Portalis appears in the Code Napoleon, but see also Frederick Portalis's Documents, rapports, et travaux inidils sur le Code Civil (1844) and Sur le Concordat (1845); for his life, see the biography in the edition of his Oeuvres by F. Portalis (1823) and Rene Lavolee, Portalis, sa vie et ses ceuwes, (Paris, i86q). His son, JOSEPH MARIE PORTALIS (1778-1858), entered the diplomatic service, and obtaining the favour of Louis XVIII. tilled many important offices. He was under-secretary of state for the ministry of justice, first president of the court of cassa- tion, minister for foreign affairs, and in 1851 a member of the senate. PORTARLINGTON, a market town situated partly in King's county but chiefly in Queen's county, Ireland, on both banks of the river Barrow, here the county boundary. Pop. (1901), 1943. The railway station, a mile south of the town, is an important junction, 42 m. west by south from Dublin, of the Great Southern & Western system, where the branch line to Athlone leaves the main line. Monthly fairs are held, and there is considerable local trade. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes a colony of French refugees was established here in the reign of William III., and the beautiful church of St Paul (rebuilt in 1857) was devoted to their use, services being conducted in the French language, for which reason the church is still spoken of as the " French Church." The former name of the town was Cooltetoodera, but on the property passing into the hands of Lord Arlington in the reign of Charles II. the name was changed. Emo Park, 5 m. south of the town, is the fine demesne of the earls of Portarlington, a title granted to the family of Dawson in 1785. An obelisk on Spire Hill near the town is one of the many famine relief works in Ireland. On the river, close to the town, there are picturesque remains of Lea Castle, originally built c. 1260. Portarlington was incorporated in 1667, and was a parliamentary borough both before the Union and after, its representation in the imperial parliament (by one member) being merged in that of the county by the Redistribution Act of 1885. PORT ARTHUR (formerly Prince Arthur's Landing), a town and harbour in Thunder Bay District, Ontario, Canada, on Lake Superior, and the Canadian Pacific, Grand Trunk Pacific, and Canadian Northern railways, and the lake terminus of the two latter. Pop. (1901), 3214. The lake terminus of the Canadian Pacific, originally here, has been moved to Fort William, 4 m. distant. Lumber and minerals are shipped from the surrounding district, and vast quantities of grain from the farther west. PORT ARTHUR (Chinese, Lu-shun-k'ou), a fortress situated at the extreme south of the peninsula of Liao-tung in the Chinese principality of Manchuria. It was formerly a Chinese naval arsenal and fortress, but was captured by the Japanese in 1894, who destroyed most of the defensive works. In 1898 it was leased to Russia with the neighbouring port of Talienwan, and was gradually converted into a Russian stronghold. In 1905 the lease was transferred to Japan. The port or harbour is a natural one, entirely landlocked except to the south. The basin inside is of limited extent. Barren and rocky hills rise from the water's edge all round. A railway 270 m. long connects the port with Mukden and the trans-Siberian line; there is also railway connexion with Pekin. The harbour is ice-free all the year round, a feature in which it contrasts favourably with Vladivostok. The Liao-tung peninsula, separated from Korea by the Bay of Korea, and from the Chinese mainland by the Gulf of Liao-tung, runs in a south-westerly direction from the mainland of Manchuria, and is continued by a group of small islands which reach another peninsula projecting from the mainland of China in a north-easterly direction, and having at its north-eastern extremity the port of Wei-hai-wei. The Liao-tung peninsula is indented by several bays, two of which nearly meet, making an isthmus less than 2 m. wide, beyond which the peninsula slightly widens again, this part of it having the name of Kan-tun (regent's sword). Two wide bays open on the eastern shore of the latter: Lu-shun-k'ou (Port Arthur) and Talienwan. Both were leased to Russia. Lu-shun-k'ou Bay is nearly 4 m. long and 1} m. wide, the entrance being only 350 yds. wide. The Chinese deepened the bay artificially and erected quays. The roadstead is exposed to south-easterly winds, and in this respect the wider Bay of Talienwan is safer. Coal is found near to the port. The climate is very mild, and similar to that of south Crimea, only moister. While in occupation by the Russians Port Arthur became Europeanized. The military port, Tairen, is a few miles to the north. During the Russo-Japanese war the Japanese assailed Port Arthur both by land and sea and, after repeated assaults, on the ist of January 1905, General Stoessel surrendered the citadel into the hands of the Japanese. PORTAS, or PORTUARY, a breviary (q.v.) of such convenient size that it could be carried on the person, whence its Latin name portiforium (portare, to carry, foris, out of doors, abroad). The English word was adapted from the Old French portehors, and took a large number of forms, e.g. porthors, porteous, portes, &c. In Scots law, the " porteous-roll " was the name given formerly to a list of criminals drawn up by the justice-clerk on information given by the local authorities, together with the names of witnesses, and charges made. PORTATIVE ORGAN, a small medieval organ carried by the performer, who manipulated the bellows with one hand and fingered the keys with the other. This small instrument was necessarily made as simple as possible. On a small rectangular wind chest or reservoir, fed by means of a single bellows placed at the back, in front, or at the right side, were arranged the pipes — one, two or three to a note — supported by more or less orna- mental uprights and an oblique bar. The most primitive style of keyboard consisted merely of sliders pushed in to make the note sound and restored to their normal position by a horn spring; the reverse action was also in use, the keys being furnished with knobs or handles. Towards the middle of the I3th century the portatives repre- sented in the miniatures of illuminated MSS. first show signs of a real keyboard with balanced keys, as in the I3th century Spanish MS., known as the Cantigas de Santa Maria,1 containing four full pages of miniatures of instrumentalists, fifty-one in number. From the position of the performer's thumb it is evident that the keys are pressed down to make the notes sound. There are nine pipes and the same number of keys, sufficient for the diatonic octave of C major with the B flat added. The pipes put into these small organs were flue pipes, their intonation must have been very unstable owing to the irregularity of the wind supply fed by a single bellows, the pressure being at the mercy of the performer's hand. Increased pressure in pipes with fixed mouthpieces, such as organ pipes, produces a rise in pitch. These medieval portative organs, so exten- sively used during the I4th and isth centuries, were revivals of those used by the Romans, of which a specimen excavated at Pompeii in 1876 is preserved in the Museum at Naples. The case measures 14 J in. by 9 J in. and contains nine pipes, of which the longest measures but 9} in. ; six of the pipes have oblong holes at a snort distance from the top similar to those made in eamba pipes of modern organs to give them their reedy quality, and also to those cut in the bamboo pipes of the Chinese Cheng, which is a primitive organ furnished with free reeds. From the description of these remains by C. F. Abdy Williams,* it would seem that a bronze plate ni in. by 2\ in. having 1 8 rectangular slits arranged in three rows to form Vandykes was found inside the case, with three little plates of bronze just wide enough to pass through the slits lying by it ; this plate possibly formed part of the mechanism for the sliders of the keys. The small instrument often taken for a syrinx on a contorniate of Sallust in the Cabinet Imperial de France in Paris may be meant for a miniature portative. (K. S.) PORT AUGUSTA, a seaport of Frome county, South Australia, on the east shore of Spencer Gulf, 259 m. by rail N.X.W. of Adelaide. Pop. about 2400. It has a fine natural deep and landlocked harbour, and the government wharves have berthing for large vessels. The chief exports are wool, wheat, flour, copper, hides and tallow. Port Augusta is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop and has a cathedral, while its town-hall is the finest in the state, that of Adelaide excepted. It is also the start- ing point of the Great Northern railway. The largest ostrich farm in Australia lies 8 m. from the town. The neighbourhood is rich in minerals, copper, silver, iron and coal have been found, 1 For a reproduction see J. F. Riano, Studies of Early Spanish Music, pp. 110-127 (London, 1887). * Quarterly Musical Renew (August, 1893). 112 PORT AU PRINCE— PORT ELIZABETH and in 1900 valuable gold quartz reefs were discovered at Tarcoola. PORT AU PRINCE (originally L'HSpUal, and for brief periods Port Henri and Port Republicain) , the capital of the republic of Haiti, West Indies, situated at the apex of the triangular bay which strikes inland for about 100 m. between the two great peninsulas of the west coast, with its upper recesses protected by the beautiful island of Gonaives (30 m. long by 2 broad). The city is admirably situated on ground that soon begins to rise rapidly towards the hills. It was originally laid out by the French on a regular plan with streets of good width running north and south and intersected by others at right angles. Everything has been allowed to fall into disorder and disrepair, and to this its public buildings form no exception. Every few years whole quarters of the town are burned down, but the people go on building the same slight wooden houses, with only here and there a more substantial warehouse in brick. In spite of the old French aqueduct the water-supply is defective. From June to September the heat is excessive, reaching 95° to 99° F. in the shade. The population, mostly negroes and mulat- toes, is estimated at 61,000. Port au Prince was first laid out by M. de la Cuza in 1749. In 1751, and again in 1770, it was destroyed by earthquakes. PORT BLAIR, the chief place in the convict settlement of the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean, situated on the south-east shore of the South Andaman Island, in 11° 42' N., 93° E. It derives its name from Lieut. Blair, R.N., who first occupied it in 1789, as a station for the suppression of piracy and the protection of shipwrecked crews. Abandoned on account of sickness in 1796, it was not again occupied until 1856. It possesses one of the best harbours in Asia, while its central position in the Bay of Bengal gives it immense advantage as a place of naval rendezvous. (See ANDAMAN ISLANDS.) PORT CHESTER, a village of Westchester county, New York, U.S.A., in the south-east part of the state, on Long Island Sound, and about 10 m. N.E. of New York City (26 m. from the Grand Central Station). Pop. (1900), 7440, of whom 2110 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 12,809. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad, and by daily steamers to and from New York City. The village is a summer resort as well as a suburban residential district for New York City. Among its public institutions are a library, a park and a hospital. The village has various manufactures, including bolts and nuts, motors for racing boats and automobiles; there are also large planing and wood-moulding mills. The earliest mention of Port Chester in any extant record is in the year 1732. Until 1837 it was known as Saw Pit, on account of a portion of the village, it is said, being used as a place for building boats. During the War of Independence the village was frequently occupied by detachments of American troops. Port Chester was incorporated as a village in 1868. PORTCULLIS (from the Fr. porte-coulisse, porte, a gate, Lat. poria, and coulisse, a groove, used adjectivally for " sliding," from colder, to slide or glide, Lat. colare; the Fr. equivalents are herse, a harrow, and coulisse; Ger. Fallgatler; Ital. saracinesca) , a strong-framed grating of oak, the lower points shod with iron, and sometimes entirely made of metal, hung so as to slide up and down in grooves with counterbalances, and intended to protect the gateways of castles, &c. The defenders having opened the gates and lowered the [portcullis, could send arrows and darts through the gratings. A portcullis was in existence until modern times in a gateway at York. The Romans used the portcullis in the defence of gateways. It was called cataracta from the Gr. KaTappdicrrjs, a waterfall (Karappriyvvadai., to fall down). Vegetius (De re milit. iv. 4) speaks of it as an old means of defence, and it has been suggested that in Psalm xxiv. 7, 9, " Lift up your heads, oh ye gates," &c., there is an allusion to a similar contrivance. Remains of a cataracta are clearly seen in the gateway of Pompeii. The Italian name saracinesca originates from the crusades. (See GATE.) PORTE, THE SUBLIME (Arab, babi-'ali, the high gate, through the French translation la sublime porte), in Turkey, the official name for the government, derived from the high gate giving access to the building where the offices of the principal state departments are situated. PORT ELIZABETH, a seaport of the Cape province, South Africa, in Algoa Bay, by which name the port is often designated. It lies in 35° 57' S., 25° 37' E. on the east side of Cape Recife, being by sea 436 m. from Cape Town and 384 m. from Durban. In size and importance it is second only to Cape Town among the towns of the province. It is built partly along the seashore and partly on the slopes and top of the hills that rise some 200 ft. above the bay. The Baaken's River, usually a small stream, but subject (as in 1908) to disastrous floods, runs through the town, which consists of four divisions; the harbour and busi- ness quarter at the foot of the cliffs, the upper part, a flat table-land known as " The Hill "; " The Valley " formed by the Baaken's River; and " South Hill," east of the river. The Town. — Jetty Street leads from the north jetty to the market square, in or around which are grouped the chief public buildings — the town-hall, court-house, post office, market buildings, public library, St Mary's church (Anglican) and St Augustine's (Roman Catholic). Several of these buildings are of considerable architec' tural merit and fine elevation. The library, of Elizabethan design, contains some 45,000 volumes. The market buildings, at the south-east corner of the square, and partly excavated from the sides of the cliff, contain large halls for the fruit, wool and feather markets and the museum. Feather-Market Hall, where are held the sales of ostrich feathers, seats 5000 persons. The museum has valuable ethnographical and zoological collections. Other public buildings include a synagogue and a Hindu temple. Leading west from Market Square is Main Street, in which are the principal business houses. Between Main Street and the sea is Strand Street, also a busy commercial thoroughfare. Behind the lower town streets rise in terraces to " The Hill," a residential district. Here is an open plot of ground, Donkin Reserve, containing the lighthouse and a stone pyramid with an inscription in memory of Elizabeth, wife of Sir Rufane Donkin, described as " one of the most perfect of human beings, who has given her name to the town below." A fountain, surmounted by the statue of a war-horse, erected by public sub- scription in 1905 commemorates " the services of the gallant animals which perished in the Anglo- Boer war, 1899-1902." Farther west is a large hospital, one of the finest institutions of its kind in South Africa. At the southern end of The Hill is St George's Park, which has some fine trees, in marked contrast to the general treeless, barren aspect of the town. Port Elizabeth indeed possesses few natural amenities, but its golf links are reputed the finest in South Africa. The town, apart from its transit trade and the industries connected therewith, has some manufactures — jam and confectionery works; oil, candle and explosive works; saw and flour mills; tanneries, &c. It has an excellent water supply. The Harbour. — There is no enclosed basin, but the roadstead has excellent holding ground, protected from all winds except the south- east, the prevailing wind being westerly. No harbour or light dues are charged to vessels of any flag. The port has three jetties of wrought iron, respectively 1162, 1152 and 1462 ft. in length, extend- ing to the four fathoms line. These jetties are provided with hydraulic cranes, &c., and railways connect them with the main line, so that goods can be sent direct from the jetties to every part of South Africa. In favourable weather vessels drawing up to 21 ft. can discharge cargo alongside the jetties. In unfavourable condi- tions and for larger steamers tugs and lighters are employed. Rough weather prevents discharge of cargo by lighters, on an average, seven days in the year. The customs-house and principal railway station are close to the north jetty. The port is state owned, and is under the administration of the harbour and railway board of the Union. Trade. — Port Elizabeth has a large import trade, chiefly in textiles, machinery, hardware, apparel and provisions, supplying to a con- siderable extent the markets of Kimberley, Rhodesia, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. The exports are mainly the pro- ducts of the eastern part of the Cape province, the most important being ostrich feathers, wool and mohair. Skins, hides and maize are also exported. In 1855 the value of the imports was £376,000; in 1883 £2,364,000; in 1898 £6,248,000; in 1903 £10,137,000. Depression in trade brought down the imports in 1904 to £6,855,000. In 1906 they were £6,564,000 and in 1907 £6,004,000. The export trade has been of slower but more steady growth. It was valued at £584,000 in 1855, at £2,341,000 in 1883, £2,103,000 in 1898, £2,010,000 in 1903. Indicative of the fact that the agricultural community was little affected by the trade depression are the export figures for 1904 and 1906, which were £2,044,000 and £2,627,000 respectively. In 1907 goods valued at £3,150,000 were exported. Population. — The population within the municipal area was at the 1904 census 32,959; that within the district of Port Elizabeth 46,626, of whom 23,782 were whites. Many of the inhabitants are of German origin and the Deutsche Liedertafel is one of the most popular clubs in the town. PORTEOUS— PORTER, D. D. History. — Algoa Bay was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz in 1488, and was by him named Bahia da Roca, probably with reference to the rocky islet in the bay, on which he is stated to have erected a cross (St Croix Island). After the middle of the i6th century the bay was called by the Portuguese Bahia da Lagoa, whence its modern designation. In 1754 the Dutch settlements at the Cape were extended eastwards as far as Algoa Bay. The convenience of reaching the eastern district by boat was then recognized and advantage taken of the road- stead sheltered by Cape Recife. In 1799, during the first occupation of Cape Colony by the British, Colonel (afterwards General Sir John) Vandeleur, to guard the roadstead, built a small fort on the hill west of the Baaken's River. It was named Fort Frederick in honour of the then duke of York, and is still preserved. A few houses grew up round the fort, and in 1820 besides the military there was a civilian population at Fort Frederick of about 35 persons. In April of that year arrived in the bay the first of some 4000 British immigrants, who settled in the eastern district of the colony (See CAPE COLONY: History). Under the supervision of Sir Rufane Donkin, acting governor of the Cape, a town was laid out at the base of the hills. In 1836 it was made a free warehousing port, and in 1837 the capital of a small adjacent district. To overcome the difficulty of landing from the road- stead a breakwater was built at the mouth of the Baakens River in 1856, but it had to be removed in 1869, as it caused a serious accumulation of sand. The prosperity which followed the construction of railways to the interior earned for the port the designation of " the Liverpool of South Africa." Railway work was begun in 1873 and Port Elizabeth is now in direct communication with all other parts of South Africa. At the same period (1873) the building of the existing jetties was undertaken. Port Elizabeth has possessed municipal govern- ment since 1836. Its predominant British character is shown by the fact that not until 1909 was the foundation stone laid of the first Dutch Reformed Church in the town. PORTEOUS, JOHN (d. 1736), captain of the city guard of Edinburgh, whose name is associated with the celebrated riots of 1 736, was the son of Stephen Porteous, an Edinburgh tailor. Having served in the army, he was employed in 1715 to drill the city guard for the defence of Edinburgh in anticipation of a Jacobite rising, and was promoted later to the command of the force. In 1736 a smuggler named Wilson, who had won popu- larity by helping a companion to escape from the Tolbooth prison, was hanged; and, some slight disturbance occurring at the execution, the city guard fired on the mob, killing a few and wounding a considerable number of persons. Porteous, who was said to have fired at the people with his own hand, was brought to trial and sentenced to death. The granting of a reprieve was hotly resented by the people of Edinburgh, and on the night of the jth of September 1736 an armed body of men in disguise broke into the prison, seized Porteous, and hanged him on a signpost in the street. It was said tKat persons of high position were concerned in the crime; but although the government offered rewards for the apprehension of the perpetrators, and although General Moyle wrote to the duke of Newcastle that the criminals were " well-known by many of the inhabitants of the town," no one was ever convicted of participation in the murder. The sympathies of the people, and even, it is said, of the clergy, throughout Scotland, were so unmistakably on the side of the rioters that the original stringency of the bill introduced into parliament for the punishment of the city of Edinburgh had to be reduced to the levying of a fine of £2000 for Porteous's widow, and the disqualification of the provost for holding any public office. The incident of the Porteous riots was used by Sir Walter Scott in The Heart of Midlothian. See Sir Daniel Wilson, Memorials of Edinburgh in the Olden Time 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1848): State Trials, vol. xvii.; William Coxe, Memoirs of the Life of Sir R. Walpole (4 vols. London, 1816); Alex- ander Carlyle, Autobiography (Edinburgh, 1860), which gives the . . —--_—». i.iii£ \.\j my, ouuj^v*. | »» . i . • 11* cky, History of England in the Eighteenth Century, ii. 324, note (7 vols., London, 1892). See also Scott's notes to The Heart of Midlothian. PORTER, BENJAMIN CURTIS (1843- ), American artist, was born at Melrose, Massachusetts, on the 27th of August 1843. He was a pupil of A. H. Bicknell and of the Paris schools, and was elected an associate of the National Academy of Design, New York, in 1878, and a full academician in 1880. He is best known as a painter of portraits. PORTER, DAVID (1780-1843), American naval officer, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the ist of February 1780. His father, David, and his uncie, Samuel, commanded American ships in the War of Independence. In 1796 he accompanied his father to the West Indies; on a second and on a third voyage he was impressed on British vessels, from which, however, he escaped. He became a midshipman in the United States Navy in April 1798; served on the " Constellation " (Captain Thomas Truxton) and was midshipman of the foretop when the " Constel- lation " defeated the " Insurgente "; was promoted lieutenant in October 1799, and was in four successful actions with French ships in this year. In 1803, during the war with Tripoli, he was first lieutenant of the " Philadelphia " when that vessel grounded, was taken prisoner, and was not released until June 1805. He was commissioned master commandant in April 1806; in 1807- 1810 served about New Orleans1, where -he captured several French privateers, and in 1812 was promoted' captain. He commanded the frigate " Essex " in her famous voyage in 1812- 1814. In the Atlantic he captured seven brigs, one ship, on the i3th of August 1812, the sloop "Alert," the first British war vessel taken in the War of 1812. Without orders from his superiors he then (February 1813) rounded Cape Horn, the harbours of the east coast of South America being closed to him. In the South Pacific he captured many British whalers (the British losses were estimated at £500,000), and on his own authority took formal possession (November 1813) of Nuka- hivah, the largest of the Marquesas Islands; the United States, however, never asserted any claim to the island, which in 1842, with the other Marquesas, was annexed by France. During most of February and March 1814 he was blockaded by the British frigates " Cherub " and " Phoebe " in the harbour of Valparaiso, and on the 28th of March was defeated by these vessels, which seem to have violated the neutrality of the port. He was released on parole, and sailed for New York on the " Essex, Jr.," a small vessel which he had captured from the British, and which accompanied the " Essex." At Sandy Hook he was detained by the captain of the British ship-of-war " Saturn " (who declared that Porter's parole was no longer effective), but escaped in a small boat. He was a member of the new board of naval commissioners from 1815 until 1823, when he commanded a squadron sent to the West Indies to suppress piracy. One of his officers, who landed at Fajardo (or Foxardo), Porto Rico, • in pursuit of a pirate, was imprisoned by the Spanish authorities on the charge of piracy. Porter, without reporting the incident or awaiting instructions, forced the authorities to apologize. He was recalled (December 1824), was court-martialled, and was suspended for six months. In August 1826 he resigned his commission, and until 1829 was commander-in-chief of the Mexican navy, then fighting Spain ; in payment for his services he received government land in Tehuantepec, where he hoped to promote an inter-oceanic canal. President Andrew Jackson appointed him consul-general to Algiers in 1830, and in 1831 created for him the post of charge d'affaires at Constantinople, where in 1841 he became minister. He died in Pera on the 3rd of March 1843. He wrote a Journal of a Cruise made to the Pacific Ocean in the U.S. Frigate "Essex " in 1812-13-14 (2 vols., 1815; 2nd ed., 1822), and Constantinople and its Environs (2 vols., 1835), a valuable ;uide-book. See the Memoir of Commodore David Porter (Albany, New York, 1875), by his son, Admiral David D. Porter. PORTER, DAVID DIXON (1813-1891), American naval officer, son of Captain David Porter, was born in Chester, Pennsyl- vania, on the 8th of June 1813. His first voyage, with his father 1 While he was in New Orleans he adopted David Farragut, who ater served with "him on the " Essex." PORTER, E. in West Indian waters in 1823-1824, was terminated by the Fajardo affair (see PORTER, DAVID). In April 1826 he entered the Mexican navy, of which his father was commander-in-chief, and which he left in 1828, after the capture by the Spanish of the " Guerrero," on which he was serving under his cousin, David H. Porter (1804-1828), who was killed before the ship's surrender. He became a midshipman in the United States navy in 1829, and was in the coast survey in 1836-1842. In 1839 he married the daughter of Captain Daniel Tod Patterson (1786-1839), then commandant of the Washington navy-yard. Porter became a lieutenant in February 1841; served at the naval observatory in 1845-1846; in 1846 he was sent to the Dominican Republic to report on conditions there. During the Mexican War he served, from February to June 1847, as lieutenant and then as command- ing officer of the " Spitfire," a paddle vessel built for use on the rivers, and took part in the bombardment of Vera Cruz and in the other naval operations under Commander M. C. Perry. From the close of the Mexican War to the beginning of the Civil War he had little but detail duty; in 1855 and again in 1856 he made trips to the Mediterranean to bring to the United States camels for army use in the south-west. In April 1861 he was assigned to the " Powhatan," and was sent under secret orders from the president for the relief of Fort Pickens, Pensacola, an expedition which he had urged. Porter was promoted commander on the 22nd of April, and on the 3oth of May was sent to blockade the South- West Pass of the Mississippi. In August he left the gulf in a fruitless search for the Confederate cruiser " Sumter." Upon his return to New York in November he urged an expedition against New Orleans (q.v.), and recommended the appointment of Commander D. G. Farragut ( water, and was connected by a tramway with Maesteg, whence coal and iron were brought for shipment. The tramway WHS converted into a railway, and in 1865 opened for passenger traffic. In 1866 a dock (7^ acres) and tidal basin (2$ acres^ were constructed, but since about 1902 they have fallen into disuse and the coal is diverged to other ports, chiefly Port Talbot. Porthcawl, however, has grown in popularity as a watering-place. Situated on a slightly elevated headland facing Swansea Bay and the Bristol Channel, it has fine sands, rocks and breezy commons, on one of which, near golf links resorted to from all parts of Glamorgan, is " The Rest," a convalescent home for the working classes, completed in 1891, with accommodation for eighty persons. The climate of Porthcawl is bracing, and the rainfall (averaging 25 in.) is about the lowest on the South Wales coast. The district is described by R. D. Blackmore in his tale The Maid of Sker (1872), based on a legend associated with Sker House, a fine Elizabethan building in the adjoining parish of Sker, which was formerly extra-parochial. The parish church (dedicated to St John the Baptist) has a pre-Reformation stone altar and an ancient carved stone pulpit, said to be the only relic of an earlier church now covered by the sea. PORT HOPE, a town and port of entry of Durham county, Ontario, Canada, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, 63 m. N.E. of Toronto by the Grand Trunk railway, and connected with Charlotte, the port for Rochester, New York, by a daily steamboat service. The population, 5585 in 1881, shrunk in 1001 to 4188, but is increasing owing to the popularity of the town as a summer resort. It is picturesquely situated on the side and at the foot of hills overlooking the lake; and Smith's Creek, by which it is traversed, supplies abundant water-power. Trade is carried on in lumber, grain and flour. Trinity College School, a residential school under Anglican control, has a long and creditable history. PORT HUDSON, a village in East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana, U.S.A., on the left bank of the Mississippi, about 135 m. above New Orleans. At the sharp turn of the Missis- sippi here the Confederates in 1862 built on the commanding bluffs powerful batteries covering a stretch of about 3 m., their strongest fortifications along the Mississippi between New Orleans and Vicksburg. On the night of the I4th of March 1863 Admiral Farragut, with seven vessels, attempted to run past the batteries, commanded by Brigadier-General William M. Gardner, but four of his vessels were disabled and forced to turn back, one, the " Mississippi " was destroyed, and only two, the " Hartford " and the " Albatros.* " got past. General N. P. Banks's land attack, on the 27th of May, was unsuccessful, the Union loss, nearly 2000, being six times that of the Confederates. A second attack on the i4th of June, entailed a further Union loss of about 1800 men. But on the 9th of July, two days after the news of the surrender of Vicksburg, after a siege of 45 days, General Gardner surrendered the position to General Banks with about 6400 men, 50 guns, 5000 small arms and ammunition, and two river steamers. The Union losses during the siege were probably more than 4000; the Confederate losses about 800. The capture of Vicksburg and Port Hudson secured to the Union the control of the Mississippi. PORT HURON, a city and the county-seat of Saint Clair county, Michigan, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Saint Clair and Black rivers, and at the lower end of Lake Huron, about 60 m. N.N.E. of Detroit. Pop. (1000), 19,158 of whom7i42 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 18,863. It is served by the Grand Trunk and other railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago and other ports. A railway tunnel, 6025 ft. long, under the Saint Clair, connects the city with Sarnia, Canada. The tunnel, which has an inside diameter of 20 ft., was constructed by the Grand Trunk railway in 1889-1891 at a cost of about $2,700,000, and was designed by Joseph Hobson (b. 1834). Port Huron is laid out with wide streets, on both sides of the Black river and along the shore of Lake Huron; it has attractive parks and mineral water springs, and is a summer resort. Among its buildings are the court house, the city hall, and a Modern Maccabee Temple- — Port Huron being the headquarters of the Knights of the Modern Maccabees (1881), a fraternal society which, in 1910, had a mem- bership of 107,737. Until 1008 Port Huron was the headquarters of the Knights of the Maccabees of the World (founded in 1883; 283,998 members in 1910). Port Huron has large shipping interests, and since 1866 has been the port of entry of the Huron n8 PORTICI— PORTLAND, EARL OF customs district. In 1908 its exports were valued at $16,958,080 and its imports at $4,859,120. The city has shipyards, dry docks, large shops of the Grand Trunk railway, publishing houses, and manufactories of agricultural implements, steel ships, automobiles, foundry products, paper and pulp, and toys. In 1904 the city's factory products were valued at $4,789,589. In 1686 the French established Fort St Joseph, a fortified trading post, which came into the possession of the British in 1761 and was occupied by _ American troops in 1814. The fort was renamed Fort Gratiot in honour of General Charles Gratiot (1788-1855), who was chief -engineer in General W. H. Harrison's army in 1813-1814, and was chief-engineer of the U.S. Army in 1 828-1838. The settlement which grew up round the fort, and was organized as a village in 1840, was also known as Fort Gratiot, and was annexed to Port Huron in 1893. The fort was abandoned during 1837-1848, during 1852- 1866, and, permanently, in 1879. The earliest permanent settlement, in what later became Port Huron, was made in 1790 by several French families. This settlement, distinct from that at the fort, was first called La Riviere De Lude, and, after 1828, Desmond. It was platted in 1835, incorporated as a village in 1840 (under its present name), and chartered as a city in 1857. PORTICI, a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, 5 m. S.E. of Naples by rail, on the shores of the bay, and at the foot of Vesuvius. Pop. (1901), 14,239. The palace, erected in 1738, is traversed by the high road. It once contained the antiquities from Herculaneum, now removed to Naples, and since 1882 it has been a government school of agriculture. There is a small harbour. Just beyond Portici, on the south east, is Resina (pop, in 1901, 20,182), on the site of the ancient Herculaneum, with several fine modern villas. The inhabitants are engaged in fishing, silk-growing and silk-weaving. The town was com- pletely destroyed by the eruption of Vesuvius in 1631. PORTICO (Ital. for " porch," Lat. porlicus), a term in architecture for the covered entrance porch to a building, which is carried by columns, and either constitutes the whole front of the building, as in the Greek and Roman temples, or forms an important feature, as the portico of the Pantheon at Rome attached to the rotunda. A circular projecting portico, such as those to the north and south transepts of St Paul's Cathedral, and that which forms the west entrance of St Mary le Strand, is known as cyclostyle. The term porticus is used to distinguish the entrance portico in an amphiprostylar or peripteral temple from that behind which is called the poslicum. PORTIERE, a hanging placed over a door, as its French name implies, or over the doorless entrance to a room. From the East, where doors are still rare, it came to Europe at a remote date — it is known to have been in use in the West in the I4th century, and was probably introduced much earlier. Like so many other domestic plenishings, it reached England by way of France, where it appears to have been originally called rideau de porle. It is still extensively used either as an ornament or as a means of mitigating draughts. It is usually of some heavy material, such as velvet, brocade, or plush, and is often fixed upon a brass arm, moving in a socket with the opening and closing of the door. PORT JACKSON, or SYDNEY HARBOUR, a harbour of New South Wales, Australia. It is one of the safest and most beautiful harbours in the world; its area, including all its bays, is about 15 sq. m., with a shore line of 165 m.; it has deep water in every part, and is landlocked and secure in all weathers. The entrance, between two rocky promontories known as North and South Heads, is 2j m. wide between the outer heads, and narrows down to i m. 256 yds. The port is flanked on both sides by promontories, so that, in addition to a broad and deep central channel, there is a series of sheltered bays with good anchorage. Sydney lies on the southern shore about 4 m. from the Heads. Port Jackson is the chief naval depdt of Australasia, the headquarters of the admiral's station, and is strongly fortified. The harbour has a number of islands, most of which are used for naval or government purposes — Shark Island is the quarantine station, Garden Island has naval foundries, hospital and stores, Goat Island is occupied by a powder magazine, Spectacle Island is used to store explosives, and on Cockatoo Island are important government docks. Port Jackson was discovered by Captain Phillip in 1788, though in 1770 Captain Cook, when coasting north, noticed what looked like an inlet, and named it after Sir George Jackson, one of the secretaries to the Admiralty. Captain Cook passed the harbour without recognizing its capacity; but the cliffs which guard the entrance are 300 ft. high, and no view of the basin can be seen from the masthead. Middle Head, which is opposite the entrance, closes it in, and it is necessary to enter, turn to the south, and then to the west before the best part of the harbour discloses itself. PORT JERVIS, a city of Orange county, New York, U.S.A., on the Delaware river, at its junction with the Neversink, 88 m. N.W. of New York city by rail, and at the intersection of the boundary lines of the states of New York, New Jersey and Penn- sylvania. Pop. (1900), 9385, of whom 895 were' foreign-born; (1910 census), 9564. It is served by the Erie and the New York, Ontario & Western railways. The beauty of the scenery in its vicinity has made the city a summer resort. At Port Jervis are situated the extensive shops of the Erie railway. Among the manufactures are wearing apparel, silk, glass, and silver ware. The value of the factory products increased from $1,009,081 in 1900 to $1,635,215 in 1905, or 62%. Port Jervis was laid out in 1826, soon after work began on the Dela- ware & Hudson Canal; it owes its origin to that waterway (now abandoned), and was named in honour of John Bloomfield Jervis (1795-1885), the engineer who constructed the canal, who, in 1836, was in charge of the construction of the Croton Aqueduct, and wrote Railway Property (1859) and The Construction aiid Management of Railways (1861). Port Jervis was incorporated as a village in 1853, and was chartered as a city in 1907. PORTLAND, EARL OF, an English title held by the family of Weston from 1633 to 1688, and by the family of Bentinck from 1689 to 1716, when it was merged in that of duke of Port- land. Sir Richard Weston (1577-1635), according to Clarendon " a gentleman of very ancient extraction by father and mother," was the son and heir of Sir Jerome Weston (c. 1550-1603) of Skreens, in Roxwell, Essex, his grandfather being Richard Weston (d. 1572) justice of the common pleas. A member of parliament during the reigns of James I. and Charles I., Sir Richard was sent abroad by James on two occasions to negotiate on behalf of the elector palatine Frederick V.; after the murder of the duke of Buckingham, he became the principal counsellor of Charles I. In 1628 he was created Baron Weston of Neyland and in 1633 earl of Portland. Having in 1625 and 1626 had experience in the difficult task of obtaining money for the royal needs from the House of Commons, Weston was made lord high treasurer in 1628. His own inclinations and the obstacles in the way of raising money made him an advocate of a policy of peace and neutrality. His conduct was frequently attacked in parliament, but he retained both his office and the confidence of the king until his death on the I3th of March 1635. His son Jerome, the 2nd earl (1605-1663), was imprisoned for plotting in the interests of Charles I. in 1643, and was nominally president of Munster from 1644 to 1660. He sat in the convention parliament of 1660. He was succeeded by his son Charles (1630-1665), who was killed in a sea-fight with the Dutch off the Texel, and then by his brother Thomas (1609-1688), who died in poverty at Louvain, when the title became extinct. In 1689 it was revived by William III., who bestowed it upon his favourite William Bentinck (see below.) Sir Richard Weston must be distinguished from a contemporary and namesake, Sir Richard Weston (c. 1570-1652), baron of the exchequer. Another Sir Richard Weston (c. 1466-1542) was a courtier and a diplomatist under Henry VIII. ; his son was Sir Francis Weston (c. 1511-1536), who was beheaded for his alleged adultery with Anne Boleyn. This Sir Richard had a brother, Sir William Weston (d. 1540), who distinguished himself at the defence of Rhodes in 1522, and was afterwards prior of the Knights of St John in England. A third Sir Richard Weston (1591-1652), was mainly reponsible for introducing locks on the Wey and thus making this river navigable. Another family of Weston produced Robert Weston (c. 1515- I573), lord chancellor of Ireland from 1566 until his death on the PORTLAND, EARL OF— PORTLAND 119 aoth of May 1 573. Other famous Westons were Stephen Weston (1665-1742) bishop of Exeter from 1724 until his death, and his son Edward Weston (1703-1 7 7°) tne writer. Much of the earl of Portland's correspondence is in the Public Kt-Vord Office, London. For his political career see S. R. Gardiner, Hilary of England (1883-1884), and L. von Ranke, Enghsche Geschichte (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1875). PORTLAND, WILLIAM BENTINCK, EARL or (c. 1645-1709), English statesman, was born, according to the Dutch historian, Groen van Prinsterer, in 1645, although most of the other authorities give the date as 1649. The son of Henry Bentinck of Diepenheim, he was descended from an ancient and noble family of Gelderland. He became page of honour and then gentleman of the bedchamber to William, prince of Orange. When, in 1675, the prince was attacked by small-pox, Bentinck nursed him assiduously, and this devotion secured for him the special and enduring friendship of William; henceforward, by his prudence and ability, he fully justified the confidence placed in him. In 1677 he was sent to England to solicit for the prince of Orange, the hand of Mary, daughter of James duke of York, afterwards James II., and he was again in England in 1683 and in 1685. When, in 1688, William was preparing for his invasion Bentinck went to some of the German princes to secure their support, or at least their neutrality, and he was also a medium of communication between his master and his English friends. He superintended the arrangements for the expedition and sailed to England with the prince. The revolution accomplished, Bentinck was made groom of the stole, first gentleman of the bedchamber, and a privy councillor; and in April 1689 he was created Baron Cirencester, Viscount Woodstock and earl of Portland. He commanded some cavalry at the battle of the Boyne in 1690, and was present at the bat tie of Landen, where he was wounded, and at the siege of Namur. But his main work was of a diplomatic nature. Having thwarted the plot to murder the king in 1696, he helped to arrange the peace of Ryswick in 1697; in 1698 he was ambassador to Paris, where he opened negotiations with Louis XIV. for a partition of the Spanish monarchy, and as William's representative, he signed the two partition treaties. Portland had, however, become very jealous of the rising influence of Arnold van Keppel, earl of Albemarle, and, in 1699, he resigned all his offices in the royal household. But he did not forfeit the esteem of the king, who continued to trust and employ him. Portland had been loaded with gifts, and this, together with the jealousy felt for him as a foreigner, made him very unpopular in England. He received 135,000 acres of land in Ireland, and only the strong opposition of a united House of Commons prevented him obtaining a large gift of crown lands in North Wales. For his share in drawing up the partition treaties he was impeached in 1701, but the case against him was not proceeded with. He was occasionally employed on public business under Anne until his death at his residence, Bulstrode in Buckinghamshire, on the 23rd of Novem- ber 1709. Portland's eldest son Henry (1680-1724) succeeded as 2nd earl. He was created marquess of Titchfield and duke of Portland in 1716. See G. Burnet, History of My Own Time (Oxford, 1833); Lord Macaulay, History of England (1854); L. von Ranke, Englische Geschichte (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1875); and especially Onno Klopp, Der Fall des Hauses Stuart (Vienna, 1875-1888). See also Dr A. W. Ward's article in vol. iv. of the Diet. Nat. Biog. PORTLAND, WILLIAM HENRY CAVENDISH BENTINCK, 3rd DUKE OF (1738-1809), prime minister of England, son of William, 2nd duke (1709-1762), and grandson of the ist duke. His mother, Margaret, granddaughter and heiress of John Holies, duke of Newcastle, brought to her husband Welbeck Abbey and other estates in Nottinghamshire. He was born on the uth of April 1738, and was educated at Oxford, where he graduated M.A. in 1757. In 1761, as marquess of Titchfield, he became M.P. for the borough of Weobly (Hereford), but in May 1762 he was called to the upper house on the death of his father. Under the marquess of Rockingham he was, from July 1765 to December 1766, lord chamberlain, and on the return of Rockingham to power in April 1782 he was made lord-lieutenant of Ireland. After the short ministry of Shelburne, succeeding the death of Rockingham, the duke of Portland was selected by Fox and North as a " convenient cipher " to become the head of the coalition ministry, to the formation of which the king was with great reluctance compelled to give his assent. The duke held the premiership from the 5th of April 1783 until the defeat of the bill for " the just and efficient government of British India " caused his dismissal from office on the 1 7th of December following. Under Pitt he was, from 1794 to 1801, secretary of state for the home department, after which he was, from 1801 to 1805, president of the council. In 1807 he was appointed a second time prime minister and first lord of the treasury. Ill health caused him to resign in October 1809, and he died on the 3oth of that month. He owed his political influence chiefly to his rank, his mild disposition, and his personal integrity, for his talents were in no sense brilliant, and he was deficient in practical energy as well as in intellectual grasp. He married in 1766 Lady Dorothy Cavendish (1750-1704), daughter of the 4th duke of Devonshire, and was succeeded as 4th duke by his son WILLIAM HENRY (1768-1854), who married a daughter of the famous gambler, General John Scott, and was brother-in-law to Canning. His son, the sth duke, WILLIAM JOHN CAVENDISH BENTINCK-SCOTT (1800-1879) died unmarried. He is notable for having constructed the underground halls at Welbeck Abbey, and for his retiring habits of life, which gave occasion for some singular stories.1 He was succeeded by his cousin WILLIAM JOHN ARTHUR CHARLES JAMES CAVENDISH- BENTINCK (b. 1857) as 6th duke. PORTLAND, a seaport of Normanby county, Victoria, Australia, 250 m. by rail S.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1001), 2185. It stands on the western shore of a magnificent bay, 24 m. long and 12 m. broad, and is the outlet for a rich agri- cultural and pastoral tract. PORTLAND, the largest city of Maine, U.S.A., the county- seat of Cumberland county, and a port of entry, on Casco Bay, about 115 m. by rail N.N.E. of Boston. Pop. (1890), 36,425; (1900), 50,145, of whom 34,918 were born in Maine, 3125 in the other New England states, 4476 in Canada, and 3273 in Ireland, and 291 were negroes; (1910 census) 58,571. Port- land is served by the Maine Central, the Boston & Maine, and the Grand Trunk railways; by steamboat lines to New York, Boston, Bar Harbor, Saint John, N.B., and other coast ports, and, during the winter season, by the Allan and Dominion transatlantic lines. It is connected by ferry with South Portland. 1 Public interest centred for some years round the allegation that he lived a double life and was identical with Mr T. C. Druce, an upholsterer of Baker Street, London, who, in 1851, married Annie May. The " Druce case," involving a claim to the title and estates, by Mrs Druce (widow of W. T. Druce, son of T. C. Druce by Annie May) on behalf of her son, aroused much attention from 1897 to 1908. The duke of Portland was undoubtedly buried in Kensal Green cemetery in 1879. " Druce," on the other hand, was supposed to have died in 1864 and been interred in Highgate cemetery, his will bequeathing over £70,000 in personal estate. Mrs Druce's claims had two aspects, both as involving the revocation of probate of T. C. Druce's will, and also as identifying Druce with the duke of Portland. But her application to have the grave in Highgate opened (with the object of showing that the coffin there was empty), though granted by Dr Tristram, chancellor of the diocese of London, was thwarted by a caveat being entered on the part of the executor of T. C. Druce's will; and the case became the subject of constant proceedings in the law-courts without result. Meanwhile it was discovered that children of T. C. Druce by a former wife were living in Australia, and Mrs Druce's claims fell into the background, the case being taken up independently by Mr G. H. Druce as the repre- sentative of this family, from 1903 onwards. A company to finance his case was formed in 1905, and in the autumn of 1907 he instituted a charge of perjury against Mr Herbert Druce, T. C. Druce's younger son and executor, for having sworn that he had seen his father die in 1864. Sensational evidence of a mock burial was given by an American witness named Caldwell, and others; but eventually it was agreed that the grave at Highgate should be opened. This was done on December the 3Oth, and the body of Mr T. C. Druce was then found in the coffin. The charge of perjury at once collapsed and was withdrawn on January 6th, the opening of the grave definitely putting an end to the story of an identity between the two men. I2O PORTLAND The hilly peninsula, to which Portland was confined until the annexation of the town of Deering in 1899, is nearly 3 m. in length by about \ m. in average width ; at its east end is Munjoy Hill, 1 60 ft. above the sea, and its west end Bramhall Hill, 15 ft. higher. Portland's total land area is about 215 sq. m. The scenery in and about the city is noted for its picturesqueness, and this, with its delightful summer climate and historic interest, attracts a large number of visitors during the summer season. Munjoy Hill commands a fine view of Casco Bay, which is over- looked by other wooded heights. There is excellent yachting in the bay, which contains many beautiful islands, such as Peaks and Cushing's islands. Bramhall Hill commands an extensive view west and north-west of the bay, the mainland, and the White Mountains some 80 m. distant. The city's park system includes the Western Promenade, on Bramhall Hill; the Eastern Promenade, on Munjoy Hill; Fort Allen Park, at the south extremity of the latter promenade ; Foit Sumner, another small park farther west, on the same hill; Lincoln Park, containing 2$ acres of beautiful grounds near the centre of the city; Deering's Oaks (made famous by Longfellow), the principal park (50 acres) on the peninsula, with many fine old trees, pleasant drives, and an artificial pond used for boating; and Monument Square and Boothby Square. There are many pleasant drives along the shore of the bay or the banks of rivers, and some of these lead to popular resorts, such as Riverton Park, on the Presumpscot; Cape Cottage Park, at the mouth of the harbour; and Falmouth Foreside, bordering the inner bay. The streets of Portland are generally well paved, are unusually clean, and, in the residence districts, where the fire of 1866 did not extend, they are profusely shaded by elms and other large trees — Portland has been called the " Forest City." Congress Street, the principal thoroughfare, extends along the middle of the peninsula north-east and south-west and from one end of it to the other, passing in the middle of its course through the shopping district. In Portland's architecture, both public and private, there is much that is excellent ; and there are a number of buildings of historic interest. The Post Office, at the corner of Exchange and Middle streets, is of white Vermont marble and has a Corinthian portico. The granite Customs House, extending from Fore Street to Commer- cial Street, is large and massive. The Public Library building is Romanesque and elaborately ornamented; the building was C resented to the city by James P. Baxter; in the library is the statue, y Benjamin Paul Akers (1825-1861), of the dead pearl-diver, well known from Hawthorne's description in The Marble Faun. The Cumberland County Court House, of white Maine granite, occupies the block bounded by Federal, Pearl, Church and Newbury streets ; immediately opposite (to the south-west) is the Federal Court build- ing, also of Maine granite. The Portland Observatory, on Munjoy Hill, erected in 1807 to detect approaching vessels, rises 222 ft. above tide-water. In Monument Square, the site of a battery in 1775 is a soldiers' and sailors' monument (1889), a tall granite pedestal surmounted by a bronze female figure, by Franklin Simmons; at the corner of State Street is a statue of Henry W. Longfellow by the same sculptor; and where Congress Street crosses the Eastern Promenade, a monument to the first settlers, George Cleeve and Richard Tucker. On the Western Promenade there is a monument to Thomas Brackett Reed, who was a native and a resident of Port- land. On Congress Street, below the Observatory, is the Eastern Cemetery, the oldest burying ground of the city ; in it are the graves of Commodore Edward Preble, and of Captain Samuel Blythe (1784-1813) and Captain William Burroughs (1785-1813), who were killed in the engagement between the British brig " Boxer " and the American brig " Enterprise," their respective ships, off this coast on the 5th of September 1813. The cemetery also contains monu- ments to Alonzo P. Stinson, the first soldier from Portland killed in the Civil War, to the Portland soldiers in the War of Independence, and to Rear-Admiral James Alden (1810-1877), of the U.S. Navy, a native of Portland. Among the churches are the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (Roman Catholic), with a spire 236 ft. high, and St Luke's (Protestant Episcopal) Cathedral. In the Williston Church (Congregational), in Thomas Street, the Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor was founded in 1881 by the Rev. Francis E. Clark, then pastor of the church. The finest residence district is on Bramhall Hill. Many houses, especially in State, _Danforth and Congress streets, are simple in style and old-fashioned in architecture. Of special interest to visitors is the Wadsworth- Longfellow House — the early home of Henry W. Longfellow — which was built in 1785-1786 by General Peleg Wadsworth (1748- 1829), a soldier of the War of Independence, a representative in Congress from 1793 to 1807, and the grandfather of the poet; was given by Longfellow's sister, Mrs Anne Longfellow Pierce (1810-1901) to the Maine Historical Society; and contains interesting relics of the Wadsworth and Longfellow families, and especially of the poet himself. Behind the " Home " is the Library of the Maine Historical Society. The birthplace of Longfellow is now a tenement house at the corner of Fore and Hancock streets, near the Gratld Trunk railway station. In Portland, as in Bangor, the Maine Music Festival (begun in 1897) is held every year in October, three concerts being given by a chorus composed of local choruses trained in different cities of the state for the festival. Among the institutions are: The Medical School of Maine, the medical department of Bowdoin College — instruction being given here during the last two years of the course; Westbrook Seminary (chartered in 1831, and empowered to grant degrees in 1863); the Public Library, containing (1910) 65,000 vols. ; the Library of the Maine Historical Society (30,000 vols.) ; the Mechanics' Library, the Greenleaf Law Library, the Maine General Hospital, and the United States Marine Hospital. The Portland Society of Natural History, founded in 1843 and incorporated in 1850, has a building (1880) containing a library and natural history collections. The city is supplied with good water from Lake Sebago, 17 m. distant. The harbour has an artificial breakwater and extensive modern fortifications (Fort Preble, on the Cape Shore; Fort Levett, on Cushing's Island; Fort Williams, at Portland Head; and Fort McKinley, on Great Diamond Island) among the best equipped in the United States. For a long period the city was noted for its commerce with the West Indies, which began to decline about 1876, but the coast trade and commerce with Great Britain are still con- siderable, especially in the winter, when Portland is the outlet of much of the trade from the Great Lakes that in the other seasons passes through Montreal. The principal exports are grain, live- stock and fruit. In 1908 the exports were valued at $11,353,339 and the imports at $1,189,964. The Grand Trunk Railroad Company has here two of the largest grain warehouses on the Atlantic Coast. In 1905 Portland was the first manufacturing city of the state, with a factory product valued at $9,132,801 (as against $8,527,649 for Lewiston, which outranked Portland in 1900) ; here are foundries and machine-shops, planing-mills, car and railway repair shops, packing and canning establishments — probably the first Indian corn canned in the United States was canned near Portland in 1840 — potteries, and factories for making boots, shoes, clothing, matches, screens, sleighs, carriages, cosmetics, &c. Ship- bujlding and fishing are important industries. The first permanent settlement on the peninsula was established by George Cleeve and Richard Tucker at the foot of Munjoy Hill in 1633 immediately after they had been ejected from land which they had claimed at the mouth of the Spurwink. Soon the hill at the east end became the property of George Munjoy and that at the west end the property of George Bram- hall. The Indian name of the peninsula was Machegonne, and the new settlement was during the next few years known by various names, such as Casco, Casco Neck, Cleeve's Neck, and Munjoy's Neck. In 1658 Massachusetts extended its jurisdiction over this part of Maine. The peninsula, with considerable neighbouring territory and Cape Elizabeth, was organized as a town in 1718 and was named Falmouth. The town suffered so severely from the Indians in 1676 that it was deserted until 1678. It was attacked in 1689, and in 1690 it was utterly destroyed by the French and Indians, and remained desolate until after the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. When the port of Boston was closed by Great Britain in 1774 the bell of the old First Parish Church (Unitarian) of Portland (built 1740; the present building dates from 1825) was muffled and rung from morning till night, and in other ways the town showed its sympathy for the patriot cause. As a punishment, on the i8th of October 1775, the town was bombarded and burned by a British fleet. The peninsula portion of Falmouth was incorporated as a distinct town in 1786 and was named Portland. Portland was the capital of the state from 1820 to 1832 and in the latter year was chartered as a city. In 1886 a large central portion of the city, about 200 acres, was destroyed by a fire resulting from a Fourth of July celebration. Portland was the birthplace of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Thomas Brackett Reed, Edward Preble and his nephew George Henry Preble, Mrs Parton (" Fanny Fern "), Nathaniel Parker Willis, Seargent Smith Prentiss and Neal Dow, and it was the home of William Pitt Fessenden, Theophilus Parsons and Simon Greenleaf. See W. Willis, The History of Portland (Portland, 1865), and William Goold, Portland in the Past (Portland, 1886). PORTLAND, a city, port of entry and the county-seat of Multnomah county, Oregon, U.S.A., on the Willamette river, near its confluence with the Columbia, about 120 m. by water from the Pacific, 186 m. by rail S.S.W. of Seattle and about PORTLAND, ISLE OF— PORTLANDIAN 121 772 m. N. of San Francisco. Pop. (1890), 46,385; (1900), 90,426, of whom 25,876 were foreign-born (6943 Chinese); (1010 census) 207,214. Portland is served by the Northern Pacific, the Southern Pacific, the Canadian Pacific, the Great Northern and other railways, by transpacific vessels to Hong- Kong and Yokohama, by coast-wise vessels to San Francisco, to ports on Puget Sound, in British Columbia, and in Alaska, and by river boats sailing 100 m. farther up the Willamette and up the Columbia and the Clearwater to Lewiston, Idaho. The city is built on both sides of the river (which is crossed by five bridges), and covers about 44 sq. m. On the western side the ground rises gradually for a distance of J to i\ m., and then rises abruptly 500-1000 ft. to " Portland Heights " and " Council Crest," md the much-broken surface of which rises the Coast range; on the eastern side a slightly rolling surface extends to the foot- hills of the Cascade Mountains. From " Portland Heights " there are fine views of the Columbia and Willamette valleys, and, par- ticularly, of the snow-clad summits of Mt Hood, Mt Jefferson, Mt M Helen's, Mt Adams and Mt Rainier (or Tacoma). In the residence districts (King's Hill, Nob Hill, Portland Heights, Willamette Heights, Hawthorne Avenue, &c.) are pleasantly shaded streets, and grounds decorated with shrubs, especially roses, which sometimes bloom as late as January — an annual " Rose Festival " is held here in June. The city has 205 acres in parks and numerous beautiful drives. It has a fine climate, the mean temperature during the winter months from 1874 to 1903 was 41° F.; the mean summer temperature for the same period 65° F. For the year ending the 3ist of May 1900 the death-rate was reported to be only 9 per 1000, and in 1907 to be only 8-28 per 1000. The city's water is brought through a pipe 30 m. in length from Bull Run river, which is fed by Bull Run Lake at an elevation of more than 3000 ft. in the Cascade Mountains. Among the prominent buildings are the Court House; the City Hall, containing the rooms of the Oregon Historical Society; the Customs House; the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral; the Public Library (with 75,000 volumes in 1908) ; several tall office buildings with frames of steel; and the Art Museum (1905). There are large Krain elevators and miles of wharfs and docks. Among educational institutions are the law and medical departments of the University of Oregon, Hill Military Academy (1901) and Columbia University (Roman Catholic, iqoi). The Oregonian, which was established here in 1850, is one of the most influential newspapers on the Pacific Slope. The harbour is accessible for vessels of 26 ft. draught and the city's leading industry is the shipment by water and by rail of fish nally salmon) and of the products (largely lumber, wheat and fruits) of the rich Willamette and Columbia valleys. It is also an important jobbing centre. The value of the exports in 1908 amounted to $16,652,850 and the value of the imports to $2,937,513 ; the foreign trade is chiefly with Great Britain and its possessions, and with the Orient, where wheat and flour are exchanged for raw silk, tea and manila and other fibres. Portland is the principal manufacturing city of the state. The total value of its factory pro- duct in 1905 was $28,651,321. The principal manufactures were lumber and timber products ($3,577,465) and flour and grist mill pro- ducts ($2,712,735); other important manufactures were packed meat, planing-mill products, foundry and machine-shop products, railway cars (repaired), cordage and twine, and canned and preserved fish (salmon), oysters and fruits and vegetables. Portland, named after Portland, Maine, was founded in 1845 by two real-estate men from New England, and was char- tered as a city in ^851. Its early growth was promoted by the demand for provisions from California soon after the discovery of gold there, and although a considerable portion was swept by tire in 1873 the city had a population of nearly 20,000 before railway communication with the East was established by the Northern Pacific in 1883. East Portland and Albina were annexed to the city in July 1891. The Lewis and Clark Cen- tennial and American Pacific Exposition and Oriental Fair was held in Portland in 1905 in commemoration of the expedition of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to this region in 1805. The forestry building, 205 ft. long by 108 ft. wide and built of logs of Oregon fir 6 ft. or more in diameter and 54 ft. long, and a building devoted entirely to the subject of irrigation, were of unusual interest. The forestry building is now maintained as a museum chiefly for timber and timber products. PORTLAND, ISLE OP, properly a peninsula of the coast of Dorsetshire, England, as a prolongation of a narrow ridge of shingle, Chesil Bank (q.v.), connects it with the mainland. Pop. (1901), 15,262. It is 4 m. long and nearly 1} in extreme breadth, with an area of about 4} sq. m. The shores are wild and precipitous, and Portland is inaccessible from the sea except towards the south. The highest point, close upon 500 ft., is the Verne hill in the north. Wave action is seen in the numerous caverns, and south-east of Portland Bill, the southern extremity of the isle, is a bank called the Shambles, ^between which and the land there flows a dangerous current called the Race of Portland. A raised beach is seen at Portland Bill. The substratum of the island is Kimeridge Clay, above which rests beds of sand and strata of Oolitic limestone, widely famed as a building stone. Extensive quarries, which are Crown property, have supplied the materials for St Paul's Cathedral and many other important public buildings. In the " dirt-bed " resting upon the Oolitic strata numerous specimens of petrified wood are found, some of great size. The soil, though shallow, is fertile, and mutton fed on the grass has a peculiar rich flavour. Quarrying, fishing and agriculture are the chief industries. Several curious local customs are retained by the inhabitants. A joint railway of the Great Western and London & South Western companies runs south from Weymouth to Portland (4! m.) and Easton (8^ m.) on the isle. The isle contains a convict prison with accommodation for about 1 500 prisoners. Portland Castle, built by Henry VIII. in 1520, is generally occupied by the commander of the engineers or of the regiment stationed on the island. On a rock en the eastern side are remains of a more ancient fortress, Bow and Arrow Castle, ascribed to William Rufus. A harbour of refuge, begun in 1847 under the direction of the Admiralty, was completed some fifteen years later. A breakwater stretching in a northerly direction from the north-east corner of the island partially enclosed a large area of water naturally sheltered on the south and west. An inner arm ran nearly east from the island and terminated in a masonry head and fort, and an outer detached arm bent to the north and terminated in a circular fort, a narrow entrance for shipping being left between the two. It was formed of a rubble mound quarried; by convict labour at the summit of the island, and was lowered by a wire-rope incline to the sea. The harbour thus made was open on the north to Weymouth and the Channel, but the necessity for greater protection from torpedo attack made it advisable to complete the enclosure. Accordingly the Naval Works Acts of 1895 and subsequent years sanctioned works for closing the gap — about 2 m. long — between the end of the outer breakwater and the Bincleaves rocks near Weymouth, by two new breakwaters. One of these runs nearly east from the Bincleaves shore and is about 4642 ft. long, while from its extremity the other, about 4465 ft. long, stretches in a south-east direction towards the old outer breakwater, passages for navigation about 700 ft. wide separating it from its neighbours at each end. These new structures also consist of rubble mounds. The defensive harbour thus completely enclosed has an area of 2200 acres to the one-fathom line, of which 1500 acres have a depth of not less than 30 ft. at low water. There is no dockyard at Portland, but the watering and coaling arrangements for the supply of the fleet are of considerable importance. There is a coaling jetty and camber for the storage of both sea-borne and land-borne coal, with hydraulic appliances for handling it. The harbour and island are strongly fortified. The isle of Portland is not mentioned in the time of the Romans. In 837 it was the scene of an action against the Danes, and in 1052 it was plundered by Earl Godwine. In 1643 the parliamentary party made themselves masters of the island and castle, but shortly afterwards these were regained by the Royalists through a clever stratagem, and not recovered again by the forces of the parliament till 1646. PORTLANDIAN, in geology, a subdivision of the Upper Jurassic system that includes the strata lying between the Kimeridge Clay and the Purbeck beds. These rocks are well exposed on the isle of Portland, Dorsetshire, where they have been quarried for more than 200 years. J. Mitchell appears to have been the first to use the term " Portland lime " in geological literature (1788); T. Webster spoke of the " Portland Oolite " in 1812. In England the strata are very variable; the upper part consists principally of limestones, shelly, oolitic or 122 PORTLOCK— PORTMANTEAU compact, or in places very closely resembling chalk (Upway, Portisham, Brill, Chilmark). Nodules and layers of chert are well developed in some of the limestones of Dorsetshire and elsewhere; and a silicified oolite occurs near St Alban's Head. About Swindon, beds of sand are common in the Upper Portland beds with layers of calcareous sandstone (Swindon stone). Marly and sandy beds occur also at Shotover Hill. The lower portion is usually sandy and shows a gradual passage into the underlying Kimeridge Clay. W. H. Fitton in 1827 gave the name " Portland Sand" to this division. The Upper Port- landian in Dorsetshire is 130-170 ft. thick ; the Lower Portlandian in the same district is 100-120 ft. These rocks crop out from South Dorsetshire into Wiltshire, Oxfordshire and Buckingham- shire, and possibly extend beneath younger rocks into Bedford- shire and Cambridgeshire. They have been proved by borings in Sussex and Kent, and in Yorkshire they are represented by part of the Speeton Clays, and in Lincolnshire by part of the Spilsby Sand. At Swindon and Aylesbury a conglomeratic layer with small pebbles of lydite and phosphatized fossils lies at the base of the Portland Stone. The Upper Portlandian of England is characterized by the ammonite Perisphincles giganleus, along with Cytheria (Cyrena) rugosa, Trigonia gibbosa, Perisphincles boloniensis and Trigonia incurva as subzonal forms. Olcostephanus gigas is the zonal ammonite in the Lower Portlandian, associated with Trigonia Pellati, Cyprina Brongniarti, Exogyra brantrutana and Astarle Saemanni as subzonal indices. Other characteristic fossils are Cerithium portlandicum, the casts of which form the familiar " Portland screw," Isastraea oblonga,the Chelonian Stegochelys; the remains of saurians Pliosaurus and Cimoliosaurus and others are found; Mesodon, Ischyodus and other fishes occur in this formation. The Portland limestones have been much in demand for building purposes; at Portland the " Top Roach," the " Whit Bed" or top freestone, and the " Best Bed" (or Base Bed) are the best known. In the Vale of Wardour the lower Portlandian has been largely quarried; the stone from this neighbourhood is often described as Wardour, Tisbury or Chilmark stone. Swindon stone is a calcareous sandstone that occurs in the sands of the Upper Portland beds near Swindon. Rocks of Portlandian age are well developed on the continent of Europe, but the grouping of the strata is different in some respects from that adopted by English geologists. In France the " Port- landian " is -usually taken to include the Purbeckian as well as the equivalents of the English Portland beds, and some authors, e.g. E. Renevier, have included more or less of the Kimeridgian in this division. The Portlandian of north-west Germany includes the Eimbeckhauser Plattenkalk and the Lower Portland Kalk. Oppel's " Tithonjan " (tithonic) division, embracing Upper Kimeridge beds, Portlandian and Purbeckian beds in the Alpine district, is now recognized as a deeper water deposit of this time with many points of resemblance to the Russian development to which the name " Volgian " has been applied by S. Nikitin. The Portlandian beds of Yorkshire are more nearly related to the Volgian phase than to the beds of the same age in the south of England. The term Bono- nian ( = Bolonian) was suggested by J. F. Blake in 1881 for a part of the Portlandian series, from their occurrence at Boulogne (Bononia) where they are similar to the beds of Dorset. He limited the name Portlandian to the Purbeckian and Upper Portlandian (Portland stone), while he placed the Portland Sands and upper part of the Kimeridge Clay in his Bolonian division: this scheme has not been accepted in England. See JURASSIC. PORTLOCK, JOSEPH ELLISON (1794-1864), British geologist and soldier, the only son of Nathaniel Portlock, captain in the Royal Navy, was born at Gosport on the 3oth of September 1794. Educated at the Royal Military Academy he entered the Royal Engineers in 1813. In 1814 he took part in the frontier operations in Canada. In 1824 he was selected by Colonel (afterwards Major-General) T. F. Colby (1784-1852) to take part in Ordnance Survey of Ireland. He was engaged for several years in the trigonometrical branch, and subse- quently compiled information on the physical aspects, geology and economic products of Ireland. In 1837 he formed at Belfast a geological and statistical office, a museum for geological and zoological specimens, and a laboratory for the examina- tion of soils. The work was then carried on by Portlock as the geological branch of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, and the chief results were embodied in his Report on the Geology of the County of Londonderry and of parts of Tyrone and Fermanagh (1843), an elaborate and well-illustrated volume in which he was assisted by Thomas Oldham. After serving in Corfu and at Portsmouth he was, in 1849, appointed Commanding Royal Engineer at Cork, and from 1851-1856 he was Inspector of Studies at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. For a short time commanding officer at Dover, when the Council of Military Education was formed in 1857 he was selected as a member. During these years of active service he contributed num- erous geological papers to the scientific societies of Dublin and to the British Association. He published in 1848 a useful treatise on geology in Weale's " Rudimentary Series" (3rd. td., 1853). He was president of the geological section of the British Association at Belfast (1852), and of the Geological Society of London (1856-1858). He wrote a Memoir of the late Major- General Colby, with a Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Trigonometrical Survey (reprinted in 1869 from Papers on Subjects connected with the Royal Engineers, vols. iii.-v.). He also contributed several articles on military subjects to the 8th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1837. He died in Dublin on the i4th of February 1864. PORT MAHON, or MAHON (Spanish Puerto Mahdn), the capital and principal seaport of Minorca, in the Spanish province of the Balearic Islands. Pop. (1900), 17,144. Port Mahon is situated on the east coast, at the head of a deep inlet which extends inland for 35 m. It is an important harbour (see MINORCA). The city occupies a conspicuous hill, and presents a fine appearance from the sea; it is solidly built of excellent stone. Many of the houses date from the British occupation, which has also left curious traces in the customs and speech of the people. The King's Island (Isla del Rey, so called as the landing-place of Alphonso III. of Aragon in 1287) contains a hospital built by the admiral of the British squadron in 1722; farther south-east on the shore is the village of Villa Carlos or George Town, with ruins of extensive British barracks; and at the mouth of the port, on the same side, are the remains of Forte San Felipe, originally erected by Charles V. and twice the scene of the capitulation of British troops. Oppo- site San Felipe is the easily defended peninsula of La Mola (256 ft. high), which is occupied by extensive Spanish fortifi- cations. Mahon is one of the principal quarantine stations of Spain; the lazaretto, erected between 1798 and 1803, stands on a long tongue of land, separated from La Mola by the inlet of Cala Taulera. The principal modern buildings are the military and naval hospitals, the theatre, museum, library and schools. There are an arsenal and extensive quays. From its position on the route of vessels plying between Algeria and the south of France, the harbour is much frequented by French cargo- steamers; it is also a Spanish naval station. The principal exports are grain, live stock and fruit; cement, coal, iron, machinery, flour, raw cotton and hides are imported. Shoes and cotton and woollen goods are manufactured. About 250 vessels enter the port every year, and the annual value of the foreign trade is, approximately, £200,000 to £250,000. Mahon is the ancient Portus Magonis, which under the Romans was a municipium (Mun. flavium magontanum), probably including the whole island under its authority. As the name suggests, it had previously been a Carthaginian settlement. The Moors, who occupied Minorca in the 8th century, were expelled by James I. of Aragon in 1232. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa besieged and captured the city in 1535; and in 1558 it was sacked by a corsair called Piali. The British, who under James Stanhope, afterwards Earl Stanhope, seized the island in 1708, made Mahon a flourishing city, and in 1718 declared it a free port. In 1756 it fell into the hands of the French through the failure of Admiral Byng to relieve the garrison of St Philip's (San Felipe). Restored to the British in 1762, it was in 1782 heroically but unsuccessfully defended by General Murray. In 1802 it was finally ceded to Spain by the treaty of Amiens. PORTMANTEAU, a leather case or trunk for carrying articles of personal use when travelling. The typical portmanteau of PORTO ALEGRE— PORTO MAURIZIO 123 the present day has two compartments which, fastened at the back by hinges, close together like a book. The original port- manteau (adopted from Fr. portemanleau, porter, to carry, manteau, cloak, mantle) was a flexible round leather case to hold a cloak or other garment and of such a shape as could conveni- ently be carried on a rider's saddle. In French the word was applied to a bracket or set of pegs on which to hang clothes. ( L. Dodgson (" Lewis Carroll ") in Through the Looking Glass (" The Song of the Jabberwock ") used the expression " port- manteau word " of an invented word composed of two words run together and supposed to convey humorously the combined meaning: thus " slithy " conveys slimy and lithe; " mimsy," flimsy and miserable. PORTO ALEGRE, a city and port of Brazil, capital of the slate of Rio Grande do Sul, at the northern extremity of Lag6a dos Patos on the eastern shore of an estuary called Rio Guahyba, about 1 60 m. from the port of Rio Grande do Sul at the entrance to the lake. The population which contains a large foreign element, chiefly German and Italian, was returned as 73,574 by the census of 1900, including some outlying districts not within urban limits. The municipio (commune), which has an area of 931 sq. m., had a population of nearly 100,000, in- cluding a large number of prosperous colonists. The railway from Porto Alegre to Novo Hamburgo and Taquara (55 m.) affords an outlet for some of the older German colonies. The railway from Porto Alegre to Uruguayana is completed from Margem da Taquary to Cacequy, 232 m. Its starting point, Margem da Taquary, is about 80 m. from the city, with which it is connected by river steamers. An extension of the railway is projected from Margem da Taquary to Neustadt on the Novo Hamburgo line, and will give the city direct railway connexion with the principal cities of western and southern Rio Grande do Sul. The Rio Guahyba, which is not a river, was once called " Yiatnao " because its outline is roughly that of the human hand, the rivers entering the estuary at its head corresponding to the fingers. The lower channels of these rivers (the Gravaty, Sinos, Cahy, Jacuhy and Taquary) are all navigable and bring considerable trade to the port. Its foreign trade is limited to light-draught steamers able to cross the bar at the entrance to the lake. The city occupies a tongue of land projecting into the estuary, and extends along its shores and back to a low wooded hill. Its site, as seen from the water, is attractive, though its larger part is an almost level plain. There are pleasant suburbs along the shore and farther ^ inland (Floresta, Gloria, Moinhos de Vento, i.e. " Windmills," Navigantes and Partenon). The climate is sub- tropical, cool and bracing in winter but insufferably hot in summer. The mean annual temperature is slightly under 69° F., the average maximum being a little over 82° and the average minimum 59°. The annual rainfall is about joj in. The city is regularly laid out with broad, straight, well-paved streets, in great part lined with shady trees. The waterside streets, however, follow the curve of the beach. There are several public squares and gardens, the more important being the Prac,a Harmoma, the Praga d'Alfandega, Pra<;a da Independencia and the Parque, where an exposition was held in 1901. The public water supply is drawn from a range of hills 6 m. distant and is considered good. Porto Alegre, like many Brazilian cities, is in a transition stage, and handsome new structures of French and Italian styles rise from among the low, heavy and plain old buildings of Portuguese origin. Brick and broken stone are chiefly used m the walls, which are plastered out- side and tinted. Tiles are used for roofing, and on modern edifices stucco ornamentation is lavishly employed. The most noteworthy public buildings are the Cathedral (Porto Alegre being the see of a Roman Catholic bishop), the handsome church of Nossa Senhora Dores, the municipal palace, school of engineering, government palace, legislative halls, school of medicine, athenaeum, normal school and public library and military barracks. One of the hos- pitals— that of Caridade — is the largest in the state. The city is the chief commercial centre of the state and has shipyards for the con- traction of river and lake vessels. It manufactures cotton fabrics, ts and shoes, iron safes and stoves, carriages, furniture, butter and aeese, macaroni, preserves, candles, soap and paper. Porto Alegre was founded in 1743 by immigrants from the Azores and was at first known as Porto dos Cazaes. Owing to the occupation of the southern part of the captaincy by the Spaniards, Governor Jose Marcellino de Figuereido selected this village in 17 70 as his official residence and gave to it the name it now bears. It was made a villa in 1803, and in 1807, when Rio Grande do Sul was made a captaincy-general, the transfer of the capital from Rio Grande to Porto Alegre was officially recognized. In 1822 it was raised to the rank of a city, and in 1841, as a reward for its loyalty in revolutionary wars of that province, it was distinguished by the title of leal e valorosa (loyal and valorous). The first German immigrants to settle near Porto Alegre arrived in 1825, and much of its prosperity and commercial standing is due to the German element. PORTOCARRERO, LUIS MANUEL FERNANDEZ DE (1635-1709), cardinal archbishop of Toledo, was a younger son of the marquis of Almenara and was born on the 8th of January 1635. He became dean of Toledo early, and was made cardinal on the 5th of August 1669. Till 1677 he lived at Rome as cardinal protector of the Spanish nation. In 1677 he was ap- pointed interim viceroy of Sicily, counsellor of state and arch- bishop of Toledo. He ceased to be viceroy of Sicily in 1678. As archbishop of Toledo he exerted himself to protect the clergy from the obligation to pay the excises or octroi duties known as " the millions " and thereby helped to perpetuate the financial embarrassments of the government. His position rather than any personal qualities enabled him to play an important part in a great crisis of European politics. The decrepit King Charles II. was childless, and the disposal of his inheritance became a question of great interest to the European powers. Porto- carrero was induced to become a supporter of the French party, which desired that the crown should be left to one of the family of Louis XIV., and not to a member of the king's own family, the Habsburgs. The great authority of Portocarrero as cardinal and primate of Spain was used to persuade, or rather to terrify the unhappy king into making a will in favour of the duke of Anjou, Philip V. He acted as regent till the new king reached Spain and hoped to be powerful under his rule. But the king's French advisers were aware that Spain required a thorough financial and administrative reform. Portocarrero could not see, and indeed had not either the intelligence or the honesty to see, the necessity. He was incapable, obstinate and per- fectly selfish. The new rulers soon found that he Unust be removed and he was ordered to return to his diocese. When in 1706 the Austrian party appeared likely to gain the upper hand, Portocarrero was led by spite and vexation to go over to them. When fortune changed he returned to his allegiance to Philip V., and as the government was unwilling to offend the Church he escaped banishment. In 1709 when Louis XIV. made a pretence of withdrawing from the support of his grand- son, the cardinal made a great display of loyalty. He died on the i4th of September and by his orders the words Hie jacet pulvis, cinis, et nihU were put on his tomb. See Lord Stanhope, History of the War of Succession in Spain (London, 1832). PORTO FARINA, a town of Tunisia about 20 m. E. of Bizerta, on the Ghar-el-Mela, a lagoon, also known as the Lake of Porto Farina, at the mouth of the Mejerda (the ancient Bagradas). Porto Farina was the naval arsenal of the piratical beys of Tunis and was bombarded by the English under Admiral Blake in 1655. The lagoon has become very shallow in consequence of the silt brought down by the Mejerda. The town has ceased to be important, and its inhabitants have dwindled to about 1500. The ruins 10 m. to the south-west, near the village of Bu Shater, are identified with the ancient Utica (q.v.). PORTO MAURIZIO, a city of Liguria, Italy, the capital of the province of Porto Maurizio, on the coast of the Ligurian Sea, 46 m. by rail E. of Nice and 70 m. S.W. of Genoa, 115 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1001), 7207. It consists of a picturesque old town on the heights and a modern town of villas on the lower slopes. The principal church, designed by Gaetano Cantone, is a large structure of 1780 with a dome rebuilt in 1821. A few remains of the old city walls may be seen. About 2 m. north- east of Porto Maurizio is the town of Oneglia, with a fine church, S. Giovanni Battista, designed by Gaetano Amoretti, a hospital (1785) and a large prison. It suffered considerably from the earthquake of 1887. Maurizio and Oneglia lie on the same bay 124 PORTO NOVO— PORTO RICO and both have small but safe harbours, both are frequented for sea-bathing, and both are embowered amid olive groves; and the district is famous for the quality of its oil. The two towns together form one commune, called imperia, which had a population of 15,459 in 1907. Porto Maurizio appears as Portus Maurici in the Maritime Itiner- ary. After being subject to the marquises of Turin (nth century) and of Clavesana, it was sold by Boniface of Clavesana in 1288 to Genoa in return for a yearly payment; in 1354 it became the seat of the Genoese vicar of the western Riviera, and remained in the possession of the republic till it was merged in the kingdom of Sardinia. Oneglia, formerly situated inland at the place called Castelvecchio (old castle), has occupied its present site Irom about 935- The bishops of Albenga sold it in 1298 to the Dorias of Genoa, who in their turn disposed of it in 1576 to Emanuel Philibert of Savoy. In the wars of the house of Savoy Oneglia often changed hands. In 1614 and 1649 the Spaniards and in 1623 and 1672 the Genoese obtained possession; in 1692 it had to repulse an attack by a French squadron; in 1744-1745 it was again occupied by the Spaniards, and in 1792 bombarded and burned by the French. Pellegrino Amoretti, assistant secretary to Charles V., and Andrea Doria, the famous admiral, were natives of Oneglia. See G. Donaudi, Storia di Porto Maurizio (1889). PORTO NOVO, a town of British India, on the Coromandel coast in the South Arcot district of Madras. Pop. (1901), 13,712. The English began trading here in 1683, when they found both the Danes and the Portuguese already established. The place is chiefly famous for the battle in July 1781, in which Sir Eyre Coote with 8000 men defeated Hyder Ali with 60,000 and saved the Madras presidency. In 1830 an attempt, finally unsuccessful mainly owing to the lack of fuel, was made to smelt iron from the ores found in the vicinity. PORTO-RICHE, GEORGES DE (1840- ), French dramatist, was born at Bordeaux. When he was twenty his pieces in verse began to be produced at the Parisian theatres; he also wrote some books of verse which met with a favourable reception, but these early works were not reprinted. In 1898 he published Theatre d'amour, which contained four of his best pieces, La Chance de Franqoise, L'Infidele, Amoureuse, Le Passf. The title given to this collection indicates the difference between the plays of Porto-Riche and the political or sociological pieces of many of his contemporaries. In Germaine, the passionate and exacting heroine of Amoureuse, Mme Rejane found one of her best parts. In Les MalejMtres (Odeon, 1904), also a drama of passion, the characters are drawn from the working classes. PORTO RICO, or PUERTO Rico (" Rich Harbour "), an island of the United States of America, the most easterly and the fourth in size of the Greater Antilles, situated between 17° 50' and 18° 30' N., and between 65° 30' and 67° 15' W., about 70 m. E. of Haiti, and 500 m. E. by S. of Cuba. It is about 100 m. long from east to west, 40 m. wide near the west end, and somewhat narrower towards the east end, and has an area of 3435 sq. m. Physical Features. — A range of mountains, varying in height from 2000 ft. to about 3750 ft. on El Yunque Peak in the north- east corner, traverses the island from west to east and descends abruptly to the sea at each end. The south slope rises precipi- tously from the foothills; the north slope is more gradual, but it is much broken by rugged spurs and deep gorges. On the north there is little coastal plain except at the mouths of rivers, but on the south coast there is a plain of considerable extent broken only by the remains ot eroded foothills. The water parting is about twice as far from the north coast as it is from the south coast, the rain- fall is greater on the north slope, and the principal rivers — Rio Loiza, Rio de la Plata, Rio Manati and Rio Arecibo are on the north side. There are eight other rivers on the same side, seventeen on the south side, six at the east end and four at the west end, besides more than 1200 smaller streams, and the deep valleys cut by the streams add to the broken surface of the country. None of the rivers is navigable for more than a mile or two from the coast. The coast-line has few indentations sufficient to afford safe harbour- age. Under the same jurisdiction as Porto Rico are the fertile island of Vieques (21 m. long and 6 m. wide) and the smaller and nearly barren island of Culebra off the east coast, the island of Mona, covered with deposits of guano, off the west coast, and numerous islets. Fauna. — The native fauna is scanty. The agouti and the armadillo are practically extinct and the only other mammals are ground squirrels, rats, a few other small rodents, and some bats. A huge land-turtle is peculiar to the island. Reptiles are scarce, and venomous reptiles unknown. Noxious insects are less numerous than is usual in tropical countries. There are no large game birds, but song birds and doves are numerous on the mountains, and flamingoes and other water-birds frequent the coast. There are a few species of fresh-water fish, but food-fishes are scarce both in the rivers and along the coast. Flora. — The flora is beautiful and varied. The more rugged districts and higher elevations are clad with such tropical forest trees as ebony, Spanish cedar, sandalwood, rosewood and mahogany. There are several species of palms, flowering trees, trees with beautifully coloured foliage, tree ferns, resinous trees and trees bearing tropical fruits. There are about thirty species of medicinal plants, twelve used for condiments, and twelve for dyes and tanning. In the semi-arid districts on the south slope of the mountains the flora consists chiefly of dry grasses, acacias, yuccas and cactuses. Climate. — The climate is somewhat more healthy than that of the other West Indies. The temperature is moderated by the north-east trade winds, which, somewhat modified by local con- ditions, blow throughout the year, briskly during the day and more mildly during the night. It rarely reaches 100° F. or falls below 50°, and the mean annual temperature is about 80° (75-2° in January, 80-4° in August). The mean daily variation at San Juan is 11-5 ; on the mountains the mean daily variation is 23°. The average annual rainfall on the north-east coast, at the foot of rriiie ® j jflk* r&.tf& El Yunque Mountain, is 120 in. or more, while other districts are semi-arid or subject to severe droughts. At San Juan the average annual rainfall is about 55 in.; nearly two-thirds of this falls from June to November inclusive. Most of the rain is in showers, frequently heavy; and on the windward slope showers are an almost daily occurrence. The island is^visited occasionally by hurricanes. Soil. — Close to the coast the soil is for the most part a coral sand. Farther inland in the level districts and river bottoms it varies from a sandy to a clay loam containing much alluvium. On the foothills and in the less rugged mountain districts there is a thin but rich clay soil derived from coral limestone. Industries. — A little more than one-fourth of the land is under cultivation and in 1899 more than three-fifths of the working popu- lation were engaged m agriculture. There were over 39,000 farms, nearly all of them small, and the average number of acres cultivated on each was not more than fifteen. Sugar on the lowlands, coffee on the upper, and tobacco on the lower mountain slopes are the principal crops. In 1909 there were 185,927 acres of sugar, yielding 244,257 tons for exportation, and valued at $18,432,446. The coffee plantations were greatly injured by a severe hurricane which visited the island on the 8th of August 1899, but the yield for export increased from 12,157,240 ft in 1901 to 38,756,750 ft, valued at $4,693,004, in 1907. The acreage, however, decreased from 178,155 acres in 1906 to 155,778 acres in 1909, and in the latter year the crop fell to 28,489,263 ID. Java coffee has been grown with success in Porto Rico. Tobacco of a superior quality is grown extensively on the lower northern slopes and much tobacco is now grown under cloth. The total acreage of tobacco increased from 12,871 acres in 1906 to 27,596 acres in 1909; the total value of the exported tobacco products increased from $681,642 in 1901 to $5,634,130 in 1909. Cotton, Indian corn, sweet potatoes, yams and rice are small crops. The culture of citrus fruits, principally oranges and grape-fruit, and of pineapples and coco-nuts has been rapidly extended. About 13,000 head of cattle were exported annually from 1901 to 1905, but much of the best grazing land has since been devoted to the cultivation of sugar-cane. A project for irrigating the district south of the mountains between Ponce and Patillas was adopted by the Porto Rican government in 1909. The Federal government has an agricultural experiment station at Mayaguez. PORTO RICO The mineral resources are very limited. Brick clay and lime- stone are abundant, and there are on the south coast a sand marl rich in phosphates and productive salt deposits. Iron ore, lignite, r, mercury, molybdenite, nickel, platinum and other minerals h.ivc been found, but the quantity of each is too small, or the quality too poor, for them to be of commercial value. There are important mineral and thermal springs in various parts of flic islanil. The only manufacturing industries of much importance are the •puration of sugar, coffee and tobacco for market, and the nufacture of cigars, cigarettes, straw hats, soap, matches, .-micflli, sash, doors, ice, distilled liquors and some machinery. Transport facilities are inadequate. The American Railroad of I'orto Rico, about 190 m. long, connects the principal cities along the north and west coasts and those as far east as Ponce on the south coast; a railway between Ponce and Guayama, farther cast, was virtually completed in 1910, and the Vega Alta railroad connects Vega Alta with Dorado on the north coast; but there are no inland railways and most of the products of the interior are carried to the coast in carts drawn by bullocks or on the backs of mules. The mileage of wagon roads was increased from about 170 m. in 1898 to 612 m. in 1909. The principal har- bours are San Juan on the north and Ponce on the south coast; the former is accessible to vessels of about 30 ft. draught, and the latter has a natural channel which admits vessels of 25 ft. draught. lines of steamboats afford regular communication between San Juan and New York; one of them runs to Venezuelan ports and one t n N i- w Orleans ; and there are lines to Cuba and direct to Spain. The commerce of Porto Rico is principally with the United States. The value of its exports to the United States increased from $5,581,288 in the fiscal year ending on the 3Oth of June KJOI to $26,998,542 in 1909, and the value of its imports from the United States increased during this period from $7,413,502 to $25,163,678. In the meantime the value of its exports to foreign countries increased only from $3,002,679 to $4,565,598, and the value of its imports from foreign countries only from $1,952,728 to $3,054,318. Population. — The population increased from 583,308 in 1860 to 798,565 in 1887, and to 953,243, or 277-5 P" sq. m., in 1899. Of the total population in 1899, 589,426, or 6i-8%were whites, 304,352 were of mixed blood, 59,390 were negroes and 75 were Chinese. In 1910 the census returned the population as 1,118,012. The proportion of whites is greater at the west end than at the east end, greater on the north side than on the south side, and greater in the interior than along the coast. Only 13,872, or about 1-5% of the total population of 1899, were foreign-born, and of these more than one-half were born in Spain. The married portion of the population was only 16.6% in 1899. The principal towns, with the population of each in 1910, are: San Juan, 48,716; Ponce, 35,027; Mayaguez, 16,591 ; Arecibo, 961 2. The Roman Catholic is the predominant church and the bishopric of Porto Rico (1512) is one of the oldest in the New World. Government. — The constitution of Porto Rico is contained in an act of the Congress of the United States (the Foraker Act) which came into operation in May IQOO. The governor is appointed by the president of the United States with the advice and consent of the Senate for a term of four years, and associated with the governor is an executive council consisting of the secretary, treasurer, auditor, attorney-general, commissioner of the interior, commissioner of education, and five other members, all appointed in the same manner and for the same term as the governor. The constitution requires that at least five of the eleven members of the Executive Council shall be native inhabitants of Porto Rico; in practice the six members who are also heads of the administrative departments have been Americans while the other five have been Porto Ricans. The insular government, however, has created a seventh administra- tive department — that of health, charities and corrections — and requires that the head of this shall be chosen by the governor from among the five members of the Executive Council who are not heads of the other departments. The Executive Council constitutes one branch of the legislative assembly; the House of Delegates the other. The House of Dele- gates consists of 35 members elected biennially, five from each of seven districts. The right to determine the electoral franchise is vested in the legislature itself and that body has conferred it upon practically all adult males. The governor has the right to veto any bill, and for passing a bill over his veto an affirmative vote of two-thirds of the members of each house is required. All laws enacted by the insular legislature must also be submitted to the Congress of the United States, which reserves the right to annul them. Railway, street railway, telegraph and telephone franchises can be granted only by the Executive Council with the approval of the governor, and none can be operative until it has been approved by the President of the United States. The governor and Executive Council have the exclusive right to grant all other franchises of a public or quasi-public nature and Congress reserves the right to annul or modify any such grant. , The administration of justice is vested in a United States district court and a supreme court, district courts, municipal courts and justice of the peace courts of Porto Rico. The judge of the United States district court and the chief justice and associate justices of the supreme court are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate, and the judges of the district courts by the governor with the consent of the Executive Council. The principal local government is that of the municipalities or municipal districts, but for the Spanish municipal government the insular legislature has substituted one resembling that of small towns in the United States, and it has reduced the number of dis- tricts from 66 to verned by an urban district council. PORT SAID, a seaport of Egypt, at the northern entrance of the Suez Canal, in 31° 15' 35' N., 32° 19' 20* E., and 145 m. by rail N.E. of Cairo. Pop. (1907), 49,884. It lies on the western side of the canal on the low, narrow, treeless and desolate strip of land which separates the Mediterranean from Lake Menzala, the land at this point being raised and its area increased by the draining of part of the lake and by the excavation of the inner harbour. The outer harbour is formed by two breakwaters which protect the entrance to the canal; altogether the harbour covers about 570 acres and accommodates ships drawing 28 ft. Originally besides the central basin of the inner harbour there wore three docks; between 1903 and 1909 the harbour accommo- dation was doubled by the construction of new docks on the eastern side of the canal and by enlarging the western docks. The port possesses a floating dock 295 ft. long, 85 ft. broad and 18 ft. deep, capable of lifting 3500 tons, and a patent slip taking 300 tons and ships drawing 9 ft. 9 in. of water. On the western breakwater is a colossal statue of Ferdinand de Lesseps by E. Fremiet, unveiled in 1899, and a lighthouse 174 ft. high. Among the few buildings of note in the town are the offices of the Suez Canal Company and the British barracks, the last named having been built by Prince Henry of the Netherlands (d. 1879) as a dep6t for Dutch trade. Port Said dates from 1859 and its situation was determined by the desire of the engineers of the Suez Canal to start the canal at the point on the Mediterranean coast of the isthmus of Suez nearest to deep water, and off the spot where Port Said now stands there was found a depth_of 26 ft. at about 2 m. from the shore. For many years after its foundation it depended entirely upon the traffic of the canal, being the chief coaling station of all ships passing through and becoming the largest coaling station in the world. The population was of a very heterogeneous character, but mainly of an undesirable class of Levantines; this with the damp heat and the dirt and noise of the incessant coaling operations gave the town an unenviable reputation. In 1902, however, a new industry was added in the export of cotton from the eastern provinces of the Delta, the cotton being brought from Malaria by boat across Lake Menzala. In 1904 the opening of a standard gauge railway to Cairo placed Port Said in a position to compete with Alexandria for the external trade of Egypt generally, besides making it a tourist route to the capital from Europe. The result was to attract to the town a considerable commercial community and to raise its social status. A new suburb was created by re- claiming land on the north foreshore, and another suburb was created on the eastern side of the canal. The average annual value of the trade of the port for the five years 1902-1906 was £2,410,000. This figure includes the value of the coal used by vessels passing through the Suez Canal. PORTSMOUTH, EARLS OF. In 1743 John Wallop (1690- 1762) of Farley Wallop in Hampshire was created earl of Portsmouth. He belonged to an old Hampshire family and had been a lord of the treasury from 1717 to 1720, when he was created Baron Wallop. The earldom has since been held by his descendants, one of whom, Newton Wallop (b. 1856), became the 6th earl in 1891. This earl was a member of parliament from 1880 to 1891 and was under secretary of state for war from 1905 to 1908. PORTSMOUTH, LOUISE DE KEROUALLE, DUCHESS OF (1649-1734), mistress of the English king Charles II., was the daughter of Guillaume de Penancourt and his wife Marie de Plaeuc de Timeur. The name of Keroualle was derived from an heiress whom her ancestor Francois de Penhoet had married in 1330. The family were nobles in Brittany, and their name was so spelt by themselves. But the form Querouailles was com- monly used in England, where it was corrupted into Carwell or Carewell, perhaps with an ironic reference to the care which the duchess took to fill her pocket. In France it was variously spelt Queroul, Keroual and Keroel. The exact date of her birth is apparently unknown. Louise was placed early in life in the household of Henriette, duchess of Orleans, sister of Charles II. Saint-Simon asserts that her family threw her in the way of Louis XIV. in the hope that she would be promoted to the place of royal mistress. In 1670 she accompanied the duchess of Orleans on a visit to Charles II. at Dover. The sudden death of the duchess, attributed on dubious evidence to poison, left her unprovided for, but the king placed her among the ladies in waiting of his own queen. It was said in after times that she had been selected by the French court to fascinate the king of England, but for this there seems to be no evidence. Yet when there appeared a prospect that the king would show her favour, the intrigue was vigorously pushed by the French ambassador, Colbert de Croissy, aided by the secretary of state, Lord Arling- ton, and his wife. Louise, who concealed great cleverness and a strong will under an appearance of languor and a rather childish beauty (Evelyn the diarist speaks of her " baby face "), yielded only when she had already established a strong hold on the king's affections and character. Her son, ancestor of the dukes of Richmond, was born in 1672. The support she received from the French envoy was given on the understanding that she should serve the interests of her native sovereign. The bargain was confirmed by gifts and honours from Louis XIV. and was loyally carried out by Louise. The hatred openly avowed for her in England was due as much to her own activity in the interest of France as to her notorious rapacity. The titles of Baroness Petersfield, countess of Fareham and duchess of Portsmouth were granted her for life on the igth of August 1673. Her pensions and money allowances of various kinds were enormous. In 1677 alone she received £27,300. The French court gave her frequent presents, and in December 1673 conferred upon her the ducal fief of Aubigny at the request of Charles II. Her thorough understanding of the king's character enabled her to retain her hold on him to the end. She contrived to escape uninjured during the crisis of the Popish Plot in 1678. She was strong enough to maintain her position during a long illness in 1677, and a visit to France in 1682. In February 1685 she took measures_to see that the king, who was secretly a Roman Catholic, did not die without confession and absolution. Soon after the king's death she retired to France, where, except for one short visit to England during the reign of James II., she remained. Her pen- sions and an outrageous grant on the Irish revenue given her by 132 PORTSMOUTH Charles II. were lost either in the reign of James II. or at the Revolu- tion of 1688. During her last years she lived at Aubigny, and was harassed by debt. The French king, Louis XIV., and after his death the regent Orleans, gave her a pension, and protected her against her creditors. She died at Paris on the I4th of November 1734- See H. Forneron, Louise de Keroualle (Paris, 1886); and Mrs Colquhoun Grant, From Brittany to Whitehall (London, 1909). PORTSMOUTH, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and seaport of Hampshire, England, 74 m. S.W. from London, on the London & South-Western and the London, Brighton & South Coast railways. Pop. (1891), 159,278; (1901), 188,133. This great naval station and arsenal is an 3hn.,«. PORTSMpUTH and Environs Scale, 1:138.000 English Miles "Hi a aggregate of four towns, Portsmouth, Portsea, Landport and Southsea, and occupies the south-western part of Portsea Island, which lies between Portsmouth Harbour and Langstone Harbour, two inlets of the English Channel. Portsmouth Harbour opens into Spithead, one of the arms of the Channel separating the Isle of Wight from the mainland. The harbour widens inwards in bottle form, Portsmouth lying on the east shore of the neck, with Gosport opposite to it on the west side. Portsmouth proper may be distinguished as the garrison town; Portsea as the naval station with the dockyards; Landport is occupied chiefly by the houses of artisans; and Southsea is a residential quarter and a favourite watering-place. Besides a number of handsome modern churches, among which is a Roman Catholic cathedral, Portsmouth possesses, in the church of St Thomas a Becket, a fine cruciform building dating from the second half of the I2th century, in which the chancel and transepts are original, but the nave and tower date from 1698, and the whole was extensively restored in 1904. The garrison chapel originally belonged to the hospital of St Nicholas, a foundation of the i3th century. Among other buildings worthy of mention (apart from those having naval or military connexion) the principal is the town-hall (1890), a fine classic building standing alone in a square, and surmounted by a handsome clock tower. Among educational institutions there are a large grammar school (1879), on a foundation of 1732, Roman Catholic schools adjoining the cathedral, schools for engineering students and dockyard apprentices, and seamen and marines' orphan school. Aria College in Portsea was opened in 1874 for the training of Jewish ministers. Victoria Park, in the heart of the town, contains a monument to Admiral Napier. There are recreation grounds for the naval and military forces in the vicinity. There is a railway station (Portsmouth Harbour) on the Hard, from which passenger steamers serve Ryde in the Isle of Wight. A ferry and a floating bridge connect with Gosport. The port has a considerable trade in coal, timber, fruits and agricultural produce. The parliamentary borough returns two members. The county borough was created in 1888. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 5010 acres. The dockyard seems to have been regularly established about 1540, but long before that date the town was of importance as a naval station and was used for the accommodation of the king's ships. In 1540 it covered 8 acres of ground, abutting on the harbour near the " King's Stairs." Cromwell added 2 acres in 1658, and Charles II. added 8 in 1663 and 10 more in 1667. By 1710 30 acres more had been reclaimed or bought, and by the end of the l8th century the total area was 90 acres. In 1848 a steam basin, cover- ing 7 acres, and four new docks were opened, the dockyard ground being extended to 115 acres in all. In 1865 large extension works were decided upon, increasing the area to 293 acres. These included a tidal basin and, opening out of it, a deep dock and two locks in themselves serving as large docks, which lead to three basin and four docks. An entrance was also formed between the ne\ tidal basin and the steam basin of 1848, and large additions wer made to the wharfage accommodation as well as to th storehouses and factories. Subsequent improvements included the formation of two new dry docks (1896) with a floor-length of 557 ft. and a depth of 33^ ft. over the sill at high water of spring tides; the construction of new jetties at the entrance to the tidal basin and at the north wall; the establishment of a coal wharf with hydraulic appliances; a torpedo range in the harbour; the erection of various buildings such as torpedo and gun-mounting stores, electrical shops and numerous subsidiary works; and extensive dredging of the harbour to increase the berthing accommodation for the fleet. Altogether the dockyard comprises 15 dry docks, 60 acres of enclosed basins, 18,400 ft. of wharfage and about 10 m. of railway. There is a gunnery establish- ment in the harbour on Whale Island, the area of which has been increased to nearly 90 acres by the accretion of material excavated from the dockyard extension works, and various barracks including those of the royal marine artillery at Eastney, beyond Southsea. Portsmouth (Portsmue, Portesmuth) owes its origin to the retreat of the sea from Porchester, and its importance to its favourable position for a naval station. Though probably the site had long been recognized as a convenient landing-place, no town existed there until the I2th century, when the strategical adva tage it offered induced Richard I. to build one. He granted a charter in 1194 declaring that he retained the borough in hand, and granting a yearly fair and weekly market, freedon from certain tolls, from shire and hundred court and sheriffs' aids. In October 1200 King John repeated the grants, and Henry III. in 1229 gave the " men of Portsmouth " the toy in fee farm and granted a merchant gild. Confirmations were made by successive kings, and a charter of incorporation was given by Elizabeth in 1599-1600. A new and enlarged charter was granted by Charles I. in 1627, by which the borough is now governed subject to changes by the municipal acts of the igth century. Portsmouth has returned two members to parliament since 1295. A fair on the ist of August and fourteen following days was granted by Richard I. The first day was afterwards changed to the 2gth of June and later to the nth of July. It was important as a trading fair for cutlery, earthenware, cloth and Dutch metal, and was abolished in 1846. The market, dating from 1194 and originally held on Thursday only, is now held on Tuesday and Saturday in addition. Portsmouth was important in the middle ages not only as a naval station but a trading centre. There was a considerable trade in wool and wine, and the building of the dockyards by Henry VII. further increased its prosperity. See Victoria County History: Hampshire, iii. 172 seq.; R. East, Extracts from the Portsmouth Records. PORTSMOUTH, a city, port of entry and one of the county- seats of Rockingham county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., on the Piscataqua river, about 3 m. from the Atlantic Ocean, about 45 m. E.S.E. of Concord, and about 54 m. N.N.E. of Boston. Pop. (1910 U.S. census) 11,269. Area, 17 sq. m. Portsmouth is served by the Boston & Maine railway, by electric lines to neighbouring towns, and in summer by a steamboat daily to the Isles of Shoals. The city is pleasantly "situated, mainly on a peninsula, and has three public parks. Portsmouth attracts many visitors during the summer season. In Portsmouth are an Athenaeum (1817), with a valuable library; a public library (i88i);a city hall; a county court house; a United States customs-house; a soldiers' and sailors' monument; an equestrian PORTSMOUTH— PORT SUDAN 133 monument by James Edward Kelly to General Fitz John Porter; a cottage hospital (1886); a United States naval hospital (1891); a home for aged and indigent women (1877) ; and the Chase home for children (1877). A United States navy yard, officially known as the Portsmouth Navy Yard, is on an island of the Piscataqua but within the township of Kittery, Maine. In 1800 Fernald's Island was purchased by the Federal government for a navy yard; it was the scene of considerable activity during the War of 1812, but <>f much greater importance during the Civil War, when the famous " Kearsarge " and several other war vessels were built here.' In 1866 the yard was enlarged by connecting Seavey's Island with Fernald's; late in the igth century it was equipped for building and repairing steel vessels. It now has a large dry dock. On Seavey's Island Admiral Cervera and other ash officers and sailors captured during the Spanish- American War were held prisoners in July — September 1898. Subsequently a large naval prison was erected. In 1905 the treaty ending the war between Japan and Russia was negotiated in what is known as the Peace Building in this yard. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at $2,602,056. During the summer season there is an important trade with the neighbouring watering-places; there is also a large transit trade in imported coal, but the foreign commerce, consisting wholly of imports, is small. Portsmouth and Dover are the oldest permanent settlements in the state. David Thomson with a small company from Plymouth, England, in the spring or early summer of 1623 built and fortified a house at Little Harbor (now Odiorne's Point in the township of Rye) as a fishing and trading station. In 1630 there arrived another band of settlers sent over by the Laconia Company. They occupied Thomson's house and Great Island (New Castle) and built the "Great House" on what is now Water Street, Portsmouth. This settlement, with jurisdiction over all the territory now included in Portsmouth, New Castle and Greenland, and most of that in Rye, was known as " Strawberry Banke " until 1653, when it was incor- porated (by the government of Massachusetts) under the name of Portsmouth. There was from the first much trouble between its Anglican settlers sent over by Mason and the Puritans from Massachusetts, and in 1641 Massachusetts extended her juris- diction over this region. In 1679, however, New Hampshire was constituted a separate province, and Portsmouth was the capital until 1775. In 1693 New Castle (pop. 1900, 581), then including the greater part of the present township of Rye, was set apart from Portsmouth, and in 1703 Greenland (pop. 1000, 607) was likewise set apart. One of the first military exploits of the War of Independence occurred at New Castle, where there was then a fort called William and Mary. In December 1774 a copy of the order prohibiting the exportation of military stores to America was brought from Boston to Portsmouth by Paul Revere, whereupon the Portsmouth Committee of Safety organized militia companies, and captured the fort (Dec. 14). In 1849 Portsmouth was chartered as a city. Portsmouth was the birthplace of Governor Benning Wentworth (1696-1770) and his nephew Governor John Wentworth (17.37- 1820); of Governor John Langdon (1739-1810); of Tobias Lear (1762-1816), the private secretary of General Washington from 17*5 until Washington's death, consul-general at Santo Domingo in 1802-1804, ar|d negotiator of a treaty with Tripoli in 1805; of Benjamin Penhallow Shillaber (1814-1890), humorist, who is best known by his Life and Sayings of Mrs Parlington (1854); of James T. Fields, of Thomas Bailey Aldrich and of General Fitz John Porter. From 1807 to 1816 Portsmouth was the home of Daniel Webster. PORTSMOUTH, a city and the county-seat of Scioto county, Ohio, U.S.A., picturesquely situated at the confluence of the Scioto and Ohio rivers, 95 m. S. of Columbus. Pop. (1910 U.S. census) 23,481. Portsmouth is served by the Baltimore & 1 See Captain G. H. Preble, " Vessels of War built at Portsmouth, N. H. 1690-1868," in New England Historical and Genealogical Register, vol. xxii. (Boston, 1868); and W. E. Fentress, Centennial History of the U.S. Navy Yard at Portsmouth, N. H. (Portsmouth, 1876). Ohio South-Western, the Chesapeake & Ohio and the Norfolk & Western railways, also by passenger and freight boats to Pittsburg, Cincinnati and intermediate ports. The city has a Carnegie library, a municipal hospital, an aged women's home and a children's home. Extending along the Ohio for 8 m. and arranged in three groups are works of the " Mound Builders." There are two small city parks, and a privately owned resort, Millbrook Park. The surrounding country is a fine farming region, which also abounds in coal, fire-clay and building stone. Natural gas is used for light, heat and power. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at $7,970,674, of which $4,258,855 was the value of boots and shoes. The Norfolk & Western has division terminals here. The first permanent settlement in the immediate vicinity was made in 1796. In 1799 Thomas Parker, of Alexandria, Virginia, laid out a village (which was named Alexandria) below the mouth of the Scioto, but as the ground was frequently flooded the village did not thrive, and about 1810 the inhabitants removed to Portsmouth. Portsmouth was laid out in 1803, incorporated as a town in 1815, and chartered as a city in 1851. The Ohio and Erie canal was opened from Cleveland to Portsmouth in 1832. PORTSMOUTH, a city of Norfolk county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the Elizabeth river opposite Norfolk. Pop. (1910, census), 33,190. Portsmouth is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboafti Air Line, the Chesapeake & Ohio and the New York, Philadelphia & Norfolk (Pennsylvania system), the Southern, and the Norfolk & Western railways, by steamboat lines to Washington, Baltimore, New York, Providence and Boston, by ferries to Norfolk, and by electric lines to numerous suburbs. There is a 30-ft. channel to the ocean. Portsmouth is situated on level ground only a few feet above the sea; it has about i\ m. of water-front, and adjoins one of the richest trucking districts in the Southern States. Among the principal buildings are the county court house, city hall, commercial building, United States naval hospital, post office building, high school and the Portsmouth orphan asylum, King's Daughters' hospital and the old Trinity Church (1762). In the southern part of the city is a United States navy yard and station, officially the Norfolk Yard (the second largest in the country), of about 450 acres, with three immense dry docks, machine shops, ware- houses, travelling and water cranes, a training station, torpedo- boat headquarters, a powder plant (20 acres), a naval magazine, a naval hospital and the distribution headquarters of the United State Marine Corps. The total value of the city's factory products in 1905 was only $145,439. The city is a centre of the Virginia oyster " fisheries." Portsmouth and Norfolk form a customs district, Norfolk being the port of entry, whose exports in 1908 were valued at $11,326,817, and imports at $1,150,044. Portsmouth was established by act of the Virginia assembly in 1 752, incorporated as a town in 1852 and chartered as a city in 1858. Though situated in Norfolk county, the city has been since its incorporation administratively independent of it. Shortly before the War of Independence the British established a marine yard where the navy yard now is, but during the war it was confiscated by Virginia and in 1801 was sold to the United States. In April 1861 it was burned and abandoned by the Federals, and for a year aftenvards was the chief navy yard of the Confederates. Here was constructed the iron-clad " Virginia " (the old " Merrimac "), which on the 9th of March 1862 fought in Hampton Roads (q.v.) the famous engagement with the " Monitor." Two months later, on the gth of May, the Confederates abandoned the navy yard and evacuated Norfolk and Portsmouth, and the " Virginia " was destroyed by her commander, Josiah Tattnall. PORT SUDAN, a town and harbour on the west coast of the Red Sea, in 19° 37' N. 37° 12' E., 700 m. by boat S. of Suez and 495 m. by rail N.E. of Khartum. Pop. (1906), 4289. It is the principal port of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and the headquar- ters of the customs administration. The coral reefs fringing the coast are here broken by a straight channel with deep water giving access to the harbour, which consists of a series of natural 134 PORT TOWNSEND— PORTUGAL channels and basins. The largest basin is 900 yds. long by 500 broad and has a minimum depth of 6 fathoms. On the north side of the inlet are quays (completed 1909), fitted with electric cranes, &c. Here are the customs-house, coal sheds and goods station. The town proper lies on the south side of the inlet, connected with the quays by a railway bridge. Besides govern- ment offices the public buildings include hospitals, and a branch of the Gordon College of Khartum. Beyond the bridge in the upper waters of the inlet is a dry dock. The climate of Port Sudan is very hot and damp and fever is common. Adjacent to the town is an arid plain without vegetation other than mimosa thorns. Some 10 m. west is a line of hills parallel to the coast. The port dates from 1905. It owes its existence to the desire of the Sudan administration to find a harbour more suitable than Suakin (q.v.) for the commerce of the country. Such a place was found in Mersa Sheikh Barghut (or Barud), 36 m. north of Suakin, a harbour so named from a saint whose tomb is promi- nent on the northern point of the entrance. When the building of the railway between the Nile and the Red Sea was begun, it was determined to create a port at this harbour — which was renamed Port Sudan (Bander es-Sudan). Up to the end of 1909 the total expenditure by the government alone on the town and harbour-works was ££914,320. The railway (which has termini both at Port Sudan and Suakin) was opened in January 1906 and the customs-house in the May following. Port Sudan immediately attracted a large trade, the value of goods passing through it in 1906 exceeding £470,000. In 1908 the imports and exports were valued at about £730,000. It is a regular port of call of British, German and Italian steamers. The imports are largely cotton goods, provisions, timber and cement; the exports gum, raw cotton, ivory, sesame, durra, senna, coffee (from Abyssinia), goat skins, &c. Forty miles north of Port Sudan is Mahommed Gul, the port for the mines of Gebet, worked by an English company. The Foreign Office Report, Trade of Port Sudan for the Year 1906, by T. B. Hohler, gives a valuable account of the beginnings of the port. A chart of the harbour was issued by the British Admiralty m 1908. See also SUDAN : § Anglo-Egyptian. PORT TOWNSEND, a city, port of entry and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Washington, U.S.A., on Quimper Peninsula, at the entrance to Puget Sound, about 40 m. N.N.W. of Seattle. Pop. (1905), 5300; (1910), 4181. The city is served by the Port Townsend Southern railway (controlled by the Northern Pacific, but operated independently) and by steamship lines to Victoria (British Columbia), San Francisco, Alaska and Oriental ports. The harbour is 75 m. long and 35 m. wide, and is deep, well sheltered and protected by three forts, of which Fort Worden is an excellently equipped modern fortification ranking with the forts at Portland (Maine), San Francisco, Boston and New York. The United States government has at Port Townsend a customs- house, a revenue cutter service, a marine hospital, a quarantine station and an immigration bureau. Port Townsend is the port of entry for the Puget Sound customs district. In 1908 its exports were valued at $37,547,553, much more than those of any other American port of entry on the Pacific; its imports were valued in 1908 at $21,876,361, being exceeded among the Pacific ports by those of San Francisco only. The city has a considerable trade in grain, lumber, fish, livestock, dairy products and oil; its manufactures include boilers, machinery and canned and pickled fish, especially salmon and herring. Port Townsend was settled in 1854, incorporated as a town in 1860 and chartered as a city in 1890. PORTUGAL, a republic of western Europe, forming part of the Iberian Peninsula, and bounded on the N. and E. by Spain, and on the S. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900), 5,016.267; area, 34,254 sq. m. These totals do not include the inhabitants and area of the Azores and Madeira Islands, which are officially regarded as parts of continental Portugal. In shape the country resembles a roughly drawn parallelogram, with its greatest length (362 m.) from N. to S., and its greatest breadth (140 m.) from E. to W. For map, see SPAIN. The land frontiers are to some extent defined by the course of i four principal rivers, the Minho and Douro in the north, th Tagus and Guadiana in the south; elsewhere, and especially in the north, they are marked by moun- tain ranges; but in most parts their delimitation was originally based on political considerations. In no sense the boundary-line be called either natural or scientific, ap; from the fact that the adjacent districts on either side are poo: sparsely peopled, and therefore little liable to become a subji of dispute. The Portuguese seaboard is nearly 500 m. long, an of the six ancient provinces all are maritime except Traz Montes. From the extreme north to Cape Mondego and then onward to Cape Carvoeiro the outline of the coast is a long an gradual curve; farther south is the prominent mass of rock an mountain terminating westward in Capes Roca and Espichel south of this, again, there is another wide curve, broken by the headland of Sines, and extending to Cape St Vincent, the south- eastern extremity of the country. The only other conspicuous promontory is Cape Santa Maria, on the south coast. The only deep indentations of the Portuguese littoral are the lagoon Aveiro (q.v.) and the estuaries of the Minho, Douro, Monde^ Tagus, Sado and Guadiana, in which are the principal harbou: The only islands off the coast are the dangerous Farilhoes an Berlings (Portuguese Berlengas) off Cape Carvoeiro. Physical Features.— Few small countries contain so great variety of scenery as Portugal. The bleak and desolate heights of the Serra da Estrella and the ranges of the northern frontier are almost alpine in character, although they nowhere reach the limit of perpetual snow. At a lower level there are wide tracts of moorland, covered in many cases with sweet-scented cistus and other wild flowers. The lagoon of Aveiro, the estuary of the Sado and the broad inland lake formed by the Tagus above Lisbon (q.v.), recall the waterways of Holland. The sand-dunes of the western coast and the Pinhal de Leiria (q.v.) resemble thi French Landes. The Algarve and parts of Alemtejo might long to North- West Africa rather than to Europe. The Paiz Vinho, on the Douro, and the Tagus near Abrantes, with their terraced bush-vines grown up the steep banks of the rivers, are often compared with the Rhine and the Elbe. The harbours of Lisbon and Oporto are hardly inferior in beauty to those of Naples and Constantinople. Apart from this variety, and from the historic interest of such places as Braga, Bussaco, Cintra, Coimbra, or Torres Vedras, the attractiveness of the country is due to its colouring, and not to grandeur of form. Its landscapes are on a small scale; it has no vast plains, no inland seas, no mountain as high as 7000 ft. But its flora is the richest in Europe, and combines with the brilliant sunshine, the vivid but harmonious costumes of the peasantry, and the white or pale- tinted houses to compensate for any such deficiency. This wealth of colour gives to the scenery of Portugal a quite distinc- tive character and is the one feature common to all its varieties. The orography of Portugal cannot be scientifically studied except in relation to that of Spain, for there is no dividing line between the principal Portuguese ranges and the highlands of Galicia, Leon and Spanish Estremadura. Three so-called Portuguese systems are sometimes distinguished: (l) the Transmontane, stretching between the Douro and the Minho; (2) the Beirene, between the Douro and the Tagus; (3) the Transtagine, south of the Tagus. The following ranges belong to the Transmontane system, which is the southern extension of the mountains of Galicia: Peneda (4728 ft.), forming the watershed between the river Lima and the lower Minho; the Serra do Gerez (4817 ft.), which rises like a gigantic wall between the Lima and the Homem, and sends off a spur known as the Amarella, Oural and Nora, south-westward between the Homem and the Cavado; La Raya Seca, a continuation of Gerez, which culminates in Larouco (4390 ft.) and contains the sources of the Cavado; Cabreira (4196 ft.), which contains the sources of the river Ave and separates the basin of the Tamega from that of the Cavado; Marao (4642 ft.), Villarelho .(3547 ft.) and Padrella (3763 ft.), forming together a large massif between the rivers Tamega, Tua and Douro; and Nogueira (4331 ft.) and Bornes (3944 ft.), which divide the valley of the Tua from that of the Sabor. The Beirene system comprises two quite distinct mountain regions. • North of the Mondago it includes Mpntemuro (4534 ft.), separating the Douro from the upper waters of its left-hand tributary the Paiva; Gralheira (3681 ft.) between the Paiva and the Vouga; the Serra do Caran.ullo PHYSICAL FEATURES] PORTUGAL 135 (3511 ft.), between the Vouga and the Dao; and the Serra da i s ft.), which gives rise to the Paiva, Tavora, Vouga and Dao. ^Hith of these ranges, but nominally included in the same MI, is the Serra da Estrella, the loftiest ridge in Portugal (6532 ft.). The Estrella Mountains, which enclose the headwaters of the Mondego in •' deep ravine, stretch from north-east to south-west ami are continued in the same direction by the Serra de Lousa (3944 ft.). They form the last link in the chain of mountain ranges, known to Spanish geographers as the Carpetano-Vetonica, which ioss the centre of the Peninsula from east to west. The r | art of the Serra da Estrella constitutes the watershed .11 tlu- Moiulcgo and Zezere. Lesser ranges, which are included in the Beirene system and vary in height from 2000 to It., are the Mesas, between the rivers C6a and Zezere; the lunha and Moradal, separating the Zezere from the Ponsul L, tributaries of the Tagus; the Serra do Aire, and various which stretch south-westward as far as the mountains of i (unt Henry of Burgundy. With John I. began the rule of a new dynasty, the House of Aviz. The most urgent matter which confronted the king — or the group of statesmen, led by Joao das Regras and the " Holy Constable " who inspired his policy — was the menace of Castilian aggression. But on the I4th of August 1385 the Por- tuguese army, aided by 500 English archers, utterly defeated the Castilians at Aljubarrota. By this victory the Portuguese showed themselves equal in military power to their strongest rivals in the Peninsula. In October the " Holy Constable " won another victory at Valverde; early in 1386 5000 English soldiers, under John of Gaunt, reinforced the Portuguese; and by the treaty of Windsor (May 9, 1386), the alliance between Portugal and England was confirmed and extended. Against such a combination the Castilians were powerless; a truce was arranged in 1387 and renewed at intervals until 1411, when peace was concluded. D. Diniz, eldest son of Inez de Castro, claimed the throne and invaded Portugal in 1398, but his supporters were easily crushed. The domestic and foreign policy pursued by John I. until his death in 1433 may be briefly described. At home he endeavoured to reform administration, to encourage agriculture and commerce, and to secure the loyalty of the nobles by grants of land and privileges so extensive that, towards the end of his reign, many nobles who exercised their full feudal rights had become almost independent princes. Abroad, he aimed at peace with Castile and close friendship with England. In 1387 he had married Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of John of Gaunt; Richard II. sent troops to aid in the expulsion of D. Diniz; Henry IV., Henry V. and Henry VI. of England successively ratified the treaty of Windsor; Henry IV. made his ally a knight of the Garter in 1400. The convent of Batalha (q.v.), founded to commemorate the victory of Aljubarrota, is architecturally a monument of the English influence prevalent at this time throughout Portugal. The cortes of Coimbra, the battle of Aljubarrota and the treaty of Windsor mark the three final stages in the consoli- dation of the monarchy. A period of expansion oversea began in the same reign, with the capture of Ceuta in Morocco. The three eldest sons of King John and Queen Philippa — Edward, Pedro and Henry, afterwards celebrated as Prince Henry the Navigator — desired to win knighthood by service against the Moors, the historic enemies of their country and creed. In 1415 a Portuguese fleet, commanded by the king and the three princes, set sail for Ceuta. English men-at-arms were sent by Henry V. to take part in the expedition, which proved suc- cessful. The town was captured and garrisoned, and thus the first Portuguese outpost was established on the mainland of Africa. 3. The Period of Discoveries: 1415-1490. — Before describing in outline the course of the discoveries which were soon to render Portugal the foremost colonizing power in Europe it is necessary to indicate the main causes which contributed to that result. As the south-westernmost of the free peoples of Eiffope, the Portuguese were the natural inheritors of that work of ex- ploration which had been carried on during the middle ages. HISTORY] PORTUGAL chiefly by the Arabs. They began where the Arabs left off by penetrating far into the Atlantic. The long littoral of their country, with its fine harbours and rivers flowing westward to the ocean, had been the training-ground of a race of adven turous seamen. It was impossible, moreover, to expand or reach new markets except by sea: the interposition of Castile and Aragon, so often hostile, completely prevented any intercourse by land between Portugal and other European countries. Consequently the Portuguese merchants sent their goods by sea to England, Flanders, or the Hanse towns. The whole history of the nation had also inspired a desire for fresh conquests among its leaders. Portugal had won and now held its independence by the sword. The long struggle to expel the Moors, with the influence of foreign Crusaders and the military orders, had given a religious sanction to the desire for martial fame. Nowhere was the ancient crusading spirit so active a political force. To make war upon Islam seemed to the Portu- guese their natural destiny and their duty as Christians. It was the genius of Prince Henry the Navigator (q.v.) that co-ordinated and utilized all these tendencies towards ex- PHace pansion. Prince Henry placed at, the disposal of Henry the his captains the vast resources of the Order of Navigator, Christ, the best information and the most accurate instruments and maps whicji could be obtained. He sought to effect a junction with the half-fabulous Christian Empire of " Prester John " by way of the " Western Nile," i.e. the Senegal, and, in alliance with that potentate, to crush the Turks and liberate Palestine. The conception of an ocean route to India appears to have originated after his death. On land he again defeated the Moors, who attempted to re-take Ceuta in 1418; but in an expedition to Tangier, undertaken in 1436 by King Edward (1433-1438), the Portuguese army was defeated, and could only escape destruction by surrendering as a hostage Prince Ferdinand, the king's youngest brother. Ferdinand, known as " the Constant," from the fortitude with which he endured captivity, died unransomed in 1443. By sea Prince Henry's captains continued their exploration of Africa and the Atlantic. In 1433 Cape Bojador was doubled; in 1434 the first consignment of slaves was brought to Lisbon; and slave trading soon became one of the most profitable branches of Portuguese commerce. The Senegal was reached in 1445, Cape Verde was passed in the same year, and in 1446 Alvaro Fernandes pushed on almost as far as Sierra Leone. This was probably the farthest point reached before the Navigator died (1460). Meanwhile colonization progressed in the Azores and Madeira, where sugar and wine were produced; above all, the gold brought home from Guinea stimulated the commercial energy of the Portuguese. It had become clear that, apart from their religious and scientific aspects, these voyages of dis- covery were highly profitable. Under Alphonso V., surnamed the African (1443-1481), the Gulf of Guinea was explored as far as Cape St Catherine, and three expeditions (1458, 1461, 1471) were sent to Morocco; in 1471 Arzila (Asila) and Tangier were captured from the Moors. Under John II. (1481-1495) the fort- ress of Sao Jorge da Mina, the modern Elmina (q.v.), was founded Exploration ^or tne protection of the Guinea trade in 1481-1482; under Diogo Cam (q.v.), or Cao, discovered the Congo in Aiphoosov. I482 and reached Cape Cross in 1486; Bartholomeu '"•Diaz (q.v.) doubled the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, thus proving that the Indian Ocean was accessible by sea. After 1492 the discovery of the West Indies by Columbus ren- dered desirable a delimitation of the Spanish and Portuguese spheres of exploration. This was accomplished by the treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494) which modified the delimitation authorized by Pope Alexander VI. in two bulls issued on the 4th of May, 1493. The treaty gave to Portugal all lands which might be discovered east of a straight line drawn from the Arctic Pole to the Antarctic, at a distance of 370 leagues west of Cape Verde. Spain received the lands discovered west of this line. As, however, the known means of measuring lon- gitude were so inexact that the line of demarcation could not in practice be determined (see J. de Andrade Cprvo in Journal das Sciencias Malhematicas, xxxi. 147-176, Lisbon, 1881), the treaty was subject to very diverse interpretations. On its provisions were based both the Portuguese claim to Brazil and the Spanish claim to the Moluccas (see MALAY ARCHIPELAGO: History). The treaty was chiefly valuable to the Portuguese as a recognition of the prestige they had acquired. That prestige was enormously enhanced when, in 1497-1499, Vasco da Gama (q.v.) completed the voyage to India. While the Crown was thus acquiring new possessions, its authority in Portugal was temporarily overshadowed by the growth of aristocratic privilege. At the cortes Tlle of Evora (1433) King Edward had obtained the Monarchy enactment of a law1 declaring that the estates and the granted by John I. to bis adherents could only be NoU'»- inherited by the direct male descendants of the grantees, and failing such descendants, should revert to the Crown. After the death of Edward further attempts to curb the power of the nobles weie made by his brother, D. Pedro, duke of Coimbra, who acted as regent during the minority of Alphonso V. (1438- 1447). The head of the aristocratic opposition was the duke of Braganza, who contrived to secure the sympathy of the king and the dismissal of the regent. The quarrel led to civil war, and in May 1449 D. Pedro was defeated and killed. Thence- forward the grants made by John I. were renewed, and ex- tended on so lavish a scale that the Braganza estates alone comprised about a third of the whole kingdom. An unwise foreign policy simultaneously injured the royal prestige, for Alphonso married his own niece, Joanna, daughter of Henry IV. of Castile, and claimed that kingdom in her name. At the battle of Toro, in 1476, he was defeated by Ferdinand and Isabella, and in 1478 he was compelled to sign the treaty of Alcantara, by which Joanna was relegated to a convent. His successor, John II. (1481-1495) reverted to the policy of matri- monial alliances with Castile and friendship with England. Finding, as he said, that the liberality of former kings had left the Crown " no estates except the high roads of Portugal," he determined to crush the feudal nobility and seize its territories. A cortes held at Evora (1481) empowered judges nominated by the Crown to administer justice in all feudal domains. The nobles resisted this infringement of their rights; but their leader, Ferdinand, duke of Braganza, was beheaded for high treason in 1483; in 1484 the king stabbed to death his own brother-in-law, Ferdinand, duke of Vizeu; and 80 other members of the aristocracy were afterwards executed. Thus John " the Perfect," as he was called, assured the supre- macy of the Crown. He was succeeded in 1495 by Emanuel (Manoel) I., who was named " the Great " or " the Fortunate," because in his reign the sea route to India was discovered and a Portuguese Empire founded. 4. The Portuguese Empire: 1499-1580. — In 1500 King Emanuel assumed the title " Lord of the conquest, navigation and commerce of India, Ethiopia, Arabia and Persia," which was confirmed by Pope Alexander VI. in 1502. It was now upon schemes of conquest that the energy of the nation was to be concentrated, although the motives which called forth that energy were unchanged. " We come to seek Christians and spices," said the first of Vasco da Gama's sailors who landed in India: and the combination of missionary ardour with commercial enterprise which had led to the exploration of the Atlantic led also to the establishment of a Portuguese Empire. This expansion of national interests proceeded rapidly in almost every quarter of the known world. In the North Atlantic Saspar and Miguel Corte-Real penetrated as far as Green- land (their "Labrador ") in 1500-1501; but these voyages were jolitically and commercially unimportant. Equally barren was the intermittent fighting in Morocco, which was regarded as a crusade against the Moors. In the South Atlantic, however, :he African coast was further explored, new settlements were bunded, and a remarkable development of Portuguese-African civilization took place in the kingdom of Kongo (see ANGOLA). 1 Known as the lei mental, because it was supposed to fulfil the ntention which John I. had in mind when the grants were made. PORTUGAL [HISTORY Pedro Alvares Cabral, sailing to India, but steering far westward to avoid the winds and currents of the Guinea coast, reached Brazil (1500) and claimed it for his sovereign. Joao da Nova discovered Ascension (1501) and St Helena (1502); Tristao da Cunha was the first to sight the archipelago still known by his name (1506). In East Africa the small Mahommedan states along the coast — Sofala, Mozambique, Kilwa, Brava, Mombasa, Malindi — either were destroyed or became subjects or allies of Portugal. Pedro de Covilham had reached Abys- sinia (q.v.) as early as 1490; in 1520 a Portuguese embassy arrived at the court of " Prester John," and in 1541 a military force was sent to aid him in repelling a Mahommedan invasion. In the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea, one of Cabral's ships discovered Madagascar (1501), which was partly explored by Tristao da Cunha (1507); Mauritius was discovered in 1507, Socotra occupied in 1506, and in the same year D. Lourenco d'Almeida visited Ceylon. In the Red Sea Massawa was the most northerly point frequented by the Portuguese until 154.1, when a fleet under Estevao da Gama penetrated as far as Suez. Hormuz, in the Persian Gulf, was seized by Alphonso d'Albu- querque (1515), who also entered into diplomatic relations with Persia. On the Asiatic mainland the first trading-stations were established by Cabral at Cochin and Calicut (1501); more important, however, were the conquest of Goa (1510) and Ma- lacca (1511) by Albuquerque, and the acquisition of Diu (1535) by Martim Affonso de Sousa. East of Malacca, Albuquerque sent Duarte Fernandes as envoy to Siam (1511), and despatched to the Moluccas two expeditions (1512, 1514), which founded the Portuguese dominion in the Malay Archipelago (q.v.). Fernao Fires de Andrade visited Canton in 1517 and opened up trade with China, where in 1557 the Portuguese were permitted to occupy Macao. Japan, accidentally discovered by three Portuguese traders in 1542, soon attracted large numbers of merchants and missionaries (see JAPAN, § viii.). In 1522 one of the ships of Ferdinand Magellan (q.v.) — a Portuguese sailor, though in the Spanish service — completed the first voyage round the world. Up to 1505 the Portuguese voyages to the East were little more than trading ventures or plundering raids, although a Almeida few " factories " for the exchange of goods were andAibu- founded in Malabar. In theory, the objects of querque. King Emanuel's policy were the establishment of friendly commercial relations with the Hindus (who were at first mistaken for Christians " not yet confirmed in the faith," as the king wrote to Alexander VI.) and the prosecution of a cru- sade against Islam. But Hindu and Mahommedan interests were found to be so closely interwoven that this policy became imprac- ticable, and it was superseded when D. Francisco d'Almeida (q.v.) went to India as first Portuguese viceroy in 1505. Almeida sought to subordinate all else to sea power and commerce, to concentrate the whole naval and military force of the kingdom on the maintenance of maritime ascendancy; to annex no territory, to avoid risking troops ashore, and to leave the defence of such factories as might be necessary to friendly native powers, which would receive in return the support of the Portu- guese fleet. Almeida's statesmanship was to a great extent sound. The Portuguese could never penetrate far inland; throughout the i6th century their settlements were confined to the coasts of Asia, Africa or America, and the area they were able effectively to occupy was far less than the area of their empire in the 2oth century. A Chinese critic, quoted by Faria y Sousa, said of them that they were like fishes, " remove them from the water and they straightway die." It is thus absurd to speak of a " Portuguese conquest of India "; in a land campaign they would have been outnumbered and destroyed by the armies of any one of the greater Indian states. But their artillery and superior maritime science made them almost invulnerable at sea, and their principal military achievements consisted in the capture or defence of positions accessible from the sea, e.g. the defence of Cochin by Duarte Pacheco Pereira in 1504, the defence of Diu (q.v.) in 1538 and 1546. Alphonso d' Albuquerque (el, Beatrix, d. 1539, b. 1504, d. 1538, b rles V. m. Charles III. of Savoy. //. of Pkililicrt Emmanuel, Louis, Ferdinand, 1506, d. 1545, b. isoj, d. 1534, duke of Beja. duke of Guarda. Antonio, Alphonso, b. 1500, d. 1540, cardinal and archbishop of Lisbon. Henry, b. 1512, d. 1580, cardinal and king. Edward, b. 1515. d. 1545, duke of Guimarles, m. Isabel of Braganza. Catherine, Maria, b. IJ37, d. 1554. m. Joanna of Spain. Sebastian, b. 1554, d. 1578. Spain. duke of Savoy. prior of Crato. (illegitimate). empire ruled by the house of Aviz. His ambition narrowly missed fulfilment, for Prince Miguel, his eldest son, was recognized (1498) as heir to the Spanish thrones. But Miguel died in infancy, and his inheritance passed to the Habsburgs. Frequent inter- marriage, often so far within the prohibited degress as to require a papal dispensation, rfay possibly explain the weakened vitality of the Portuguese royal family, which was now subject to epilepsy, insanity and premature decay. The decadence of the monarchy as a national institution was reflected in the decadence of the cortes, which was rarely summoned between 1521 and 1580. John III. (1521-1557) was a ruler of fair ability, who became in his later years wholly subservient to his ecclesiastical advisers. He was succeeded by his grandson Sebastian (1557-1578), aged three years. Until the king came of age (1568), his grandmother, Queen Catherine, a fanatical daughter of Isabella the Catholic, and his great-uncle, Prince Henry, cardinal and inquisitor-general, governed as joint regents. Both were dominated by their Jesuit confessors, and a Jesuit, D. Luiz Goncalves da Camara, became the tutor and, after 1568, the principal adviser of Sebastian. The king was a strong-willed and weak-minded ascetic, who entrusted his empire to the Jesuits, refused to marry, although The the dynasty was threatened with extinction, and Disaster of spent years in preparing for a crusade against the AlKasr. Moors. The wisest act of John III. had been his withdrawal of all the Portuguese garrisons in Morocco except those at Ceuta, Arzila and Tangier. Sebastian reversed tfcis policy. His first expedition to Africa (1574) was a mere recon- naissance, but four years later a favourable opportunity for invasion arrived. A dethroned sultan of Morocco, named Mulai Ahmad (Mahommed XI.), offered to acknowledge Portu- guese suzerainty if he were restored to the throne by Portuguese arms, and Sebastian eagerly accepted these terms. The flower of his army was in Asia and his treasury was empty; but he contrived to extort funds from the " New Christians," and col- lected a force of some 18,000 men, chiefly untrained lads, worn- out veterans, and foreign free-lances. At Arzila, where he landed, he was joined by Mulai Ahmad, who could only muster 800 soldiers. Thence Sebastian sought to proceed overland to the seaport of El Araish, despite the advice of his ally and of others who knew the country. After a long desert march under an August sun, he took up an indefensible position in a valley near Al Kasr al Kebir (q.v.). On the morrow (Aug. 4, 1578) they were surrounded by the superior forces of Abd el Malek, the reigning sultan, and after a brave resistance Sebastian was killed and his army almost annihilated. So overwhelming was the disaster that the Portuguese people refused to believe the truth. It was rumoured that Sebastian still lived, and would sooner or later return and restore the past greatness of his country. m. duke of Braganza. m. duke of Parma, Ranuccio, duke of Parma. Tentative and hardly serious claims were also put forward by Pope Gregory XIII., as ex officio heir-general to a cardinal, and by Catherine de' MeMici, as a descendant of Alphonso III. and Matilda of Boulogne. 5. The " Sixty Years' Captivity ": 1581-1640.— The university of Coimbra declared in favour of Catherine, duchess of Braganza, but the prior of Crato was the only rival who offered any serious resistance to Philip II. D. Antonio proclaimed himself king and occupied Lisbon. The advocates of union with Spain, however, were numerous, influential, and ably led by their spokesmen in the cortes, Christovao de Moura and Antonio Pinheiro, bishop of Leiria. The duke of Braganza was won over to their side, chiefly by the promise that he should be king of Brazil if Philip II. became king of Portugal — a promise never fulfilled. Above all, the Church, including the Society of Jesus, naturally favoured the Habsburg claimant, who represented its two foremost champions, Spain and Austria. In 1581 a Spanish army, led by the duke of Alva, entered Portugal and easily defeated the levies of D. Antonio at Alcantara. The prior escaped to Paris and appealed to France and England for assistance. In 1582 a French fleet attempted to seize the Azores in his interest, but was defeated. In 1 589 an English fleet was sent to aid the prior in a projected invasion of Portugal, but owing to a quarrel between its commanders, Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norris, the expedition was abandoned. D. Antonio returned to Paris, where he died in 1594, Meanwhile the victory of Alcantara left Philip II. supreme in Portugal, where he was soon afterwards crowned king. His constitutional position was defined at the Cortes of Thomar (1581). Portugal was not to be regarded as a conquered or annexed province, but as a separate kingdom, joined to Spain solely by a personal union similar to the union between Castile and Aragon under Ferdinand and Isabella. At Thomar Philip II. promised to maintain the rights and liberties conceded by his predecessors on the Portuguese throne, to summon the Cortes at frequent intervals, and to create a Portuguese privy council which should accompany the king everywhere and be consulted on all matters affecting Portuguese interests. Brazil and the settlements in Africa and Asia were still to belong to Portugal, not to Spain, and neither in Portugal nor in its colonies was any alien to be given lands, public office, or jurisdiction. On these terms the political union of the Iberian Peninsula was accom- plished. It was the final stage in a process of accretion dating back to the beginnings of the Christian reconquest in the 8th century. Asturias had been united with Leon, Leon with Castile, Castile with Aragon. All these precedents seemed to indicate that Spain and Portugal would ultimately form. one state; and despite the strong nationalism which their separate language and 148 PORTUGAL [HISTORY history had inspired among the Portuguese, the union of 1581 might have endured if the terms of the Thomar compact had been observed. But few of the promises made in 1581 were kept by the three Spanish kings who ruled over Portugal — Philip II. (1581-1598), Philip III. (i598-!62i) and Philip IV. (I62I-I640).1 The cortes was only once summoned (1619), and the government of Portugal was entrusted by Philip III. chiefly to Francis duke of Lerma, by Philip IV. chiefly to OUvares (q.v.). The kingdom and its dependencies were also involved in the naval disasters which overtook Spain. Faro in Algarve was sacked in 1595 by the English, who ravaged the Azores in 1596; and. in many parts of the world English, French and Dutch combined to harass Portuguese trade and seize Portuguese possessions. (See especially BRAZIL; INDIA; MALAY ARCHI- PELAGO.) Union with Spain had exposed Portugal to the hostility of the strongest naval powers of western Europe, and had deprived it of the power to conclude an independent peace. Insurrections in Lisbon (1634) and Evora (1637) bore witness to the general discontent, but until 1640 the Spanish ascendancy The was never seriously endangered. In 1640 war with Rebellion France and a revolution in Catalonia had taxed the at 1640. military resources of Spain to the utmost. The royal authority in Portugal was delegated to Margaret of Savoy, duchess of Mantua, whose train of Spanish and Italian courtiers aroused the jealousy of the Portuguese nobles, while the harsh rule of her secretary of state, Miguel de Vasconcellos de Brito, provoked the resentment of all classes. Even the Jesuits, whose influence in Portugal had steadily increased since 1555, were now prepared to act in the interests of Cardinal Richelieu, and therefore against Philip IV. A leader was found in John, 8th duke of Braganza, who as a grandson of the duchess Catherine was descended from Emanuel I. The duke, however, was naturally indolent, and it was with difficulty that his ambitious and energetic Castilian wife, D. Luiza de Guzman, obtained his assent to the proposed revolution. He refused to take any active part in it; but D. Luiza and her confidential adviser, Joao Pinto Ribeiro, recruited a powerful band of conspirators among the disaffected nobles. Then- plans were carefully elaborated, and on the ist of December 1640 various strategic points were seized, the few partisans of Spain who attempted resistance were overpowered, and a provisional government was formed under D. Rodrigo da Cunha, archbishop of Lisbon, who was appointed lieutenant- general of Portugal. 6. The Restoration: 1640-1755. — On the I3th of December 1640 the duke of Braganza was crowned as John IV., and on the I9th of January 1641 the cortes formally accepted him as king. The whole country had already declared in his favour and expelled the Spanish garrisons, an example followed by all the Portuguese dependencies. Thus the " Sixty Years' Captivity " came to an end and the throne passed to the house of Braganza. But the Portuguese were well aware that they could hardly maintain their independence without foreign assistance, and ambassadors were at once sent to Great Britain, the Netherlands and France. The struggle between the Crown and the parliament prevented Charles I. from offering aid, but he immediately recognized John IV. as king. Richelieu and the states-general of the Nether- lands despatched fleets to the Tagus; but commercial rivalry in Brazil and the East led soon afterwards to a colonial war with the Dutch, and Portugal was left without any ally except France. The Portuguese armies were at first successful. D. Matheus d'Albuquerque defeated the Spaniards under the baron of war with Molingen at Monti jo (May 26, 1644), and through- s-pa/n, out the reign of John IV. (1640-1656) they suffered 1649-1668, no serious reverse. But great anxiety was caused by a plot to restore Spanish rule, in which the duke of Caminha and the archbishop of Braga were implicated; and especially by the action of Mazarin, who had assumed control of French foreign policy in 1642. At the congress of Miinster (1643) he refused to make the independence of Portugal a condition of 1 Philip I., II. and III. of Portugal. peace between France and Spain; and in a letter dated the 4th of October 1647 he even offered the Portuguese Crown to the duke of Longueville — an offer which illustrates the weakness of John IV. and the dependence of Portugal upon France. John IV. was succeeded by his second son, Alphonso VI. (1656-1683), who was then aged thirteen. During the king's minority the queen-mother, D. Luiza, acted as regent. She prosecuted the war with vigour, and on the i4th of January 1659 a Portuguese army commanded by D. Antonio Luiz de Menezes, count of Cantanhede, defeated the Spaniards under D. Luiz de Haro at Elvas. In March 1659, however, the war between France and Spain was ended by the treaty of the Pyrenees; and D. Luiz de Haro, acting as the Spanish plenipotentiary, obtained the inclusion in the treaty of a secret article by which France undertook to give no further aid to Portugal. Neither Louis XIV. nor Mazarin desired the aggrandisement of Spain at the expense of their own ally; they therefore evaded the secret article by sending Marshal Schomberg to reorganize the Portuguese army (1660), and by helping forward a marriage between Charles II. of England and Catherine of Braganza, the sister of Alphonso VI. This project had been already mooted by D. Luiza, who had foreseen the restoration of the Stuart monarchy, and had in 1650 welcomed the exiled princes Rupert and Maurice at the court of John IV. The dowry to be paid by Portugal was fixed at £500,000 and the cession to Great Britain of Bombay and Tangier. In May 1663 the marriage was celebrated, and thus Great Britain took the place of France as the active ally of Portugal. Meanwhile, on the 2oth of June 1662, the regency had been terminated by a palace revolution. Alphonso VI. declared himself of age and seized the royal authority; D. scbomberg Luiza retired to a convent. The king was feeble ana CasteUo and vicious, but \ had wit enough to leave the Meibor. conduct of affairs to stronger hands. D. Luiz de Sousa e Vasconcellos, count of Castello Melhor, directed the policy of the nation while Schomberg took charge of its defence. The army, reinforced by British troops under the earl of Inchiquin and by French and German volunteers or mercenaries, was led in the field by Portuguese generals, who successfully carried out the plans of Schomberg. On the 8th of June 1663 the count of Villa Flor utterly defeated D. John of Austria, and retook Evora, which had been captured by the invaders; on the 7th of July 1664 Pedro de Magalha.es defeated the duke of Osuna at Ciudad Rodrigo; on the i7th of June 1665 the marquess of Marialva destroyed a Spanish army led by the marquess of Carracena at the battle of Monies Claros, and Christovao de Brito Pereira followed up this victory with another at Villa Vicosa. The Spaniards failed to gain any compensating advantage, and on tne I3th of February 1668 peace was concluded at Lisbon, Spain at last consenting to recognize the independence of the Portuguese kingdom. The signature of the treaty of Lisbon had been preceded by another palace revolution. Castello Melhor, hoping to secure further French support for his country, had arranged a marriage between Alphonso VI. and Marie Francoise Elisabeth, daughter of Charles Amadeus of Nemours, and grand-daughter of Henry IV. of France. The marriage, celebrated in 1666, caused the down- fall both of Castello Melhor and of the king. Queen Marie detested Alphonso and fell in love with his brother D. Pedro; and after four months of a hated union she left the palace and applied to the chapter of Lisbon cathedral to annul her marriage on the ground of non-consummation. D. Pedro imprisoned the king and assumed the regency; on the ist of January 1668 his authority was recognized by the cortes; on the 24th of March the annulment of the queen's marriage was pronounced and confirmed by the pope; on the 2nd of April she married the regent. Castello Melhor was permitted to escape to France, while Alphonso VI. was banished to Terceira in the Azores. A conspiracy to restore him to the throne was discovered in 1674, and he was removed to Cintra, where he died in 1683. Pedro II., who had acted as regent for fifteen years, now HISTORY] PORTUGAL 149 became king. His reign (1683-1706) is a period of supreme importance in the economic and constitutional history of Por- The Cortes tugal. The goldfields of Minas Geraes in Brazil, and the discovered about 1693, brought a vast revenue in Methuea royalties to the Crown, which was thus enabled to ** y' govern without summoning the cortes to vote supply. In 1697 the cortes met for the last time before the era of con- stitutional government. Even more important was the change effected when the Whig ministry of Great Britain sent John Methuen to Lisbon to negotiate a commercial agreement. The Methuen Treaty, signed on the 27th of December 1703, detached Portugal from the French alliance, and made her for more than 150 years a commercial and political satellite of Great Britain. Its most far-reaching provisions were those which admitted Portuguese wines to the British market at a lower rate of duty than was imposed upon French and German wines, in return for a corresponding preference to English textiles. The demand for " Port " and " Madeira " was thus artificially stimulated to such an extent that almost the whole productive energy of Portugal was concentrated upon the wine and cork trades. Other industries, including agriculture, were neglected, and even food-stuffs were imported from ' Great Britain. The disastrous economic results of the treaty were temporarily concealed by the influx of gold from Brazil, the check upon emigration from the wine-growing northern provinces, and the military advantages of alliance with Great Britain. Nor was the virtual abolition of the cortes seriously felt at first, owing to the excellent internal administration of Pedro II. and his minister the duke of Cadaval. Pedro II. had at first wished to remain neutral in the impend- ing struggle between Philip V. and the archduke Charles, rival Warotthe claimants for the throne of Spain. But Queen Spanish Marie had died in 1683, and in 1687 Cadaval had Succession. induced the king to marry Maria Sophia de Neuberg, daughter of the elector-palatine. Louis XIV. of France, who had hoped through the influence of Queen Marie to secure Portuguese support for his own grandson Philip V., realized that this second marriage might thwart his policy, and strove to redress the balance by creating a strong party at the court of Lisbon. He so far succeeded that in 1700 Pedro II. recognized Philip V. as king of Spain and in 1701 protected a French fleet in the Tagus against the British. It was this incident that caused the despatch of the Methuen mission and the renewal of the Anglo-Portuguese alliance in 1703. On the 7th of March 1704 a British fleet under Sir George Rooke reached Lisbon, convoying the archduke Charles and 10,000 British troops, who were joined by a Portuguese army under D. Joao de Sousa, marquess das Minas, and at once invaded Spain. (For the campaigns of 1704-13, see SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE.) In 1705 Pedro II. was compelled by failing health to appoint a regent, and chose his sister, Catherine of Braganza, queen-do wager of England. On the death of the king (Dec. 9, 1706) Cadaval arranged a marriage between his successor John V. (1706- 1750) and the archduchess Marianna, sister of the archduke Charles, thus binding Portugal more closely to the Anglo- Austrian cause. The strain of the war was acutely felt in Portugal, especially in 1711, when the French admiral Duguay- Trouin sacked Rio de Janeiro and cut off the Brazilian treasure- ships. At last, on the 6th of February 1715, nearly two years after the treaty of Utrecht, peace between Spain and Portugal was concluded at Madrid. Never was the Portuguese Crown richer than in the years 1715-1755; rarely had the kingdom prospered less. The The Moo- commercial and financial evils rife under the last archyand kings of the Aviz dynasty were now repeated. **-More gold had been discovered in Matto Grosso, diamonds in Minas Geraes. As in the i6th century immense quantities of bullion were imported by the treasury, and were lavished upon war, luxury and the Church, while agriculture and manufactures continued to decline, and the countryside was depopulated by emigration to Brazil. John V. was a spendthrift and a bigot. He gave and lent enormous sums to successive popes, and at the bidding of Clement XI. he joined a " crusade " against the Turks in which his ships helped to win a naval action off Cape Matapan (1717). For these services he received the title of Fidelissimus, "Most Faithful"; "Majesty" had already been adopted by John IV. instead of the medieval " Highness," and the new style was intended to place the king of Portugal on an equality with his Most Christian Majesty of France and his Most Catholic Majesty of Spain. John V. was also empowered to create a multitude of new ecclesiastical dignities, and the archbishop of Lisbon was granted the rank and style of Patriarch ex officio. To the patriarchate was appended a Sacred College of 24 prelates, who were privileged to officiate in the scarlet robes of cardinals, while the patriarch wore the vestments of a second pope. Though regiments were disbanded, fleets put out of commission and fortresses dismantled to save the cost of their upkeep, the Crown paid nearly £100,000 yearly for the maintenance of this new hierarchy, and squandered untold wealth on the erection of churches and monasteries. In the church of Sao Roque in Lisbon, the decoration of a single chapel measuring 17 ft. by 12 ft. cost £225,000; the expenditure on the convent-palace of Mafra (q.v.) exceeded £4,000,000. John V. was succeeded by his son Joseph (1750-1777). Five years afterwards Portugal was overtaken by the tremendous disaster of the Lisbon earthquake (see LISBON), which, as Oliveira Martins justly observes, was " more than a cataclysm of nature; it was a moral revolution." It brought the Restoration period to an end (1755). Throughout that period the monarchy had occupied a precarious position, dependent until 1668 for its very existence, and after 1668 for its stability, on foreign support. Its policy had been moulded to suit France or Great Britain, while its internal administration had normally been directed by the Church. The cortes had grown obsolete; the feudal aristocracy were become courtiers. Once more, as in 1580, Portugal was governed by ecclesiastics in the name of an absolute monarch; once more, as in 1580, the chief strength of the ecclesi- astical party was the Society of Jesus, which still controlled the conscience and mind of the nation and of its nominal rulers, through the confessional and the schools. 7. The Reform of the Monarchy: 1755-1826. — The unity of Portuguese history is hard to perceive in the years which witnessed the rise and fall of the Pombaline regime, the reign of the mad queen Maria, the Peninsular War and the subsequent chaos of revolutionary intrigue. At first sight it seems absurd to characterize this period of despotism ending in war, ruin and anarchy as a period of reform. Nevertheless, it is possible to trace through the apparent chaos an uninterrupted move- ment from absolutism to representative institutions. Pombal liberated the monarchy from clerical domination, and thus unwittingly opened the door to those " French principles," or democratic ideas, which spread rapidly after his downfall in 1777. The destruction of an obsolete political system, begun by Pombal, was completed by the Peninsular War; while French invaders and British governors together quickened among the Portuguese a new consciousness of their nationality, and a new desire for political rights, which rendered inevitable the change to constitutional monarchy. Two days after the accession of King Joseph, Sebastiao Jos6 de Carvalho e Mello, better known as the marquess of Pombal was appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs and war. In a few months he gained an ascendancy over the king's mind which lasted until the end of the reign, and was strengthened by the courage and wisdom shown by Pombal at the time of the great earthquake. His policy was to strengthen the monarchy and to use it for the furtherance of a comprehensive scheme of reform. Beginning with finance and commerce, he reversed the bullionist policy of his predeces- sors and reorganized the entire system of taxation. He sought to undo the worst consequences of the Methuen treaty by the creation of national industries, establishing a gunpowder factory and a sugar refinery in 1751, a silk industry in 1752, wool, paper and glass factories after 1759. Colonial development was fostered, and the commercial dependence of Portugal upon I50 PORTUGAL [HISTORY Great Britain was reduced, by the formation of chartered companies, the first of which (1753) was given control of the Algarve sardine and tunny fisheries. The Oldembourg Company (1754) received a monopoly of trade with the Portuguese colonies in the East; extensive monopolist rights were also conceded to the Para and Maranhao Company (1755) and the Pernambuco and Parahyba Company (1759). In Lisbon a chamber of com- merce (Junta do commercio) was organized in 1756 to replace an older association of merchants, the Meza dos homens de negocio, which had attacked the Para Company; and in the same year the Alto Douro Company was formed to control the port-wine trade and to break the monopoly enjoyed by a syndicate of British wine merchants. This company met with strong opposition, culminating in a rising at Oporto (February 1757), which was savagely suppressed. Both his commercial policy and his desire to strengthen the Crown brought Pombal into conflict with the Church and the aristocracy. In 1751 he had made all sentences passed by the Inquisition subject to revision by the Crown. The liberation of all slaves in Para and Maranhao except negroes (1755), and the creation of the Para Company, were prejudicial to the interests of the Jesuits, whose administrative authority over the Indians of Brazil was also curtailed. Various charges were brought against the Society by Pombal, and in September 1759, after five years of heated controversy (see JESUITS), he published a decree of expulsion against all its members in the Portuguese dominions. His power at court had previously been strengthened by the so-called Tavora plot. The marquess and marchioness of Tavora and their two sons, with the duke of Aveiro, the count of Atouguia and other noblemen, were accused of complicity in an attempt upon the life of King Joseph (September 1758). Pombal appointed a special tribunal to judge the case; many of the accused, including those already mentioned, were found guilty and executed; and an attempt was made to implicate the Jesuits. Pombal's enemies declared that he himself had organized the attack upon the king, in such a manner as to throw suspicion upon his political opponents and to gain credit for himself. This accusation was not proved, but the history of the Tavora plot remains extremely obscure. The expulsion of the Jesuits involved Portugal in a dispute with Pope Clement XIII.; in June 1760 the papal nuncio was ordered to leave Lisbon, and diplomatic relations with the Vatican were only resumed after the condemnation of the Jesuits by Clement XIV., in July 1773. His victory over the Jesuits left Pombal free to develop his plans for reform. He devoted himself especially to education and defence. A school of commerce was founded in 1759; in 1760 the censorship of books was transferred from an ecclesi- astical to a lay tribunal; in 1761 the former Jesuit college in Lisbon was converted into a college for the sons of noblemen; in 1768 a royal printing-press was established; in 1772 Pombal provided for a complete system of primary and secondary educa- tion, entailing the foundation of 837 schools. He founded a college of art in Mafra; he became visitor of Coimbra University, recast its statutes and introduced the teaching of natural science. Funds for these reforms were to a great extent provided out of the sequestrated property of the Jesuits; Pombal also effected great economies in internal administration. He abolished the distinction between Old and New Christians, and made all Portuguese subjects eligible to any office in the state. Far- reaching reforms were at the same time carried out in the army, navy and mercantile marine. In 1760 Admiral Boscawen had violated Portuguese neutrality by burning four French ships off Lagos; Pombal protested and the British government apologized, but not before the military weakness of Portugal had been demonstrated. Two years later, when the Family Compact involved Portugal in a war with Spain, Pombal called in Count William of Lippe-Buckeburg to reorganize the army, which was reinforced by a British contingent under Brigadier-General John Burgoyne, and was increased from 5000 to 50,000 men. The Spaniards were at first successful, and captured Braganza and Almeida; but they were subsequently defeated at Villa Velha and Valencia de Alcantara, and the Portuguese fully held their own up to the signature of peace at Fontainebleau, in February 1763. Towards the close of the reign, a long-standing contro- versy with Spain as to the frontier between Brazil and the Spanish colonies threatened a renewal of the war; but in this crisis Pombal was deprived of power by the death of King Joseph (Feb. 20, 1777) and the accession of his daughter Maria I. The queen was manied to her uncle, who became king consort as Pedro III. Pombal's dismissal, brought about by the influence of the queen-mother Mariana Victoria, Maria I.. did not involve an immediate reversal of his policy. Pedro ill. The controversy with Spain was amicably settled and D. John. by the treaty of San Ildefonso (1777); and further industrial and educational reforms were inaugurated, chief among them being the foundation, in 1780, of the Royal Academy of Sciences. Queen Maria, who had previously shown signs of religious mania, became wholly insane after 1788, owing to the deaths of Pedro III. (May 1786), of the crown prince D. Joseph, and of her con- fessor, the inquisitor-general D. Ignacio de San Caetano. Her second son, D. John, assumed the conduct of affairs in 1792, although he did not take the title of regent until 1799. Mean- while a two-fold reaction — on one side clericalist, on the other democratic — had set in against the reforms of Pombal. D.John told William Beckford in 1786 that " the kingdom belonged to the monks," and his consort Carlota Joaquina, daughter of Charles IV. of Spain, exercised a powerful influence in favour of the Church. But new ideas had been introduced with the new system of education, and the inevitable revolt against absolutism had resulted in the formation of a Radical party, which sympa- thized with the Revolution in France and carried on an active propaganda through the numerous masonic lodges which were in fact political clubs. D. John became alarmed, and the intendant of police in Lisbon, D. Diogo Ignacio de Pina Manique, organized an elaborate system of espionage which led to the imprisonment or exile of many harmless enthusiasts. From similar motives, a treaty of alliance with Spain was signed at Aranjuez in March 1793; 5000 Portuguese troops were sent to assist in a Spanish invasion of France; a p / // Portuguese squadron joined the British Mediterranean with spaia, fleet. But in July 1795 Spain concluded a peace France and with the French republic from which Portugal, as Oreat the ally of Great Britain, was deliberately excluded. *??gf!^Ln6 In 1796 Spain declared war upon Great Britain, and in 1797 a secret convention for the partition of Portugal was signed by the French ambassador in Madrid, General Perignon, and by the Spanish minister Godoy. D. John appealed for help to Great Britain, which sent him 6000 men, under Sir Charles Stuart, and a subsidy of £200,000. Though Spain, through the influence of D. John's father-in-law Charles IV., still remained neutral, a state of war between Portugal and France existed until 1799. D. John then reopened negotiations with Napoleon, and Lucien Bonaparte was sent to dictate terms in Madrid. But D. John dared not consent to close the harbours of Portugal against British ships. England was the chief market for Portuguese wine and grain; and the long Portuguese littoral was at the mercy of the British navy. Compelled to choose between fighting on land and fighting at sea, D. John rejected the demands of Lucien Bonaparte, and on the loth of February 1801 declared war upon Spain. His territories were at once invaded by a Franco- Spanish army, and on the 6th of June 1801 he was forced to conclude the peace of Badajoz, by which he ceded the frontier fortress of Olivenza to Spain, and undertook to pay 20,000,000 francs to Napoleon and to exclude British ships from Portuguese ports. Napoleon was dissatisfied with these terms, and although he ultimately ratified the treaty, he sent General Lannes to Lisbon as his ambassador, instructing him to humiliate the Portuguese and if possible to goad them into a renewal of the war. The same policy was continued by General Junot, who succeeded Lannes in 1804. Junot required D. John to declare war upon Great Britain, but this demand was not immediately pressed owing to the preoccupation of Napoleon with greater affairs, and in October 1805 Junot left Portugal. By his Berlin decree of the 2ist of November 1806 Napoleon HISTORY] PORTUGAL required all continental states to close their ports to British ships. As Portugal again refused to obey, another secret Franco- is Spanish treaty was signed at Fontainebleau on the Peninsular zyth of October 1807, providing for the partition War- of Portugal. Entre-Minho-e-Douro was to be given to Louis II. of Etruria in exchange for his Italian kingdom; Algarve and Alemtejo were to form a separate principality for Godoy ; the remaining provinces were to be garrisoned by French troops until a general peace should be concluded. To give effect to these terms, General Junot hastened westward across Spain, at the head of 30,000 French soldiers and a large body of Spanish auxiliaries. So rapid were his movements that there was no time to organize effective resistance. On the zgth of November D. John, acting on the advice of Sir Sidney Smith, British naval commander in the Tagus, appointed a council of regency and sailed for Brazil, convoyed by Sir Sidney Smith's squadron. For a detailed account of the subsequent military operations, see PENINSULAR WAR. Junot, who was everywhere well received by the Portuguese democrats, entered Lisbon at the end of November 1807. He assumed command of the Portuguese army, divided Invasion bv • • • • • .1. \ \ Junot, the kingdom into military governments, and, on the November ist of February 1808 announced that the Braganza 1807- dynasty had forfeited its right to the throne. He him- se^ hoped to succeed D. John, and sought to conciliate the Portuguese by reducing the requisition demanded by Napoleon from 40,000,000 francs to 20,000,000. But the action of the French troops in occupying the fortresses of northern Spain provoked in May 1808 a general rising in that country, which soon spread to Portugal. The Spanish garrison in Oporto expelled the French governor and declared for the Braganzas, compelling Junot to march towards the north. He left Lisbon under the control of a regency, headed by the bishop of Oporto, who applied to Great Britain for help, promoted an insurrection against the French, and organized juntas (committees) of government in the larger towns. On the ist of August 1808 Sir Arthur Wellesley, with 9000 British troops, landed at Figueira da Foz. He defeated a French division at Rolica (" Roleia ") on the lyth, and on the 2ist won a victory over Junot at Vimeiro ("Vimiera")- Fearing an attack by Portu- guese auxiliaries and the arrival of British reinforcements under Sir John Moore, Junot signed the convention of Cintra by which, on the 3oth of August 1808, he agreed to evacuate Portugal (see WELLINGTON). The regency appointed by D. John was now reconstituted and in October Sir John Moore assumed command of all the allied troops in Portugal. From Lisbon Moore marched north-eastward with about 32,000 men to assist the Spanish armies against Napoleon; his subsequent retreat to join Sir David Baird in Galicia, in January 1809, diverted the pursuing army under Napoleon to the north-west, and temporarily saved Portugal from attack. In February Major-General William Carr Beresford was given command of the Portuguese army. Organized and Invasion by disciplined by British officers, the native troops played Souft, a gallant part in the subsequent campaigns. In Marco-May March 1809 the second invasion of Portugal began; Soult crossed the Galician frontier and captured Oporto, while an auxiliary force under General Lapisse advanced from Salamanca. On the 2 2nd of April, however, Wellesley, who had been recalled after the convention of Cintra, landed in Lisbon. On the I2th of May he forced the passage of the Douro, subsequently retaking Oporto and pursuing Soult into Spain. Valuable assistance had been rendered by the Portu- guese generals Antonio da Silveira and Manoel de Brito Mousinho — the first a leader, the second an organizer. After the battle of Wagram (July 6, 1809) the French armies in the Peninsula received large reinforcements, and . Marshal MassSna, with 120,000 men, was ordered to operate against Portugal. He crossed the frontier June isio- jn June 1810 and besieged Almeida, which capitu- Apnitsn. lated Qn the 27th of August Wellesley, who had now become Viscount Wellington, opposed his march south- wards, and won a victory at Bussaco on the 27th of September; but Massena subsequently turned the position of the allied army on the Serra de Bussaco, and caused Wellington to fall back upon the fortified lines which he had already constructed at Torres Vedras. Here he stood upon the defensive until the invaders should be defeated by starvation. The Portuguese troops cut Massena's communications; the peasants, under instructions from Wellington, had already laid waste their own farms, destroyed the roads and bridges by which Massena might retreat, and burned their boats on the Tagus. On the sth of March 1811, after a winter of terrible sufferings, MassSna's retreat began; he was harassed by the allied troops all the way to Sabugal, where the last rearguard action in Portugal took place on the 3rd of April. The invaders retired with a loss of nearly 30,000 men; Almeida was retaken on the 6th; and the remainder 'of the war was fought out on Spanish and French soil. The Portuguese troops remained under Wellington's command until 1814, and distinguished themselves in many actions, notably at Salamanca and on the Nivelle. At the congressof Vienna (1814-1815) Portugal was represented by three plenipotentiaries, who were instructed to press for the retrocession of Olivenza and to oppose the restora- tion of French Guiana, which the Brazilians had the"\^ir conquered in 1809. Neither object was attained; and this failure, which was attributed to the lack of British support, hastened the reaction against British influence which had already begun. Since 1808 Portugal had theoretic- ally been governed by the regency representing D. John. But as the regency was corrupt and unable to co-operate with Wellington and Beresford, the British government had demanded that Sir Charles Stuart (son of the Sir Charles Stuart mentioned above) should be appointed one of its members. The real control of affairs soon afterwards passed into the strong hands of Stuart and Beresford; and while the war lasted the Portuguese acquiesced in what was in fact an autocracy exercised by foreigners. In 1815, however, they desired to resume their independence. A further cause of dissatisfaction was the mutual jealousy of Portugal and Brazil. The colony claimed as high a political status as the mother-country, and by a decree dated the 1 6th of January 1815 it was raised to the rank of a separate kingdom. Thenceforward, until 1822, the Portuguese sover- eignty was styled the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. The importance of this change became apparent when Queen Maria I. died (March 1816) and D. John succeeded to the united thrones as John VI. The king refused to leave Brazil, partly owing to the intrigues of Carlota Joaquina, who hoped to become queen of an independent Brazilian kingdom. Thus Portugal, which had been almost ruined by the war, was now humiliated by the failure of her diplomacy at Vienna and by her continued dependence upon Great Britain and Brazil. The resultant discontent found expression in the cry of " Por- tugal for the Portuguese " and in the demand for a constitution. In 1817 a military revolt (pronunciamento) in Lisbon was crushed by Beresford, and the leader, General Gomes Freire de Andrade, was executed; but on the i6th of August The Coo- 1820, after Beresford had sailed to Brazil to secure stitutionai the return of John VI., a second rising took place Movement, in Oporto. It soon spread southward. A new I8M-1826- council of regency was established in Lisbon, the British officers were expelled from the army; Beresford, on his return from Brazil, was not permitted to land; a constituent assembly was summoned. This body suppressed the Inquisition and drew up a highly democratic constitution, by which all citizens were declared equal before the law and eligible to any office; all class privileges were abolished, the liberty of the Press was guaranteed, and the government of the country was vested in a single chamber, subject only to the suspensive veto of the Crown. So extreme a change was disliked by most of the powers and by many Portuguese, especially those of the clerical party. Great Britain insisted on the return of John VI., who entrusted the government of Brazil to his elder son D. Pedro and landed in Portugal on the 3rd of July 1821. In 1822, on the advice of 152 PORTUGAL [HISTORY D. Pedro, he swore to obey the constitution (thenceforward known as the " constitution of 1822 "). But his younger son, D. Miguel, and the queen, Carlota Joaquina, refused to take the oath; and in December 1822 sentence of banishment was pro- nounced against them, though not enforced. They had many supporters at home and abroad. French troops had invaded Spain in the interests of Ferdinand VII. (1823), and the French government was prepared to countenance the absolutist party in Portugal in order to check British influence there. Another military revolt broke out in Traz-os- Monies on the 3rd of February 1823, its leader being the count of Amarante, who was opposed to the constitution. D. Miguel appealed to the army to " restore liberty to their king," and the army, incensed by the loss of Brazil (1822), gave him almost unanimous support. At this juncture John VI., vainly seeking for a compromise, abrogated the constitution of 1822, but appointed as his minister D. Pedro de Sousa Holstein, count (afterwards duke) of Palmella and leader of the " English " or constitutional party. These half-measures did not satisfy D. Miguel, whose soldiers seized the royal palace in Lisbon on the 3oth of April 1824. Palmella was arrested, and John VI. forced to take refuge on the British flagship in the Tagus. But the united action of the foreign ministers restored the king and reinstated Palmella; the insur- rection was crushed; D. Miguel submitted and went into exile (June 1824). In Brazil also a revolution had taken place. The Brazilians demanded complete independence, and D. Pedro sided with them. The Portuguese garrison of Rio de Janeiro was over- powered; on the 7th of September 1822 D. Pedro declared the country independent, and on the I2th of October he was pro- claimed constitutional emperor. He took no notice of the constituent assembly in Lisbon, which on the ipth of September had ordered him to return to Portugal on pain of forfeiting his right to inherit the Portuguese Crown. By the end of 1823 all Portuguese resistance to the new regime in Brazil had been overcome. John VI. died on the loth of March 1826, leaving (by will) his daughter D. Isabel Maria as regent for Pedro I. of Brazil, who now became Pedro IV. of Portugal. A crisis was evidently imminent, for Portugal would not tolerate an absentee sovereign who was far more Brazilian than Portuguese. The unsatisfied ambition of Carlota Joaquina and the hostility between abso- lutists and constitutionalists might at any moment precipitate a civil war. To conciliate the Portuguese, Pedro IV. drew up a charter (known as the " charter of 1826 ") which provided for moderate parliamentary government on the British model. To conciliate the Brazilians, he undertook (by decree dated May 2nd 1826) to surrender the Portuguese Crown to his daughter D. Maria da Gloria (then aged seven) ; but this abdication was made contingent upon her marriage with her uncle D. Miguel, who was first required to swear fidelity to the charter. 8. Constitutional Government. — The charter of 1826 forms the basis of the present Portuguese constitution and the starting- point of modern Portuguese history. That history comprises four periods: (a) From 1826 to 1834 the clerical and absolutist parties led by D. Miguel united every reactionary element throughout the kingdom in a last unsuccessful stand against constitutional government; (b) From 1834 to 1853 the main problem for Portuguese statesmen was whether the constitution, now accepted as inevitable, should embody the radical ideas of 1822 or the moderate ideas of 1826; (c) From 1853 to 1889 there was a period of transition marked by the rise of three new parties — Progressive, Regenerator, Republican; (d) From 1889 to 1908 the Progressives and Regenerators monopolized the control of public affairs, but the strength of Republicanism was not to be gauged by its representation in the cortes. At the beginning of the 2oth century the question whether the monarchy should be replaced by a republic had become a living political issue, which was decided by the revolution of October 5, 1910. The charter was brought to Lisbon by Sir Charles Stuart in July 1826. The absolutists had hoped that D. Pedro would abdicate unconditionally in favour of D. Miguel, and the council of regency at first refused to publish the charter. They were forced to do so (July 12) by a pronunciamento issued by D. Joao Carlos de Saldanha de Oliveira e Daun, count The of Saldanha and commander of the army in Oporto. Absolutist Saldanha, a prominent constitutionalist, threatened Reactloa- to march on Lisbon if the regency did not swear obedience to' the charter by the 3ist of July. Amid wild enthusiasm the charter was proclaimed on that day, and on the 3rd of August Saldanha became head of a Liberal ministry. An absolutist counter-revolution at once broke out in the north. It was organized by the marquess of Chaves, and supported openly by the Church and the Miguelite majority of the army; secret assistance was also given by Spain. As civil war appeared imminent, Canning despatched 5000 British troops under Sir William Clinton to restore order, and to disband the troops under Chaves. By March 1827 Clinton and Saldanha had secured the acceptance of the charter throughout Portugal. In October 1826 D. Miguel also swore to obey the charter and was betrothed to his niece D. Maria da Gloria (Maria II.). Pedro IV. appointed him regent in July 1827 and in February 1828 he landed in Lisbon, where he was received with cries of " Viva D. Miguel I., rei absolute! " In March he dissolved the parliament which had met in accordance with the charter. In April the Tory ministry under Wellington withdrew Clinton's division, which was the mainstay of the charter. In May D. Miguel summoned a cortes of the ancient type, which offered him the Crown; and on the 7th of July 1828 he took the oath as king. Saldanha, Palmella, the count of Villa Flor (afterwards duke of Terceira), and the other constitutionalist leaders were driven into exile, while scores of their adherents were executed and thou- sands imprisoned. Austria and Spain supported D. Miguel, who was able to dispose of the vast wealth of Carlota Joaquina; Great Britain and France remained neutral. Only the emperor D. Pedro and a handful of exiles upheld the cause of Maria II., who returned to Brazil in 1829. The Azores, although the majority of their inhabitants favoured absolutism, now became a centre of resistance to D. Miguel. In 1828 the garrison of Angra declared The for Maria II., endured a siege lasting four months, Miguelite and finally took refuge in the island of Terceira, Wars- where it was reinforced by volunteers from Brazil and constitu- tionalist refugees from England and France. In March 1829 Palmella established a regency on the island, on behalf of Maria II.; and D. Miguel's fleet was defeated in Praia Bay on the 1 2th of August. Fortune played into the hands of Palmella, Saldanha, Villa Flor and their followers in Terceira. In 1830 a Whig ministry came into office in Great Britain; the " July revolution " placed Louis Philippe on the throne of France; Carlota Joaquina, the power behind D. Miguel's throne, died on the 7th of January. The fanaticism of the clerical and abso- lutist parties in Portugal (collectively termed apostolicos) was enhanced by recrudescence of Sebastianism. Men saw in the brutal boor D. Miguel ( stay m Italy, where he had foregathered with SchooiorOs the leading writers of the day, initiated a reform of Portuguese literature which amounted to a revolu- tion. He introduced and practised the forms of the sonnet, canzon, ode, epistle in oitava rima and in tercets, and the epigram, and raised the whole tone of poetry. At the same time he gave fresh life to the national redondilha metre (medida velha) by his Cartas or Satiras which with his Eclogues, some in Portu- guese, others in Castilian, are his most successful compositions. His chief disciple, Antonio Ferreira (q.v.), a convinced classicist, went further, and dropping the use of Castilian, wrote sonnets much superior in form and style, though they lack the rustic atmosphere of those of his master, while his odes and epistles are too obviously reminiscent of Horace. D. Manoel de Portugal, Pero de Andrade Caminha, Diogo Bernardes, Frei Agostinho da Cruz and Andre Falcao de Resende continued the erudite school, which, after considerable opposition, definitely triumphed in the person of Luiz de Camoens. The Lima of Bernardes contains some beautiful eclogues as well as carlas in the bucolic style, while the odes, sonnets, and eclogues of Frei Agostinho are full of mystic charm. Camoens (q.v.) is, as Schlegel remarked, an entire literature in himself, and some critics rate him even higher as a lyric than as an epic poet. He unites and fuses the best elements of the Italian and the popular muse, using the forms of the one to express the spirit and traditions of the other, and when he employs the medida velha, it becomes in his hands a vehicle for thought, whereas before it had usually served merely to express emotions. His Lusiads, cast in the Virgilian mould, celebrates the combination of faith and patriotism which led to the discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese, and though the£ . voyage of Vasco da Gama occasioned its composition and formed the skeleton round which it grew, its true subject is the peito illuslre lusilano. Immediately on its appearance The Lusiads took rank as the national poem par excellence, and its success moved many writers to follow in the same path; of these the most successful was Jeronymo Corte Real (q.v.). All these poems, like the Elegiada of Luis Pereira Brandao on the disaster of Al Kasr, the Primeiro ctrco de Diu of the chronicler Francisco de Andrade, and even the Ajfonso Africano of Quevedo, for all its futile allegory, contain striking episodes and vigorous and well-coloured descriptive passages, but they cannot compare with The Lusiads in artistic value. The return of Sa de Miranda from Italy operated to transform the drama as well as lyric poetry. He found the stage occupied mainly by religious plays in which there appeared The no trace of the Greek or Roman theatre, and, classical admiring what he had seen in Italy, he and his Comedy and followers protested against the name auto, restored Trazeay- that of comedy, and substituted prose for verse. They generally chose the plays of Terence as models, yet their life is conventional and their types are not Portuguese but Roman-Italian. The revived classical comedy was thus so bound down by respect for authority as to have little chance of development, while its language consisted of a latinized prose from which the emotions were almost absent. Though it secured the favour of the humanists and the nobility, and banished the old popular plays from both court and university soon after Gil Vicente's death, its victory was shortlived. Jorge Ferreira de Vascon- cellos, who produced in the Eufrosina the first prose play, really belongs to the Spanish school, yet, though he wrote under the influence of the Celestina, which had a great vogue in Portugal, and of Roman models, his types, language and general characteristics are deeply national. However, even if they had stage, qualities, the very length of this and his other plays, the Ulisipo and the Aulegraphia, would prevent their perform- ance, but in fact they are novels in dialogue containing a trea- sury of popular lore and wise and witty sayings with a moral object. So decisive was the success of Jorge Ferreira's new invention, notwithstanding its anonymity, that it decided Sa de Miranda to attempt the prose comedy. He modelled himself on the Roman theatre as reflected by the plays of Ariosto, and he avowedly wrote the Estrangeiros to combat the school of Gil Vicente, while in it, as in Os Vilhalpandos, the action takes place in Italy. Antonio Ferreira, the chief dramatist of the classical school, knew both Greek and Latin as well as Miranda, but far surpassed him in style. He attempted both comedy and tragedy, and his success in the latter branch is due to the fact that he was not content to seek inspiration from Seneca, as were most of the tragedians of the i6th century, but went straight to the fountain heads, Sophocles and Euripides. His Bristo is but a youthful essay, but his second piece, O Cioso, is almost a comedy of character, though both are Italian even in the names of the personages. Ferreira's real claim to distinc- tion, however, rests on Ignez de Castro (see FERREIRA). The principal form taken by prose writing in the i6th century was historical, and a pleiad of distinguished writers arose to narrate the discoveries and conquests in Asia, Africa and the ocean. Many of them saw the achievements they relate and were inspired by patriotism to record them, so that their writings LITERATURE] PORTUGAL lack that serene atmosphere of critical appreciation which is looked for if history is to take its place as a science. In the four I6th- decades of his Asia, Jo5o de Barros, the Livy Century of his country, tells in simple vigorous language Prose-' the "deeds achieved by the Portuguese in the dis- Hiitory. covery and conquest of the seas and lands of the Orient." His first decade undoubtedly influenced Camoens, and together the two men fixed the Portuguese written tongue, the one by his prose, the other by his verse. The decades, which were continued by Diogo do Couto, a more critical writer and a clear and correct stylist, must be considered the noblest historical monument of the century (see BARROS). Couto is also responsible for some acute observations on the causes of Portuguese decadence in the East, entitled Soldado practice. The word encyclopaedist fits Damiao de Goes, a diplomatist, traveller, humanist and bosom friend of Erasmus. One of the most critical spirits of the age, his chronicle of King Manoel, the Fortunate Monarch, which he introduced by one of Prince John, afterwards King John II., is worthy of the subject and the reign in which Portugal attained the apogee of its greatness. Goes (g.v.) wrote a number of other historical and descriptive works in Portuguese and Latin, some of which were printed during his residence in the Low Countries and contributed to his deserved fame. After twenty years of investigation at Goa, Fernao Lopes de Castanheda issued his Historia do de- scobrimento e conquista da India pelos Portugueses (Lisbon, 1552- 1554 and 1561), a book that ranks besides those of Barros and Couto. Antonio Galvao, who, after governing the Moluccas with rare success and integrity, had been offered the native throne of Ternate, went home in 1540, and died a pauper in a hospital, his famous treatise only appearing posthumously. The Tratado dos diversos . . . caminhos par onde a pimenta e especiaria veyo da India . . . e assim de todos os descubrimentos . . . que sao feitos em a era de 1560 has been universally recog- nized as of unique historical value. Like the preceding writers, Caspar Correia or Correa lived long years in India and embodied his intimate knowledge of its manners and customs in the picturesque prose of the Lendas da India, which embraces the events of the years 1497 to 1550. Among other historical works dealing with the East are the Commentaries de Afonso d' Albuquerque, an account of the life of the great captain and administrator, by his natural son, and the Tratado das cousas da China e de Ormuz, by Frei Caspar da Cruz. Coming back to strictly Portuguese history, we have the uncritical Chronica de D. Joao III. by Francisco de Andrade, and the Chronica de D. Sebastiao by Frei Bernardo da Cruz, who was with the king at Al Kasr al Kebir, while Miguel Leitao de Andrade, who was taken prisoner in that battle, related his experiences and preserved many popular traditions and customs in his Miscellanea. Bishop Osorio (q.v.), a scholar of European reputation, wrote chiefly in Latin, and his capital work, a chronicle of King Manoel, is in that tongue. The books of travel of this century are unusually important because their authors were often the first Europeans to visit or at least to study the countries they refer to. They include, to quote the more noteworthy, the Descobrimento de Frolida, the Itincrario of Antonio Tenreiro, the Verdadeira informacao das terras do Preste Joao by Francisco Alvares /and the Ethiopia oriental by Frei Joao dos Santos, both dealing with Abyssinia, the Itinerario da terra santa by Frei Pantaleao de Aveiro, and that much-translated classic, the Historia da vida do padre Francisco Xaiiier by Padre Joao de Lucena. Fernao Cardim in his Narrativa epislolar records a journey through Brazil, and Pedro Teixcira relates his experiences in Persia. But the work that holds the palm in its class is the Peregrinafao which Fernao Mendes Pinto (q.v.), the famous adventurer, composed in his old age for his children's reading. While Mendes Pinto and his book are typically Portuguese of that age, the Historia tragico- maritima, sometimes designated the prose epic of saudade, is equally characteristic of the race of seamen which produced it. This collection of twelve stories of notable wrecks which befell Portuguese ships between 1552 and 1604 contains that of the galleon " St John " on the Natal coast, an event which inspired Corte-Real's epic poem as well as some poignant stanzas in The Lusiads, and the tales form a model of simple spontaneous popular writing. The romance took many forms, and in two of them at least works appeared which exercised very considerable influence abroad. The Mcnina e moc.a of Bernardim Ribeiro, a tender pastoral story inspired by saudade for his lady-love, probably moved Montem6r or Montemayor (q.v.) to write his Diana, and may some fifty years later have suggested the Lusitania transformada to Fernao Alvares do Oriente, who, however, like Ribeiro, owes some debt to San- nazaro's Arcadia. To name the Palmeirim d'Inglaterra of Moraes (q.v.) is to mention a famous book from which, we are told, Burke quoted in the House of Commons, while Cervantes had long previously declared that it ought to bd guarded as carefully as the works of Homer. Like most successful ro- mances of chivalry, it had a numerous progeny, but its sequels, D. Duardos by Diogo Fernandes, and D. Clarisel de Bretanha by Goncalves Lobato, are quite inferior. The historian Barros tried his youthful pen in a romance of chivalry, the Chronica do Imperador Clarimundo, while in another branch, and a popular one in Portugal, the Arthurian cycle, the dramatist Ferreira de Vasconcellos wrote Sagramor or Memorial das proesas da segunda Tavola Redonda. A book of quite a different order is the Cantos de proveito e exemplo by Fernandes Trancoso, con- taining a series of twenty-nine tales derived from tradition or imitated from Boccaccio and others, which enjoyed deserved favour for more than a century. Samuel Usque, a Lisbon Jew, deserves a place to himself for his Consolafam ds tributaries de Israel, where he exposes the persecutions endured by his countrymen in every age down to his time; the book takes the dialogue form, and its diction is elegant and pure. The important part taken by Portuguese prelates and theologians at the Council of Trent stimulated religious writing, most of it in Latin, but Frei Bartholomeu dos Martyres, archbishop of Braga, wrote a Cathecismo da doutrina Christa, Frei Luiz de Granada a Compendia de Doutrina Christa and Sermoes, all in Portuguese, and other notable pulpit orators include Diogo de Paiva de Andrade, Padre Luiz Alvares, Dom Antonio Pinheiro and Frei Miguel dos Santos, who preached at the obsequies of King Sebastian. Among the moralists of the time three at least deserve the title of masters of prose style, Heitor Pinto for his Imogens da vida Christa, Bishop Arraez for his Dialogos, and Frei Thome1 de Jesus for his noble devotional treatise Trabalhos de Jesus, while the maxims of Joanna da Gama, entitled Ditos da Freira, though lacking depth, form a curious psychological document. The ranks of scientists include the cosmographer Pedro Nunes (Nonius), a famous mathematician, and the botanist Garcia da Orta, whose Colloquios dos simples e drogas was the first book to be printed in the East (1563), while the form of Aristotelian scholastic philosophy known as Philosophia conimbricensis had a succession of learned exponents. As, however, their vehicle was Latin, a mere mention must suffice, and for the same reason only the title of a notable book by Francisco Sanches can be given, the De nobili et prima universali scientia quod nihil scitur. In 1536 FernJo de Oliveira published the first Portuguese grammar, and three years later the historian Barros brought out his Cartinha para aprender a ler, and in 1540 his Grammatica. Magalhaes Gandavo printed some rules on orthography in 1574. Nunes de Leao also produced a treatise on orthography in 1576 and a work on the origins of the language in 1605, and Jeronymo Cardoso gave his countrymen a Latin and Portuguese dictionary. The i^th Century. — The gigantic efforts put forth in every department of activity during the i6th century led to the inevitable reaction. Energy was worn out, patriotic osSeiscea- ardour declined into blind nationalist vanity, and tlstas. rhetoric conquered style. From a literary as from LyHc a political point of view the I7th century found Poetry' Portugal in a lamentable state of decadence which dated from i6o PORTUGAL [LITERATURE the preceding age. In 1536 the Inquisition began its work, while between 1552 and 1555 the control of higher education passed into the hands of the Jesuits. Following the Inquisition and the Jesuits came two other obstacles to the cultivation of letters, the censorship of books and the Indexes, and, as if these plagues were not enough, the Spanish domination followed. Next the taint of Gongorism appeared, and the extent to which it affected the literature of Portugal may be seen in the five volumes of the Fenix renascida, where the very titles of the poems suffice to show the futilities which occupied the attention of some of the best talents. The prevailing European fashion of literary academies was not long in reaching Portugal, and 1647 saw the foundation of the Academia dos Generosos which included in its ranks the men most illustrious by learning and social position, and in 1663 the Academia dos Singulares came into being1; but with all their pedantry, extravagances and bad taste, it must be confessed that these and similar corporations tended to promote the pursuit of good literature. In bucolics there arose a worthy disciple of Ribeiro in Francisco Rodrigues Lobo (q.v.), author of the lengthy pastoral romances Corte na aldia and Primavera, the songs in which, with his eclogues, earned him the name of the Portuguese Theocritus. The fore- most literary figure of the time was the encyclopaedic Francisco Manoel de Mello (q.v.), who, though himself a Spanish classic, strove hard and successfully to free himself from subservience to Spanish forms and style. Most of the remaining lyricists of the period were steeped in Gongorism or, writing in Spanish, have no place here. It suffices to mention Soror Violente do Ceo, an exalted mystic called " the tenth muse," Bernarda Ferreira de Lacerda, author of the Soledades de Bussaco, the Laura do Anfrizo of Manoel Tagarro, the Sylvia de Lizardo of Frei Bernardo de Brito, and the poems of Frei Agostinho das Chagas, who, however, is better represented by his Cartas espwituaes. Satiri- cal verse had two notable cultivators in D. Thomas de Noronha and Antonio Serrao de Castro, the first a natural and facile writer, the second the author of Os Ratos da Inquisifao, a facetious poem composed during his incarceration in the dungeons of the Inquisition, while Diogo de Sousa Camacho showed abundant wit at the expense of the slaves of Gongorism and Marinism. The gallery of epic poets is a large one, but most of their productions are little more than rhymed chronicles and have almost passed into oblivion. The Ulyssea of Gabriel Pereira de Castro describes the foundation of Lisbon by Ulysses, but, notwithstanding its plagiarism of The Lusiads and faults of taste, these ten cantos contain some masterly descriptive passages, and the ottava rima shows a harmony and flexibility to which even Camoens rarely attained; but this praise cannot be extended to the tiresome Ulyssipo of Sousa de Macedo. The Malaca conquistada of Francisco de SI de Menezes, having Alphonso d'Albuquerque for its hero, is prosaic in form, if correct in design. Rodriguez Lobo's twenty cantos in honour of the Holy Constable do him no credit, but the Viriato tragico by that travelled soldier Garcia de Mascarenhas has some vigorous descriptions, and critics reckon it the best epic of the second class. In point of style the historians of the period are laboured and rhetorical; they were mostly credulous friars who wrote in History. their cells, and no longer, as in the i6th century, travellers and men of action who described what they had seen. Frei Bernardo de Brito began his ponderous Monarchia Lusitana with the creation of man and ended it where he should have begun, with the coming of Count Henry to the Peninsula. His contribution is a mass of legends destitute of foundation or critical sense, but both here and in the Chronica de Cister he writes a good prose. Of the four continuers of Brito's work, three are no better than their master, but Frei Antonio Brandao, who dealt with the period from King Alphonso Henriques to King John II., proved himself a man of high intelligence and a learned, conscientious historian. Frei Luiz de Sousa, a typical monastic chronicler, although he had begun life as a soldier, worked up the materials collected by fipfc Poetry Oratory. others, and after much labor limae produced the panegyrical Vida de D. Frei Bartholemeu dos martyres, the Historia de S. Domingos, and the Annaes d'el rei D. Joao III. His style is lucid and vivid, but he lacks the critical sense, and the speeches he puts into the mouths of his characters are imaginary. Manoel de Faria y Sousa (q.v.), a voluminous writer on Portuguese history and the arch-commentator of Camoens, wrote, by an irony of fate, in Spanish, and Mello's classic account of the Catalonian War is also in that language, while, by a still greater irony, Jacinto Freire de Andrade thought to picture and exalt the Cato-like viceroy of India by his grandiloquent Vida de D. Joao de Castro. Other historical books of the period are the valuable Discursos of Severim de Faria, the Portugal restaurado of D. Luis de Menezes, conde de Ericeira, the ecclesiastical histories of Arch- bishop Rodrigo da Cunha, the Agiologio lusitano of Jorge Cardoso and the Chronica da Companhia de Jesus by Padre Balthazar Telles. The las*t also wrote an Historia da Ethiopia, and, though the travel literature of this century compares badly with that of the preceding, mention may be made of the Itinerario da India par terra ate a Uha de Chipre of Frei Caspar de S. Bernardino, and the Relaqao do novo caminho atraves da Arabia e Syria of Padre Manoel Godinho. In the lyth century the religious orders and especially the Jesuits absorbed even more of the activities and counted for more in the public affairs of Portugal than in the preceding age. The pulpit discharged some of the functions of the modern press, and men who combined the gifts of oratory and writing filled it and distinguished themselves, their order and their country. The Jesuit Antonio Vieira (q.v.), missionary, diplomat and voluminous writer, repeated the triumphs he had gained in Bahia and Lisbon in Rome, which proclaimed him the prince of Catholic orators. His 200 sermons are a mine of learning and experience, and they stand out from all others by their imaginative power, originality of view, variety of treatment and audacity of expression. His letters are in a simple conversational style, but they lack the popular locutions, humour and individuality of those of Mello. Vieira was a man of action, while the oratorian Manoel Bernardes lived as a recluse, hence his sermons and devotional works, especially Luz e Color and the Nova Floresta, breathe a calm and sweetness alien to the other, while they are even richer treasures of pure Portuguese. Perhaps the truest and most feeling human documents of the century are the five epistles written by Marianna Alcoforado (q.v.) known to history as the Letters of a Portuguese Nun. Padre Ferreira de Almeida's translation of the Bible has considerable linguistic importance, and philological studies had an able exponent in Amaro de Roboredo. The popular theatre lived on in the Comedias de Cordel, mostly anonymous and never printed its existence would hardly be known were it not for the pieces which fi,eorama were placed on the Index. The popular autos that have survived are mainly religious, and show the abuse of metaphor and the conceits which derive from Gongora. All through this century Portuguese dramatists, who aspired to be heard, wrote, like Jacintho Cordeiro and Mattos Fragoso, in Castilian, though a brilliant exception appeared in the person of Francisco Manoel de Mello (q.v.), whose witty Auto do fidalgo aprendiz in redondilhas is eminently national in language, subject and treatment. Until the Restoration of 1640 the stage remained spellbound by the Spaniards, and when a court once more came to Lisbon it preferred Italian opera, French plays, and zarzuelas to dramatic performances in the vernacular, with the result that both Portuguese authors and actors of repute disappeared. • The 1 8th Century.— The first part of the i8th century differs little from the preceding age except that both affectation and bad taste tended to increase, but gradually signs appeared of a literary revolution, which preceded the political and developed into the Romantic movement. Men of liberal ideas went abroad, chiefly to France, to escape the stupid tyranny that ruled in Church and state, and to their exhortation and example LITERATURE] PORTUGAL 161 are largely due the reforms which were by degrees inaugurated in every branch of letters. Their names were among others Alexandre de Gusmao, the Cavalhciro de Oliveira, Ribeiro Sanches, Correa da Serra, Brotero and Nascimento. They had a forerunner in Luiz Antonio Verney, who poured sarcasm on the prevailing methods of education, and exposed to good effect the extraordinary literary and scientific decadence of Portugal in an epoch-making work, the Verdadeiro methodo de esludar. From time to time literary societies, variously called academies or arcadias, arose to co-operate in the work of reform. In 1720 King John V., an imitator of Louis XIV., ^e™ro/ established the academy of history. The fifteen volumes of its Memorias, published from 1721 to 1756, show the excellent work done by its members, among whom were Caetano de Sousa, author of the colossal Historia da Casa Real porlugueza, Barbosa Machado, compiler of the invaluable Bibliotheca Lusilana, and Scares da Silva, chronicler of the reign of King John I. The Royal Academy of Sciences founded in 1 780 by the 2nd duke of Lafoes, uncle of Queen Maria I., still exists, though its Royal output and influence are small. Its chief contribu- Academy ol tions to knowledge were the Dicdonario da lingua Sciences. portugueza, still unfinished, and the Memorias (1788- 1795), and it included in its ranks nearly all the learned men of the last part of the i8th century. Among them were the ecclesi- astical historian Frei Manoel do Cenaculo, bishop of Beja, the polygraph Ribeiro dos Santos, Caetano do Amaral, a patient investigator of the origins of Portugal, Joao Pedro Riberio, the founder of modern historical studies, D. Francisco Alexandre Lobo, bishop of Vizeu, whose essays on Camoens and other authors show sound critical sense and a correct style, Cardinal Saraiva, an expert on ancient and modern history and the voyages of his countrymen, and Frei Fortunate de S. Boaven- tura, a historical and literary critic. In 1756 Cruz e Silva (q.v.), with the aid of friends, established the Arcadia Ulysiponense, " to form a school of good sayings and good examples in eloquence and poetry." The most Arcadias, considered poets of the day joined the Arcadia and Lyric individually wrote much excellent verse, but they Poetry, Ac. an lacked creative power. The principal Greek and Latin authors were the models they chose, and Garcao, the most prominent Arcadian, composed the Cantata de Dido, a gem of ancient art, as well as some charming sonnets to friends and elegant odes and epistles. The bucolic verse of Quita, a hair- dresser, has a tenderness and simplicity which challenge com- parison with Bernardim Ribeiro, and the Marilia of Gonzaga contains a celebrated collection of bucolic-erotic verse. Their conventionality sets the lyrics of Cruz e Silva on a lower plane, but in the Hyssope he improves on the Lutrin of Boileau. After a chequered existence, internal dissensions caused the dissolution of the Arcadia in 1774. It had only gained a partial success because the despotic rule of Pombal, like the Inquisition before him, hindered freedom of fancy and discussion, and drove the Arcadians to waste themselves on flattering the powerful. In 1790 a New Arcadia came into being. Its two most distin- guished members were the rival poets Bocage (q.v.) and Agostinho de Macedo (q.v.). The only other poet of the New Arcadia who ranks high is Curvo Semedo; but the Dissidents, a name bestowed on those who stood outside the Arcadias, included two distinguished men now to be cited, the second of whom became the herald of a poetical revolution. No Portuguese satirist possessed such a complete equipment for his office as Nicolao Tolentino, and though a dependent position depressed his muse, he painted the customs and follies of the time with almost photographic accuracy, and distributed his attacks or begged for favours in sparkling verse. The task of purifying and enriching the language and restoring the cult of the Quin- hentistas was perseveringly carried out by Francisco Manoel de Nascimento (q.v.) in numerous compositions in prose and verse, both original and translated. Shortly before his death in Paris he became a convert to the Romantic movement, and he prepared the way for its definite triumph in the person of xxii. 6 Almeida Garrett, who belonged to the Filinlistas, or followers of Nascimento, in opposition to the Elmanistas, or disciples of Bocage. Early in the i8th century the spirit of revolt against despot ism led to an attempt at the restoration of the drama by authors sprung from the people, who wrote for spectators as coarse as they were ignorant of letters. Its centres were the theatres of the Bairro Alto and Mouraria, and the numerous pieces staged there belong to low comedy. The Operas portuguezas of Antonio Jos6 da Silva (q.v.), produced between 1733 and 1741, owe their name to the fact that arias, minuets and modinhas were interspersed with the prose dialogue, and if neither the plots, style, nor language are remarkable, they have a real comic force and a certain originality. Silva is the legitimate representative in the i8th century of the popular theatre inaugurated by Gil Vicente, and though born in Brazil, whence he brought the modinha, he is essentially a national writer. Like Silva's operas, the comedies of Nicolao Luiz contain a faithful picture of contemporary society and enjoyed consider- able popularity. Luiz divided his attention between heroic comedies and comedies de capa y espada, but of the fifty-one ascribed to him, all in verse, only one bears his name, the rest appeared anonymously. His method was to choose some Spanish or Italian play, cut out the parts he disliked, and substitute scenes with dialogues in his own way, but he has neither ideals, taste nor education; and, except in Os Maridos Per alias, his characters are lifeless and their conventional passions are expressed in inflated language. Notwithstanding their de- merits, however, his comedies held the stage from 1760 until the end of the century. Meanwhile the Arcadia also took up the task of raising the tone of the stage, but though the ancients and the classic writers of the 1 6th century were its ideals, it drew immediate inspiration from the contemporary French theatre. All its efforts failed, however, because its members lacked dramatic talents and, being out of touch with the people, could not create a national drama. Garcao (q.v.) led the way with the Theatro Novo, a bright little comedy in blank verse, and followed it up with another, AssembUa ou paflida; but he did not persevere. Figueiredo felt he had a mission to restore the drama, and wrote thirteen volumes of plays in prose and verse, but, though he chose national subjects, and could invent plots and draw characters, he could not make them live. Finally, the bucolic poet Quita produced the tragedies Segunda Castro, Hermione and two others, but these imitations from the French, for all the taste they show, were stillborn, and in the absence of court patronage, which was exclusively bestowed on the Lisbon opera, then the best equipped in Europe, Portugal remained without a drama of its own. Sacred eloquence is represented by Fr. Alexandre Palhares, a student of Vieira, whose outspoken attack on vice in high places in a sermon preached before Queen Maria led to his exile from court. The art of letter- writing had cultivators in Abbade Costa, Ribeiro Sanches, physician of Catherine II. of Russia, Alexandre de Gusmao, and the celebrated Cavalheiro de Oli- veira, also author of Memorias politicas e literarias, published at the Hague, whither he had fled to escape the Inquisition. Philological studies were pursued with ardour and many valuable publications have to be recorded, among them Bluteau's Voca- btdario Portuguez, the Reflexoes sobre a lingoa portugueza and an Arte poetica by Francisco Jos6 Freire, the Exercicios and Espirito da lingoa e eloquencia of Pereira de Figueiredo, trans- lator of the Vulgate, and Viterbo's Elucidario, a dictionary of old terms and phrases which has not been superseded. Finally the best literary critic and one of the most correct prose writers of the period is Francisco Dias Gomes. . The igth Century and After. — The igth century witnessed a general revival of letters, beginning with the Romantic move- ment, of which the chief exponents were Garrett (q.v.) and Herculano (q.v.), both of whom had to leave Portugal on account of their political liberalism, and it was inaugurated in the PORTUGAL [LITERATURE field of poetry. Garrett read the masterpieces of contemporary foreign literature during his exiles in England and France, and, The imbued with the national spirit, he produced in 1825 Romantic the poem Camoes, wherein he broke with the estab- t: Hshed rules of composition in verse and destroyed the authority of the Arcadian rhymers. His poetry like that of his fellow emigre, the austere Herculano, is eminently sincere and natural, but while his short lyrics are personal in subject and his longer poems historical, the verse of Herculano is generally subjective and the motives religious or patriotic. The movement not only lost much of its virility and genuineness, but became ultra-Romantic with A. F. de Castilho (q.v.), whose most conspicuous followers were Joao de Lemos and the poets of the collection entitled O Trovador; Scares de Passos, a singer for the sad; the melodious Thomas Ribeiro, who drew his inspiration from Zorilla and voiced the opposition to a political union with Spain in the patriotic poem D. Jayme. Mendes Leal, a king in the heroic style, Gomes de Amorim and Bulhao Pato, belong more or less to the same school. On the other hand Jose Simoes Bias broke with the Romantic tradition in which he had been educated, and successfully sought inspiration from popular sources, as his Peninsulares proves. In 1865 there arose a serious and lengthy strife in the Por- tuguese Parnassus, which came to be known as the Coimbra The question, from its origin in the university city. Coimbra Its immediate cause was the preface which Castilho Question, contributed to the poem Moyda.de of Pinheiro Chagas, and it proclaimed the alliance of poetry with philosophy. The younger men of letters regarded Castilho as the self-elected pontiff of a mutual-praise school, who, ignorant of the literary movement abroad, claimed to direct them in the old paths, and would not tolerate criticism. The revolt against his primacy took the form of a fierce war of pamphlets, and led ultimately to the dethronement of the blind bard. The leaders in the movement were Anthero de Quental (q.v.) and Dr Theophilo Braga, the first a student of German philosophy and poetry, the second a disciple of Comte and author of an epic of humanity, Visao dos tempos, whose immense work in the spheres of poetry, criticism and literary history, marred by contradictions, but abounding in life, cannot be judged at present. In the issue literature gained considerably, and especially poetry, which entered on a period of active and rich production, still un- checked, in the persons of Joao de Deus (q.v.) and the Coim- brans and their disciples. The Campo de flares contains some of the most splendid short poems ever written in Portuguese, and an Italian critic has ventured to call Joao de Deus, to whom God and women were twin sources of inspiration, the greatest love poet of the igth century. Simplicity, spontaneity and harmony distinguished his earlier verses, which are also his best, and their author belongs to no school but stands alone. A preponderance of reflection and foreign influences distinguish the poets now to be mentioned. Anthero de Quental, the chief of the Coimbrans, enshrined his metaphysical neo-Buddhistic ideas overshadowed by extreme pessimism, and marked the stages of his mental evolution, in a sequence of finely-wrought sonnets. These place him in the sacred circle near to Heine and Leopardi, and, though strongly individualistic, it is curious to note in them the influence of Germanism on the mind of a southerner and a descendant of the Catholic navigators of the i6th century. Odes modernas, written in youth, show " Santo Anthero," as his friends called him, in revolutionary, free- thinking and combative mood, and are ordinary enough, but the prose of his essays, e.g. Considerations on the Philosophy of Portuguese Literary History, has that peculiar refinement, clearness and conciseness which stamped the later work of this sensitive thinker. A subtle irony pervades the Rimas of Joao Penha, who links the Coimbrans with Guerra Junqueiro and the younger poets. Partly philosophical, partly naturalistic, Junqueiro began with the ironical com- position, A Morte de D. Joao; in Patria he evoked in a series of dramatic scenes and lashed with satire the kings of the Braganza dynasty, and in Os Simples he interprets in sonorous stanzas the life of country-folk by the light of his powerful imagination and pantheistic tendencies. The Clari- dad.es de Sul of Gomes Leal, a militant anti-Christian, at times recall Baudelaire, and flashes of genius run through Anti- Christo, which is alive with the instinct of revolt. The S6 of the invalidish Antonio Nobre is intensely Portuguese in subjects, atmosphere and rhythmic sweetness, and had a deep influence. Cesario Verde* sought to interpret universal nature and human sorrow, and the Parnassian Goncalves Crespo may be termed a deeper, richer Coppee. His Miniaturas and Noc- turnos have been re-edited by his widow, D. Maria Amalia Vaz de Carvalho, a highly gifted critic and essayist whose personality and cercle call to mind the 18th-century poetess, the Marqueza de Alorna. The French symbolists found an enthusiastic adept in Eugenio de Castro. Antonio Feijo and Jose de Sousa Monteiro have written verse remarkable by its form, while perhaps the most considered of the later poets are Antonio Correa de Oliveira and Lopes Vieira. Many other genuine bards might be mentioned, because the Portuguese race can boast of an unceasing flow of lyric poetry. Garrett took in hand the reform of the stage, moved by a desire to exile the translations on which the playhouses had long subsisted. He chose his subjects from the national history, and began with the Auto de Gil Vicente, in which he resuscitated the founder of the theatre, and followed this up with other prose plays, among which the Alfageme de Santarem takes the palm; finally he crowned his labours by Frei Luiz de Sousa, a tragedy of fatality and pathos and one of the really notable pieces of the century. The historical bent thus given to the drama was continued by the versatile Mendes Leal, by Gomes da Amorim and by Pinheiro Chagas, who all however succumbed more or less to the atmosphere and machi- nery of ultra-Romanticism, while the plays of Antonio Ennes deal with questions of the day in a spirit of combative liberalism. In the social drama, Ernesto Biester, and in comedy Fernando Caldeira, also no mean lyric poet, are two of the principal names, and the latter's pieces, A Mantilha da Renda and A Madrugada, have a delicacy and vivacity which justifies their success. The comedies of Gervasio Lobato are marked by an easy dialogue and a sparkling wit, and some of the most popular of them were written in collaboration with D. Joao de Camara, the leading dramatist of the day, one of whose pieces, Os Velhos, has been translated and staged abroad. To Henrique Lopes de Men- donga, scholar, critic and poet, we owe some strong historical plays as well as the piece Ze Palonso, written with Lobato, which made a big hit. The playwrights also include Julio Dantas, and Dr Marcellino Mesquita, author of Leonor Telles and other historical dramas, as well as of a powerful piece, Dor suprema. Herculano led the way in the historical romance by his Lendas e narrativas and O Monasticvn, two somewhat laboured pro- ductions, whose progenitor was Walter Scott; they still find readers for their impeccable style. Their most popular successors have been A Moqidade de D. Joao V. and A ultima corrida de touros reaes em Salvaterra by Rebello da Silva, and Urn Anno na Corte by the statesman, Andrade Corvo, the first and the last superior books. The novel shares with poetry the predominant place in the modern literature of Portugal, and Camillo Castello Branco (q.v.), Gomes Coelho and Eca de Queiroz are names which would stand very high in any country. The first, a wonderful impressionist though not per- haps a great novelist, describes to perfection the domestic and social life of Portugal in the early part of the igth century. His remarkable works include Amor de Perdic.a.0, Amor de Sal- va$ao, Retrato de Ricardina, and the series entitled Novellas do Minho; moreover some of his essays in history and literary criticism, such as Bohemia do Espirito, rank only next to his romances. Gomes Coelho, better known as Julio Diniz, records his experiences of English society in Oporto in A Familia ingleza, and for his romantic idealism he has been dubbed British; Portuguese critics have accused him of imitating Dickens. PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA 163 His stories, particularly As Pupillas do Snr. Reitor, depict country life and scenery with loving sympathy, and hold the reader by the charm of the characters, but Diniz is a rather subjective monotonous writer who lacks the power to analyse, and he is no psychologist. Eca de Queiroz (q.v.) founded the Naturalist school in Portugal by a powerful book written in 1871, but only published in 1875, under the title The Crime of Father Amaro; and two of his great romances, Cousin Basil and Os Maias, were written during his occupancy of consular posts in England. The Relic conveys the impressions of a journey in Palestine and in parts suggests his indebtedness to Flaubert, but its mysticism is entirely new and individual; while the versatility of his talent further appears in The Cor- respondence of Fradique Mendes, where acute observation is combined with brilliant satire or rich humour. The later por- tion of The City and the Mountains, for the truth and beauty of its descriptive passages, is highly praised, and many pages are already quoted as classic examples of Portuguese prose. Among other novelists are Oliveira Marreca, Pinheiro Chagas, Arnaldo Gama, Luis de Magalhaes and Teixeira de Queiroz, the last of whom is almost as distinctly national a writer as Castello Branco himself. Years of persevering toil in archives and editions of old chronicles prepared Herculano for his magnum opus, the Historia de Portugal. The Historia da Origem e Estabele- ory' cimento da Inquisifao em Portugal followed and confirmed the position of its author as the leading modern historian of the Peninsula, and he further initiated and edited I he important series Portugaliae Monumenta historica. The Visconde de Santarem, and Judice Biker in geography and diplomatics, produced standard works; Luz Soriano com- piled painstaking histories of the reign of King Joseph and of the Peninsular War; Silvestre Ribeiro printed a learned account of the scientific, literary and artistic establishments of Portugal, and Lieut. -Colonel Christovam Ayres was the author of a history of the Portuguese army. Rebello da Silva and the voluminous and brilliant publicists, Latino Coelho and Pin- heiro Chagas, wrote at second hand and rank higher as stylists than as historians. Gama Barros and Costa Lobo followed closely in the footsteps of Herculano, the first by a Historia da Adminislra^ao publica em Portugal nos Seculos XII. a X V., positively packed with learning, the second by a Historia da Sociedade em Portugal no Seculo XV. Though he had no time for original research, Oliveira Martins (q.v.) possessed psycho- logical imagination, a rare capacity for general ideas and the gift of picturesque narration; and in his philosophic Historia de Portugal, his sensational Portugal contemporaneo, Os Filhos de D. Jodo and Vida de Nun' Alvarez, he painted an admirable series of portraits and, following his master Michelet, made the past live again. Furthermore the interesting volumes of his Bibliolheca das Sciencias Sociaes show extensive knowledge, freshness of views and critical independence and they have greatly contributed to the education of his countrymen. Ramalho Ortigao, the art critic, will be remembered prin- cipally for the Farpas, a series of satirical and humorous sketches of Portuguese society which he wrote in collabora- tion with Queiroz. Julio Cesar Machado and Fialho de Almeida made their mark by many humorous publications, and, in the domain of pure literary criticism, mention must be made of Antonio Pedro Lopes de Mendonca, Rebello da Silva, Dr Joaquim de Vasconcellos, Mme Michaelis de Vascon- cellos, Silva Pinto, the favourite disciple of Castello Branco, and of Luciano Cordeiro, founder of the Lisbon Geographical Society, whose able monograph, Soror Marianna, vindicated the authenticity of the Letters of a Portuguese Nun and showed Marianna Alcoforado to be their authoress. Excellent critical work was also done by Moniz Barreto, whose early, death was a serious loss to letters. In scientific literature hardly a single department lacks a name of repute even outside Portugal. The press has accompanied the general progress, and ever since Herculano founded and wrote in the Panorama, the leading writers have almost without exception made both name and livelihood by writing for the papers, but as pure journalists none has excelled Antonio Rodriguez Sarnpaio, Antonio Augusto Teixeira de Vasconcellos and Emygdio Navarro. The leading Portuguese orators of the ipth century, with the exception of Malhao, were not churchmen, as in the past, but politicians. The early days of parliamentary rule produced Manoel Fernandes Thomas and Manoel Omtory- Borges Carneiro, but the most brilliant period was that of the first twenty-five years of constitutional government after 1834, and the historic names are those of Garrett, Manoel da Silva Passos, and the great tribune and apostle of liberty, Jose Estevao Coelho de Magalhaes. The ill-fated Vieira de Castro excited the greatest admiration by his impassioned speeches in the Chamber of Deputies during the 'sixties; the nearest modern counterpart to these distinguished men is the orator Antonio Candido Ribeiro da Costa. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The corner-stones are the Bibliolheca Lusilana of Barbosa Machado and the Diccionario bibliographico portuguez, by Innocencio da Silva, with Brito Aranha's supplement ; while the Bibliotheca Hispana Nova of Nicolao Antonio (1783-1788) may also be referred to. Subsidiary to these are the Manual bibliographico portuguez of Dr Pinto de Mattos, the admirable Catalogo razonado de los Autores Portugueses que escribieron en Castellano, compiled by Garcia Peres (1890), and such publications as Figamere's Catalogo dos Manuscriptos Portugueses no Museu Britannico (1853). The only full general history of the literature comes from the prolific pen of Dr Theophilo Braga (second and revised edition in 32 vols.). The volumes positively bulge with information and contain much acute criticism, but their value is diminished by frequent and need- less digressions and by the fantastic theorizings of their author, a militant Positivist. Of one-volume books on the same subject, Dr Braga's Curso da Historia da Litteratura portugueza and his Theoria da Historia da Litteratura portugueza (3rd ed., 1881) may be recommended, though the plainer Historia da Litteratura portu- gueza, by Dr Mendes dos Remedies (3rd ed., 1908) has the consider- able advantage for foreign students of including a large number of selected passages from the authors named. See also the Chresto- mathia archaica of J. J. Nunes (1905). Among foreign studies the palm must be given to the " Geschichte der portugiesischen Litteratur " by the eminent scholar, Mme Michaelis de Vasconcellos, in the Grundnss der rom. Philologie of Grober (1893-1894). Among general critical studies are Costa e Silva's Ensaio biographica-critico and the masterly work of Menendez y Pelayo, Historia de las ideas estaticas en Espana. Coming to special periods, the student may consult, for the cancioneiros, Mme Michaelis de Vasconcellos, op. cit., and her great edition of the Cancioneiro da Ajuda (1904); also H. R. Lang, Das Liederbuch der Konigs Denis von Portugal (1894). Lopes de Mendonca treats of the literature of the i6th and i?th centuries in articles in the Annaes das sciencias e letras; and the Memorias de litteratura portugueza printed by the Lisbon Academy of Sciences (1792-1814) contain essays on the drama and the Arcadia, but the igth century has naturally received most attention. For that period, see Lopes de Mendonca, Memoiras da litteratura contem- poranea (1855); Romero Ortiz, La Liieratura portugueza en el siglo XIX. (1869), containing much undigested information; and Maxime Formont, Le Mouvement poetique contemporain en Portugal, an able sketch; but the soundest review is due to Moniz Barreto, whose " Litteratura portugueza contemporanea " came out in the Revista de Portugal for July 1889. Students of the modern novel in Portugal should refer to the essays of J. Pereira de Sampaio (" Bruno ") A Gera^ao Nova (1886). Portugal still lacks a collection equivalent to Rivadeneyra's Biblioteca de autores espanoles, contenting itself with the Par- nasso lusitano (6 vols., 1826) and a Corpus ittustrium poetarum lusitanorum qui latine scripserunt (1745-1748), and though much has been accomplished to make the classics more available, even yet no correct, not to say critical, texts of many notable writers exist. The Cancioneiro de Ajuda by Mme Vasconcellos, is the perfection of editing, and there are diplomatic editions of other cancioneiros, e.g. II _ Canzoniere portoghese delta Bibliotheca Vaticana, by E. Monaci (1875), of which Dr Braga hurriedly prepared a critical edi- tion; // Canzoniere portoghese Colocci-Brancuti by E. Molteni (1880), and the Cancioneiro Geral (1846). The Romanceiro portuguez of V. E. Hardung is incomplete. (E. PR.) PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA, or MOZAMBIQUE. This Por- tuguese possession, bounded E. by the Indian Ocean, N. by German East Africa, W. by the Nyasaland Protectorate, Rho- desia and the Transvaal, S. by Tongaland (Natal), has an area of 293,500 sq. m. It is divided in two by the river Zambezi. The northern portion, between the ocean and Lake Nyasa and the Shir6 river, is a compact block of territory, squarish in 164 PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA shape, being about 400 m. long by 360 m. broad. South of the Zambezi the province consists of a strip of land along the coast varying from 50 to 200 m. in depth. Along the Zambezi itself Portuguese territory extends west as far as the Loangwa confluence, some 600 m. by river. Physical Features. — The coast-line extends from 26° 52' S. to 10° 40' S., and from south to north makes a double curve with a general trend outward, i.e. to the east. It has a length of 1430 m. Some 40 m. north of the Natal (Tongoland) frontier is the deep indentation of Delagoa Bay (q.v.). The land then turns outward to Cape Cor- rientes, a little north of which is Inhambane Bay. Bending westward again and passing several small islands, of which the chief is Bazaruto, Sofala Bay is reached. Northward the Zambezi with a wide delta pours its waters into the ocean. From this point onward the coast is studded with small islands, mainly of coral formation. On one of these islands is Mozambique, and immediately north of that port is Conducia Bay. Somewhat farther north are two large bays — Fernao Veloso and Memba. There is a great difference in the charac- ter of the coast north and south of Mozambique. To the north the coast is much indented, abounds in rocky headlands and rugged cliffs while, as already stated, there is an almost continuous fringe of islands. South of Mozambique the coast-line is low, sandy and lined with mangrove swamps. Harbours are few and poor. The difference in character of these two regions arises from the fact that in the northern half the ocean current which flows south between Madagascar and the mainland is close to the coast, and scours out all the softer material, while at the same time the coral animalcules are building in deep waters. But south of Mozambique the ocean current forsakes the coast, allowing the accumulation of sand and alluvial matter. North of Fernao Veloso and Memba the largest bays are Pemba (where there is commodious anchorage for heavy draught vessels), Montepuesi and Tunghi, the last named having for its northern arm Cape Delgado, the limit of Portuguese territory. Orographically the backbone of the province is the mountain chain which forms the eastern escarpment of the continental plateau. It does not present a uniformly abrupt descent to the plains, but in places — as in the lower Zambezi district — slopes gradually to the coast. The Lebombo Mountains, behind Delagoa Bay, nowhere exceed 2070 ft. in height; the Manica plateau, farther north, is higher. Mt Doe rises to 7875 ft. and Mt Panga to 7610 ft. The Gorongoza massif with Mt Miranga (6550 ft.), Enhatete (6050 ft.), and Gogogo (5900 ft.) lies north-east of the Manica plateau, and is, like it, of granitic formation. Gorongoza, rising isolated with precipitous outer slopes, has been likened in its aspect to a frowning citadel. The chief mountain range, however, lies north of the Zambezi, and east of Lake Chilwa, namely, the Namuli Mountains, in which Namuli Peak rises to 8860 ft., and Molisani, Mruli and Mresi attain altitudes of 6500 to 8000 ft. These moun- tains are covered with magnificent forests. Farther north the river basins are divided by well-marked ranges with heights of 3000 ft. and over. Near the south-east shore of Nyasa there is a high range (5000 to 6000 ft.) with an abrupt descent to the lake — ^some 3000 ft. in six miles. The country between Nyasa and Ibo is remarkable for the number of fantastically shaped granite peaks which rise from the plateau. The plateau lands west of the escarpment are of moderate elevation — perhaps averaging 2000 to 2500 ft. It is, however, only along the Zambezi and north of that river that Portuguese territory reaches to the continental plateau. Besides the Zambezi (q.v.) the most considerable river in Portu- guese East Africa is the Limpopo (q.v.) which enters the Indian Ocean about 100 m. north of Delagoa Bay. The Komati (q.v.), Sabi, Busi and Pungwe south of the Zambezi ; the Lukugu, Lurio, Montepuesi (Mtepwesi) and Msalu, with the Rovuma (q.v.) and its affluent the Lujenda, to the north of it, are the other rivers of the province with considerable drainage areas. The Sabi rises in Mashonaland at an altitude of over 3000 ft., and after flowing south for over 200 m. turns east and pierces the mountains some 170 m. from the coast, being joined near the Anglo-Portuguese frontier by the Lundi. Cataracts entirely prevent navigation above this point. Below the Lundi confluence the bed of the Sabi becomes considerably broader, varying from half a mile to two miles. In the rainy season the Sabi is a large stream and even in the " dries " it can be navigated from its mouth by shallow draught steamers for over 150 m. Its general direction through Portuguese territory is east by north. At its mouth it forms a delta 60 m. in extent. The Busi (220 m.) and Pungwe (180 m.) are streams north of and similar in character to the Sabi. They both rise in the Manica plateau and enter the ocean in Pungwe Bay, their mouths but a mile or two apart. The lower reaches of both streams are navigable, the Busi for 25 m., the Pungwe for about 100 m. At the mouth of the Pungwe is the port of Beira. Of the north-Zambezi streams the Lukugu, rising in the hills south-east of Lake Chilwa, flowssputh and enters the ocean not far north of Quilimane. The Lurio, rising in the Namuli Mountains, flows north-east, having a course of some 200 m. The Montepuesi and the Msalu drain the country between the Lurio and Rovuma basins. Their banks are in general well denned and the wet season rise seems fairly constant. Geology. — The central plateau consists of gneisses, granites and schists of the usual East African type which in part or in whole are to be referred to the Archaean system. The next oldest rocks belong to the Karroo period. Their principal occurrence is in the Zambezi basin, where at Tete they contain workable seams of coal, and have yielded plant remains indicating a Lower Karroo or Upper Carboni- ferous age. Sandstones and shales, possibly of Upper Karroo age, form a narrow belt at the edge of the foot-plateau. Upper Cretaceous rocks crop out from beneath the superficial deposits along the coast belt between Delagoa Bay and Mozambique. The Cenomanian period is represented in Conducia by the beds with Puzosia and Acanthoceras, and in Sofala and Busi by the beds with Alectryonia ungulata and Exogyra columba. The highest Cretaceous strata occur in Conducia, where they contain the huge ammonite f 'achy- discus conduciensis. The Eocene formation is well represented in Gazaland by the nummuiitic limestones which have been found to extend for a considerable distance inland. Basalts occur at several localities in the Zambezi basin. On the flanks of Mount Milanje there are two volcanic cones which would appear to be of compara- tively recent date; but the most interesting igneous rocks are the rhyolitic lavas of the Lebombo range. Climate.— The climate is unhealthy on the coast and along the banks of the Zambezi, where malaria is endemic. With moderate care, however, Europeans are able to enjoy tolerably good health. On the uplands and the plateaus the climate is temperate and healthy. At Tete, on the lower Zambezi, the annual mean tempera- ture is 77-9° F., the hottest month being November, 83-3°, and the coldest J[uly, 72-5°. At Quilimane, on the coast, the mean temperature is 85- 1 °, maximum 106-7° and minimum 49-1°. The cool season is from April to August. The rainy season lasts from December to March, and the dry season from May to the end of September. November is a month of light rains. During the mon- soons the districts bordering the Mozambique Channel enjoy a fairly even mean temperature of 76-1°, maximum mean 88-7°, and minimum mean 65-3°. Fauna. — The fauna is rich, game in immense variety being plentiful in most districts. The carnivora include the lion, both of the yellow and black-maned varieties, leopard, spotted hyena, jackal, serval, civet cat, genet, hunting dog (Lycaon piclus) in the Mozambique district, mongoose and spotted otter, the last-named rare. Of ungulata the elephant is plentiful, though large tuskers are not often shot. The black rhinoceros is also common, and south of the Zambezi are a few specimens of white rhinoceros (R. simus). The rivers and marshes are the home of numerous hippopotami, which have, however, deserted the lower Zambezi. The wart-hog and the smaller red hog are common. A species of zebra is plentiful, and herds of buffalo (Bos caffer) are numerous in the plains and in open woods. Of antelopes the finest are the eland and sable antelope. The kudu is rare. Waterbuck, hartebeeste (Bubalislichtensteini), brindled gnu and tsesebe (south of the Zambezi, replaced north of that river by the lechwe and puku), reedbuck, bushbuck, impala, duiker, klipspringer and oribi are all common. The giraffe is not found within the province. Of edentata the scaly ant-eater and porcupine are numerous. Among rodentia hares and rabbits are abundant. There are several kinds of monkeys and lemuroids, but the anthropoids are absent. Crocodiles, lizards, chameleons, land and river tortoises are all very numerous, as are pythons (some 18 ft. long), cobras, puff-adders and vipers. Centipedes and scorpions and insects are innumerable. Among insects mosquitos, locusts, the tsetse fly, the hippo-fly, cockroaches, phylloxera, ter- mites, soldier ants and flying ants are common plagues. As has been indicated, the Zambezi forms a dividing line not crossed by certain animals, so that the fauna north of that river presents some marked contrasts with that to the south. Bird-life is abundant. Among the larger birds flamingoes are especially common in the Mozambique district. Cranes, herons, storks, pelicans and ibises are numerous, including the beautiful crested crane and the saddle-billed stork (Mycleria senegalensis), the last-named comparatively rare. The eagle, vulture, kite, buzzard and crow are well represented, though the crested eagle is not found. Of game birds the guinea fowl, partridge, bustard, quail, wild goose, teal, widgeon, mallard and other kinds o_f duck are all common. Other birds numerously represented are parrots (chiefly a smallish green bird — the grey parrot is not found), ravens, hornbills, buntings, finches, doves, a variety of cuckoo, small wag- tails, a starling with a beautiful burnished bronze-green plumage, spur-winged plovers, stilt birds, ruffs and kingfishers. Flora. — The flora is varied and abundant, though the custom of the natives to burn the grass during the dry season gives to large areas for nearly half the year a blackened, desolate appearance. Six varieties of palms are found— the coco-nut, raphia, wild date, borassus (or fan palm), hyphaene and Phoenix spinosa. The coco- nut is common in the coast regions and often attains 100 ft. ; the date palm, found mostly in marshy ground and by the banks of small rivers, is seldom more than 20 ft. in height. Of the many timber trees a kind of cedar is found in the lower forests; ironwood and ebony are common, and other trees resemble satin and rosewood. The Khaya senegalensis, a very large tree found in ravines and by river banks, affords durable and easily-worked timber; there are PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA 165 several varieties of vitex and of ficus, notably the sycamore, -which bears an edible fruit. Excellent hardwood is obtained from a species of grewia. Other characteristic trees are the mangrove (along the sea shore), sandal-wood, gum copal, baobab and bombax, and, in the lower plain, dracaenas (dragon trees), candalabra euphorbia, and many species of creepers and flowering shrubs. The thorny smilax and many other prickly creepers and shrubs are abundant. Acacias are numerous, including the gum- yielding variety, while landolphia rubber vines grow freely in the forests. Among plants of economic value the coffee, cotton, indigo and tobacco plants are found, as well as the castor oil and other oleaginous plants. Bananas, mangoes and pineapples grow in great profusion. Among flowers crinum lilies, lotus, gentians, gladioli, lobelias, violets (scentless), red and yellow immortelles (confined to the higher elevations) and yellow and blue amomums are common. Of grasses the bamboo is common. Phragmites communis, spear grass, with its waving, snowy plumes, grows 12 to 14 ft. and is abundant along the river banks and along the edges of the marshes. (For the flora of the Nyasa region see B RITISH CENTRAL AFRICA.) Inhabitants. — Portuguese East Africa is sparsely inhabited, the estimated population (1909) being 3,120,0x30; 90% of the inhabitants belong to various Bantu tribes, from whose ranks most of the natives employed in the Transvaal gold mines are recruited. The most important in the northern half of the province are the Yaos (q.v.) and the Ma Kua (Makwa). The Makwa, notwithstanding the presence of Arabs, Banyans (Hindus) and Battias in all the coast districts, have preserved in a remarkable degree their purity of race, although their language has undergone considerable change (see BANTU LANGUAGES). Most of the country between the Rovuma and the Zambezi is populated by branches of this race, governed by numerous petty chiefs. The Makwa are divided into four families or groups — the Low Makwa, the Lomwe or Upper Makwa, the Maua and the Medo. Yao possess the country between the Msalu river and Nyasa. The dominant race be- tween the Zambezi and the Mazoe are the Tavala, other tribes in the same region being the Maravi, Senga, Muzimba and Muzuzuro. They are mainly of Zulu origin. Between the Zambezi and the Pungwe are the Barue, Batoka, &c. In the district south of the Pungwe river, known as Gazaland, the ruling tribes are of Zulu origin, all other tribes of different stock being known as Tongas. For the most part these Tongas resemble the Basutos. They are of peaceful disposition. They occupy themselves with stock-raising and agriculture. The white inhabitants numbered about 9000 in 1909. They are chiefly Portuguese and British and nearly a half live in Lourenco Marques. There are many Portuguese half-castes. Chief Towns. — The chief towns are Lourenco Marques, Mozambique, Quilimane, Inhambane, Beira, Chinde and Sofala, all separately noticed. The other European settlements are Chingune (see SOFALA), Angoxa and Ibo on the coast, and Sena, Tete and Zutnbo on the Zambezi. Angoxa lies midway between Quilimane and Mozambique, dates from the i?th century, and is a small and little frequented port. Ibo, founded by the Portu- guese at the beginning of the xyth century, is built on an island, likewise called Ibo, in 12° 20' S., 40° 38' E. off the northern arm of Montepuesi Bay, and 180 m. north of Mozambique. Ibo Island is one of a group known as the Querimba archipelago. The harbour is sheltered but shallow. The town attained considerable dimensions in the I7th century and was made the headquarters of the Cape Delgado district in the i8th century. The most prominent buildings are two forts, one disused. The other, called San Joao, is star-shaped and was built, according to an inscription over the gateway, in 1791. The Zambezi towns (Sena, Tete and Zumbo) mark the limits of penetration made by the Portuguese inland. Comparatively important places in the iyth and early part of the i8th centuries, with the decline of Portuguese power they fell into a ruinous condition. The opening up of Rhodesia and British Central Africa in the last quarter of the igth century gave them renewed life. Sena, some 150 m. by river from Chinde, is built at the foot of a hill on the southern side of the Zambezi, from which it is now distant 2 m., though in the middle of the i6th century the river flowed by it. Sena possesses an 18th-century fort, a modern government house and a church dedicated to St Ma real. Tete, founded about the same time as Sena, is also on the south bank of the Zambezi. It is about 140 m. by the river above Sena. Since 1894 there has been a regular service of steamers between Tete and Chinde. Of the ancient town little remains save the strongly-built fort and the church. The new town dates from about 1860, when there was a revival of the trade in gold dust and ivory. This trade, however, became practi- cally extinct by 1903; the gold dust traffic through exhaustion of supplies, and the ivory trade through diversion to other routes. A transit trade to British possessions north and south of Tete has been developed, and in 1906 some gold mines in the neighbourhood began crushing ore. Zumbo is picturesquely situated just below the Loangwe confluence and commands large stretches of navigable water on the Loangwe and middle Zambezi. The 17th-century town was deserted in consequence of the hostility of the natives. In 1859 David Livingstone found on its site nothing but the ruins of a few houses. Since then a new settlement has been made, and Zumbo has acquired some Irani it trade with Rhodesia. On the line of railway from Beira to Rhodesia the most important town is Massi Kessi (Portuguese Macequece) in the centre of the Manica goldfields. It lies 2500 ft. above the sea, 194 m. north-west of Beira by rail, and is close to the British frontier. Along the railway from Lourenco Marques to the Transvaal frontier are stations marking the position of small settlements. The last Portuguese station is named Ressano Garcia; the first Transvaal station Komati Poort. Communications. — The Zambezi is navigable by light draught steamers throughout its course in Portuguese territory with one break at the Kebrassa Rapids — 400 m. fram its mouth. By means of the Shire affluent of the Zambezi there is direct steamer and rail- way connexion with British Central Africa. The navigability of the other rivers of the province has been indicated. From Lourenjo Marques railways run to Swaziland and the Transvaal, and from Beira there is a railway to Rhodesia. These lines, built to foster trade with countries beyond Portuguese territory, link the ports named to the British railway systems in South and Central Africa. The route for a railway to connect Beira with Sena was surveyed in 1906-1907, a route from Quilimane to the Zambezi being also surveyed. A light railway (50 m. long) goes inland from Matamba, on Inhambane Bay, serving northern Gazaland. Native caravan routes traverse every part of the country, but these are mere tracks, and in general communication is difficult and slow. Lourengo Marques, Beira, Mozambique and other ports are in telegraphic communication with Europe via South Africa and Zanzibar, and a cable connects Mozambique with Madagascar. Inland telegraph lines connect the ports with the adjacent British possessions. British, German and Portuguese steamship lines maintain regular communication between Lourencp Marques and other ports and Europe and India. In 1908 some 1700 vessels of 3,400,000 tons visited the ports of the province. Agriculture and Other Industries. — The country from the Rovuma to the Zambezi is of great fertility, the richest portion being that between Angoxa and Quilimane. In -the basin of the Zambezi the soil is fertilized by the inundations of the river. The low coast land of the Gaza country is almost equally fruitful. A great part of the country is suitable for the growth of the sugar-cane, rice, ground-nuts, coffee and tobacco. The two last named plants, as also cotton, vanilla, tea and cloves, are not a success in the Quili- mane region, where coco-nuts and ground-nuts are the chief crops. Rubber vines are largely grown in the Mozambique district and the M.ozambique Company has large plantations of coffee and sugar. There are numerous sugar factories and rice plantations in the Zam- bezi district. The natives devote their attention to the raising of oleaginous crops and of maize, cassava, beans, &c. Wheat and other cereals are grown in the valley of the Zambezi. Large herds of cattle are raised. The system prevails in many districts of dividing the land into prazos (large agricultural estates) in which the natives cultivate various crops for the benefit of the European leaseholder, who is also tax-collector for his district and can claim the tax either in labour or produce. Fish are plentiful along the coast, and pearls are obtained off the Bazaruto Isles. Turtles are caught in the Querimba archipelago. Spirits, sugar, fibres and pottery are practically the only commodi- ties manufactured. The hunting of game for ivory and skins affords employment to large numbers of people. Mineral Resources. — There are immense deposits of coal in the neighbourhood of Tete and near Delag^oa Bay, and adjoining the coalfields ironstone of the best quality is plentiful. Malachite and copper are found in the interior, north-west of Mozambique. The i66 PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA whole of the region north of Delagoa Bay to the Zambezi and inland to and beyond the Portuguese frontier is auriferous, and ancient gold workings abound. Many writers have sought to identify this region with the land of Ophir. In Manica several gold mines are worked. In 1906—1907 a rich formation similar to the American " placer " deposits was discovered in the Manica goldfields. Gold mines are also worked at Missale and Chifumbaze, to the north of Tete. The Missale mines are just south of the frontier of British Central Africa. Petroleum is found near Inhambane, as is also a curious elastic- like substance named inhangellite, resembling bitumen, chiefly de- rived from masses of a gelatinous alga (see Kew Bulletin, No. 5, 1907). Commerce. — The chief exports are rubber, sugar, coal (from the Transvaal), beeswax, coco-nuts, copra and mangrove bark, ivory (including hippopotamus teeth and rhinoceros horns), skins and hides, ground-nuts, and oilseeds, monkey-nuts, mealies, cattle (to Madagascar), cotton, tobacco, gold and other minerals. The prin- cipal imports for consumption in the province are cotton goods, hardware and foodstuffs. The " Kaffir " trade is largely in cheap wines of a highly deleterious character, blankets, hats and shoes, brass wire and Venetian beads. Immense quantities of cheap wine are bought by the natives. There is at Lourenco Marques and at Beira a large transit trade to and from the Transvaal and Rhodesia respectively. The average annual value of the external trade of the province for the five years 1901-1905 was about £5,500.000. In 1909 the total trade of the province — including re-exports and goods in transit — exceeded £10,000,000. Fully 50% of this trade was in transit to or from the Transvaal. (See further LOURENC.O MARQUES; BEIRA, &c.) The trade of the province is chiefly with Great Britain, India, Germany and Portugal. The retail trade both at the seaports and in the settlements inland is largely in the hands of British Indians — Banyans, Battias and Parsees. On the coast there are several native ports of call, between which and Madagascar a large surreptitious trade in slaves was carried on until 1877. With this island, and also with Zanzibar, there is a large general coasting trade. Administration, Revenue, &c. — Formerly called Mozambique, the province since 1891 bears the official title of State of East Africa. It is under a governor-general, appointed for three years, and for administrative purposes is divided into several districts. There is a government council, instituted in 1907, composed partly of officials and partly of elected representatives of the commercial, industrial and agricultural communities. There is also a provincial coun- cil " with the attributions of an administrative and account tribunal." In each district is a subsidiary council. The governor-general resides at Lourengo Marques and has under his immediate direction the Delagoa Bay district. Gazaland (q.v.) and the district of Inhambane are also governed directly by Portu- guese officials. The greater part of the country between the Sabi River and the Zambezi, including the Manica and Sofala regions, is administered, under a charter granting sovereign rights for 50 years from 1891, by the Companhia de Mozambique, which has its head- quarters at Beira. The Quilimane, Chinde and Zambezi regions are administered by representatives of the governor-general, with headquarters at Mozambique. The Zambezi Company has large trading concessions over this district. North of the Quilimane district the coast region and adjacent islands go under the name of Angoxa. The territory between the Lurio and Rovuma rivers and Lake Nyasa is governed by the Companhia do Nyasa under a royal charter. Revenue is obtained largely from customs and a hut tax on natives. The annual revenue of the province is about £1,000,000. A military force, about 4000 strong, is maintained, including 1200 to 1400 Europeans. Education is chiefly in the hands of Roman Catholic missionaries. History. — It is uncertain at what period the east coast of Africa south of Somaliland was first visited by the maritime races of the east. There is, however, no reason to doubt that by the loth century A.D. the Arabs had occupied the 'seaboard as far south as Sofala, and that they carried on an active trade between East Africa and Arabia, the Persian Gulf and India. The Arabs built fine towns and exercised control over the coast peoples, but do not appear to have pushed their conquests far inland. They had extensive commercial dealings, chiefly in gold, ivory and slaves, with the Bantu potentates who ruled over the middle Zambezi valley and the country now known as Mashonaland. Until the close of the isth century the Arab supremacy was unchallenged. But in 1498 Vasco da Gama entered the mouth of a river which he called Rio dos Bons Sinaes (River of Good Tokens), as there he first found himself in contact with the civilization of the East. This stream was the Quilimane River, taken by the Portuguese a little later to be the main mouth of the Zambezi. From this river da Gama continued his voyage, putting in at Mozambique and Mombasa on his way to India. Hostilities between the Arabs and Portu- guese'broke out almost immediately; da Gama, indeed, in his first voyage had some trouble with the sultan of Mozambique. In 1502 da Gama paid a visit to Sofala to make inquiries concerning the trade in gold carried on at that place, and the reports as to its wealth which reached Portugal led to the despatch in 1505 of a fleet of six ships under Pedro da Nhaya with instructions to establish Portuguese influence at Sofala. Da Nhaya was allowed to build a fort close to the Arab town. The fort, built in three months, was shortly afterwards attacked by a band of Bantus, who acted on the instigation of the Arabs. The attackers were driven off and the Arabs forced to acknow- ledge Portuguese rule. In 1 509 a captain of Sofala and a factor, or chief trader, were sent out, and from this time the trade of the port fell to the Portuguese. Sofala, however, was not a suitable harbour for the refitting and provisioning of ships on the way to India, and to obtain such a port Mozambique was seized and fortified in 1507-. By 1510 the Portuguese were masters of all the former Arab sultanates on the East African coast. The northern half of this region, from Kilwa to Mukdishu, has passed out of their possession; here it is only necessary to out- line the history of the country still under the Portuguese Crown. For forty years Sofala was their only station south of the Zambezi. Thence they traded with the monomotapa or chief of the " Mocaranga " (i.e. the Makalanga or Karanga) in whose territory were the mines whence the gold exported from Sofala was obtained. At that time this chief was a powerful potentate exercising authority over a wide area (see MONOMOTAPA). The efforts made by the Portuguese from Sofala to reach him were unsuccessful. It was probably the desire to penetrate to the "land of gold" by an easier route that led, in 1544, to the establishment of a station on the River of Good Tokens, a station from which grew the town of Quilimane. About the same time the Portuguese penetrated inland along the Zambezi, known then as the River of Sena, and founded the trading ports of Sena and Tete, or, perhaps, annexed already existing Arab towns of those names. It was at this period also that Lourenco Marques and a companion, sent out by the captain of Mozambique, entered Delagoa Bay and opened up trade with the natives. This was the most southerly point occupied by the Portuguese. For three centuries however the fine har- bour was little used, and its ultimate development was due to the discovery of another " land of gold " — the Witwaters- rand — beyond Portuguese territory. In the i6th century the Portuguese turned their energies towards the Zambezi valley. In 1569 their East African dominions, hitherto dependent on the viceroyalty of India, were made a separate government with headquarters at Mozambique. Francisco Barreto, a former viceroy of India, appointed governor of the newly formed province, was instructed by King Sebastian to conquer the country of the gold mines. The route via the Zambezi, and not that by Sofala, was chosen by Bar- reto— in opposition to the desires of his council, but in accord with the advice of a Dominican friar named De Monclares. This advice proved fatal owing to the deadly climate of the Zambezi valley. Barreto's expedition, including over 1000 Europeans, started in November 1569, and from Sena marched south, an arrangement having been come to with the monomo- tapa by which the Portuguese were granted a right of way to the gold mines on condition of their attacking a rebel vassal of that chieftain. Barreto attacked and defeated this rebel, but received no help from the monomotapa, and his force was so greatly weakened by deaths and disease that he was obliged to return to Sena, whence he went to Mozambique to put down disorder among the Portuguese there. He returned to Sena in 1570, only to die a few days after his arrival. His successor Vasco Fernandes Homem, got together another expedition and made his way inland from Sofala to a region where he saw the ground being worked for gold. The comparative poorness of the mine filled him, it is stated, with disappointment, and he returned to Sofala. Thus these, the most important efforts made by the Portuguese to obtain possession of the interior, ended in failure. PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA 167 Towards the end of the i6th century the Portuguese posts on the Zambezi were attacked by hordes of savages known as Muzimba, and Tete and Sena were destroyed. The captain- general of Mozambique — the province had been again attached to the Indian viceroyalty — was only able to make peace on promise not to interfere with matters which concerned only the native tribes. Thereafter the Portuguese often had to defend even the coast towns from attacks by the Bantus. Still they held one or two posts in the interior besides those on the Zam- bezi. Of these the chief appears to have been Masapa, on the river Mansovo, i.e. Mazoe, in what is now Mashonaland, and about 150 m. by road from Tete. Near Masapa dwelt the monomotapa, an insignificant chieftain, the power of the Maka- langa having been broken by revolts of once subject tribes and by dissensions among the Makalanga themselves. In 1629 a treaty was concluded with a claimant to the chieftainship who embraced Christianity. This man, known as the Monomotapa Filippe, declared himself a vassal of Portugal, and with the help of Dominican friars and a number of half-breeds established his authority. The Portuguese, however, failed to make any effective use of their East African possessions. Among the causes of their non-success in the years immediately following the period of con- quest must be reckoned the " Sixty Years' Captivity " (1580- 1640), when the Spanish and Portuguese crowns were united, and the neglect of Africa for the richer possessions in India and the Far East. A more important and permanent reason for the non-development of Mozambique province was its unhealthy and enervating climate, which prevented European colonization. The few thousands of Portuguese who went out were chiefly officials, and they and the small body of planters led in general a life of indolence and debauchery. Commerce too was ham- pered and good government rendered impossible through the system of farming out the administration to officials who were in return granted a monopoly of trade, and even when this system was abandoned trade was confined to Portuguese sub- jects.1 But for many years the Jesuits and Dominicans were unceasing in their endeavours to win the native races to Christianity, the friars being the most energetic section of the white community. The first Jesuit missionaries began work in the province in the neighbourhood of Inhambane in 1560; in the same year another Jesuit, Goncalo da Silveira, made his way to the Zimbabwe (chief kraal) of the monomotapa, by whose orders he and his converts were strangled (March 16, 1561). Mission work was soon afterwards begun by the Dominicans and the two orders between them had agents spread over the greater part of the country from Mozambique southward. They gained thousands of at least nominal converts, notably the heir of one of the monomotapas, who was baptized in 1652 and who, renouncing his heirship, became vicar of the convent of Santa Barbara in Goa. But during the i8th century the zeal of the missionaries declined; in 1759 the Jesuits were expelled, and two years later the Dominicans were sent to Goa. At that time they had been, together with a few white, Goanese and half-caste traders, for fully a century practically the only re- presentatives of Portugal in the interior (the towns on the Zam- bezi excepted). Portugal's influence was confined to helping one tribe in its quarrel with another, in return for favours re- ceived. The Portuguese were quite unable to take advantage of the disunion of the natives to establish their own supremacy. The exhaustion and enfeeblement of Portugal had, in short, its natural effect in Africa. In the early years of the i8th century the Arabs wrested from the Portuguese their African possessions 'north of Cape Delgado; the Dutch, French and British had been for some time menacing their trade and possessions in the south. In 1604, 1607 and again in 1662 the Dutch unsuccessfully attacked Mozambique, which was also attacked by the Arabs in 1670. The merchants of Sofala and Mozambique had, since the middle of the I7th century, found a new source of wealth in the export of slaves to Brazil, a trade due directly to the capture of the ports of Angola by the Dutch (1640-1648), but 1 Until 1853, when commerce was made free to all nations. continued until nearly the middle of the igth century.2 Other trade declined steadily, the continual state of warfare among the tribes of the inland plateaus greatly reducing the production of gold. In 1752 the government of the East African possessions was again separated from that of Goa, and twenty years later Francisco Jose Maria de Lacerda e Almeida, a man of high attainments, made governor of the province at his own request, endeavoured to reform the administration. Lacerda is chiefly remembered for his journey to the heart of Central Africa, where he died in October 1798. Lacerda had conceived the idea of establishing a chain of Portuguese posts across the continent from Mozambique to Angola, and his statesmanlike prescience was shown by his prediction that the seizure of Cape Town by the British would lead to the extension of British rule over Central Africa, thus isolating the Portuguese provinces on the east and west coasts. After Lacerda's death a state of apathy and decay was again manifest throughout Portuguese East Africa. During the greater part of the igth century the country south of the Zambezi was devastated by hordes of savages of Zulu origin (see GAZALAND). The discoveries of David Livingstone in the Zambezi basin in the period 1850-1865 attracted the attention of the British to those regions and led to the establishment of British settle- ments at the southern end of Lake Nyasa and in the Shire high- lands. These events aroused anxiety in Lisbon, which was increased when the British obtained a prepondering influence in Matabele, Mashona and Manica lands — the lands of the earlier monomotapas. With sudden energy the Portuguese engaged in the " scramble for Africa," and though the result was disappointing to the patriotic feelings of the people they secured from their powerful neighbours— Great Britain and Germany — much better terms than might have been antici- pated, having regard to the extremely limited area over which they exercised any sort of jurisdiction. The story of the par- tition is set forth fully in AFRICA, § 5. Before the "scramble" began, Portugal had been fortunate in securing, in 1875, as the result of arbitration, complete possession of the fine harbour of Delagoa Bay, the southern half of which had been claimed by Great Britain in virtue of acts of annexation in 1823 and later years. The pressure of political events and the commercial activity of her rivals induced Portugal to take steps to develop the agricultural and mineral resources of the territory secured to her by international agreements. Imitating the policy of Great Britain, charters conveying sovereign powers were granted to the Mozambique Company in 1891, and to the Nyasa Company in 1893. Both these companies, as well as the Zambezi Company (which lacks a charter), undertook to open up the territory com- mitted to their care. In all of them British capital is largely engaged. The total decay of Sofala, the removal of the seat of government from Mozambique to Lourenco Marques, the rise of the last named port and of Beira (both largely dependent on the transit trade with British possessions), all served to mark the changed condition of affairs. An agreement concluded in 1909 between the Transvaal and Portugal gave Delagoa Bay from 50 to 55% of the import trade with the Transvaal, the Portuguese agreeing further to facilitate the recruitment of natives in the province for work on the Rand mines. The development, in the early years of the 2oth century, of rubber, rice, sugar and other plantations also gave a new impetus to commerce. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — E. de Vasconcellos, As Colonies portugueza:, pp. 212-299 (2nd ed., Lisbon, 1903) and A. Negreiros, La Mozambique (Paris, 1904). The last named, somewhat untrustworthy in the historical sketch, is valuable for its flora and fauna sections. For the regions south of the Zambezi see R. C. F. Maugham, Portuguese East Africa (London, 1906) and Zambesia (London, 1909) ; O Temtorio de Manica e Sofala . . . 1892-1900 (Lisbon, 1902), a monograph prepared by the Mozambique Company; Commandant Smits, " La Compaenie a charte de Mozambique " in Le Momement %to- graphique of Brussels (1906). For the districts north of the Zambezi * Slavery was not abolished until 1878. i68 PORTUGUESE GUINEA see W. B. Worsfold, Portuguese Nyassaland (London, 1899); Major J. Stevenson-Hamilton's paper in Geog. Journ. (Nov. 1909) ; V. A. d'Ega, " Esboco geographico-historico dos territorios Portugueses entreo IndicoeoNyassa " inBol. soc. geo. Lisboa (1901). Forgeology consult A. A. F. de Andraada, " A Geological Reconnaissance of the Portuguese Territories between Lorenzo Marques and the Zambezi River," review in Ceol. Mag. (1897); R. B. Newton, " Note on the Occurrence of Nummulitic Limestone in South-eastern Africa," Geol. Mag. (1896) ; Paul Choffat, Cretacique de conducia, com. d. service geol. du Portugal (1903). Ethnology and philology have received considerable attention. See M. M. Feio, Indigenes de Mozambique (Lisbon, 1900) ; J. V. do Sacramento, " Apontames sobre a lingua maciia " in Bol. soc. geo. Lisboa, 22nd and 23rd series (1904 and 1905); H. A. Junod, Les Chants et les contes des Ba-Ronga de la baie de Delagoa (Lausanne, 1897). For history see G. M'C. Theal's Records of South- Eastern Africa (9 vols., London, 1898-1903), containing texts of original documents and MSS., with translations in English ; History and Ethnography of South Africa to 1795 (3 vols., London, 1907-1910) ; and The Portuguese in South Africa (London, 1896); Pere Courtois, Notes chronologiques sur les anciennes missions catholiques au Zambezi (Lisbon, 1889); Joao dos Santos, Ethiopia oriental . . . (Lisbon, 1609), an account of the travels of one of the early missionaries in Mozambique. A reprint, edited by M. D'Aze- vendo, was published at Lisbon in 1891. Valuable records of the state of the country in the last half of the igth century are contained in the reports to the foreign office of the British consuls at Mozam- bique, notably those of Lieut. H. E. O'Neill, R.N., and Lyons McLeod. See also O'Neill's The Mozambique and Nyassa Slave Trade (London, 1885); McLeod's Travels in Eastern Africa, with the Narrative of a Residence in Mozambique (London, 1860); and Travels . . . [in] Eastern and Central Africa (London, 1879) from the journals of Captain J. F. Elton (consul at Mozambique), compiled by H. B. Cotterill. See further D. and C. Livingstone, Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries, &c. (London, 1865), and the works cited under DELAGOA BAY and ZIMBABWE. Reference may also be made to the bibliography under BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA. (F. R. C.) PORTUGUESE GUINEA, a Portuguese colony in West Africa, extending along the Guinea coast from Cape Roxo in 12° 19' N. to the Cogon estuary in 10° 50' N. Inland it reaches to 13° 40' W., being enclosed landward by French territory, the Casamance district of Senegal to the N., and French Guinea E. and S. (For map, see FRENCH WEST AFRICA.) The colony has an area of about 14,000 sq. m., and a population variously estimated at from 200,000 to 800,000. It consists largely of a low-lying deltaic region, together with an adjacent archipelago of small islands called the Bissagos. The coast-line is deeply indented by estuaries into which flow numerous rivers whose sources are in the elevated region on the eastern border of the colony. The largest estuary, the Geba, receives the river of the same name, the Mancoa, a northern affluent, and the Rio Grande or Comba; the last a large stream rising in the highlands of Futa Jallon. North of the Geba estuary is the Rio Cacheo, while.in the south is the Rio Cassini, in reality an arm of the sea. These rivers and estuaries are connected with one another and with many smaller rivers by a network of lagoons ; and the Bissagos Islands, which lie off the Geba estuary, formed at one time part of the mainland. The Bissagos, protected seaward by dangerous breakers, consist of over thirty islands, besides many small reefs. The largest island, Orango, is the most southerly of the group and some 30 m. from the coast. Bulama and Bissao, islands of more importance, lie close to the mainland. The larger rivers can be ascended by vessels of considerable size for distances of 40 to 150 m., but navigation is rendered difficult by strong currents and the shift- ing nature of the channels as well as by hidden rocks and the great difference between high and low water. The climate is unhealthy, with a mean temperature of about 78° F. The rainfall is heavy, thunderstorms being frequent in the wet season, which lasts from May to October. Flora and Fauna. — Large forest regions extend behind the man- grove-lined lagoons. Their characteristic trees are the oil and date palms, the baobab, the shea-butter tree, ebony, mahogany and calabash trees, and the acacia. Rubber vines are fairly abundant. Besides the forests, densest along the river valleys, there are exten- sive tracts of grassland and park-like country. Fruit trees include the papaw, with fruit the size of ostrich eggs, the guava, custard apple, mango, the banana, the orange and the citron. The tobacco, indigo and cotton plants grow wild, and the coffee plant is also found. Ground-nuts and kola nuts are cultivated, and rice and millet are the chief crops grown. The elephant is found in the district between the Geba and Grande rivers, and hippopotamus are numerous. Other animals include the panther, wild boar, various antelopes, baboons, chimpanzees and large snakes. Crocodiles and sharks abound in the rivers. Birds include the pelican, heron, marabout, the trumpet bird and innumerable yellow parrots. Partridges and woodcock are also found. The hills of the termites are a notable feature in many parts of the country. Inhabitants. — The people of the interior are mostly Mandingo (q.v .) and Fula (g.f.). The coast regions and the islands are inhabited by negro tribes which live side by side without mixing, each pre- serving their own customs, dress, language and type. They exhibit great attachment to the soil and are profoundly religious, being noted specially for their respect for family life and ancestral worship. Neither Christianity nor Mahommedanism has made much headway among them. Going from south to north the chief tribes are the Nalu, who dwell by the Cassini and are keen traders and lovers of peace; the Biafare or Biaffade, who occupy the region between the sea and the Rio Grande and jealously guard their country from strangers; the Bulam (Mankaie), living in the island of Bulama, and much given to adorning their bodies by long cuts formed into patterns; the Balanta, a piratical folk inhabiting the banks of the Geba; the Papel of the island of Bissao, formerly cannibals, an industrious agricultural tribe which furnishes the majority of the educated Africans employed by the Portuguese; the Manjak or Mandiago, and a branch of the Felup peoples, these last living near the Rio Cacheo in savage isolation and much given to waylaying and pillaging strangers. The Manjak inhabit the country between the Mancoa and the Cacheo, and the neighbouring islands. They are a hospitable and clever people, very adaptable, do not object to leaving their tribal lands, and are said to keep their word. Excellent seamen, good artisans and sharp traders, they maintain a sort of feudal system. Their houses are surrounded by walls, which are pierced with loopholes and provided with towers at the angles. The rooms are built round a courtyard. They examine the entrails of fowl to foretell good or evil events. The burial customs are elaborate. The body is smoked and, the skin having been removed, it is sewn up in a number of pagns (native cloths) and placed in a coffin fastened by gilded nails. Bright tissues are wrapped round the coffin, on which are hung little bells of copper and small brass mirrors. The seaward islands of the Bissagos are inhabited by an independent and warlike tribe of fishers and pirates called Bidiogos. Their women wear a short skirt made of palm leaves. The natives who adopt Portuguese names and who form the bulk of the townsmen in the European settlements are called Gurmettes. They furnish the levies with which the authorities occasionally make war on the native tribes. The chief centres of trade are Bissao, on the island of the same name, which is sur- rounded by old fortifications; Cacheo, on the Rio Cacheo, also fortified; and Bulama (Boulam) on Bulama Island, the seat of the government. The European population consists of a few Portu- guese officials, soldiers, traders and convicts, and a few traders of other nationalities. History. — Bulama Island was discovered by Portuguese navigators in 1446, but was not formally claimed by Portugal until 1752, about which. time she founded a station at Bissao, while in 1669 a post had been established on the Rio Grande. In 1870 a claim made by Great Britain to Bulama and a part of the mainland was disallowed by the arbitrator appointed (Presi- dent Grant of the U.S.A.). The inland limits of the Portuguese sphere were fixed by a convention concluded with France in 1886, and the frontier was delimited during 1900-1903. Though so long settled in the district — the only part of the Guinea coast west of the Gabun left in her possession — Portugal has done little towards its development. With a fertile and well-watered soil, exceedingly rich in natural products, there is not much commerce, and such trade as exists, chiefly in non- Portuguese hands, is hampered by excessive customs duties and vexatious regulations. In 1905 the external trade of the colony was not more than £160,000 and was less than it had been twenty years previously. Ground-nuts, rubber, wax and ivory are the principal exports. Revenue and expenditure are about £50,000 a year. Portuguese authority does not in fact extend much beyond the few stations maintained, nor has the local government won the confidence of the natives. In 1908 Bissao and some European settlements on the mainland were besieged by the Papel and other tribes and troops had to be sent from Portugal before order could be restored. If however agriculture and commerce suffer, the ethnologist and zoologist find in this easily accessible little enclave a rich field for investi- gation, the almost nominal sovereignty of Portugal having left the country, practically uninfluenced by European culture, in much the same condition that it was in the i6th and i?th centuries. See J. E. Giraud, " La Guinee portugaise " in Bull. soc. geog. Marseille (1905), vol. xxix. ; A. L. de Fonseca, " Guin6 " in Bull, soc. geog. Lisboa (1905), vol. xxiii. ; R. Wagner, " Portugiesisch PORTUNUS— POSEIDON 169 Guinea: Land und Leute," in Deutsche Rundschau. (1905), vol. xxvii. ; E. de Vasconcelles, As Colonias Portugueses (Lisbon, 1896- 1897); and J. Machat, Les Rivieres du sud (Paris, 1906), in which are cited many papers dealing with Portuguese Guinea. PORTUNUS, or PORTUMNUS, in Roman mythology, originally the god of gates and doors (Lat. porta), and as such identified with Janus and represented with a key in his hand. Gradually he came to be recognized as a separate deity, who protected the harbours (portus) and ensured a safe return to seafarers. (Cicero, Nat. dear. ii. 26; Virgil, Aen. v. 241). With the in- troduction of the Greek gods, he became merged in Palaemon- Melicertes. He had a special priest (flamen portunalis) and temples on the Tiber near the Aemilian bridge and near Ostia, where a festival was celebrated in his honour on the iyth of August. Mommsen unhesitatingly identifies Portunus with the river-god Tiberinus, from the fact that the festival is also called Tiberinalia in the fasti of Philocalus; Marquardt regards him rather as the tutelary deity of warehouses. See J. Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung (1885), iii. 327, note 10. PORTUS, an ancient harbour of Latium, Italy, on the right bank of the Tiber, at its mouth. For its origin see OSTIA. Claudius constructed the first harbour here, 25 m. north of Ostia, enclosing an area of 170 acres, with two long curving moles projecting into the sea, and an artificial island, bearing a light- house, in the centre of the space between them; the harbour thus opened directly to the sea on the north-west and communicated with the Tiber by a channel on the south-east. The object was to obtain protection from the prevalent south-west wind, to which the river mouth was exposed. Though Claudius, in the in- scription which he caused to be erected in A.D. 46, boasted that he had freed the city of Rome from the danger of inundation, his work was only partially successful. Nero gave the harbour the name of Portus Augusti. It was probably Claudius who constructed hither the direct road from Rome, the Via Portuensis (15 m.) which ran over the hills as far as the modern Ponte Galera, and then straight across the plain. An older road, the Via Campana, ran along the foot of the hills, following the right bank of the Tiber, and passing the grove of the Arval Brothers at the sixth mile, to the Campus salinarum romanarum, the saltmarsh on the right bank — from which indeed it derived its name (see Nolizie degli Scan, 1888, p. 228). The site can still be fairly clearly traced in the low ground to the east of Fiumicino, and the lighthouse is represented m bas-reliefs. The harbour is generally supposed to have been protected by two moles with a breakwater in front, on which stood the lighthouse, with an entrance on each side of it. Trial soundings made in 1907 showed that the course of the right-hand mole is represented by a low sandhill, while the central breakwater was only some 190 yds. long, and probably divided from each of the two moles by a channel some 125 yds. wide. The existence of two entrances is, indeed, in accordance with the evidence of coins and literary tradition, though the position of that on the left is not certain, and it may have been closed in later times. The whole course of the left-hand mole has not yet been traced, but it seems to have protected not only the south-west but a considerable portion of the north-west side of the harbour. In A.D. 103 Trajan constructed another harbour farther inland — a hexagonal basin enclosing an area of 97 acres, and communicating by canals with the harbour of Claudius, with the Tiber direct, and with the sea, the last now forming the navig- able arm of the Tiber (reopened for traffic by Gregory XIII. and again by Paul V.), and bearing the name Fossa trajana, though its origin is undoubtedly due to Claudius. The basin itself is still preserved, and is now a reedy lagoon. It was surrounded by exten- sive warehouses, remains of which may still be seen : the fineness of the brickwork of which they are built is remarkable. Farther to the east is a circular building in brick with niches; it is called the temple of Portumnus. To the east again is the so-called Arco di Nostra Donna, a gateway (possibly originally built by Trajan) in the fortifications which surround the port and are attributed to the time of Constantino. Many other remains of buildings exist; they were more easily traceable in the i6th century when Pirro Ligorio and Antonio Labacco made plans of the harbour. Considerable excavations were carried on in 1868, but unfortunately with the idea of recovering works of art and antiquities; and the plan and description given by R. Lanciani (Annali del institute, 1868, 144 sqq.) were made under unfavourable circumstances. By means of these works Portus captured the main share of the harbour traffic of Rome, and though the importance of Ostia did not at once decrease we find Portus already an episcopal see in Constantine's time not very long (if at all) after Ostia, and as the only harbour in the time of the Gothic wars. Its abandonment dates from the partial silting up of the right arm of the Tiber in the middle ages, which restored to Ostia what little traffic was left. To the west of the harbour is the cathedral of S. Rufina (loth century, but modernized except for the campanile) and the episcopal palace, fortified in the middle ages, and containing a number of ancient inscriptions from the site. On the island (I sola Sacra) just opposite is the church of S. Ippolito, built on the s>te of a Roman building, with a picturesque medieval campanile (i3th century ?) ; 2 m. to the west is the modern village of Fiumicino at the mouth of the right arm of the Tiber, which is 21 m. west- south-west by rail from Rome. It is a frazione, or portion of the commune of Rome. Three miles to the north is the pumping; station by which the lowland (formerly called Stagno di Maccarese, now reclaimed and traversed by many drainage canals) between here and Maccarese is kept drained (Bonifica di Maccarese) (see TIBER). See H. Dessau in Corp. inscr. latin, xiv. i sqq. (Berlin, 1887); J. Carcopino in Notizie degli Scavi (1907), p. 734. (T. As.) PORT-VENDRES, a seaport of south-western France, in the department of Pyrenees-Orientales, in an inlet of the Medi- terranean Sea, 19^ m. S.S.E. of Perpignan by rail. Pop. (1906), 2525. Port-Vendres, the ancient Portus Veneris, is fourth in importance of the French Mediterranean ports, and forms a good harbour of refuge. Its trade, which is with Spain, Greece and Algeria, is in cork, carobs, grain and wine, &c. PORUS (4th century B.C.), an Indian prince, ruler of the country between the rivers Hydaspes and Acesines at the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great. In the battle on the banks of the Hydaspes he offered a desperate resistance, and Alexander, struck by his independent spirit, allowed him to retain his kingdom, which he increased by the addition of territory. From this time Porus was * loyal supporter of Alexander. He still held the position of a Macedonian satrap when assassinated some time between 321 and 315 B.C. See Arrian v. 18, 19; Plutarch, Alexander, 60; Quintus Curtius viii. 14. PORZIO, CAMILLO (1526-1580?), Italian historian, belonged to a wealthy and noble Neapolitan family, and was the son of the philosopher, Simone Porzio. He studied law, first at Bologna and later at Pisa, and after graduating in utroquejure, practised as a lawyer in Naples. He died in 1580. His chief literary work is La Congiura dei baroni, a history of the unsuccessful conspiracy of the Neapolitan barons against King Ferdinand I. of Naples in 1485; it is based on the authentic records of the state trials, but is prejudiced in favour of the royal power. It was first published by Manutius in Rome in 1565. Of Porzio's other works, the Storia d'ltalia (from 1547 to 1552), of which only the first two books have survived, is the most important. The best edition of these two works is that edited ty C. Monzani (Florence, 1855). PORZIO, SIMONE (1497-1554), Italian philosopher, was born and died at Naples. Like his greater contemporary, Pomponazzi, he was a lecturer on medicine at Pisa (1546-1552), and in later life gave up purely scientific study for speculation on the nature of man. His philosophic theory was identical with that of Pomponazzi, whose De immortalitate animi he defended and amplified in a treatise De mente humana. There is told of him a story which illustrates the temper of the early humanistic revival in Italy. When he was beginning his first lecture at Pisa he opened the meteorological treatises of Aris- totle. The audience, composed of students and townspeople, interrupted him with the cry Quid de anima ? (We would hear about the soul), and Porzio was constrained to change the subject of his lecture. He professed the most open materialism, denied immortality in all forms and taught that the soul of man is homogeneous with the soul of animals and plants, material in origin and incapable of separate existence. POSEIDON, in Greek mythology, god of the sea and of water generally, son of Cronus and Rhea, and brother of Zeus and Pluto. The connexion of his name with 7r6(.\oovat.v ol illuTtpoi). In natural science, geography, natural history, mathematics and astronomy he took a genuine interest. He sought to determine the distance and magnitude of the sun, to calculate the diameter of the earth and the influence of the moon on the tides. His history of the period from 146 to 88 B.C., in fifty-two books, must have been a valuable storehouse of facts. Cicero, who submitted to his criti- cism the memoirs which he had written in Greek of his consulship, made use of writings of Posidonius in De natura deorwm.bk. ii., and De divinatione, bk. i., and the author of the pseudo- Aristotelian treatise De mundo also borrowed from him. See Zeller, Philosophie der Griechen, iii. I, 570-584 (in Eng. trans., Eclecticism, 56-70) ; C. Miiller, Fragmenta historicorum graecorum, iii. 245—296; J. Bake, Posidonii Rhodii reliquiae (Leiden, 1810), a valuable monograph; R. Scheppig, De Posidonio rerum gentium terrarum scriptore (Berlin, 1869); R. Hirzel, Untersuchungen zu Ciceros phtiosophischen Schriften, i. 191 seq., ii. 257 seq., 325 seq., 477-535. 756-789, iii- 342-378 (Leipzig, 1877) ; Thiaucourt, Essai sui- tes traites philosophiques de Ciceron (Paris, 1885); Schmekel, Die Philosophie der mittlern Stoa (1892); Arnold, Untersuchungen uber Theophanes von Mytilene und Posidonius von Apamea (1882). (See also STOICS.) POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN, a medieval chamber organ which could be carried from place to place without being taken to pieces, and when played was placed on a table or stool and required a blower for the bellows, as well as a performer. It was larger and more cumbersome than the portative ( Po*t receivers in various parts of the city, and established OHke- I708- hourly deliveries.1 The officials of the post, when the l801' success of the plan had become fully apparent, gave Williamson a pension, and absorbed his business, the acquisition of which was subsequently confirmed by the Act 34 Geo. III. c. 17 (1794). A dead-letter office was established in 1784. But in Ireland in 1801 only three public carriages conveyed mails. There were, indeed, few roads of any sort, and none on which coaches could travel faster than four miles an hour.1 At this period the gross receipts of the Irish post office were £80,040; the charges of management and collection were £59,216, or at the rate of more than 70%; whilst in Scotland the receipts were £100,651, and the charges £16,896, or somewhat less than I7%.4 In the American colonies postal improvements may be dated from the administration of Franklin, who was virtually the last colonial postmaster-general, as well as the best. In one shape or another he had forty years' experience of postal Fr'aktla. work, having been appointed postmaster at Philadelphia in October '737- .When he became postmaster-general in 1753 he visited all the chief post offices throughput Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York and New England, looking at everything with his own eyes. His administration cannot be better summed up than we find it to be in a sentence or two which he wrote soon after his dismissal. Up to the date of his appointment, he says, " the American post office had never paid anything to that of Britain. We [i.e. himself and his assistant] were to have £600 a year between us, if we could make that sum out of the profits of the office. ... In the first four years the office became above £900 in debt to us. But it soon after began to repay us; and before I was displaced by a freak of the ministers, we had brought it to yield three times as much clear revenue to the Crown as the post office of Ireland. Since that imprudent transaction they have received from it — not one farthing." The interval between the development of Palmer's methods, and the reforms introduced twenty-seven years later by Sir Rowland Hill, is chiefly marked by the growth of the packet system, under the influence of steam navigation, and by the elaborate investiga- tions of the revenue commissioners of 1826 and the following years. In some important particulars these mark out practical and most valuable reforms, but they contrasted unfavourably with the lucidity and reasoning of Rowland Hill's Post Office Reform. As early as 1788 the cost of the packets employed by the post office attracted parliamentary attention. In that year the " com- missioners of fees and gratuities " reported that in the preceding seventeen years the total cost of this branch p*ci«' had amounted to £1,038,133; and they naturally laid Sfrv>Cfs. stress on the circumstance that many officers of the post office were owners of such packets, even down to the chamber-keeper At this time part of the packet service was performed bv hired vessels, and part by vessels which were the property of the Crown The commissioners recommended that the latter should be sold, and the entire service be provided for by public and competitive tender. The subject was again inquired into by the finance com- mittee of 1798, which reported that the recommendation of 1788 had not been fully acted upon, and expressed its concurrence in that recommendation. The plan was then to a considerable extent enforced. But the war rapidly increased the expenditure. The average (£61,000) of 1771-1787 had increased in 1797 to /?8 4-59 in 1810 to £105,000, in 1814 to £160,603. In the succeeding vears ol peace the expense fell to an average of about £85,000. As early as 1818 the "Rob Roy" plied regularly between Greenock and Belfast; but no use was made of steam navigation for the postal service until 1821, when the postmaster-general established Crown Jackets. The expenditure under the new system, from that date to 1829 inclusive, was thus reported by the commissioners of revenue nquiry m 1830:— Cost of Packet Service, 1820-1820* Year. £ '820' .... 85,000 '821' .... 134,868 '822 "5-429 °23 93-725 '824 116,602 Year. '825. 1826. £ 110,838 '44-592 '°27 159.250 '828 117,260 '829 108.305 The general administration of postal affairs at this period was still characterized by repeated advances in the letter rates, and the 'Lang, Historical Summary of the Post Office in Scotland, 15 Minutes of Evidence before Select Committee on Taxation of In- ernal Communication (1837), evidence of Sir Edward Lees p -107 4 Report, &c., of Select Committee on Postage. * Twenty-second Report of the Commissioners of Revenue Inouiry pp. 4-6. • Last year of exclusive sailing packets. 7 First year of steam-packets. i8o POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE twenty years previous to Rowland Hill's reforms by a stationary revenue. The following table will show the gross receipts, the charges of collection and management, and the net revenue (omitting fractions of a pound) of the post office of Great Britain. We give the figures for the year 1808 for the purpose of comparison. Year. Gross Income. Charges of Col- lection, &c. Charges per cent, of Gross Income. Net Revenue. Population of United Kingdom. £ £ £ 1808 1-552,037 451,431 29 1,100,606 — 1815-16 2,193,741 594-045 27 1,599,696 19,552,000 1818-19 2,209,212 719,622 32i 1,489,590 — 1820-21 2,132,235 636,290 29 1.495.945 20,928,000 1824-25 2,255-239 655,9H 29 1,599.325 22,362,000 1826-27 2,392,272 747,018 31 1,645,254 — 1836-37 2,206,736 609,220 27* I.597.5I6 25,605,000 1838-391 2,346,278 686,768 29 1,659,510 — Govern- mental Interference Before passing to the reform of 1839 we have to revert to that important feature in postal history — the interference with corre- spondence for judicial or political purposes. We have already seen (i) that this assumption had no parlia- nieneremx menlary sanction until the enactment of the gth of with Com- Queen Anne ; (2) that the enactment differed from the spoadence. roYa' proclamations in directing a special warrant for each opening or detention of correspondence. It is a sig- nificant gloss on the statute to find that for nearly a century (namely, until 1798 inclusive) it was not the practice to record such warrants regularly in any official book.1 Of the use to which the power was applied the state trials afford some remarkable instances. At the trial of Bishop Atterbury, for example, in 1723 certain letters were offered in evidence which a clerk of the post office deposed on oath " to be true copies of the originals, which were stopped at the post office and copied, and sent forward as directed." Hereupon Atter- bury asked this witness " if he had any express warrant under the hand of one of the principal secretaries of state for opening the said letters." But the lords shelved his objection on the grounds of public inexpediency. Twenty-nine peers recorded their protest against this decision.2 But the practice thus sanctioned appears to have been pushed to such lengths as to elicit in April 1 735 a strong protest and censure from the House of Commons. A committee of inquiry was appointed, and after receiving its report the house resolved that it was " an high infringement of the privileges of the . . . Commons of Great Britain in Parliament that letters of any member should be opened or delayed without a warrant of a principal secretary of state." Sir Rowland Hill's Reforms (1836-1842). Rowland Hill's pamphlet (Post Office Reform) of 1837 took for its starting-point the fact that, whereas the postal revenue showed for the past twenty years a positive though slight diminution, it ought to have showed an increase of £507,700 a year in order to have simply kept pace with the growth of population, and an increase of nearly four times that amount in order to have kept pace with the growth of the analogous though far less exorbitant duties imposed on stage-coaches. The stage- coach duties had produced, in 1815, £217,671; in 1835 they produced £498,497. In 1837 there did not exist any precise account of the number of letters transmitted through the general post office. Hill, however, was able to prepare a sufficiently approximate estimate from the data of the London district post, and from the sums collected for postage. He thus calculated the number of chargeable letters at about 88,600,000, that of franked letters at 7,400,000, and that of newspapers at 30,000,000, giving a gross total of about 126,000,000. At this period the total cost of management and distribution was £696,569. In the finance accounts of the year (1837) deductions are made from the gross revenue for letters " refused, missent, redirected," and the like, which amount to about £122,000. An analysis of the component parts of this expenditure assigned £426,517 to cost of primary distribution and £270,052 to cost of secondary distri- bution and miscellaneous charges. A further analysis of the primary distribution expenditure gave £282,308 as the probable outgoings for receipt and delivery, and £144,209 as the probable outgoings for transit. In other words, the expenditure which hinged upon the distance the letters had to be conveyed was 1 Report of Secret Committee on the Post Office (1844), p. 9. 3 Lords' Journals, xxii. 183-186; State Trials, xvi. 540 seq. £144,000, and that which had nothing to do with distance was £282,000. Applying to these figures the estimated number of letters and newspapers (126,000,000) passing through the office, there resulted a probable average cost of 3% of a penny for each, of which ^(fty was cost of transit and •£$$ c°st of receipt, delivery, &c. Taking into account, however, the greater weight of news- papers and franked letters as compared with chargeable letters, the apparent average cost of transit became, by this estimate, but about rfhy> or less than -fa of a penny. A detailed estimate of the cost of conveying a letter from London to Edinburgh, founded upon the average weight of the Edinburgh mail, gave a still lower proportion, since it reduced the apparent cost of transit, on the average, to the thirty-sixth part of one penny. Hill inferred that, if the charge for postage were to be made pro- portionate to the whole expense incurred in the receipt, transit and delivery of the letter, and in the collection of its postage, it must be made uniformly the same from every post-town to every other post-town in the United Kingdom, unless it could be shown how we are to collect so small a sum as the thirty-sixth part of a penny. And, inasmuch as it would take a ninefold weight to make the expense of transit amount to one farthing, he further inferred that, taxation apart, the charge ought to be precisely the same for every packet of moderate weight, without reference to the number of its enclosures. At this period the rate of postage actually imoosed (beyond the limits of the London district office) varied from 4d. to is. 8d. for a single letter, which was interpreted to mean a single piece of paper not exceeding an ounce in weight; a second piece of paper or any other enclosure, however small, constituted the packet a double letter. A single sheet of paper, if it at all exceeded an ounce in weight, was charged with fourfold postage. The average charge on inland general post letters was nearly gd. for each. It was proposed that the charge for primary distribu- tion— that is to say, the postage on all letters received in a post-town, and delivered in the same or in any other post-town in the British Isles — should be at the uniform rate of one penny for each half-ounce — all letters and other papers, whether single or multiple, forming one packet, and not weighing more than half an ounce, being charged one penny, and heavier packets, to any convenient limit, being charged an additional penny for each additional half-ounce. It was further proposed that stamped covers should be sold to the public at such a price as to include the postage, which would thus be collected in advance.3 By the public generally, and pre-eminently by the trading public, the plan was received with favour. By the Pariia- functionaries of the post office it was denounced as mentary ruinous and visionary. In 1838 petitions poured Action, into the House of Commons. A select committee was appointed, which reported as follows: — " The principal points which appear to your committee to have been established in evidence are the following: (i) the exceed- ingly slow advance and occasionally retrograde movement of the post office revenue during the . . . last twenty years; (2) the fact of the charge of postage exceeding the cost in a manifold propor- tion; (3) the fact of postage being evaded most extensively by all classes of society, and of correspondence being suppressed, more especially among the middle and working classes of the people, and this in consequence, as all the witnesses, including many of the post office authorities, think, of the excessively high scale of taxation; (4) the fact of very injurious effects resulting from this state of things to the commerce and industry of the country, and to the social habits and moral condition of the people; (5) the fact, as far as conclusions can be drawn from very imperfect data, that whenever on former occasions large reductions in the rates have been made, these reductions have been followed in short periods of time by an extension of correspondence proportionate to the contraction of the rates; (6) and, as matters of inference from fact and of opinion — (i.) that the only remedies for the evils above stated are a reduction of the rates, and the establish- ment of additional deliveries, and more frequent despatches of letters; (ii.) that owing to the rapid extension of railroads there is an urgent and daily increasing necessity for making such changes; (iii.) that any moderate reduction in the rates would 1 Post Office Reform, 27 seq. POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE 181 Results. occasion loss to the revenue, without in any material degree diminishing the present amount of letters irregularly conveyed, or giving rise to the growth of new correspondence; (iv.) that the principle of a low uniform rate is just in itself, and, when combined with prepayment and collection by means of a stamp, would be exceedingly convenient and highly satisfactory to the public." A bill to enable the treasury to establish uniform penny postage was carried in the House of Commons by a majority of 100, and became law on the i;th of August 1839. A temporary office was created to enable Rowland Hill to superintend the working out of his plan. The first step taken was to reduce, on the sth of December 1839, the London district postage to id. and the general inland postage to 4d. the half -ounce (existing lower rates being continued). On the loth of January 1840 the uniform penny rate came into operation throughout the United Kingdom — the scale of weight advancing from id. for each of the first two half-ounces, by gradations of 2d. for each additional ounce, or fraction of an ounce, up to 16 oz. The postage was to be prepaid, and if not to be charged at double rates. Parliamentary franking was abolished. Postage stamps were introduced in May following. The facilities of despatch were soon afterwards increased by the establishment of day mails. But on the important point of simplification in the internal economy of the post office, with the object of reducing its cost without diminishing its working power, little was done. The plan had to work in the face of rooted mistrust on the part of the workers. Its author was (for a term of two years, afterwards prolonged to three) the officer, not of the post office, but of the treasury. He could only recommend measures the most indis- pensable through the chancellor of the exchequer. It happened, too, that the scheme had to be tried at a period of severe com- mercial depression. Nevertheless, the results actually attained in the first two years were briefly these: (i) the chargeable letters delivered in the United Kingdom, exclusive of that part of the government correspondence which theretofore passed free, had already increased from the rate of about 75,000,000 a year to that of 196,500,000; (2) the London district post letters had increased from about 13,000,000 to 23,000,000, or nearly in the ratio of the reduction of the rates; (3) the illicit conveyance of letters was substantially suppressed; (4) the gross revenue, exclusive of repayments, yielded about a million and a half per annum, which was about 63% of the amount of the gross revenue in 1839. These results at so early a stage, and in the face of so many obstructions, vindicated the new system. Seven years later (1849) the 196,500,000 letters delivered throughout the United Kingdom in 1842 had increased to nearly 329,000,000. In addition, the following administrative improve- ments had been effected: (i) the time for posting letters at the London receiving-houses extended; (2) the limitation of weight abolished; (3) an additional daily despatch to London from the neighbouring (as yet independent) villages; (4) the postal arrange- ments of 120 of the largest cities and great towns revised; (5) un- limited writing on inland newspapers authorized on payment of an additional penny ; (6) a summary process established for recovery of postage from the senders of unpaid letters when refused; (7) a book-post established; (8) registration reduced from one shilling to sixpence; (9) a third mail daily put on the railway (without additional charge) from the towns of the north-western district to London, and day mails extended within a radius of 20 m. round the metropolis; (10) a service of parliamentary returns, for private bills, provided for; (n) measures taken, against many obstacles, for the complete consolidation of the two heretofore distinct corps of letter-carriers — an improvement (on the whole) of detail, which led to other improvements thereafter.1 Later History (1842-1905). When Sir R. Hill initiated his reform the postmaster-general was the earl of Lichfield, the thirty-first in succession to that 1 Hill, History of Penny Postage (1880), appendix A (Life, &c., ii. 438). Part of the strenuousness of the opposition to this measure arose, it must be owned, from the " high-handedness " which in Sir R. Hill's character somewhat marred very noble faculties. The change worked much harm to some humble but hardworking and meritorious functionaries. office after Sir Brian Tuke. Under him the legislation of 1839 was carried out in 1840 and 1841. In September 1841 he was succeeded by Viscount Lowther. In the summer of 1844 the statement that the letters of Mazzini, then a political refugee, long resident in England, had been systematically opened, and their contents openiagtad communicated to foreign governments, by Sir James Detention of Graham, secretary of state for the home department, terten. aroused much indignation. The arrest of the brothers Bandiera,2 largely in consequence of information derived from their correspondence with Mazzini, and their subsequent execution at Cosenza made a thorough investigation into the circumstances a public necessity. The consequent parlia- mentary inquiry of August 1844, after retracing the earlier events connected with the exercise of the discretional power of inspection which parliament had vested in the secretaries of state in 1710, elicited the fact that in 1806 Lord Spencer, then secretary for the home department, introduced for the first time the practice of recording in an official book all warrants issued for the detention and opening of letters, and also the additional fact that from 1822 onwards the warrants themselves had been preserved. The whole number of such warrants issued from 1806 to the middle of 1844 inclusive was stated to be .3 23, of which no less than 53 had been issued in the years 1841-1844 inclusive, a number exceeding that of any previous period of like extent. The committee of 1844 proceeded to report that " the warrants issued during the present century may be divided into two classes — ist, those issued in furtherance of criminal justice . . . ; 2nd, those issued for the purpose of discovering the designs of persons known or suspected to be engaged in proceedings dangerous to the State, or (as in Mazzini's case) deeply involving British interests, and carried on in the United Kingdom or in British possessions beyond the seas. . . . Warrants of the second descrip- tion originate with the home office. The principal secretary of state, of his own discretion, determines when to issue them, and gives instructions accordingly to the under-secretary, whose office is then purely ministerial. The mode of preparing them, and keeping record of them in a private book, is the same as in the case of criminal warrants. There is no record kept of the grounds on which they are issued, except so far as correspondence preserved at the home office may lead to infer them.' . . . The letters which have been detained and opened are, unless retained by special order, as sometimes happens in criminal cases, closed and resealed, without affixing any mark to indicate that they have been so detained and opened, and are forwarded by post according to their respective superscriptions." 4 Almost forty years later a like question was again raised in the House of Commons (March 1882) by some Irish members, in relation to an alleged examination of correspondence at Dublin for political reasons. Sir William Harcourt on that occasion spoke thus: " This power is with the secretary of state in Eng- land. ... In Ireland it belongs to the Irish government. ... It is a power which is given for purposes of state, and the very essence of the power is that no account [of its exercise] can be rendered. To render an account would be to defeat the very object for which the power was granted. If the minister is not fit to exercise the power so entrusted, upon the responsibility cast upon him, he is not fit to occupy the post of secretary of state."4 The House of Commons- accepted this explanation; and in view of many grave incidents, both in Ireland and in America, it would be hard to justify any other conclusion. The increase in the number of postal deliveries and in that of the receiving-houses and branch-offices, together with the numerous improvements introduced into Postal the working economy of the post office, when Bu*iae**, Rowland Hill at length obtained the means of fully I839-IS57> carrying put his reforms by his appointment as secretary, 1 Ricordi dei frotdli Bandiera e dei loro compagni di martirio in Cosenza, p. 47 (Paris, 1844). * Report from the Secret Committee on the Post Office (1844), p. n. 4 Ibid., pp. 14-17. 1 Hansard, Debates, vol. cclxvii. cols. 294-296 (session of 1882). 182 POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE speedily gave a more vigorous impulse to the progress of the net revenue than had theretofore obtained. During the seven years 1845-1851 inclusive the average was but £810,951. During the six years 1852-1857 inclusive the average was £1,166,448 — the average of the gross income during the same septennial period having been £2,681,835. Number of Letters: Gross and Net Income, 1838-1857. Year ending Estimated No. of Chargeable Letters. Gross Income. Cost of Manage- ment. Net Revenue. Postage charged on Gov- ernment. Jan. 5, 1838 „ 1842 „ 1847 „ 1852 Dec. 31,1857 196,500,191 299,586,762 360,647,187 504,421,000 £ 2,339,737 1,499,418 1,963,857 2,422,168 3,035,713 £ 687,313 938,168 1,138,745 1,304,163 1,720,815 £ 1,652,424 561,249 825,112 1,118,004 1,314,898 £ 38,528 "3-255 100,354 167,129 135,517 Within a period of eighteen years under the penny rate the number of letters became more than sixfold what it was under the rates of 1838. When the change was first made the increase of letters was in the ratio of 122-25% during the year. The second year showed an increase on the first of about 1 6%. During the next fifteen years the average increase was at the rate of about 6% per annum. Although this enormous increase of business, coupled with the increasing preponderance of railway mail conveyance (invaluable, but costly), carried up the post office expenditure from £757,000 to £1,720,800, yet the net revenue of 1857 was within £350,000 of the net revenue of 1839. During the year 1857 the number of newspapers delivered in the United Kingdom was about 71 millions, and that of book-packets (the cheap carriage of which is one of the most serviceable and praiseworthy of modern postal improvements) about 6 millions. Since 1858 the achievements of the period 1835-1857 have been eminently surpassed. This period includes the establishment of postal savings banks (1861) and the transfer to the state of Qfovrii, the telegraphic service (1870). These improvements and are dealt with in separate articles. The British Changes, postal business has grown at a more rapid rate than '90S- the population of the United Kingdom. Some of the causes of this development must be sought within the post office department, e.g. improved facilities, lower charges and the assumption of new functions; but others are to be found in the higher level of popular education, the increase of wealth, industry and commerce, and the rapid expansion of Greater Britain. The following table shows the growth of letters delivered: — United Kingdom. — Estimated inland delivery of letters, 1830-1905, with the increase per cent, per annum. Also the average number to each person, oo,ooo's omitted. Letter Rates. 10 and The rates of inland letter postage have been altered as follows. From the 5th of October 1871 to the ist of July 1885 the charges were: not exceeding i oz. one penny; inland over i oz. and not exceeding 2 oz. three halfpence, and an additional halfpenny for every 2 oz., so that the postage on a letter weighing between 12 oz. was 4d. On a letter weighing over 12 oz. and not exceeding 13 oz. the postage was is. id., and increased id. for each succeeding ounce. On the ist of July 1885 the postage on letters over 12 oz. was reduced, and the gradation of charge beyond 2 oz. was made uniform, at the rate of one halfpenny for each additional ounce. Thus a letter weighing over 12 and not exceeding 14 oz. was charged 4%d., 14 to 16 oz. sd., and so on. Notwithstanding this change, it was found as late as 1895 that 95% of the letters sent through the post weighed not more than i oz. each. Among a number of postal and telegraphic concessions made to the public on the 22nd of June 1897, the sixtieth anniversary of Queen Victoria's accession to the throne, were new rates for letters as follows: — Not exceeding 4 oz i Over 4 oz. and not exceeding 6 oz i \ ,,6 8 „ 2 with Jd. for each succeeding 2 oz. This change, while it saved both the post office and the public the trouble of testing the weight of a large number of letters, had also the advantage of simplicity of calculation — one half- penny is charged for each 2 oz., with a minimum charge of id. Arrangements were at the same time made to ensure a delivery of letters by postmen at every house in the United Kingdom. It was estimated that 16 millions of letters, whose owners had previ- ously to fetch them from the post office or from some point on a postman's walk, would thus be added to the official delivery. The estimate proved to be much under the mark, some 60 millions being added to the letters brought annualjy into the official delivery under this arrangement. Financial considerations have now been entirely disregarded for the benefit of these letters, and the cost of their delivery alone greatly exceeds the whole revenue derived from them. In studying the statistics of letters delivered, it should be re- membered that the figures for any particular year are affected by circumstances like a general election or a boom in trade, as well as by changes in the rates or condition of the post office services. The letters from foreign countries have been stimu- lated by lower charges, and those from the colonies by the imperial penny post, to which reference is made below. Delivered in England and Wales. -3 C 1 Id C a I |g •d c 8 . |d _ 1 jj . Year ending 3 ist December until 1876, and thereafter the Financial Year ending 3 ist X fcfiE' §--» . *, . II M 18 i B. 1 y 3 to c s. 1 " i Eg i& "c S " | 11 March. 5 u fi • ^.ii.£"rt £ in § cS* « ^ Sr13 C » rt ti-c c fn rt M^ c s* a; rt gjjS 2 c § Q ~ a B 149 -•o 3 fc g 8 _ S c3 i_i * '~ 2 v £ <* '".E ^ t « i £° B5 c C C gl§ Is S "• te i> 1 i II 1 1 g_ 1 & Estimated No. of Letters, 1839 „ „ Franks. 1839 . — — — — 60,0 S.i - M 8,0 3 — M 8,0 1,0 — M 76,0 6,5 — \* „ ,, Letters, 1840 . 88,0 — 44,0 — 132,0 I2O-O 8 19,0 143-5 7 18,0 119-2 2 169,0 22-2 7 Average of 5 years, 1841-1845 122,0 10-7 57,o 9-0 179,0 IO-2 ii 24,0 9-2 9 24,0 9-5 3 227,0 10-0 8 ,, 1846-1850 1 80,0 5'5 79,0 '5-5 259,0 5-2 15 34,o 4*2 12 34,o 5'° 4 327,0 5'° 12 1851-1855 • 233,0 6-5 97,0 5-0 330,0 6-0 18 41,0 5-2 14 39,o 3-5 6 410,0 5-7 15 „ 1856-1860 302,0 4-2 125,0 5-5 427,0 4'5 22 51.0 3-2 16 45,o 3-0 7 523,0 4-2 1 8 1861-1865 373,0 57 161,0 5-7 534,0 5'7 29 61,0 o-5 20 53-0 3-2 9 648,0 5-5 22 1860-1870 472,0 4-2 192,0 3-2 664,0 4-0 31 76,0 4-7 24 60,0 3-2 ii 800,0 4-0 26 Year 1871 501,0 0-5 220,0 7-0 721,0 2-5 32 80,0 1-2 24 66,0 3'° 13 867,0 2-3 27 • „ 1875 580,0 4-8 266,7 6-5 846,8 5'3 35 90,9 0-9 26 70,5 0-8 13 1,008,3 4-6 31 „ 1880-1881 650,9 330,4 6-6 98i,3 3-3 38 104,9 3-0 29 78,7 3-8 15 1,165,1 3-3 34 „ 1884-1885 757,2 2-7 39i,i 4-1 1,148,3 3-2 42 122,9 2-6 32 89,1 1-6 18 1,360,3 2-9 38 „ 1890-1891 924,4 3'3 538,4 4-0 1,462,8 3-5 50 143,2 2-1 36 99,8 3'' 21 1,709,0 3-4 45 dec. dec. dec. „ 1894-18951 . '. 993,3 2-0 508,8 II-6 1,502,1 3-1 50 156,0 1-4 38 112,8 4-0 24 1,770.9 2-3 46 inc. inc. inc. „ 1900-1901 2 1,312,7 2-9 664,3 5-o i,977,o 3-6 61 202,4 2-8 47 144,2 2-2 32 2,323,6 3-4 57 „ 1905-1906 1,559,9 3-2 753-4 3-6 2,313,3 3-3 68 238,1 3'7 51 155,8 O-I 36 2,707,2 3-1 62 dec. 1 It was' discovered in the course of this year that the estimated figures for previous years had been swollen by an imperfect method of reckoning the London letters, &c. In 1883 as many as 2,770,000 valentines were sent through the post. The numbers gradually decreased until in 1890 only 320,000 were observed. Christmas cards have, however, considerably increased. 2 Since the 22nd of June 1897, all packets over 2 oz., formerly counted as book packets, are reckoned as letters. POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE 183 Letter mad Post Cards. On the 1 2th of February 1892 letter cards bearing an imprinted penny stamp, and made to be fastened against in- spection, were issued to the public at a charge of is. for 10 cards. The charge was reduced almost at once to gd. for 8 cards. Similar cards have long been in use on the continent of Europe, but they do not enjoy much popularity in Great Britain either with the post office, which finds them inconvenient to handle in sorting and stamping, or with the public. The number issued annually is about 10 millions, not counting those of private manufacturers. The following table gives the number of post cards: — Estimated Number of Post Cards delivered in the United Kingdom, and the Increase per cent, per Annum. England and Wales. Scotland. Ireland. United Kingdom. Year. g£ 0 3 *- . ge 0 3 IE 0 3 IE 0 3 Number. feg D.01 Number. O. « Number. CX rt Number. U C O HJ jR y n. J — 1872 . . 64,000,000 — 8,000,000 — 4,000,000 — 76,000,000 1875 . . 73,369,100 II-6 9,206,300 6-7 4,540,900 5-5 87,116,300 10-7 1881-1882 114,251,500 10-4 14,651,400 9'3 6,426,100 6-9 135,329,000 IO-I 1884-1885 134,100.000 4'3 18,400,000 5-5 7,900,000 3-1 160,400,000 4'4 1889-1890 184,400,000 8-4 22,900,000 5-0 9,800,000 5-4 217,100,000 7-8 1893-1894 209,100,000 27,400,000 2-2 12,000,000 6-2 248,500,000 1-6 1894-1895* 271,600,000 29-9 28,700,000 4-7 12,500,000 4-2 312,800,000 25-9 dec. 1895-1896 268,300,000 1-2 32,200,000 12-2 14,000,000 I2-O 314,500,000 0-6 inc. 1900-1901 359,400,000 4-9 41,600,000 2-O 18,000,000 6-5 419,000,000 4-7 1905-1906 676,500,000 9-6 91,000,000 5-o 32,800,000 6-8 800,300,000 9-0 the purpose of detecting letters, &c., sent by the halfpenny post. The book post received a great impetus in 1892 (Mav 28) by the permission to enclose book packets in unsealed envelopes. Com- plaint is, however, made that such envelopes form a dangerous irap for small letters, which are liable to slip inside the flaps of open envelopes. But as the rate of postage for articles weighing over 2 oz. is now the same for letters and for book packets, articles over that weight derive no. advantage from being sent in open covers. Sample Post. — The sample or pattern post, which was confined to bona-fide trade patterns and samples on the 1st of October 1870, was then assimilated to the book post (Jd. for 2 oz.); but the re- striction was difficult to enforce and irritating to the public, and the sample post was abolished on the sth of October 1871, when the rates of letter postage were lowered. It was re-established on the 1st of October 1887 (id. for 4 oz. or under, and id. for each succeeding 2 oz.); but when the Jubilee letter rates were introduced (June 22, 1897) it lost its raison d'etre, and ceased to exist for inland purposes. *Private cards with adhesive stamps first allowed in this year. Post cards were first introduced in Austria on the 1st of October 1869, and were first issued in Great Britain on the 1st of October 1870. Only one kind of card was employed, and this was sold for one halfpenny; but on the complaints of the stationers, a charge of Jd. per dozen for the material of the card was made in 1872, and permission was given for private persons to have their own cards stamped at Somerset House. In 1875 a stouter card was put on sale, and the charges were raised to 7d. per dozen for thin cards and 8d. per dozen for stout cards. In 1889 the charges were reduced, and they are now sold at 10 for 5Jd. and n for 6d. respectively. On the 1st of September 1894, private post cards with an adhesive halfpenny stamp were allowed to pass by post, and the result has been greatly to diminish the number of cards purchased through the post office. It is estimated that 232 out of the 400 millions of cards delivered in 1890-1900 were private cards. The sizes of the official cards were again altered in January 1895 and November 1899. The regulations forbidding anything but the address to be written on the address side of a post card were made less stringent on the 1st of February 1897; and in 1898 unpaid post cards, which were previously charged as unpaid letters, were allowed to be delivered on payment of double the post card rate. These various changes, espe- cially the use of the private card and the popularity of illustrated post cards, have contributed to the rapid increase in the number of post cards sent by post. Reply post cards were first issued on the 1st of October 1893. Their use has not been exten- sive. Only about ij million are issued yearly. Book Packets and Samples. — The table at foot of page shows the estimated number of book packets, circulars and samples delivered in the United Kingdom, and the in- crease per cent, per annum. The rate of $d. for 2 oz. for the book post has remained unaltered since the 1st of October 1870. Changes have been made in the regulations defining the articles which may be sent by book post, and prescribing the mode of packing them so as to admit of easy examination for Newspapers. — The table on next page shows the estimated number of newspapers delivered in the United Kingdom, and the increase per cent, per annum. The carriage of newspapers by the post office does not show the same elasticity as other post office business. This is due largely to the improved system of distri- bution adopted by newspaper managers and especially to the extension of the halfpenny press. The practice of posting a news- paper after reading it, under a co-operative arrangement, has practically ceased to exist. The carriage of newspapers by post is conducted by the post office at a loss. It has been frequently stated on behalf of the post office that the halfpenny post is unremunerative. Representations are, however, made from time 'to time in favour of lower postage for literature of all kinds. It may therefore be of interest to mention that the postmaster- general of the United States has, in successive annual reports, deplored the effect on the post office service of the cheap rates for " second-class matter." The cost of carriage over so large a territory is heavier than in the United Kingdom; but the postmaster-general states that the low rates of postage " involve a sheer wanton waste of $20,000,000 or upwards a year." Facilities like the extension of free delivery are stifled, and the efficiency of the whole service cramped by the loss thus sustained. In the United Kingdom the rules respecting the halfpenny post were greatly simplified and brought into effect on the ist of October 1906. The halfpenny post can be used only Finance. England and Wales. Scotland. Ireland. United Kingdom. Year. 4W . SE U 3 SE U 3 11 4- . c e il Number. v- C o. a Number. V. = C~ (d Number. kl Number. is CJ O j= Z. jjSL O O **• 1872 . . 90,000,000 — 13,000,000 — 11,000,000 — 114,000,000 — 1875 . . 133.394.900 IS-2 15.723.700 — 9,548,000 — 158,666,600 n-7 1881-1882 228,999,400 12-3 27,875,000 15-0 14,164,300 16-9 271.038,700 12-8 1884-1885 269,400,000 8-1 34,500,000 1O-0 16,500,000 18-9 320,406,000 8-8 1889-1890 378,200,000 7-5 42,100,000 3-7 21,600,000 9-6 441,900,000 7-3 1894-1895 522,500,000 6-7 60,800,000 8-2 31,300,000 IO-2 614,600,000 7-o dec. dec. dec. dec. 1898-1899' 590,900,000 3-6 75,100,000 2-3 35,500,000 5-3 701,500,000 3-5 inc. inc. inc. inc. 1900-1901 619,300,000 4-0 77,800,000 3-7 35,300,000 8-6 732,400,000 ' 1 Book packets over 2 oz. transferred to the letter post as a result of the Jubilee changes. 184 POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE for packets not exceeding 2 oz. in weight. The length of a packet must not exceed 2 ft., while i ft. is the limit in width or depth. Any printed or written matter not in the nature of a letter may be sent by the halfpenny post, but every packet must be posted either without a cover or in an unfastened envelope, or in a cover which can be easily removed. The number of halfpenny packets delivered in 1906-1907 was 933,200,000. England and Wales. Scotland. Ireland. United Kingdom. ~ • ~ . c p •M . Year. " 2 0 3 "1 O 3 Number. v- Cl S c Q.C3 Number. « = s.n Number. Vri G Number. . C 5 c . 1-1 . t-i seii postage stamps, deal in postal orders, &c. Contingents were also sent by the Canadian, Australian, and Indian post offices. Including telegraphists and men of the army reserve, 3400 post office servants were sent to the front. MONEY ORDER DEPARTMENT The money order branch of the post office dates from 1792.' It was begun with the special object of facilitating the safe Money conveyance of small sums to soldiers and sailors, Orders. the thefts of letters containing money being fre- quent. Two schemes were put forward, one similar to the present money order system. There were doubts whether the post office had power to adopt the system, and it was not officially taken up. Six officers of the post office, however, called the " clerks of the roads," who were already conducting a large newspaper business with profit to themselves, came forward with a plan, which was encouraged by the postmaster-general, who also bore the cost of advertising it, and even allowed the advices of the money orders to go free by post under the " frank " of the secretary to the post office. In 1798 the clerks of the roads gave up the scheme, and three post office clerks known as " Stow and Company " took it over. The death of Stow in 1836 left one sole proprietor who had a capital of £2000 embarked in the concern. In 1838 the government determined to take over the business and compensated the proprietor with an allowance of over £400 a year. The rates of commission fixed by the government were is. 6d. for sums exceeding £2 and under £5, and 6d. for all sums not exceeding £2. In 1840 these rates were reduced to 6d. and 3d. respectively. The number and aggregate amount of the orders issued (inland, colonial and 1 An historical outline is given in the Forty-Second Report of Postmaster-General (1896), p. 26. foreign) in different periods from the reorganization until 1905 is as follows: — Years. Number. Amount. i 1839 188,921 313-124 1849 4,248,891 8,152,643 1861-1865 8,055,227 16,624,503 (average) 1875 16,819,874 27,688,255 1880-1881 16,935,005 26,003,582 1885-1886 11,318,380 24,832,421 1890-1891 10,260,852 27,867,887 1895-1896 10,900,963 29,726,817 1900-1901 13-263,567 39,374,665 1905-1906 13.596,153 44,612,785 The decrease in the number of inland money orders till 1890-1891 was due to the competition of postal orders, and to the reduction (Jan. i, 1878) of the charge for registering a letter from 4d. to 2d.2 In 1862 the issue of orders for larger sums was allowed: not exceeding £7, gd.; not exceeding £10, is. On the 1st of May 1871 a scale of charges was fixed as follows: orders not exceeding los., id.; not exceeding £i, 2d. ; not exceeding £2, 3d. ; and so on, an additional penny being charged per £. For sums of £10 the rate was is. It was found, however, that the low rate of id. for small orders did not provide a profit, and the rates were raised on the 1st of January 1878 to: orders not exceeding ios., 2d. ; not exceeding £2, 3d. On the 1st of September 1886 the rates were altered as follows: orders not exceeding £i, 2d.; not exceeding £2, 3d.; not exceeding £4, 4d. ; not exceeding £7, 5 d.; not exceeding £10, 6d. On the 1st of February 1897 new rates were introduced ; on orders not exceeding £3, 3d. ; over £3 and not exceeding £10, 4d. The cost of a money order transaction (at least 3d.) is very little affected by the amount of the remittance, and it was thought undesirable to continue the unremunerative business of sending small sums by money order at less than cost price at the expense of the senders of larger orders. The needs of smaller remitters appeared to be sufficiently met by postal orders and the registered letter post. It appeared, however, that the new charges fell with great severity upon mutual benefit societies, like the Hearts of Oak, which sent large num- bers of small money orders every week, and on the ist of May 1897 the 2d. rate was restored for orders not exceeding £i. This society and others now use postal orders instead of money orders. In 1905 the limit for money orders was extended to £40, and the rates are: sums over £10 and not exceeding £20, 6d.; sums over £20 and not exceeding £30, 8d. ; sums over £30 and not exceeding £40, lod. Money orders may be sent to almost any country in the world. The rrftes are as follows: for sums not exceeding £l, 3d.; £2, 6d.; £4, 9d.; £6, is.; £8, is. 3d.; £10, is. 6d.; and for countries on which orders may be issued for higher amounts (limit £40), 3d. for every additional nftent £2 or fraction of £2. The money order system is largely used by the British govern- ment departments for the payment of pensions, separation allow- ances, remittance of bankruptcy dividends, &c. ; and free orders may be obtained by the public, under certain conditions, for the purpose of remitting their taxes. The cost of management of the money order office was reduced by the substitution, since 1898, of a number of women clerks for men and boys. On the 2nd of September 1889 the issue of telegraphic money orders between London and seventeen large towns was begun as an experiment, and on the 1st of March 1890 the system was extended to all head post offices, and branch offices ' Wtpa in the United Kingdom. Two years later it was ex- f!°?ey tended to every office which transacts both money order and telegraph business. The rates, which have been several times revised, are (i) a poundage at the ordinary rate for inland money orders, (2) a charge for the official telegram of advice to the office of payment at the ordinary rate for inland telegrams, the minimum being 6d., and (3) a supplementary fee of 2d. for each order. The sender of a telegraph money order may give instructions that, instead of being left at the post office to be called for, it should be delivered at the payee's residence, and that it should be crossed 2 The total sums remitted did not fall off to the same extent, showing that the small orders alone were effected. The average amount for ordinary inland orders is now £2, 193. sd. POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE 187 for payment through a bank. He may also, on paying for the extra words, send a short private message to his correspondent in the telegram of advice. Telegraph money orders may also be sent to Algeria, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Egypt, Faeroe Islands, France, Germany, Holland, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Luxemburg, Monaco, Norway. Rumania, Sweden and Switzerland. A fee of zd. is re- quired in addition to the usual money order commission and the cost of the telegram. The system is being rapidly extended to other countries. The telegraph inland money orders in 1905-1906 amounted to 5°3>543- and the sums so remitted to £1,646,882, an average of £3, is. The number of telegraph money order transactions between the United Kingdom and foreign countries amounted to 18,787, representing £139,402. Postal orders were first issued on the ist of January 1881. For some years before that date postmasters-general had con- sidered the possibility of issuing orders for fixed Orders. amounts at a small commission to replace money orders for sums under 205., which had failed to be remunerative. When the plan was submitted to a committee appointed by the treasury, it was objected that postal orders as remitting media would be less secure than money orders. This was met in part by giving a discretionary power to fill in the name of the post office and also of the payee. Another objection which was urged, namely, that they would prove to be an issue of government small notes under another name, was quickly disproved. Parliament sanctioned the scheme in 1880. The first series were: — is., is. 6d. 2s. 6d., 53., 73. 6d. Poundage id. id. ios., I2s. 6d., 153., 173. 6d., 203. Poundage 2d. In 1884 a new series was issued and a provision made that broken amounts might be made up by affixing postage stamps, to the value of sd., to the orders. Postal orders have become increasingly popular as a means of remitting small amounts, especially since the introduction in 1903 of new denominations, rendering it possible to obtain a postal order for every complete sixpence from 6d. to 2is. From 6d. to 2s. 6d. the poundage is Jd., from 35. to 155., id., from 155. 6d. up to 2is., ijd. Postal orders are also furnished with counterfoils, as a means of keeping a record of the number and amount of each order posted. Orders for amounts of ios. and upwards are printed in red ink. A system of interchange of postal orders between the United Kingdom and India and the British colonies, and also between one colony and another, has been instituted. British postal orders are obtainable also at post offices in Panama, Constan- tinople, Salonica and Smyrna, and on H.M. ships. The fol- lowing table shows the number and value of postal orders issued from the beginning to the 3ist of March 1907 (ooo's omitted): — Year. Number. Value. 1881-1882 1883-1884 1885-1886 1890-1891 1895-1896 1900-1901 1906-1907 4,462 12,286 25,79° 48,841 64,076 85,390 101,658 2,006 5,028 10,788 19,178 23,896 29,881 40,484 It remains to be added that the various statutes relating to the post office, except those relating to telegraphs and the car- riage of mails, were consolidated by the Post Office Act 1908. The act repealed and superseded 26 acts wholly and 10 acts in parts. Sections i-n deal with the duties 'of postage; §§ 12-19 with the conditions of transit of postal packets; §§ 20-22 with newspapers; §§ 23-25 with money orders; §§26-32 with ship letters; §§ 33-44 with the postmaster-general and officers; §§ 45-47 with the holding, &c., of land; §§ 48-49 with the extension of postal facilities and accommodation; §§ 50-69 with post office offences; §§ 70-78 with legal proceedings, and §§ 79-94 with regulations, definitions, &c. SAVINGS BANKS.' The establishment of post office savings banks was prac- tically suggested in the year 1860 by Charles William Sykes of Huddersfield, whose suggestion was cordially re- ceived by W. E. Gladstone, then chancellor of the exchequer, to whose conspicuous exertions in par- liament the effectual working-out of the measure and also many and great improvements in its details are due. Half a century earlier (1807) it had been proposed to utilize the then existing and rudimentary money order branch of the post office for the collection and transmission of savings from all parts of the coun- try to a central savings bank to be established in London. A bill to that effect was brought into the House of Commons by S. Whitbread, but it failed to receive adequate support, and was withdrawn. When Sykes revived the proposal of 1807 the number of savings banks managed by trustees was 638, but of these about 350 were open only for a few hours on a single day of the week. Only twenty throughout the kingdom were open daily. Twenty-four towns containing upwards of ten thousand inhabitants each were without any savings bank. Fourteen counties were without any. In the existing banks the average amount of a deposit was £4, 6s. sd. Gladstone's Bill, entitled " An Act to grant additional facilities for depositing small savings at interest, with the security of Government for the due repayment thereof, " be- came law on the I7th of May 1861, and was brought into opera- tion on the i6th of September following. The banks first opened were in places theretofore unprovided. In February 1862 the act was brought into operation in Scotland and in Ireland. Within two years nearly all the money order offices of the United Kingdom became savings banks, and the expansion of the business was continual. The growth of business is shown in the following table: — Year ending 3 Ist December. Average Number of Accounts. Average Amount of Deposits. Average Balance in each Account. Average Number of Offices. 1863-1868 1869-1874 1875-1880 1881-1885 1886-1890 1891-1895 663,000 1,373.000 1,889,000 3,088,000 4,248,000 5,776,000 7,000,000 18,000,000 29,000,000 42,000,000 59,000,000 83,000,000 £ s d ii 3 5 13 5 3 15 12 5 13 ii 3 13 16 10 14 7 o 3-390 4-498 5,742 7-348 9.025 10,888 The code of the ist of November 1888 did not enlarge the limits of deposits or make any great and conspicuous change in the general system, but the postmaster-general obtained power to offer certain facilities for the transfer of money from one account to another, for the easier disposal of the funds of deceased depositors by means of nominations, and in various ways for the convenience of the customers of the bank. Arrange- ments were made for reducing to is. the cost of certificates of births, deaths and marriages required for savings bank pur- poses. In July 1889 Local Loans 3% Stock was made available for purchase through the post office savings bank. " In July 1891," says the report of the postmaster-general in 1897, " another Act of Parliament was passed by which the maxi- mum amount which might be deposited was raised from £150 to £200, inclusive of interest. The annual limit remained at £30, but it was provided that, irrespective of that limit, depositors might _ replace in the bank the amount of any one withdrawal made in the same year. The object of this provision was to avoid curtailing the saving power of a person who might be driven by emergency to make an inroad upon his store, but who might never- theless, when the emergency had passed, find himself none the poorer and able to replace the money withdrawn. " The act provided also that where on any account the principal and interest together exceeded £200, interest should cease only on the amount in excess of £200, whereas previously interest ceased altogether when it had brought the balance of an account up to £200. " The next striking development of the Savings Bank arose out of the Free Education Act, passed in September 1891. The 1 For a succinct account of the history of the post office savings bank, " so far as depositors and the general public are concerned," see Forty-third Report of Postmaster-General (1897), pp. 32 seq. 188 POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE government of the day desired that advantage should be taken of the opportunity to inculcate upon parents and children alike a lesson of thrift — that they should save the school pence which they were no longer bound to pay. The Education Department and the postmaster-general worked in concert to realize this end. School managers were urged to press the matter upon all concerned, special stamp slips were prepared and issued, managers were supplied on credit with stocks of stamps to be sold to the children, and clerks from the nearest post offices attended at schools to open accounts and receive deposits. The arrangement began in January 1892; about 1400 schools adopted the scheme at once, and three years later this number had risen to 3000. A sum of nearly £14,000 was estimated to have been deposited in schools in 5 months, and about £40,000 in the first year. Concurrently with the spread of the stamp-slip system in the schools, the extension of School Penny Banks, connected intimately with the Savings Bank, was a con- spicuous result of the effort to turn into profitable channels the pence which no longer paid school fees. " In December 1893 another Act of Parliament extended the annual limits of deposits from £30 to £50. The maximum of £200 remained unchanged, but it was piovided that any accumulations accruing after that amount had been reached should be invested in government stock unless the depositor gave instructions to the contrary. "In December 1893 arrangements were made for the use of the telegraph for the withdrawal of money from the savings bank. Postmasters-general had hesitated long before sanctioning this new departure. It was known that the system was in force abroad, and it was recognized that there might be, and doubtless were, cases in the United Kingdom where the possibility of withdrawing money without delay might be all-important, and might save a depositor from debt and distress. But, on the other hand, it was strongly held that the cause of thrift was sometimes served by interposing a delay between a sudden desire to spend and its realization; and it was also held to be essential to maintain a marked distinction between a bank of deposit for savings and a bank for keeping current accounts." On the whole, the balance of opinion was in favour of the change, and two new methods of withdrawal were provided. A depositor might telegraph for his money and have his warrant sent to him by return of post, or he might telegraph for his money and have it paid to him in an hour or two on the authority of a telegram from the savings bank to the postmaster. The first method cost the depositor about pd., the second cost him about is. 3d. for the transaction. On the 3rd of July 1905 a new sys- tem of withdrawal was instituted, under which a depositor, on presentation of his book at any post office open for savings bank business, can withdraw immediately any sum not exceeding £i. Depositors have availed themselves extensively of this system. During 1906, 4,758,440 withdrawals, considerably more than one-half of the total number of withdrawals, were made "on demand," and as a consequence the number of withdrawals made by telegraph fell to 122,802, against 168,036 in the pre- vious year (during only half of which the " on demand " system was in force). By an act which came into force on the ist of January 1895 building societies, duly incorporated, were enabled to deposit at' any one time a sum not exceeding £300, and to buy government stock up to £300 through the savings bank. Savings Bank Finance. — The increase in the deposits lodged in the post office savings bank must be ascribed to a variety of causes. Numbers of trustee banks have been closed, and have transferred their accounts to the post office bank ; greater facilities have been offered by the bank; the limits of deposit in one year, and of total deposit, have been raised; and, since October 1892, deposits may be made by cheque; while the long-continued fall in the rate of interest made the assured 2|% of the post office savings bank an increasing temptation to a class of investors previously accustomed to look elsewhere. The high price of consols, due in part to the magnitude of purchases on savings bank account, proved a serious embarrassment to the profitable working of the bank, which had shown a balance of earnings on each year's work- ing until 1896, after paying its expenses and 2j% interest to its depositors. Economical working minimized, but did not remove the difficulty. The average cost of each transaction, originally nearly 7d., has been brought down to 5fd. Down to the year 1896, £1,598,767 was paid into the exchequer under § 14 of the Act 40 Viet. c. 13, being the excess of interest which had accrued year by year. But since 1895 there have been deficits in each year, and in 1905, owing principally tc the reduced rate on consols, the expenditure exceeded the income by £88,094. The central savings bank having outgrown its accommo- dation in Queen Victoria Street, London, a new site was purchased in 1898 for £45,000 at West Kensington, and the foundation-stone of a new building, costing £300,000, was laid by the prince of Wales on the 24th of June 1899. The entire removal of the business was carried out in 1903. Under the Workmen's Compensation Act of 1897, sums awarded as compensation might be invested in the post office savings bank. This arrangement proved so convenient that an act of 1900 authorized a similar investment of money paid into an English county court in ordinary actions at common law, and ordered to be invested for the benefit of an infant or lunatic. In 1906 a committee was appointed to go into the question as to whether the post office should provide facilities for the insurance of employers in respect of liabilities under the Workmen's Compensation Acts, but no scheme was recom- mended involving post office action either as principal or agent. Post offices, however, exhibit notices drawing attention to the liabilities imposed by the act of 1906, and sub-postmasters are encouraged to accept agencies in their private capacity for insurance companies undertaking this class of insurance. Inducements to Thrift. — By arrangement with the war office in July 1893, the deferred pay of soldiers leaving the army was invested on their behalf in the post office savings bank, but it was found that the majority of the soldiers draw out practically the whole amount at once, and the experiment was discontinued in 1901. At the request of large employers of labour, an officer of the savings bank attends at industrial establishments on days when wages are paid, and large numbers of workmen have thus been induced to become depositors. The advantages of the savings bank appear to be now thoroughly appreciated throughout the United Kingdom, as shown by the following table: — On the 3 ist of December 1900. Number of Depositors. Tola) Amount to Credit of Depositors. Average Amount to Credit of each Depositor. Proportion of Depositors to Population. England and Wales . Scotland .... Ireland .... Totals . . 7.685,317 372,801 381,865 £ 122,365,193 5,126,299 8,058,153 £. s. d. 15 18 5 13 15 o 21 2 I I in 4 I in 12 I in 12 8,439.983 135.549.645 16 I 3 I in 5 On the 3 ist of December 1905. England and Wales . Scotland .... Ireland .... Totals . . 9,O27,II2 451-627 484,310 £ 135.668,450 6,205,339 10,237,351 £. s. d. 15 o 7 13 H 1° 21 2 9 I in 3-8 I in 10-4 I in 9-1 9,963,049 152,111,140 15 5 4 i in 4-3 Between the foundation of the bank and the end of 1899, upwards of £648,000,000, inclusive of interest, was credited to depositors, of which £474,000,000 was withdrawn. There were 232,634,596 deposits, 81,804,509 withdrawals, 27,071,556 accounts opened, and 18,631,573 accounts closed. The cross-entries, or instances where the account is operated upon at a different office from that at which it was opened, amounted to 33%. It is chiefly in respect of this facility that the post office savings bank enjoys its advan- tage over the trustee savings bank. In 1905, 16,320,204 deposits were made, amounting to £42,300,617. In the same year the with- drawals numbered 7,155,283, the total sum withdrawn being £42,096,037. The interest credited to depositors was £3,567,206, and the total sum standing to their credit on the 3lst of December 1900 was £152,111,140. A classification of accounts opened for 3 months in 1896, and assumed to be fairly typical, showed the following results: — Occupation as stated by Depositors Percentage in opening Account. to Total. Professional 1-55 Official 2-81 Educational i-oi Commercial 3-88 Agricultural and fishing 1-83 Industrial 18-43 Railway, shipping and transport 2-96 Tradesmen and their assistants 8-14 Domestic service 8-61 Miscellaneous 0-37 Married women, spinsters and children . . . 50-41 loo-oo POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE 189 Women and children of all ranks are believed to be 60-59 of the total number of depositors. The accounts open at the end of 1895 showed the following division of deposits: — Per cent. Balances not exceeding .... £50 . . 36-1 Exceeding £50 and not exceeding . . 100 . . 24-5 loo „ 150 . 17-3 150 200 .. 14-8 „ 200 7-3 100-0 The division according to number of accounts, in the same groups, was 90-8, 5-3, 2-2, 1-3 and 0-4 respectively. Investments in Government Stock.— In September 1888 the mini- mum amount of government stock which might be purchased or sold through the post office savings bank was reduced from £10 to is., and it was also provided that any person who had purchased stock through the savings bank could, if he so desired, nave it transferred to his own name in the books of the Bank of England. The act of 1893 raised the limit of stock to £200 in one year, and £500 in all; but any depositor might purchase stock, to replace stock previously sold, in one entire sum during that year. If a depositor exceeds the authorized limits of deposit in the post office savings bank, the excess is invested in stock by the post office on his behalf. The investments of depositors in government stock, however, have a tendency to decrease, and the sales, on the other hand, to increase, as will be seen from the following table: — Year. Investments. Sales. Average price of Consols. No. of Depositors. Total holding of Stock. No. Amount. No. Amount. 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 46,550 40,893 47,726 39,633 32,301 £ 3,192,154 2,694,447 3,131,172 2,507,546 2,212,285 13,574 17,221 17,742 18,848 22,824 £ 761,629 1-054,193 1,085,578 1,131,543 1,507,219 94J 94i 90: 88 89- _ 109,509 118,696 131.343 138,582 139,992 £ 12,786,190 14,285,617 16,165,548 17,357,950 17,877,644 Annuities and Life Insurances. — The act of 1882, which came into operation on the 3rd of June 1884, utilized the machinery of the post office savings bank for annuities and life insurances, which had been effected through the post office at selected towns in England and Wales since the 1 7th of April 1865. Under the act of 1882 all payments were to be made by means of money deposited in the savings bank, and an order could be given by a depositor that any sum — even to id. a week — should be devoted to the purchase of an annuity or insurance so long as he retained a balance in the savings bank. In February 1896 new life insur- ance tables came into operation, with reduced annual rates, and with provision for payment of sums insured at various ages as desired. The following table shows the business done from 1901 to 1905: — additional five words, the addresses of sender and receiver being sent free. In 1885 the charge was reduced to a halfpenny a word throughout, including addresses (a system of abbreviated addresses, which could be registered on payment of a guinea a year, being introduced), with a minimum charge of sixpence. To obviate the damage and interruption resulting from storms large numbers of wires have been laid underground. In 1891 the terms under which a new telegraph office was opened, on the request of a person or persons who undertook to guarantee the post office against loss, were reduced. In 1892 rural sanitary authorities were empowered to give such guarantees out of the rates. In 1897, as part of the Jubilee concessions, the government undertook to pay one-half of any deficiency under guarantees. During the six years ended in 1891 the average number of telegraph offices guaranteed each year was 77. From 1892 to 1897 the average rose to 167. In 1905 and 1906 it amounted to 152. The number of telegraph offices opened without guarantee has increased apace, and there are now 12,993 telegraph offices in all. As part of the Jubilee scheme the charges for porterage were reduced as follows: Up to 3 miles free; beyond 3 m., 3d. per m., reckoned from the post office; and arrangements were made for the free delivery at all hours of the day or night of any telegram within the metro- politan postal district. The cost of free delivery up to 3 m. was estimated at £52,000 a year. Foreign Telegrams. — The sixth international telegraph conference, held at Berlin in 1884, effected a reduction in the charges to many countries. E.g. the rate per word was reduced for Russia from od. to 6^d., Spain 6d. to 4id., Italy sd. to 4jd., and India 45. 7d. to 45. The cost of repeating a message was reduced from one-half to one-fourth of the original charge for transmission. At the next con- ference (1890) held at Paris, further considerable reductions were effected. The rates to Austria- Hungary and Italy were reduced from 4^d. to 3d., Russia 6%d. to s^d., Portugal sid. to 4id., Sweden 5d. to 4d., Spain 4^d. to 4d., Canary Islands is. yjd. to is., &c. The minimum charge for any foreign (European) telegram was fixed at tod. The eighth conference (Budapest, 1896) succeeded in making the following reductions, among others, from the United Kingdom: China 75. to 53. 6d., Java 6s. to 55., Japan 8s. to 6s. zd., Mauritius 8s. 9d. to 55., Persia 2S. sd. to is. oxi. At this conference it was made incumbent upon every state adher- ing to the union to fix in its currency an equivalent approaching as nearly as possible the standard rate in gold, and to correct and declare the equivalent in case of any important fluctuation. Year. ANNUITIES. LITE INSCBJOJCES. Immediate. Deferred. Contracts entered into. Receipts. Payments. Contracts entered into. Receipts. Payments. Contracts entered into. Receipts. Payments. No. Amount of Annuities. Amount. No. Amount. No. Amount of Annuities. No. Amount. No. Amount. No. Amount of Insurances. No. Amount. No. Amount of claims on death and surrender. 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 ,764 ,679 ,763 ,768 ,840 £ 42,268 42,791 43,973 41,000 45,488 £ 562,159 558,770 557,98i 520,538 573.205 33,269 34,375 35,463 36,607 37,686 £ 527,371 548,251 571,904 594,502 614,406 142 139 157 128 158 £ 3,066 2,973 3,424 2,492 3,204 ,365 ,353 ,366 ,366 ,386 £ 23,630 21,764 24,489 ji .in i 24,287 ,075 ,I64 ,210 ,297 ,347 £ 14,175 17,172 14,689 16,167 16,965 920 722 592 517 741 £ 44.296 34,646 31,413 28,629 37,01 1 21,972 22,553 22,672 22,323 21,836 £ 22,647 23,045 23,063 23,031 23,376 380 389 387 465 449 £ 12,992 14,646 13,126 16,878 1 5,593 TELEGRAPHS AND TELEPHONES The history of the development of telegraphy and the early proposals for the transference to the state of the telegraph monopoly will be found in the article TELEGRAPHY. ,iegraphs.On the sth Q{ February l87O the Telegraph Act of the previous year took effect. The post office assumed control of telegraphic communication within the United King- dom, and it became possible to send telegrams throughout the country at a uniform charge irrespective of locality or dis- tance. In 1885 sixpenny telegrams were introduced. The charge for a written telegram which came into force in 1870 was one shilling for the first twenty words, and threepence for every The limit of letters in one word of plain language was raised from 10 to 15, and the number of figures from 3 to 5. The International Telegraph Bureau was also ordered to compile an enlarged official vocabulary of code words, which it is proposed to recognize as the sole authority for words which may be used in cypher telegrams sent by the public. (See Appendix to Postmaster-General's Report, 1897.) See further TELEGRAPH. Ten years of state administration of the telegraphs had not passed before the postmaster-general was threatened with a formidable rival in the form of the telephone, which assumed a practical shape about the year 1878, the first exchange in the United Kingdom being established in POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE the City of London in that year. The history of the telephone service and the growth of the industry are set out in the, article TELEPHONE. POST OFFICE STAFF The staff of the post office on the 3ist of March 1906 amounted to 195,432. Of these 41,081 were women, a proportion of over one-fifth of the staff. The postmasters numbered 875 (in- cluding 10 employed abroad), and the sub-postmasters 21,027. preference was given to army, navy and royal marine pensioners, and men of the army reserve. Due regard was paid to the legitimate claims of telegraph messengers or other persons who had prospects of succeeding to these situations. In August 1897 the government decided to reserve one-half of all suitable vacancies for ex-soldiers and sailors, as postmen, porters and labourers, and preference has been shown to them for employment as lift-attendants, care- takers, &c. Finance. — The following table shows the financial working of the post office: — Revenue. Expenditure. "3 S 2! < ffi Sites and J8J Other Year. Postal Extra PI Total Buildings. Salaries, Convey- Packet Expenditure. Total. Net Revenue. Wages, &c. i'E& Pur- §^'3 Under Under •£ £« 3" c y P.O. other [31" en rt*O Votes. Votes. £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ 1884-1885 1889-1890 1894-1895 1899-1900 7,808,911 9,467,165 10,748,014 13,192,020 382,002 36,279 198,336 218,037 277,446 202,315 8,389,249 9,721,481 11,025,460 13,394,335 72,464 70,900 12,597 "5,294 80,234 79,840 175,390 169,098 150,742 ^53,921 188,919 269,092 2,829,210 3,359,563 4.597,355 5,963,399 ,154,211 ,249,821 .395,282 ,474,118 728,413 664,342 729,813 759,307 515,892 553,910 677,524 719,944 136,999 142,788 178,464 213,747 5,668,165 6,275,085 7.955,344 9,683,909 2,721,084 3,446,396 3,070,116 3,710,336 1900-1901 13,776,886 — 218,584 13,995,470 81,949 175,000 286,238 6,277,275 ,516,859 764,804 726,101 236,677 10,064,903 3,930,567 1905-1906 16,823,349 24,363 216,311 17,064,023 7S.7S9 250,127 377,131 7,737,010 ,821,758 687,109 604,927 295,I9« 11,849,012 5,540,897 The total number of offices (including branch offices) was 22,088. The unestablished staff, not entitled to pension, made up chiefly of telegraph boys, and of persons who are employed for only part of the day on post office business, included 87,753 out °f the grand total, and almost the whole of the sub-postmasters. The pay and prospects of almost all classes have been greatly improved since 1884, when the number stood at 91,184. The principal schemes of general revision of pay have been: 1881, Fawcett's scheme for sorting-clerks, sorters and telegraphists (additional cost £210,000 a year), and for postmen, 1882, £110,000: Raikes's various revisions, 1888, chief clerks and supervising officers, £6230; 1890, sorting-clerks, sorters and telegraphists, £179,600; 1890, supervising force, £65,000; 1890, London sorters, £20,700; 1891, London overseers, £940°; 1891, postmen, £125,650: Arnold Morley, 1884, London overseers, £1400, and rural auxiliaries, £20,000. A committee was appointed in June 1895 with Lord Tweedmouth as chairman, to consider the pay and position of the post office staff, excluding the clerical force and those employed at head- quarters. The committee reported on the I5th of December 1896 and its recommendations were adopted at an immediate increased ex- pense of £139,000 a year, which . has since risen to £500,000. In 1897 additional concessions were made at a cost of £100,000 a year. In July 1890 a number of postmen in London went out on strike. Over 450 were dismissed in one morning, and the work of the post office was carried on without interruption. The men received no sympathy from the public, and most of them were ultimately successful in their plea to be reinstated. A quasi-political agitation was carried on during the general elec- tion of 1892 by some of the London sorters, who, under the plea of civil rights, claimed the right to influence candidates for parliament by exacting pledges for the promise of parliamentary support. The leaders were dismissed, and the post office has upheld the principle that its officers are to hold themselves free to serve either party in the State without putting themselves prominently forward as political partisans. Parliament has been repeatedly asked to sanction a parliamentary inquiry to reopen the settlement of the Tweedmouth Committee, and the telegraphists have been especially active in pressing for a further committee. The rates of pay at various dates since 1 88 1 are set out with great fullness in the Parliamentary papers (Postmen, No. 237 of 1897; Sorters, Telegraphists, fire., No. 230 of 1898 and Report of the Select Committee on Post Office Servants, 1907; tnis latter contains important recommendations for the removal of many grievances which the staff had been long agitating to have removed). In November 1891 an important change was made in the method of recruiting postmen, with the object of encouraging military service, and providing situations for those who after serving in the army or navy are left without employment at a comparatively early age. In making appointments to the situation of postman, POSTAGE STAMPS For all practical purposes the history of postage stamps begins in the United Kingdom. A post-paid envelope was in common use in Paris in the year 1653. Stamped postal letter-paper (carta postale bollata) was issued to the public by the govern- ment of the Sardinian States in November 1818, and stamped postal envelopes were issued by the same government from 1820 until I836.1 Stamped wrappers for newspapers were made experimentally in London by Charles Whiting, under the name of " go-frees," in 1830. Four years later (June 1834), and in ignorance of what Whiting had already done, Charles Knight, the well-known publisher, in a letter addressed to Lord Althorp, then chancellor of the exchequer, recommended similar wrappers for adoption. From this suggestion apparently Rowland Hill, who is justly regarded as the originator of postage stamps, got his idea. Meanwhile, however, the adhesive stamp was made experimentally by James Chalmers in his printing-office at Dundee in August i834.2 These experimental stamps were printed from ordinary type, and were made adhesive by a wash of gum. Chalmers had already won local distinction by his successful efforts in 1822, for the acceleration of the Scottish mails from London. Those efforts' resulted in a saving of forty-eight hours on the double mail journey, and were highly appreciated in Scotland. Rowland Hill brought the adhesive stamp under the notice of the commissioners of post office inquiry on the i3th of February 1837. Chalmers made no public mention of his stamp of 1834 until November 1837. Rowland Hill's pamphlet led to the appointment of a com- mittee of the House of Commons on the 22nd of November 1837, " to inquire into the rates and modes of charging postage, with a view to such a reduction thereof as may be made without injury to the revenue." This committee reported in favour of Hill's proposals; and an act was passed in 1839, authorizing the treasury to fix the rates of postage, and regulate the mode of their collection, whether by prepayment or otherwise. A premium of £200 was offered for the best, and £100 for the next best, proposal for bringing stamps into use, having regard to 1 Stamp-Collector's Magazine, v. 161 seq. ; J. E. Gray, Illustrated Catalogue of Postage Stamps, 6th ed., 167. 2 Patrick Chalmers, Sir Rowland hill and James Chalmers, Inventor of the Adhesive Stamp (London, 1882), passim. See also the same writer's pamphlet, entitled The Position of Sir Rowland Hill made plain (1882), and his The Adhesive Stamp: a Fresh Chapter in the History of Post-Office Reform (1881). Compare Pearson Hill's tract, A Paper on Postage Stamps, in reply to Chalmers, reprinted from the Philatelic Record of November 1881. Pearson Hill has therein shown conclusively the priority of publication by Sir Rowland Hill. He has also given proof of James Chalmers's express acknow- ledgment of that priority. But he has not weakened the evidence of the priority of invention by Chalmers. POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE 191 " (i) the convenience as regards the public use; (2) the security against forgery; (3) the facility of being checked and distin- guished at the post office, which must of necessity be rapid; and (4) the expense of the production and circulation of the stamps." To this invitation 2600 replies were received, but no improvement was made upon Rowland Hill's suggestions. A further Minute, of the 26th of December 1839, announced that the treasury had decided to require that, as far as practicable, the postage of letters should be prepaid, and such prepayment effected by means of stamps. Stamped covers or wrappers, stamped envelopes, and adhesive stamps were to be issued by government. The stamps were engraved by Messrs Perkins, Bacon & Fetch, of Fleet Street, from Hill's designs, and the Mulready envelopes and covers by Messrs Clowes & Son, of Blackfriars. The stamps were appointed to be brought into use on the 6th of May 1840, but they appear to have been issued to the public as early as the ist of May. The penny stamp, bearing a profile of Queen Victoria, was coloured black, and the twopenny stamp blue, with check-letters in the lower angles (in all four angles from April 1858). Up to the 28th of January 1854 the stamps were not officially perforated, except in the session of 1851, when stamps, perforated by a Mr Archer, were issued at the House of Commons post office. In 1853 the government purchased Archer's patent for £4000. The. stamps were first water-marked in April 1840. The canton of Zurich was the first foreign state to adopt postage stamps, in 1843. The stamps reached America in the same year, being introduced by the government of Brazil. That of the United States did not adopt them until 1847; but a tentative issue was made by the post office of New York in 1845. An adhesive stamp was also issued at St Louis in the same year, and in Rhode Island in the next. In Europe the Swiss cantons of Geneva (1844) and of Basel (1845) soon followed the example set by Zurich. In the Russian Empire the use of postage stamps became general in 1848 (after preliminary issues at St Petersburg and in Finland in 1845). France issued them in 1849. The same year witnessed their intro- duction into Tuscany, Belgium and Bavaria, and also into New South Wales'. Austria, Prussia, Saxony, Spain, Italy, followed in 1850. The use of postage stamps seems to have extended to the Hawaiian Islands (1851?) a year before it reached the Dutch Netherlands (1852). • Within twenty-five years of the first issue of a postage stamp in London, the known varieties, issued in all parts of the world, amounted to 1391. Of these 841 were of European origin, 333 were American, 59 Asiatic, 55 African. The varieties of stamp issued in the several countries of Oceania were 103. Of the whole 1391 stamps no less than 811 were already obsolete in 1865, leaving 580 still in currency. ENGLISH ISSUES (i.) Line-engraved Stamps. Halfpenny Stamp. — First issue, October i, 1870: size 18 mm. by 14 mm.; lake-red varying to rose-red. One Penny Stamp. — First issue, 1st (for 6th) May 1840: the head executed by Frederick Heath, from a drawing by Henry Corbould of William Wyon's medal struck to commemorate her majesty's visit to the City of London on the 9th of November 1837: size 22$ mm. by i8| mm.; black, watermarked with a small crown; a few sheets in 1841 struck in red, two essays were made in April and October 1840 in blue and blue-back; imperforate. The second issue, January 20, 1841, differed only from the first issue as to colour — red instead of black. It is stated l that the colour, " though always officially referred to as ' red,' was really a red- brown, and this may be regarded as the normal colour; but con- siderable variations in tone and shade (brick-red, orange-red, lake- red) occurred from time to time, often accentuated by the blueing of the paper, though primarily due to a want of uniformity in the method employed for preparing the ink." The change of colour from black was made in order to render the obliteration (now in black instead of red ink) more distinct; imperforate. Third issue, February 1854: small crown watermark; perforated 16 (i.e. 16 holes to 2 centimetres). The fourth issue, January 1855, differed only from the third issue in being perforated 14. Fifth issue, February 1855: from a new die, with minute variations of engraving. In the second die the eyelid is more distinctly shaded, the nostril more curved, and the band round the hair has a thick dark line forming its lower edge. Small crown watermark; perfor- ated 16 and 14. Sixth issue, July 1855: large crown watermark; perforated 14; a certain number 16. Seventh issue, January 1858: carmine-rose varying from pale to very deep. Large crown watermark; perforated, chiefly 14. Eighth issue, April I, 1864: 1 Wright and Creeke, History of the Adhesive Stamp of the British Isles available for Postal and Telegraph Purposes (London, 1899). check-letters in all four corners instead of two only; large crown watermark; perforated 14. In 1880 the line-engraved one penny stamps were superseded by the surface-printed one of similar value in Venetian red, designed and printed by Messrs De la Rue & Co. Three- half penny Stamp. — October i, 1870: large crown water- mark; lake-red; perforated 14. Superseded in October 1880 by De la Rue's surface-printed stamp. Twopenny Stamp. — First issue, 1st (for 6th) May 1840: small crown watermark; light blue, dark blue; imperforate. Second issue, March 1841: small crown watermark; white line below "Postage" and above "Twopence"; dull to dark blue; imper- forate. Third issue, February (?) 1854: small crown watermark ; blue, dark blue; perforated 16. Fourth issue, March 1855: small crown watermark; blue, dark blue; perforated 14. Fifth issue, July 1855: large crown watermark; blue; perforated 16; blue, dark blue; perforated 14. Sixth issue, May (?) 1857: large crown watermark; white lines thinner, blue, dark blue; perforated 14; dark blue; perforated 16. Seventh issue, July 1858: large crown watermark; white lines as in fifth issue; deep to very deep blue; perforated 16. Eighth issue, April (?) 1869: large crown water- mark; white lines thinner; dull blue, deep to very deep blue, violet blue; perforated 14. Superseded in December 1880 by De la Rue's surface-printed stamp. (ii.) Embossed Stamps. Produced by Dryden Brothers, of Lambeth, from designs -sub- mitted by Mr Ormond Hill of Somerset House, engraved after Wyon's medal. Sixpence. — March i, 1854: violet, reddish lilac, dark violet; imperforate. Superseded in October 1856 by De la Rue's surface- printed stamp. Tenpence. — November 6, 1848: pale to very deep chestnut- brown; imperforate. Superseded by De la Rue's surface-printed stamp in 1867. One Shilling. — September n, 1847: emerald green, pure deep green, yellow-green; imperforate. Superseded in November 1856 by De la Rue's surface-printed stamp. (iii.) Surface-printed Stamps before 1880. Twopence-half-penny. — First issue, July i, 1875: small anchor watermark; lilac-rose; perforated 14. Second issue, May 1876: orb watermark; lilac-rose, perforated 14. Third issue, February 5, 1880: orb watermark; cobalt, and some ultramarine; perforated 14. Fourth issue, March 23, 1881: large crown watermark; bright blue; perforated 14. Threepence. — All perforated 14. First issue, May i, 1862: heraldic emblems watermark; carmine (pale to deep). Second issue, March i, 1865: same watermark as above; carmine-pink. Third issue, July 1867: watermarked with a spray of rose; carmine- pink, carmine-rose. Fourth issue, July 1873- watermark as third issue; carmine-rose. Fifth issue, January i, 1881 : watermark large crown; carmine- rose. Sixth issue, January i, 1883; watermark as fifth issue; purple shades overprinted with value in deep pink. Fourpence. — AH perforated 14. First issue, July 31, 1855: watermark small garter; deep and dull carmine. Second issue, February 1856: watermark medium garter; pale carmine. Third issue, November i, 1856: watermark medium garter; dull rose. Fourth issue, January 1857: watermark large garter; dull and pale to deep rose, pink. Fifth issue, January 15, 1862: water- mark large garter; carmine- vermilion, vermilion-red. Sixth issue, July 1865: watermark large garter; pale to dark vermilion. Seventh issue, March i, 1876: watermark large garter; pale vermilion. Eighth issue, February 27, 1877: watermark large garter; pale sage-green. Ninth issue, July 1880: watermark large garter; mouse-brown. Tenth issue, January i, 1881 : watermark large crown; mouse-brown. Sixpence. — All perforated 14. First issue, October 21, 1856: no letters in angles; watermark heraldic emblems; dull lilac. Second issue, December i, 1862: small white letters in angles; otherwise as first issue. Third issue, April i, 1865: large white letters in angles; otherwise as first issue. Fourth issue, June 1867: water- mark spray of rose; otherwise as third issue; some in bright lilac. Fifth issue, March 1869: as fourth issue; lilac, deep lilac, purple- lilac. Sixth issue, April i, 1872: as fourth issue; bright chestnut- brown. Seventh issue, October 1872: as fourth issue; buff. Eighth issue, April 1873: as fourth issue; greenish grey. Ninth issue, April i, 1874: watermarked as fourth issue; large coloured letters in angles; greenish grey. Tenth issue, January i, 1881: large crown watermark; otherwise as ninth issue. Eleventh issue, January i, 1883: as tenth issue; purple, overprinted with value in deep pink. Eightpence. — September n, 1876: watermark large garter; chrome-yellow, pale yellow; perforated 14. Ninepence. — All perforated 14. First issue, January 15, 1862: watermark heraldic emblems; ochre-brown, bright bistre. Second issue, December i, 1865: watermark as above; bistre-brown, straw. Third issue, October 1867: watermark spray of rose; straw. Tenpence. — July i, 1867: watermark spray of rose; red-brown; perforated 14. 192 POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE One Shitting. — AH perforated 14. First issue, November I, 1856: watermark heraldic emblems; no letters in angles; dull green, pale to dark green. Second issue, December I, 1862: as above; small white letters in angles; pale to dark green. Third issue, February 1865: as above; large white letters in angles; pale to dark green, bluish green. Fourth issue, August 1867: water- mark spray of rose; otherwise as third issue; pale to dark green, bluish green. Fifth issue, September 1873: large coloured letters in angles; otherwise as fourth issue; light to dark green, bluish green. Sixth issue, October 14, 1880: as fifth issue; pale red- brown. Seventh issue, June 15, 1881: watermark large crown; otherwise as sixth issue ; pale red-brown. Two Shillings. — Watermark spray of rose; perforated 14. First issue, July I, 1867: pale to full blue, very deep blue. Second issue, February 1880: light brown. Five Shillings. — First issue, July I, 1867: watermarked with a cross pate; pink, pale rose; perforated 155 by 15. Second issue, November 1882: watermark large anchor; carmine-pink; perfor- ated 14. Ten Shillings. — First issue, September 26, 1878: watermark cross pate; green-grey; perforated 15^ by 15. Secondissue, February 1883 : watermark large anchor; green-grey; perforated 14. One Pound. — First issue, September 26, 1878: watermark cross pate; brown-violet; perforated 15^ by 15. Secondissue, December 1882 : watermark large anchor; brown-violet; perforated 14. (iv.) After 1880. In 1880-1881 the halfpenny, penny, three-halfpenny and two- penny surface-printed stamps superseded the line-engraved stamps of the same value, and a new surface-printed stamp of fivepence was introduced. These stamps are distinguished from the stamps already described by the absence of plate-numbers and (except in the penny stamp) of check-letters in the corners; also by the coarser style of engraving necessary for printing by machines driven by steam-power. One Halfpenny. — First issue, October 14, 1880: large crown watermark; pale green, bluish green, dark green; perforated 14. Second issue, April I, 1884: slate-blue. One Penny. — January I, 1880: large crown watermark; Venetian red; perforated 14. Three-halfpence. — October 14, 1880: large crown watermark; Venetian red; perforated 14. Twopence. — December 8, 1880: large crown watermark; pale to very deep carmine red; perforated 14. Fivepence. — March 15, 1881 : large crown watermark; dark dull indigo, indigo-black; perforated 14. The Customs and Inland Revenue Act which came into force on June I, 1881, made it unnecessary to provide separate penny stamps for postal and fiscal purposes. By an act of 1882 (45 & 46 Viet. c. 72) it became unnecessary to provide separate stamps for postal and fiscal purposes up to and including stamps of the value of 2s. 6d. A new series was therefore issued : — One Penny. — All perforated 14. First issue, July 12, 1881 : large crown watermark; 14 pearls in each angle; purple-lilac, purple. Second issue, December 12, 1881 : as first issue; 16 pearls in each angle; purple. Three-halfpence. — April I,. 1884: large crown watermark; purple; perforated 14. Twopence.— Ditto. Twopence-halfpenny. — Ditto. Threepence. — Ditto. Fourpence. — Ditto, except in colour (sea-green). Fivepence. — As fourpence. Sixpence. — Ditto. Ninepence. — Ditto. One Shilling.— Ditto. Two Shillings and Sixpence. — Jury 22, 1883: watermark large anchor; purple, dull lilac, dark purple; perforated 14. Five Shillings. — April I, 1884: ditto; pale to very deep carmine. Ten Shillings. — Ditto; pale blue, cobalt, light to dull blue. One Pound.— First issue, April I, 1884: large crown watermark, 3 appearing in each stamp; brown-violet; perforated 14. Second tssue, January 27, 1891 : same watermark; bright green; perforated 14. Five Pounds. — March 21, 1882: large anchor watermark; orange- vermilion, vermilion, bright vermilion; perforated 14. Following upon the report of a committee of officials of the General Post Office and Somerset House, a series of new stamps, commonly known as the " Jubilee " issue, was introduced on January I, 1887, all of which between one halfpenny and one shilling exclusive were printed either in two colours or on a coloured paper, so that each stamp was printed in part in one or other of the doubly fugitive inks — green and purple. One Halfpenny. — January I, 1887: large crown watermark; orange- vermilion to bright vermilion; perforated 14. Three-halfpence. — January I, 1887: as the halfpenny; green and purple. Twopence. — Ditto : green and scarlet to carmine. Twopence-halfpenny. — January I, 1887: blue paper; watermark large crown ; dark purple ; perforated 14. Threepence. — January I, 1887: yellow paper; watermarked with a large crown; purple; perforated 14. Fourpence. — January I, 1887: watermark and perforation as in threepence; green and brown. Four pence-half penny. — September 15, 1892: as the fourpence; green and carmine. Fivepence. — January I, 1887: as the fourpence; purple and blue. Sixpence. — January I, 1887: pale red paper; watermarked with a large crown; purple; perforated 14. Ninepence. — January I, 1887: large crown watermark; purple and blue; perforated 14. Tenpence. — February 24, 1890: as the ninepence; purple and carmine-red. One Shilling. — January I, 1887: as the ninepence; green. The various fiscal stamps admitted to postage uses, the over- printed official stamps for use by government departments, and the stamps specially surcharged for use in the Ottoman Empire, do not call for detailed notice in this article. The distinctive telegraph stamps are as follows: — One Halfpenny. — April I, 1880: shamrock watermark; orange vermilion; perforated 14. One Penny. — February I, 1876: as the halfpenny; reddish brown. Threepence. — Perforated 14. First issue, February i, 1876: watermark spray of rose; carmine. Second issue, August 1881: watermark large crown; carmine. Fourpence. — March I, 1877: watermark large garter; pale sage-green; perforated 14. Sixpence. — Perforated 14. First issue, March I, 1877: water- mark spray of rose; greenish-grey. Second issue, July 1881: as first issue; watermark large crown. One Shilling. — Perforated 14. First issue, February I, 1876: watermark spray of rose; green. Second issue, October 1880: watermark spray of rose; pale red-brown. Third issue, February 1 88 1 : watermark large crown ; pale red brown. Three Shillings. — Perforated 14; slate blue. First issue, March I, 1877: watermark spray of rose. Second issue, August 1881: watermark large crown. Five Shillings. — First issue, February I, 1876: watermark cross pate; dark to light rose; perforated 15 by I5j. Second issue, August 1881: watermark large anchor; carmine-rose; perforated 14. Ten Shillings. — March I, 1877; watermark cross pate; green- grey; perforated 15 by 15$. One Pound. — March i, 1877: watermark shamrock; brown- purple; perforated 14. Five Pounds. — March I, 1877: watermark shamrock; orange- vermilion: perforated isi by 15. In addition to these, there were stamps specially prepared for the army telegraphs. BRITISH COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES Australian Commonwealth. — In 1905 there were 6654 post offices open; 311,401,539 letters and cards, 171,844,868 news- papers, book-packets and circulars, 2,168,810 parcels, and 13,680,239 telegrams were received and despatched; the revenue was £2,738,146 and the expenditure £2,720,735. New Zealand. — In 1905 there were 1937 post offices open; 74,767,288 letters and cards, 47,334,263 newspapers, book- packets and circulars, 392,017 parcels, and 5,640,219 telegrams were dealt with. The revenue from the post office was £410,968, and from telegraphs £273,911, while the expenditure on the post office was £302,146 and on telegraphs £276,581. Dominion of Canada. — In 1905 there were 10,879 P°st offices open; 331,792,500 letters and cards, 60,405,000 newspapers, book-packets and circulars, and 58,338 parcels were received and despatched. The revenue from the post office amounted to £1,053,548, and from telegraphs £28,727, while the expendi- ture was, on the post office £952,652 and on telegraphs £78,934. Cape of Good Hope.— The number of post offices open in 1905 was 1043; 7,596,600 letters and cards, 3,706,960 newspapers, book-packets and circulars, 536,800 parcels, and 6,045,228 telegrams were dealt with. The revenue from the post office was £423,056, and from telegraphs £206,842 the expenditure being, £456,171 on the post office and £272,863 on telegraphs. British India. — In 1905 there were 16,033 post offices open; 597,707,867 letters and cards, 76,671,197 newspapers, book- packets and circulars, 4,541,367 parcels, and 9,098,345 tele- grams were dealt with. The revenue from the post office was £1,566,704 and from telegraphs £733,193, while the expenditure was, on the post office, £1,199,557 and on telegraphs £546,914. POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE 193 FRANCE The French postal system was founded by Louis XI. (June 19, 1464), was largely extended by Charles IX. (1565), and received considerable improvements at various periods under the respective governments of Henry IV. and Louis XIII. (1603, 1622, 1627 seq.).1 In 1627 France originated a postal money-transmission system, a system of cheap registration for letters. The postmaster who thus anticipated modern improvements was Pierre d'Almeras, a man of high birth, who gave about £20,000 (of modern money) for the privilege of serving the public. The turmoils of the Fronde wrecked much that he had achieved. The first farm of postal income was made in 1672, and by farmers it was adminis- tered until June 1790. To increase the income postmaster- ships for a long time were not only sold but made hereditary. Many administrative improvements of detail were introduced, indeed, by Mazarin (1643), by Louvois (c. 1680 seq.), and by Cardinal de Fleury (1728); but many formidable abuses also continued. The revolutionary government transferred rather than removed them. Characteristically, it put a board of post- masters in room of a farming postmaster-general and a con- trolling one. Napoleon (during the consulate2) abolished the board, recommitted the business to a postmaster-general as it had been under Louis XIII., and greatly improved the details of the service; Napoleon's organization of 1802 is, in substance, that which now obtains, although, of course, large modifications and developments have been made from time to time.8 The university of Paris, as early as the I3th century, pos- sessed a special postal system, for the abolition of which in the 1 8th it received a large compensation. But it continued to possess certain minor postal privileges until the Revolution.4 Mazarin's edict of the 3rd of December 1643 shows that France at that date had a parcel post as well as a letter post. That edict creates for each head post office throughout the kingdom three several officers styled respectively (i) comptroller, (2) weigher, (3) assessor; and, instead of remunerating them by salary, it directs the addition of one-fourth to the existing letter rate and parcel rate, and the division of the surcharge between the three. Fleury's edicts of 1728 make sub-postmasters directly respon- sible for the loss of letters or parcels; they also make it necessary that senders should post their letters at an office, and not give them to the carriers, and regulate the book-post by directing that book parcels (whether MS. or printed) shall be open at the ends.5 In 1758, almost eighty years after Dockwra's estab- lishment of a penny post in London, an historian of that city published an account of it, which in Paris came under the eye of Claude Piarron de Chamousset,6 who obtained letters-patent to do the like, and, before setting to work or seeking profit for himself, issued a tract with the title, Memoire sur la pctite-poste etablie a Londres, sur la modele de laquelle on pourrait en etablir de semblables dans les plus grandes villes d'Europe. The reform was successfully carried out. By this time the general post office of France was producing 1 For the details, see Ency. Brit., 8th ed., xviii. 420-424, and Maxime Du Camp, " L' Administration des Postes," in Revue des deux mondes (1865), 2nd series, vol. Ixvii. 169 seq. 1 28 Pluyiose, an XII. = the i8th of February 1804. * Le Quien de la Neufville, Usages des pastes (1730), pp. 59-67, 80, 121-123, 147-149, 286^-291; Maxime du Camp, op. cit. passim; Pierre Clement, Appreciation des consequences de la refortne postale, passim: Loret, Gazette rimee (Aug. 16, 1653); Furetiere, Le Roman Bourgeois (in Du Camp, ut supra); " Die ersten Posteinricht- ungen, u.s.w., " in L' Union postale, viii. 138; Ordonnances des Rois de France, as cited by A. de Rothschild, Histoire de la poste-aux- lettres (yd ed., 1876), i. 171, 216, 269. We quote M. de Rothschild's clever book with some misgivings. It is eminently sparkling in style, and most readable; but its citations are so given that one is constantly in doubt lest they be given at second or even at third hand instead of from the sources. The essay of M. du Camp is, up to its date, far more trustworthy. He approaches his subject as a publicist, M. de Rothschild as a stamp-collector. 4 There are several charters confirmatory of this original privilege. The earliest of these is of 1296 (Philip " the Fair "). 6 Ordonnances, &c., as above'. 6 There is an interesting biographical notice of Piarron de Chamousset in Le Journal officiel of July 5, 1875. xxn. 7 a considerable and growing revenue. In 1676 the farmers had paid to the king £48,000 in the money of that day. A century later they paid a fixed rent of £352,000, and covenanted to pay in addition one^-fifth of their net profits. In 1788 — the date of the last letting to farm of the postal revenue — the fixed and the variable payments were commuted for one settled sum of £480,000 a year. The result of the devastations of the Revolu- tion and of the wars of the empire together is shown strikingly by the fact that in 1814 the gross income of the post office was but little more than three-fifths of the net income in 1788. Six years of the peaceful government of Louis XVIII. raised the gross annual revenue to £928,000. On the eve of the Revolution of 1830 it reached £1,348,000. Towards the close of the next reign the post office yielded £2,100,000 (gross). Under the revolutionary government of 1848-1849 it declined again (falling in 1850 to £1,744,000); under that of Napoleon III. it rose steadily and uniformly with every year. In 1858 the gross revenue was £2,296,000, in 1868 £3,596,000. The ingenuity of the French postal authorities was severely tried by the exigencies of the German War of 1870-71. The first contrivance was to organize a pigeon service (see also PIGEON POST), carrying microscopic despatches prepared by the aid of photographic appliances.7 The Pofl number of postal pigeons employed was 363, of which number fifty-seven returned with despatches. During the height of the siege the English postal authorities received letters for transmission by pigeon post into Paris by way of Tours, subject to the regulations that no information concerning the war was given, that the number of words did not exceed twenty, that the letters were delivered open, and that 5d. a word, with a registra- tion fee of 6d.,8 was prepaid as postage. At this rate the postage of the 200 letters on each folio was £40, that on the eighteen pellicles of sixteen folios each, carried by one pigeon, £11,520. Each des- patch was repeated until its arrival had been acknowledged by balloon post; consequently many were sent off twenty and some even more than thirty times. The second step was to establish a regular system of postal balloons, fifty-one being employed for letter service and six for telegraphic service. To M. Durnouf belongs much of the honour of making the balloon service successful. On the basis of experiments carried out by him a decree of the 26th of September 1870 regulated the new postal system. Out of sixty- four several ascents, each costing on the average about £200, fifty-seven achieved their purpose, notwithstanding the building by Krupp of twenty guns, supplied with telescopic apparatus, for the destruction of the postal balloons. Only five were captured, and two others were lost at sea. The aggregate weight of the letters and newspapers thus aerially mailed by the French post office amounted to about eight tons and a half, including upwards of 3,000,000 letters; and, besides the aeronauts, ninety-one passengers were conveyed. The heroism displayed by the French balloon postmen was equalled by that of many of the ordinary letter- carriers in the conveyance of letters through the catacombs and quarries of Paris and its suburbs, and, under various disguises, often through the midst of the Prussian army. Several lost their lives in the discharge of their duty, in some cases saying their despatches by the sacrifice.* During the war the Marseilles route for the Anglo-Indian mails was abandoned. They were sent through Belgium and Germany, by the Brenner Pass to Brindist, and thence by Italian packets to Alexandria. The French route was resumed in l872.10 7 The despatches carried by the pigeons were in the first instance photographed on a reduced scale on thin sheets of paper, the original writing being preserved, but after the ascent of the twenty-fifth balloon leaving the city an improved system was organized. The communications, whether public despatches, newspapers or private letters, were printed in ordinary type, and micro-photographed on to thin films of collodion. Each pellicle measured less than 2 in. by I, and the reproduction of sixteen folio pages of type contained above 3000 private letters. These pellic'es were so light that 50,000 despatches, weighing less than i gramme, were regarded as the weight for one pigeon. In order to ensure their safety during transit the films were rolled up tightly and placed in a small quill which was attached longitudinally to one of the tail feathers of the bird. On their arrival in Paris they were flattened out and thrown by means of the electric lantern on to a screen, copied by clerks, and despatched to their destination. This method was afterwards improved upon, 'Sensitive paper being substituted for the screen, so that the letters were printed at once and distributed. 8 Seventeenth Report of the Postmaster-General, p. 7. * Boissay, " La Poste et la telegraphic pendant le si&ge de Paris," in Journal des economistes, 3rd series, vol. xxii. pp. 117—129 and pp. 273-282. Cf. Postal Gazette (1883), i. 7. 10 Sixteenth Report of the Postmaster-General, p. 8. 194 The comparative postal statistics for all France during the years 1900 and 1905 stands thus: — POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE 1900. 1905- No. 980,629,000 No. 1,113,090,000 Post-cards Newspapers, printed matter, samples, circulars, &c. Value of money ( French francs orders . . \ Internatl. ;, Value of postal orders . „ Receipts \'f 62,591,000 1,390,246,000 1,422,736,000 56,210,000 40,688,000 209,982,000 8,399,000 450,889,000 1,441,713,000 1,834,360,000 73,229,000 54,582,000 261,454,000 10,458,000 The savings banks system of France, so far as it is connected with the postal service, dates only from 1875, and began then (at first) simply by the use of post offices as agencies and feeders for the pre-existing banks. Prior to the postal connexion the aggre- gate of the deposits stood at £22,920,000. In 1877 it reached £32,000,000. Postal savings banks, strictly so called, began only during the year 1881. At the close of 1882 they had 210,712 depositors, with an aggregate deposit of £1,872,938 sterling; in 1905 they had 12,134,523 depositors, with an aggregate deposit of £229,094,155. The union of the telegraph with the post office dates only from 1878. The following table gives the figures for 1900 and 1905:— 1900. 1905- Length of line. - ) £&«« "7,559 73.004 129,826 80,622 Ungthofwire . Sfc--. 388,814 241,453 418,331 259,784 Total gross receipts j £rancs ' 43,977,000 1,759,000 46,490,000 1,860,000 Number of messages forwarded: Home service 36,723,000 39,433,000 International 3,374,000 3,686,000 Amount of International tele- graphic money orders: From foreign countries to France . . (Total francs) 6,145,455 10,239,546 From France to foreign countries . . (Total francs) 6,124,913 4,754,96o The postal telephonic system began in 1879. The following table gives the figures for 1901 and 1905: — 1901. 1905- Length of line . 5 kilometres miles . 30,142 18,718 46,992 29,182 Length of wire \ kilometres ' J miles . 453,287 281,491 498,389 309,500 Messages 175,340,000 232,727,645 Receipts ( francs . ' ?£ • • • 17,518,000 701,000 23,495,000 940,000 BIBLIOGRAPHY. — P. d'Almeras, Reglement sur le port des lettres (1627); Le Quien de la Neufville, Usages des pastes (1730); Rowland Hill, Report to the Chancellor of the Exchequer on the French Post Office (1837); Annuaire des pastes (from 1850- ); M. du Camp, " De L'administration . . . et de I'h6tel des rJbstes," in Revue des deux mondes (1865), 3rd series; Revue des pastes et telegraphes (pub. at various periods); A. de Rothschild, Histoire de la poste- nux-lettres (1875); " Entwickelung des Post- u. Telegraphenwesens in Frankreich," in Archiv }. Post. u. Telegraphic (1882); " Die franzosischen Postsparkassen," and other articles, in L' Union postale (Berne). AUSTRIA-HUNGARY The Austrian postal system is among the oldest on record. Vienna possessed a local letter 'post and a parcel post, on the plan of prepayment, as early as May 1772, at which date no city in Germany possessed the like. This local post was es- tablished by a Frenchman (M. Hardy) and managed by a Dutch- man (Schooten).1 Thirteen years after its organization it became merged in the imperial post. The separate postal organizations of the empire (Austria) and of the kingdom (Hungary) date from 1867. In Austria the post office and the telegraph office are 1 Loeper, "Organisation des postes de ville," in L' Union postale vii. i seq. placed under the control of the minister of commerce, in Hun- gary under that of the minister of public works. The following table gives the figures for 1900 and 1904: — Austria. 1900. 1904. Post offices . .No. 6,895 8-327 Letters and post-cards • ft 1,193,418,000 1,421,107,000 Newspapers • tt 116,000,000 144,986,000 Packet post : Ordinary packets kilogs. 37,521,000 44,624,000 Registered packets kronen 8,043,570,000 8,323-179,000 and letters . £ . - 335,148,000 346,799,000 Receipts .... kronen £ . . 107,718,000 4,488,000 123,919,000 5,163,000 Expenses .... kronen £ • • 98,412,000 4,100,000 121,749,000 5,073,000 Hungary. 1900. 1904. Post offices No. 4-923 5,097 Letters, newspapers, &c. „ 487,670,000 584,081,000 Packet post: Ordinary packets » 17,730,000 21,367,000 Packets with de- clared value and i korona r 6,256,900,000 260,704,000 4-936,403,000 205,683,000 money letters i • • Reimbursements and korona 1,095-591,000 1,253,440,000 money orders . £ - . 45,649,000 52,226,000 Postal orders korona £ . . 27,470,000 1,145,000 30,397,000 1,266,000 Receipts .... korona . £ • • 47,103,000 1,962,000 57,067,000 2,378,000 Expenses .... korona £ • • 39,912,000 1,663,000 44,560,000 1,857,000 GERMAN EMPIRE The Prussian postal system developed mainly by the ability and energy of Dr Stephan, to whom the organization of the International Postal Union2 was so largely indebted, into the admirably organized post and telegraph office of the empire — began with the Great Elector, and with the establishment in 1646 of a Government post from Cleves to Memel. Frederick II. largely extended it, and by his successor the laws relating to it were consolidated. In Strasburg a messenger code existed as early as 1443. A postal service was organized at Nurem- berg in 1570. In 1803 the rights in the indemnity-lands (Entschadigungslander) of the counts of Taxis as hereditary imperial postmasters were abolished. The first mail steam- packet was built in 1821; the first transmission of mails by railway was in 1847; the beginning of the postal administration of the telegraphs was in 1849; and, by the treaty of postal union with Austria, not only was the basis of the existing system of the posts and telegraphs of Germany fully laid, but the germ was virtually set of the International Postal Union. That treaty was made for ten years on the 6th of April 1850, and was immediately accepted by Bavaria. It came into full operation on the ist of July following, and then included Saxony, Mecklenburg-Strelitz and Holstein. Other German states followed; and the treaty was renewed in August 1860. The following table gives figures for 1900 and 1905: — 1900. 1905- Post offices .... No. 32,135 33,105 Letters received . . . „ 2,893,555,000 3,855,369,000 Letters and parcels ( received (value j . ,, 10,508,000 10,518,000 declared) . . ( 1000 marks 15,984,425 16,215,800 Parcels received (value not j »j declared) jiN 153,985,000 186,038,000 Postal orders re- ( . . „ 126,217,209 162,800,261 ceived . . . ( 1000 marks 7,868,860 9,807,934 2 The International Postal Union was founded at Berne in 1874. All the countries of the world belong to it, with the exception of Afghanistan, Baluchistan, China, Abyssinia and Morocco. Con- gresses have been held at Paris (1878), Lisbon (1885), Vienna (1891), Washington (1897) and Rome (1906). POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE Telegraphs.1 1900. 1905- Length of line . .{ j^""* 108,500 67,378 "7.738 73."5 of which under- ( kilometres 10,969 11,460 ground . . t miles 6,812 7.H7 Length of wire . { J^'res 424.500 263,614 469,801 291,746 of which under- ( kilometres 49.934 52.014 ground . . ( miles 31.009 32-301 Number of offices open to the public . . ... 20,768 26,912 Receipts . . . { Marks ; 33.065,590 1,625,724 39,592,009 1,946,607 Number of messages : Home service 28,643,849 30.275.833 International 12,356,840 15-300,309 1 Exclusive of Wiirttemburg and Bavaria. Telephones. 1901. 1905- Length of line . . . miles 59.460 85450 Length of wire . . . „ 731.174 1,672,415 Number of messages . 766,226,337 1,207,400,000 BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Von Beust, Versuch einer ausfuhrlichen Er- klarung des Postregals, . . . insbesondere in Anschauung d. h. rbm. Reichs Teutscher Nation (3 vols., Jena, 1747-1748); Avis instructif au public ... pour la petite paste [de Vienne] (1772); Ueber die kleine Post in Wien (1780); A. Flegler. Zur Gesch. d. Fasten (1858); Stephan, Hein. Gesch. d.preuss. Post (1859); Fischer, Die Verkehrs- anstalten des deutschen Reichs (1873); Von Linde, Haftverbindlichkeit d. Postanstalt; W. Kompe, Dai Handelsgesetzbuch u. das Postrecht; Gad, Die Haftpflicht d. d. Postanstalten (1863); Eug. Hartmann, Entwickelungsgesch. d. Fasten (1868); P. D. Fischer, Die d. Post- vnd Telegraphie-Gesetzgebung; O. Dambach, Das Gesetz uber das Postwesen des deutschen Reichs (1881); Archivf. Post u. Telegraphie; F. X. von Neumann-Spallart, Uebersichten iiber Verkehr in d. Weltwirthschaft; Deutsche Verkehrszeitung; W. Lenz, Katechismus d. d. Reichspost. ITALY The origin of the Italian post office may be traced virtually to Venice and to the establishment of the " Corrieri di Venezia " early in the i6th century. As early as 1818 the Sardinian post office issued stamped letter-paper. The total number of letters, newspapers and book-packets conveyed in 1862 was but iII>733»3i9- In I9°o there were 7234 post offices; letters con- veyed amounted to 180,349,449, Post cards 82,544,547, news- papers, &c., 301,495,580, samples 9,117,526, official letters, franked, 46,302,121, postal packets 8,170,988, and registered letters of a declared value of £12,931,026. The receipts amounted to £2,429,000 and the expenses to £1,980,000. UNITED STATES The early history of the post office in the British colonies in North America has been referred to above. Benjamin Franklin was removed by the home department from his office of post- master-general in America in 1774. On the 26th of July 1775 the American Congress assumed direction of the post offices, re-appointing Franklin to his former post. Shortly afterwards, when Fianklin was sent as ambassador to France, his son-in-law, Richard Bache, was made postmaster-general in November 1775. In 1789 the number of post offices was 75; in 1800, 903; in I82S. 5677; in 1875- 35.734; in 1885, 51,252; in 1890, 62,401; in 1895, 70,064; in 1900, 76,688; and in 1905, 68,131. The following table gives the financial statements for a num- ber of years: — Year. Extent of post routes in miles. Revenue. Expenditure. J875 1880 1885 1890 1895 1900 "90S 277.873 343,888 365.251 427.991 456,026 500,982 486,805 $26,791,360 33.315.479 42,560,844 60,882,097 76,983,128 102,354.579 152,826,585 $33.611,309 36,542,804 49.533.150 65.930,717 86,790,172 107,740,268 167,399,169 The revenue quoted does not include any allowance for the large quantity of official matter carried for other public departments, &c., indeed, the postmaster-general, in his Report for 1906, estimated that if the due allowance were made it would add approximately $20,000,000 to the revenue. The post office department is compelled to carry anything sent under a penalty frank, and franks are used by all the departments and their agents for the purpose of carrying everything they choose to send (Report, postmaster-general, 1893). The expenditure does not include the amounts certified to the Treasury for the transportation of mails over aided Pacific railways, or any allowance for the use of such buildings as are provided by the government. Contrary to expectations repeatedly expressed, each year shows a deficit. This is partly explained by reductions in charges. The rate of postage on first-class matter was reduced from three cents to two cents on the 1st of October 1883, and the unit of weight was increased from half an ounce to one ounce on the 1st of July 1885. On the latter date, also, the postage on second-class matter was reduced from two cents to one cent per pound. This low rate has led to wholesale violation of the purpose of the law. In his report for 1899 Mr Emory Smith, postmaster-general, estimated that " fully one-half of all the matter mailed as second-class, and paid for at the pound rate, is not properly second-class within the intent of the law"; and that the cost of mere transportation of this wrongly classed matter exceeded the revenue derived from it by more than $12,000,000 for the year. Until 1863 the rates of postage were based upon the dis- tances over which the mails were conveyed. In 1846 these rates were — not exceeding 300 m., three cents; exceeding 300 m., ten cents. In 1851 the rates were reduced to three cents for distances not exceeding 3000 m. and ten cents for distances exceeding 3000 m. The use of adhesive postage stamps was first authorized by act of Congress, approved on the 3rd of March 1847, and on the ist of June 1856 prepay- ment by stamps was made compulsory. In 1863 a uniform rate of postage without regard to distance was fixed at three cents, and on the ist of October 1883, the rate was further reduced to two cents, the equivalent of the British penny postage. All mail matter for distribution within the United States is divided into four classes. First-class matter includes letters, postal cards, post cards and anything sealed or closed against inspection. Second- class matter includes all newspapers and periodicals exclusively in print that have been " entered as second-class matter," and are regularly issued at stated intervals as frequently as four times a year from a known office of publication and mailed by publishers or newsagents to actual subscribers or to newsagents for sale, and newspapers and publications of this class mailed by persons other than publishers. The rates of postage to publishers are one cent a pound, and to other than publishers, one cent for each four ounces. Third-class matter includes printed books, pamphlets, engravings and circulars in print or reproduced by a copying process. The rate for third-class matter is one cent for each two ounces. Fourth-class matter is all mailable matter not included in the three preceding classes which is so prepared for mailing as to be easily withdrawn from the wrapper and examined. The rate is one cent for each ounce. The franking privilege, which had grown to be an intolerable abuse, was temporarily abolished in 1873, but the post office now carries free under official " penalty " labels or envelopes (i.e. envelopes containing a notice of the legal penalty for their un- authorized use) matter which is of an official character, the privilege being extended to congressmen and government officials (see FRANKING). As late as 1860 the mails conveyed nothing but written and printed matter. They now admit nearly every known substance which does not exceed four pounds in weight (this re- striction does not apply to single books), and which from its nature is not liable to injure the mails or the persons of postal employes. A delivery system existed in a number of cities of the Union in 1862, the carriers remunerating themselves by the collection of a voluntary fee of from one to two cents on each piece of mail delivered. A uniform free delivery system was first authorized by law on the 3rd of March 1863, and was established on the succeeding ist of July in forty-nine cities. The number of carriers employed the first year was 685. On the ist of July 1884 there were 3890 letter-carriers in one hundred and fifty- nine " free delivery cities." The free delivery service has grown rapidly. On the ist of July 1901, 866 cities and towns were included in the scheme, and 196 POST AND PAIR— POSTER 16,389 letter-carriers were serving a population of 32,000,000. An extension to rural districts was started in 1896, and by December 1901, 4,000,000 of the rural population were within the scope of free delivery. Since the ist of October 1885 a system has been in force for the immediate delivery by special messengers of letters, parcels, &c., for addresses within certain areas. A special ten-cent stamp (or its equivalent) is required in addition to the ordinary postage. The registry system did not attain any degree of excellence until after 1860; and the money-order system was first established in 1864. The aggregate number of money orders, domestic and foreign, issued during the fiscal year 1906 was 61,497,861, of the value of $507,563,719. A step towards the popularization of the registry system was authorized in December 1899; letter-carriers in many city districts now accept and register letters at the door of the householder. Sea post offices for sorting mails during the Atlantic transit were established in December 1890 on the steamers of the North German Lloyd and Hamburg-American lines, and later on the vessels of the International Navigation Company. This plan effects a saving of from two to fourteen hours in the delivery of mails from Europe. The issue of " postal notes," commenced in 1883, was abandoned in 1894. The introduction of " postal checks " for small fixed amounts has been advocated. A new postal convention with Canada, removing the former restriction against sending merchandise, came into force on the 1st of March 1888. Uniformity of postage rates having been previously estab- lished, the United States and Canada became virtually one postal territory. A convention for an exchange of parcels with Jamaica, admitting articles not exceeding 1 1 Ib, was agreed to in 1887; and since then conventions on similar lines have been concluded with other colonies and countries in America. The first arrangement of the kind with any European country was made with Germany, and came into operation on the 1st of October 1899. The postal laws, regulations and domestic conditions of the United States have been extended, by act of Congress, to Porto Rico and Hawaii. The " island possessions " (Guam, the Philippine Archipelago and Tutuila) have also been brought within the scope of the domestic conditions, including the rates of postage. The service introduced into Cuba, though modelled on the American plan, is practically autonomous. Telegraphs. — The formation of a postal telegraph system has continued to be a subject of discussion by the postmasters- general. In his report for the year 1888 D. M. Dickinson pro- posed the appointment of an expert commission authorized to erect short experimental lines. His successor, John Wana- maker, for four years vigorously advocated a limited postal telegraph service. Under this proposal, contracting telegraph companies were to furnish lines, instruments and operators, and to transmit messages at rates fixed by the government; the department was to receive a small sum per message, to cover its expenses in collection and delivery. In 1894 Mr Bissell expressed the opinion that a government system would be unprofitable and inexpedient. Savings Banks. — The establishment of postal savings banks was also recommended by Mr Wanamaker in his reports for the years 1889 to 1892, and by J. A. Gary in 1897. What is regarded as a step in this direction was taken in 1898, when the postal regulations were modified to allow money orders to be made payable at the office of issue, — a " mild and very convenient adaptation of the European savings bank system, without the payment of interest" (Mr Emory Smith). Finally in 1910 a system of postal savings banks was authorized by Congress. AUTHORITIES. — Postmaster-General's Annual Reports: Joyce, History of the British Post Office (1893); J. Wilson Hyde, The Post in Grant and Farm (1894); A. H. Norway, History of the Packet Service (1895); F. E. Baines, Forty Years at the Post Office (1895); Raikes, Life of Rt. Hon. H. C. Raikes (1898); L' Union postale universelle, sa fondation et son developpement (Lausanne, 1900) ; memoire publie par le bureau international a 1'occasion de la celebration du xxvme anniversaire de 1'union 2-5 juillet 1900; Sta- tistique generate du service postal (Bern); Statistique generate de la telegraphie (Bern). The various postal and telegraph rates and regulations of the United Kingdom appear in the quarterly Post Office Guide (price 6d.). For the United States, see the U.S. Official Postal Guide.(T- A. I.) POST AND PAIR, a card game popular in the i6th and i7th centuries. A hand consisted of three cards, a pair royal ranking highest, or failing this, the highest pair. Another name of the game was Pink. POSTER, a placard in the form either of letterpress or illustration, for posting up or otherwise exhibiting in public to attract attention to its contents. According to Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, before the Fire f>f London the rails and posts which protected foot-passengers in the streets were used for affixing theatrical and other announcements, whence the name of posting-bills or posters; and in later times the name has come more generally into use for any fairly large separate sheet, illustrated or not, used to attract publicity, even though not actually posted up. In the article ADVERTISEMENTS the use of posters is discussed, and newspaper posters (or contents bills) under NEWSPAPERS. But the illustrated poster has come to represent a special form of artistic design. The earliest examples of pictorial posters were adorned with rough woodcuts. When lithography became a common commercial process, wood-blocks ceased to be employed. The modern artistic poster made a definite beginning in France about 1836, with a design by Lalance to advertise a book entitled Comment meurent les femmes. His example was followed by C. Nanteuil, D. A. M. Raffet, Gavarni, Bertrand, Grandville, Tony Johannot, E. de Beaumont, T. H. Frere, Edouard Manet and other artists of high repute. Most of these early designs were printed in black on white or tinted paper. Between 1860 and 1866 crude attempts at print- ing posters in colours were made in both France and England. In 1866 Jules Cheret began what was destined to be the most noticeable series of pictorial placards in existence, a series containing over a thousand items. Cheret was originally employed in a litho- graphic establishment in England before he began to work for him- self, and he used his knowledge there acquired to adapt all three primary colours, economically used, to astonishingly brilliant ends. For a considerable time he remained without a rival, though he had hosts of imitators. Eugene Grasset, a decorative designer of great versatility, produced the first of a small number of placards which, though inferior as advertisements to those of Cheret, were learned and beautiful decorations. Somewhat later a sensation was caused in Paris by the mordantly grotesque posters of Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, in which the artist reduced detail to a mini- mum and obtained bold effects by the employment of large masses of flat colour. Important work, similar in character to Lautrec's, was produced by Ibels, Bonnard, T. A. Steinlen and others. A new and contrary direction was given to poster design by Mucha, a Hungarian resident in Paris, whose placards are marked by delicate colour and richness of detail. The following are amongst French artists who have designed posters of conspicuous merit: J. L. Forain, Willette, Paleologue, Sinet, Jossot, Roedel, Mayet, Cazals, Biais, De Feure, A. Guillaume, Ranft, Realier-Dumas, F. Valloton and Metivet. Occasionally eminent French painters, such as Carriere, Boutet de Monvel, Aman-Jean, Schwabe, have made essays in poster-designing. In England the first artists of repute to attempt the pictorial placard were Godfrey Durand and Walter Crane; but the first bill to attract widespread attention was one by Fred Walker to advertise a dramatized version of The Woman in White (1871). This was engraved on wood by W. H. Hooper. Shortly after this time pictures by Royal Academicians and others began to be re- produced as advertisements (the best-known case 'being that of Sir John Millais's " Bubbles "), but these have nothing directly to do with poster-designing. Stacy Marks, Hubert von Herkomer (the great poster for the Magazine of Art), Sir Edward Poynter and Sir James Linton are among popular painters who have made special drawings for reproduction as posters. About 1894 the English poster began to improve. Designs by Aubrey Beardsley for the Avenue Theatre, by Dudley Hardy for various plays, and by Maurice Greiffenhagen for The Pall Mall Budget, were widely noticed by reason of their originality, sim- plicity and effectiveness. Simplicity was carried even farther by " the Beggarstaff Brothers " (James Pryde and William Nicholson), whose posters are perhaps the most original yet produced by Englishmen. Among other British designers the following have executed artistic and interesting placards: Frank Brangwyn, R. Anning Bell, John Hassall, Cecil Aldin, Phil May, Leonard Raven-Hill, Henry Harland, Robert Fowler, Wilson Steer, Charles R. Mackintosh, MacNair and MacDonald, Edgar Wilson, Charles I. Foulkes, Mabel Dearmer, Albert Morrow and C. Wilhelm. Poster design on the continent of Europe has been largely influ- enced by French work, but designs of much originality have been made in Germany, Belgium, Italy and Spain. In Germany, among the most typical posters are those of Saltier, Otto Fischer, Gysis, T. T. Heine, Speyer, Max Klinger, Dasio, Hofxnann and L. Zumbrusch. The principal Belgian designers include Priyat Livempnt, Rassenfosse, Berchmans, Meunier, Duyck and Crespin, V. Mignot, Donnay, Evenepoel, Cassiers and Toussaint. Of Italian designers those whose work is most characteristic arc Mata- loni and Hohenstein; while the best Spanish posters — those to advertise bull-fights and fairs — are mostly anonymous. The Spanish artists Utrillo and Casas have signed posters of more than POSTERN— POTASSIUM 197 ordinary merit. Curious if not very artistic bills have been pro- duced in Russia ; and in Austria good work has been done by Orlik, Schliessmann, Oliva and Hynais. In the United States of America, however, with the exception of some designs by Matt Morgan, few posters of artistic interest were produced before 1889, in which year Louis I. Khc.nl commenced a notable series of decorative placards. Will H. Bradley began to produce his curious decorative grotesque posters a little later. If American artists are behind Europeans in the artistic designing of large posters they have no rivals in the production of small illustrated placards for publishers of books and magazines. Chief among those who have devoted themselves to this branch of poster design is Edward Penfield. Others who have achieved success in it include Maxfield Parrish, Ethel Reed, Will Carqueville, J. J. Gould, J. C. Leyendecker, Frank Hazenplug, Charles Dana Gibson, Will Denslow, Florence Lundbourg and Henry Mayer. Inhibitions of artistic posters have been held in the chief cities of ICurope and America, and the illustrated placard has already a literature of its own. In England a monthly magazine (The Poster) was for a time specially devoted to its interests, and col- lectors are numerous and enthusiastic. See Ernest Maindron, Les Affiches illustrees (Paris, 1895); Les Maitres de I'affiche (Paris) ; Les Affiches etrangeres Mustrees (Belgium, Austria, Great Britain, United States, Germany and Japan) (Paris, 1897); Charles Hiatt, Picture Posters (London, 1895); J. L. Spousel, Das Moderne Plakat (Dresden, 1897); Arsene Alexandre, M. H. Spielmann, H. C. Bunner and A. Jaccacci, The Modern Poster (New York, 1895). (C. Hi.) POSTERN (from O. Fr. posterne, posterle, Late Lat. posterula, small back-door, posterns, behind), a small gateway in the enceinte of a castle, abbey, &c., from which to issue and enter unobserved. They are often called "sally ports." (See GATE.) POSTHUMOUS, that which appears or is produced after the author or creator, and thus applied to a literary work or work of art published or produced after its author's death, or especially to a child born after the death of its father. The Latin postumus, latest, last, from which the word is derived, is formed from post, after, but it was in Late Latin connected with humare, to place in the ground (humus), to bury. POSTICHE, a French term for a pretentious imitation, a counterfeit, particularly used of an inartistic addition to an otherwise perfect work of art. The French word was adapted from the Italian pasticcio, from Latin positus, placed, added. POSTIL, or APOSTIL, properly a gloss on a scriptural text, particularly on a gospel text, hence any explanatory note on other writings. The word is also applied to a general commen- tary, and also to a homily or discourse on the gospel or epistle appointed for the day. The word in Medieval Latin was postilla, and this has been taken to represent post ilia sc. verba textus, i.e. " after these words of the text " (see Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. postillae), but the form " apostil " may point to the Latin appositum, placed near or next to. POSTILION (through the Fr. from the Ital. posliglione) , a postboy, rider of a post-horse, hence any swift messenger, but more particularly the rider of the near horse of a vehicle drawn by two or more horses where there is no driver. The swift travelling postchaises of the i8th and early igth centuries were usually driven by postilions. POSTUMIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of northern Italy, constructed in 148 B.C. by the consul Spurius Postumius Albinus. It ran from the coast at Genua through the mountains to Dertona, Placentia (the termination of the Via Aemilia Lepidi) and Cremona, just east of the point where it crossed the Po. From Cremona the road ran eastward to Bedriacum, where it forked, one branch running to the left to Verona and thence to the Brenner, the other to the right to Mantua, Altinum and Aquileia. The military occupation of Liguria depended upon this road, and several of the more important towns owed their origin largely to it. Cremona was its central point, the distances being reckoned from it both eastwards and westwards. (T. As.) POSY (a shortened form of poesy, Fr. pofsie, poetry), a verse of poetry or a motto, either with a moral or religious sentiment or message of love, often inscribed in a ring or sent with a present, such as a bouquet of flowers, which may be the origin of the common use of the word for a nosegay or bouquet. It has been suggested that this use is due to the custom of the symbolic use of flowers. Skeat quotes the title of a tract (Heber's MSS. No. 1442), " A new yeare's guifte, or a posie made upon certen flowers," &c. " Posy rings," plain or engraved gold rings with a " posy " inscribed on the inside of the hoops, were very frequently in use as betrothal rings from the i6th to the i8th centuries. Common " posies " were such lines as " In thee my choice I do rejoice," " As God decreed so we agreed," and the like. There are several rings of this kind in the British Museum. POTASHES, the crude potassium carbonate obtained by lixiviating wood ashes and evaporating the solution to dryness, an operation at one time carried out in iron pots — hence the name from " pot " and " ashes." The term potash or caustic potash is frequently used for potassium hydroxide, whilst such a phrase as sulphate of potash is now appropriately replaced by potassium sulphate. (See POTASSIUM.) POTASSIUM [symbol K (from kalium), atomic weight 39-114 O=i6)], a metallic chemical element, belonging to the group termed the metals of the alkalis. Although never found free in nature, in combination the metal is abundantly and widely distributed. In the oceans alone there are estimated to be H4IXI012 tons of sulphate, KjSCU, but this inexhaustible store is not much drawn upon; and the "salt gardens" on the coast of France lost their industrial importance as potash-producers since the deposits at Stassfurt in Germany have come to be worked. These deposits, in addition to common salt, include the following minerals: sylvine, KC1; carnallite, KCl-MgCl2-6H2O (transparent, deliquescent crystals, often red with diffused oxide of iron); kainite, K2SO4-MgSO4-MgCl26H20 (hard crystalline masses, permanent in the air) ; kieserite MgSCvH2O (only very slowly dissolved by water); besides polyhalite, MgSO4-K2SO4-2CaSO4-2H2O anhydrite, CaSO4; salt, NaCl, and some minor components. These potassium minerals are not con- fined to Stassfurt; larger quantities of sylvine and kainite are met with in the salt mines of Kalusz in the eastern Carpathian Mountains. The Stassfurt minerals owe their industrial import- ance to their solubility in water and consequent ready amenability to chemical operations. In point of absolute mass they are insignificant compared with the abundance and variety of potas- siferous silicates, which occur everywhere in the earth's crust ; orthoclase (potash felspar) and potash mica may be quoted as prominent examples. Such potassiferous silicates are found in almost all rocks, both as normal and as accessory components; and their disintegration furnishes the soluble potassium salts which are found in all fertile soils. These salts are sucked up by the roots of plants, and by taking part in the process of nutrition are partly converted into oxalate, tartrate, and other organic salts, which, when the plants are burned, are converted into the carbonate, K2CO3. It is a remarkable fact that, although in a given soil the soda-content may predominate largely over the potash salts, the plants growing in the soil take up the latter: in the ashes of most land plants the potash (calculated as K2O) forms upwards of 90% of the total alkali. The proposition holds, in its general sense, for sea plants likewise. In ocean water the ratio of soda (NajO) to potash (K2O) is 100:3-23 (Dittmar); in kelp it is, on the average, too: 5-26 (Richardson). Ashes particularly rich in potash are those of burning nettles, wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), tansy (Tanacetum vulgare), fumitory (Fumaria officinalis), and tobacco. In fact, the ashes of herbs generally are richer in potash than those of the trunks and branches of trees; yet, for obvious reasons, the latter are of greater industrial importance as sources of potassium car- bonate. According to Liebig, potassium is the essential alkali of the animal body; and it may be noted that sheep excrete most of the potassium which they take from the land as sweat, one-third of the weight of raw merino consisting of potassium compounds. To Sir Humphry Davy belongs the merit of isolating this element from potash, which itself had previously been considered an element. On placing a piece of potash on a platinum plate, connected to the negative of a powerful electric battery, and 198 POTASSIUM bringing a platinum wire, connected to the positive of the battery, to the surface of the potassium a vivid action was observed: gas was evolved at the upper surface of the fused globule of potash, whilst at the lower surface, adjacent to the platinum plate, minute metallic globules were formed, some of which immediately inflamed, whilst others merely tarnished. In 1808 Gay-Lussac and Thenard (Ann. chim. 65, P- 325) obtained the metal by passing melted potash down a clay tube containing iron turnings or wire heated to whiteness, and Caradau (ibid. 66, p. 97) effected the same decomposition with charcoal at a white heat. This last process was much improved by Brunner, Wo'hler, and especially by F. M. L. Donny and J. D. B. Mareska (Ann. Mm. phys., 1852, (3)> 35> P- I47)- Brunner's process consisted in forming an intimate mixture of potassium carbonate and carbon by igniting crude tartar in covered iron crucibles, cooling the mass, and then distilling it at a white heat from iron bottles, the vaporized metal being condensed beneath the surface of paraffin or naphtha contained in a copper vessel. It was found, however, that if the cooling be not sufficiently rapid explosions occurred owing to the combination of the metal with carbon monoxide (produced in the oxidation of the charcoal) to form the potassium salt of hexaoxybenzene. In Mareska and Donny's process the con- densation is effected in a shallow iron box, which has a large exposed surface, capable of being cooled by damped cloths. When the distillation is finished the iron box, after cooling, is undamped and the product turned out beneath the surface of paraffin. It is purified by redistilling and condensing directly under paraffin. Electrolytic processes have also been devised. Linnemann (Journ. Prak. Chem., 1858, 73, p. 413) obtained the metal on a small scale by electrolysing potassium cyanide between carbon electrodes; A. Matthiessen (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1856, p. 30) electrolysed an equimolecular mixture of potassium and calcium chlorides (which melts at a lower temperature than potassium chloride) also between carbon electrodes; whilst Castner's process, in which caustic potash is electrolysed, is employed commercially. The metal, however, is not in great demand, for it is generally found that sodium (q.v.), which is cheaper, and, weight for weight, more reactive, will fulfil any purpose for which potassium may be desired. Pure potassium is a silvery white metal tinged with blue; but on exposure to air it at once forms a film of oxide, and on prolonged exposure deliquesces into a solution of hydrate and carbonate. Perfectly dry oxygen, however, has no action upon it. At temperatures below o° C. it is pretty hard and brittle; at the ordinary temperature it is so soft that it can be kneaded between the fingers and cut with a blunt knife. Its specific gravity is 0-865; hence it is the lightest metal known except lithium. It fuses at 62-5°C. (Bunsen) and boils at 667°, emitting an intensely green vapour. It may be obtained crystallized in quadratic octahedra of a greenish-blue colour, by melting in a sealed tube containing an inert gas, and inverting the tube when the metal has partially solidified. When heated in air it fuses and then takes fire, burning into a mixture of oxides. Most remarkable, and characteristic for the group it represents, is its action on water. A pellet of potassium when thrown on water at once bursts out into a violet flame and the burning metal fizzes about on the surface, its extremely high temperature precluding absolute contact with the liquid, exceot at the very end, when the last remnant, through loss of temperature, is wetted by the water and bursts with explosive violence. The reaction may be written 2K+ 2H2O = 2KOH+H2, and the flame is due to the combustion of the hydrogen, the violet colour being occasioned by the potassium vapour. The metal also reacts with alcohol to form potassium ethylate, while hydrogen escapes, this time without inflammation: K+C2H6-OH = C2H5-OK-|-H. When the oxide-free metal is heated gently in dry ammonia it is gradually transformed into a blue liquid, which on cooling freezes into a yellowish-brown or flesh-coloured solid, potassamide, KNH2. When heated to redness the amide is decomposed into ammonia and potassium nitride, NKj, which is an almost black solid. Both it and the amide decompose water readily with formation of ammonia and caustic potash. Potassium at temperatures from 2oo°to 4oo°C. occludes hydrogen gas, the highest degree of saturation corresponding approximately to the formula K2H. In a vacuum or in suffi- ciently dilute hydrogen the compound from 200° upwards loses hydrogen, until the tension of the free gas has arrived at the maximum value characteristic of that temperature (Troost and Hautefeuille). Compounds. Oxides and Hydroxide. — Potassium forms two well-defined oxides, K2O and K2O<, whilst several others, of less certain existence, have been described. The monoxide, K2O, may be obtained by strongly heating the product or burning the metal in slightly moist air; by heating the hydroxide with the metal: 2KHO+2K = 2K2O+H2; or by passing pure and almost dry air over the molten metal (Kuhnemann, Chem. Centr., 1863, p. 491). It forms a grey brittle mass, having a conchoidal fracture; it is very deliquescent, combining very energetically with water to form caustic potash. According to Holt and Sims (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1894, p. 438), the substance as obtained above always contains free potassium. Potassium hydroxide or caustic potash, KOH, formerly considered to be an oxide but shown subsequently to be a hydroxide of potas- sium, may be obtained by dissolving the metal or monoxide in water, but is manufactured by double decomposition from potassium carbonate and slaked lime: K2CO3+Ca(OH)2=2KOH+CaCOs. A solution of one part of the carbonate in 12 parts of water is heated to boiling in a cast-iron vessel (industrially by means of steam- pipes) and the milk of lime added in instalments until a sample of the filtered mixture no longer effervesces with an excess of acid. The mixture is then allowed to settle in the iron vessel, access of air being prevented as much as practicable, and the clear liquor is syphoned off. The remaining mud of calcium carbonate and hydrate is washed, by decantation, with small instalments of hot water to recover at least part of the alkali diffused throughout it, but this process must not be continued too long or else some of the lime passes into solution. The liquors after a concentration in iron vessels are now evaporated in a silver dish, until the heavy vapour of the hydrate is seen to go off. The residual oily liquid is then poured out into a polished iron tray, or into an iron mould to pro- duce the customary form of " sticks," and allowed to cool. The solid must be at once bottled, because it attracts the moisture and carbonic acid of the air with great avidity and deliquesces. According to Dittmar (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., May 1884), nickel basins are far better adapted than iron basins for the preliminary concentration of potash ley. The latter begin to oxidize before the ley has come up to the traditional strength of specific gravity I -333 when cold, while nickel is not attacked so long as the percent- age of real KHO is short of 60. For the fusion of the dry hydrate nickel vessels cannot be used; in fact, even silver is perceptibly attacked as soon as all the excess of water is away; absolutely pure KHO can be produced only in gold vessels. Glass and (to a less extent) porcelain are attacked by caustic potash ley, slowly in the cold, more readily on boiling. Solid caustic potash forms an opaque, white, stone-like mass of dense granular fracture; specific gravity 2'l. It fuses consider- ably below and is perceptibly volatile at a red heat. At a white heat the vapour breaks down into potassium, hydrogen and oxygen. It is extremely soluble in even cold water, and in any proportion of water on boiling. On crystallizing a solution, the hydrate KOH-2H2O is deposited; 2KOH-9H2O and 2KOH-sH2O have also been obtained. The solution is intensely " alkaline " to test- papers. It readily dissolves the epidermis of the skin and many other kinds of animal tissue — hence the former application of the " sticks " in surgery. A dilute potash readily emulsionizes fats, and on boiling saponifies them with formation of a soap and glycerin. All commercial caustic potash is contaminated with excess of water (over and above that in the KHO) and with potassium carbonate and chloride; sulphate, as a rule, is absent. A preparation sufficing for most purposes is obtained by digesting the commercial article in absolute alcohol, decanting and evaporating the solution to dryness and fusing in silver vessels. The peroxide, K2p4, discovered by Gay-Lussac and Th£nard, is obtained by heating the metal in an excess of slightly moist air or oxygen. Vernon Harcourt (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1862, p. 267) recommends melting the. metal in a flask filled with nitrogen and gradually displacing this gas by oxygen; the first formed grey film on the metal changes to a deep blue, and then the gas is rapidly absorbed, the film becoming white and afterwards yellow. It is a dark yellow powder, which fuses at a high temperature, the liquid on cooling depositing shining tabular crystals; at a white heat it loses oxygen and yields the monoxide. Exposed to moist air it loses oxygen, possibly giving the dioxide, K2O2; water reacts with it, evolving much heat and giving caustic potash, hydrogen peroxide and oxygen; whilst carbon monoxide gives potassium carbonate and oxygen at temperatures below 100°. A violent reaction ensues with phosphorus and sulphur, and many metals are oxidized by it, some with incandescence. POTASSIUM 199 Halogen Compounds. — Potassium fluoride, KF, is a very deliques- cent salt, crystallizing in cubes and having a sharp saline taste, which is formed by neutralizing potassium carbonate or hydroxide with hydrofluoric acid and concentrating in platinum vessels. It forms the acid fluoride KHFj when dissolved in aqueous hydro- fluoric acid, a salt which at a red heat gives the normal fluoride and hydrofluoric acid. Other salts of composition KF-2HF and KF-3HF, have been described by Moissan (Compt. rend., 1888, 106, p. 547). Potassium chloride, KC1, also known as muriate of potash, closely resembles ordinary salt. It is produced in immense quantities at Stassfurt from the so-called " Abraumsalze." For the purpose of the manufacturer of this salt these are assorted into a raw material containing approximately, in 100 parts, 55-65 of carnallite (representing 16 parts of potassium chloride), 20-25 of common salt, 15-20 of kieserite; 2-^4 of tachhydrite (CaCl2-2MgCl2-l2H2O), and minor components. This mixture is now wrought mainly in two ways, (i) The salt is dissolved in water with the help of steam, and the solution is cooled down to from 60° to 70°, when a quantity of impure common salt crystallizes out, which is removed. The decanted ley deposits on standing a 70% potassium chloride, which is purified by washing with cold water. Common salt principally goes into solution, and the percentage may thus be brought up to from 80 to 95. The mother-liquor from the 70% chloride is evaporated, the common salt which separates out in the heat removed as it appears, and the sufficiently concentrated liquor allowed to crystallize, when almost pure carnallite separates out, which is easily decomposed into its components (see infra). (2) Ziervogel and Tuchen's method. — The crude salt is ground up and then heated in a concentrated solution of magnesium chloride with agitation. The carnallite principally dissolves and crystal- lizes out relatively pure on cooling. The mother-liquor is used for a subsequent extraction of fresh raw salt. The carnallite produced is dissolved in hot water and the solution allowed to cool, when it deposits a coarse granular potassium chloride containing up to. 99 % of the pure substance. The undissolved residue produced in either process consists chiefly of kieserite and common salt. It is worked up either for Epsom salt and common salt, or for sodium sulphate and magnesium chloride. The potassiferous by-products are utilized for the manufacture of manures. Chemically pure chloride of potassium is most conveniently prepared from the pure perchlorate by heating it in a platinum basin at the lowest temperature and then fusing the residue in a well- covered platinum crucible. The fused product solidifies on cooling into a colourless glass. When hydrochloric acid gas is passed into the solution the salt is completely precipitated as a fine powder. If the original solution contained the chlorides of magnesium or calcium or sulphate of potassium all impurities remain in the mother-liquor (the sulphur as KHSCh), and can be removed by washing the precipitate with strong hydrochloric acid. The salt crystallizes in cubes of specific gravity 1.995; '* melts at about 800 and volatilizes at a bright red heat. When melted in a current of hydrogen or electro- lysed in the same condition, a dark blue mass is obtained of uncer- tain composition. It is extensively employed for the preparation of other potassium salts, but the largest quantity (especially of the impure product) is used in the production of artificial manures. Potassium bromide, KBr, may be obtained by dissolving bromine in potash, whereupon bromide and bromate are first formed, evapor- ating and igniting the product in order to decompose the bromate: 6KHO + 3Br2 = sKBr + KBrO, + 3H2O; 2KBrO8 = 2KBr + 30, (cf. CHLORATES) ; but it is manufactured by acting with bromine water on iron filings and decomposing the iron bromide thus formed with potassium carbonate. In appearance it closely resembles the chloride, forming colourless cubes which readily dissolve in water and melt at 722°. It combines with bromine to form an unstable tribromide, KBrs (see F. P. Worley, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, p. 1 107). Potassium iodide, KI, is obtained by dissolving iodine in potash, the deoxidation of the iodate being facilitated by the addition of charcoal before ignition, proceeding as with the bromide. The commercial salt usually has an alkaline reaction ; it may be purified by dissolving in the minimum amount of water, and neutralizing with dilute sulphuric acid; alcohol is now added to precipitate the potassium sulphate, the solution filtered and crystallized. It forms colourless cubes which are readily soluble in water, melt at 685°, and yield a vapour of normal density. It is sparingly soluble in absolute alcohol. Both the iodide and bromide are used in photography. Iodine dissolves in an aqueous solution of the salt to form a dark brown liquid, which on evaporation over sulphuric acid gives black acicular crystals of the tn-iodide, KI3. This salt is very deliquescent; it melts at 45°, and at 100° decomposes into iodine and potassium iodide. For the oxy- halogen salts see CHLORATE, CHLORINE, BROMINE and IODINE. Potassium carbonate, K2COs, popularly known as " potashes," was originally obtained in countries where wood was cheap by lixiviating wood ashes in wooden tubs, evaporating the solution to dryness in iron pots and calcining the residue; in more recent practice the calcination is carried out in reverberatory furnaces. This product, known as " crude potashes," contains, in addition to carbonate, varying amounts of sulphate and chloride and also insoluble matter. Crude potash is used for the manufacture of glass, and, after being causticized, for the making of soft soap. For many other purposes it must be refined, which is done by treating the crude product with the minimum of cold water re- quired to dissolve the carbonate, removing the undissolved part (which consists chiefly of sulphate), and evaporating the clear liquor to dryness in an iron pan. The purified carbonate (which still contains most of the chloride of the raw material and other impurities) is known as " pearl ashes." Large quantities of carbon- ate used to be manufactured from the aqueous residue left in the distillation of beet-root spirit, i.e. indirectly from beet-root molasses. The liquors are evaporated to dryness and the residue is ignited to obtain a very impure carbonate, which is purified by methods founded on the different solubilities of the several components. Most of the carbonate which now occurs in commerce is made from the chloride of the Stassfurt beds by an adaptation of the " Leblanc process " for the conversion of common salt into soda ash (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE). Chemically pure carbonate of potash is best prepared by igniting pure bicarbonate (see below) in iron or (better) in silver or platinum vessels, or else by calcining pure cream of tartar. The latter opera- tion furnishes an intimate mixture of the carbonate with charcoal, from which the carbonate is extracted by lixiviation with water and filtration. The filtrate is evaporated to dryness (in iron or platinum vessels) and the residue fully dehydrated by gentle ignition. The salt is thus obtained as a white porous mass, fusible at a red heat (838° C., Carnelley) into a colourless liquid, which solidifies into a white opaque mass. The dry salt is very hygro- scopic; it deliquesces into an oily solution ("oleum tartari ) in ordinary air. The most saturated solution contains 205 parts of the salt to 100 of water and boils at 135°. On crystallizing a solution monoclinic crystals of 2K2CO».3H2O are deposited, which at 1 00° lose water and give a white powder of K2CO».H2O; this is completely dehydrated at 130°. The carbonate, being insoluble in strong alcohol (and many other liquid organic compounds), is much used for dehydration of the corresponding aqueous prepara- tions. The pure carbonate is constantly used in the laboratory as a basic substance generally, for the disintegration of silicates, and as a precipitant. The industrial preparation serves for the making of flint glass, of potash soap (soft soap) and of caustic potash. Potassium bicarbonate, KHCOj, is obtained when carbonic acid is passed through a cold solution of the ordinary carbonate as long as it is absorbed. Any silicate present is also converted into bicarbonate with elimination of silica, which must be filtered off. The filtrate is evaporated at a temperature not exceeding 60° or at most 70" C. ; after sufficient concentration it deposits on cooling anhydrous crystals of the salt, while the potassium chloride, which may be present as an impurity, remains mostly in the mother- liquor; the rest is easily removed by repeated recrystallization. If an absolutely pure preparation is wanted it is best to follow Wohler and start with the " black flux " produced by the ignition of pure bitartrate. The flux is moistened with water and exposed to a current of carbonic acid, which, on account of the condensing action of the charcoal, is absorbed with great avidity. The bicarbonate forms large monoclinic prisms, permanent in the air. When the dry salt is heated to 190° it decomposes into normal carbonate, carbon dioxide and water. Potassium sulphide, KZS, was obtained by Berzelius in pale red crystals by passing hydrogen over potassium sulphate, and by Berthier as a flesh-coloured mass by heating the sulphate with carbon. It appears, however, that these products contain higher sulphides. On saturating a solution of caustic potash with sulphur- etted hydrogen and adding a second equivalent of alkali, a solution is obtained which on evaporation in a vacuum deposits crystals of K2S.sH2O. The solution is strongly caustic. It turns yellow on exposure to air, absorbing oxygen and carbon dioxide and forming thiosulphate and potassium carbonate and liberating sulphuretted hydrogen, which decomposes into water and sulphur, the latter combining with the monosulphide to form higher salts. The solution also decomposes on boiling. The hydrosulphide, KHS, was obtained by Gay-Lussac on heating the metal in sulphur- etted hydrogen, and by Berzelius on acting with sulphuretted hydro- gen on potassium carbonate at a dull red heat. It forms a yellowish- white deliquescent mass, which melts on heating, and at a sufficiently high temperature it yields a dark red liquid. It is readily soluble in water, and on evaporation in a vacuum over caustic lime it deposits colourless, rhombohedral crystals of 2KHS.H2O. The solution is more easily prepared by saturating potash solution with sulphuretted hydrogen. The solution has a bitter taste, and on exposure to the air turns yellow, but on long exposure it recovers its original colourless appearance owing to the formation of thiosulphate. Liver of sulphur or hepar stuphuris, a medicine known to the alchemists, is a mixture of various poly- sulphides with the sulphate and thiosulphate, in variable proportions, obtained by gently heating the carbonate with sulphur in covered vessels. It forms a liver-coloured mass. In the pharmacopoeia it is designated potojsa sulphur ata. Potassium sulphite, K2SOi, is prepared by saturating a potash solution w'ith sulphur dioxide, adding a second equivalent of potash, 200 POTATO and crystallizing in a vacuum, when the salt separates as small deliquescent, hexagonal crystals. The salt KjSOa-HjO may be obtained by crystallizing the metabisulphite, KjSjOs (from sulphur dioxide and a hot saturated solution of the carbonate, or from sulphur dioxide and a mixture of milk of lime and potassium sul- phate) with an equivalent amount of potash. The salt K2SO3-2H2O is obtained as oblique rhombic octahedra by crystallizing the solution over sulphuric acid. On the isomeric potassium sodium sulphites see SULPHUR. Potassium sulphate, KjSOi, a salt known early in the I4th century, and studied by Glauber, Boyle and Tachenius, was styled in the 1 7th century arcanum or sal duplicatum, being regarded as a com- bination of an acid salt with an alkaline salt. It was obtained as a by-product in many chemical reactions, and subsequently used to be extracted from kainite, one of the Stassfurt minerals, but the process is now given up because the salt can be produced cheaply enough from the chloride by decomposing it with sulphuric acid and calcining the residue. To purify the crude product it is dis- solved in hot water and the solution filtered and allowed to cool, when the bulk of the dissolved salt crystallizes out with character- istic promptitude. The very beautiful (anhydrous) crystals have the habit of a double six-sided pyramid, but really belong to the rhombic system. They are transparent, very hard and absolutely permanent in the air. They have a bitter, salty taste. The salt is soluble in water, but insoluble in caustic potash of sp. gr. 1-35, and in absolute alcohol. It fuses at 1078°. The crude salt is used occasionally in the manufacture of glass. The acid sulphate or bisulphate, KHSO<, is readily produced by fusing thirteen parts of the powdered normal salt with eight parts of sulphuric acid. It forms rhombic pyramids, which melt at 197°. It dissolves in three parts of water of o° C. The solution behaves pretty much as if its two congeners, KzSO« and H2SO<, were present side by side of each other uncombined. An excess of alcohol, in fact, precipitates normal sulphate (with little bisulphate) and free acid remains in solution. Similar is the behaviour of the fused dry salt at a dull red heat; it acts on silicates, titanates, &c., as if it were sulphuric acid raised beyond its natural boiling point. Hence its frequent application in analysis as a disintegrating agent. For the salts of other sulphur acids, see SULPHUR. Potassamide, NH2K, discovered by Gay-Lussac and Thenard in 1871, is obtained as an olive green or brown mass by gently heat- ing the metal in ammonia gas, or as a white, waxy, crystalline mass when the metal is heated in a silver boat. It decomposes in moist air, or with water, giving caustic potash and ammonia, in the latter case with considerable evolution of heat. On strong heating Tithesley (Journ. Ghent. Soc., 1894, p. 511) found that it decomposed into its elements. For the nitrite, see NITROGEN, for the nitrate see SALTPETRE and for the cyanide see PRUSSIC ACID; for other salts see the articles wherein the corresponding acid receives treatment. Analysis, &c. — All volatile potassium compounds impart a violet coloration to the Bunsen flame, which is masked, however, if sodium be present. The emission spectrum shows two lines, Ko, a double line towards the infra-red, and K/3 in the violet. The chief insoluble salts are the perchlorate, acid-tartrate and platinochloride. The atomic weight was determined by Stas and more recently by T. W. Richards and A. Stahler, who obtained the value 39-114 from analyses of the chloride, and by Richards and E. Meuller, who obtained the values 39-1135 and 39-1143 from analyses of the bromide (see Abs. J. C. S., 1907, ii. 615). Medicine. Pharmacology. — Numerous salts and preparations of potassium are used in medicine; viz. Potassii Carboms (salt of tartar), dose 5 to 20 grs., from which are made (a) Potassii Bicarbonas, dose 5 to 30 grs. ; (b) Potassa Caustica, a powerful caustic not used internally. From caustic potash are made (i) Potassii Permanganas, dose i to 3 grs., used in preparing Liquor Potassii Permanganalis, a i % solution, dose 2 to 4 drs. (2) Potassii lodidum, dose 5 to 20 grs. ; from this are made the Linamentum Potassii lodidi cum sapone, strength i in 10, and the Unguentum Potassii lodidi, strength i in 10. (3) Potassii Bromidum, dose 5 to 30 grs. (4) Liquor Potassae, strength 27 grs. of caustic potash to the oz. Potassii Citras, dose 10 to 40 grs. Potassii Acetas, dose 10 to 60 grs. Potassii Chloras, dose 5 to 15 grs., from which is made a lozenge, Trochiscus Potassii Chloratis, each containing 3 grs. Potassii Tartras Acidus (cream of tartar), dose 20 to 60 grs., which has a subpreparation Potassii Tartras, dose 30 to 60 grs. Potassii Nitras (saltpetre), dose 5 to 20 grs. Potassii Sulphas, dose 10 to 40 grs. Potassii Bichromas, dose tS to £ gr. Toxicology. — -Poisoning by caustic potash may take place or poisoning by pearl ash containing caustic potash. A caustic taste in the mouth is quickly followed by burning abdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhoea, with a feeble pulse and a cold clammy skin; the post-mortem appearances are those of acute gastro- intestinal irritation. The treatment is washing out the stomach or giving emetics followed by vinegar or lemon juice and later oil and white of egg. Therapeutics. — Externally: Caustic potash is a most powerful irritant and caustic; it is used with lime in making Vienna paste, which is occasionally used to destroy morbid growths. Liquor potassae is also used in certain skin diseases. The permanganate of potash is an irritant if used pure. Its principal action is as an antiseptic and disinfectant. If wet it oxidizes the products of decomposition. It is used in the dressing of foul ulcers. The I % solution is an antidote for snake-bite. Internally: Dilute solutions of potash, like other alkalis, are used to neutralize the poisonous effects of strong acids. In the stomach potassium salts neutralize the gastric acid, and hence small doses are useful in hypcrchloridia. Potassium salts are strongly diuretic, acting directly on the renal epithelium. They are quickly excreted in the urine, rendering it alkaline and thus more able to hold uric acid in solution. They also hinder the forma- tion of uric acid calculi. The acetate and the citrate are valuable mild diuretics in Bright's disease and in feverish conditions, and by increasing the amount of urine diminish the pathological fluids in pleuritic effusion, ascites, &c. In tubal nephritis they aid the excretion of fatty casts. The tartrate and acid tartrate are also diuretic in their action and, as well as the sulphate, are valuable hydragogue saline purgatives. Potassium nitrate is chiefly used to make nitre paper, which on burning emits fumes useful in the treatment of the asthmatic paroxysm. Lozenges of potassium chlorate are used in stomatitis, tonsilitis and pharyngitis, it can also be used in a gargle, 10 grs. to I fl. oz. of water. Its thera- peutic action is said to be due to nascent oxygen given off, so it is local in its action. In large doses it is a dangerous poison, con- verting the oxyhaemoglobin of the blood into methaemoglobin. Internally the permanganate is a valuable antidote in opium poisoning. The action of potassium bromide and potassium iodide has been treated under bromine and iodine (q.v.). All potas- sium salts if taken in large doses are cardiac depressants, they also depress the nervous system, especially the brain and spinal cord. Like all alkalis if given in quantities they increase metabolism. POTATO (Solatium tuberosum), a well-known plant which owes its value to the peculiar habit of developing underground slender leafless shoots or branches which differ in character and office from the true roots, and gradually swelling at the free end produce the tubers (potatoes) which are the common vegetable food. The nature of these tubers is further rendered evident by the presence of " eyes " or leaf-buds, which in due time lengthen into shoots and form the haulm or stems of the plant. Such buds are not, under ordinary circumstances, formed on roots. The determining cause of the formation of the tubers is not certainly known, but Professor Bernard has suggested that it is the presence of a fungus, Fusarium solani, which, growing in the underground shoots, irritates them and causes the swelling; the result is that an efficient method of propagation is secured independently of the seed. Starch and other matters are stored up in the tubers, as in a seed, and are. rendered avail- able for the nutrition of the young shoots. When grown under natural circumstances the tubers are relatively small and close to the surface of the soil, or even lie upon it. In the latter case they become green and have an acrid taste, which renders them unpalatable to human beings, and as poisonous qualities are produced similar to those of many Solanaceae they are unwhole- some. Hence the recommendation to keep the tubers in cellars or pits, not exposed to the light. Among the nine hundred species of Solanum less than a dozen have this property of forming tubers, but similar growths are formed at the ends of the shoots of the common bramble, of Convolvulus sepium, of Helianlhus tuberosus, the so-called Jerusalem artichoke, of Sagittaria, and other plants. Tubers are also sometimes formed on aerial branches, as in some Aroids, Begonias, &c. The production of small green tubers on the haulm, in the axils of the leaves of the potato, is not very unfrequent, and affords an interesting proof of the true morphological nature of the under- ground shoots and tubers. This phenomenon follows injury to the phloem in the lower parts of the stem, preventing the downward flow of elaborated sap. The injury may be due to gnawing insects, and particularly to the fungus Corlicium vagum, var. Solani (Rhizoctonia) . The so-called fir-cone potatoes, which are elongated and provided with scales at more or less regular intervals, show also very clearly that the tuber is only a thickened branch with " eyes " set in regular order, as in an ordinary shoot. The potato tuber consists mainly of a mass of cells filled with starch and encircled by a thin corky rind. A few vessels and woody fibres traverse the tubers. POTATO 201 The chief value of the potato as an article of diet consists in the starch it contains, and to a less extent in the potash and other salts. The quantity of nitrogen in its composition is small, and hence it should not be relied on to constitute the staple article of diet. Letheby gives the following as the average composition of the potato — Nitrogenous matters . 2-1 Starch, &c. ... 18-8 Sugar 3-2 Fat 0-2 Saline matter Water . 0-7 -75-0 100-0 — a result which approximates closely to the average of nineteen analyses cited in How Crops Grow from Grouven. In some analyses, however, the starch is put as low as 13-30, and the nitrogenous matter as 0-92 (Deherain, Cours de chimie agricole, p. 159). Boussingault gives 25-2% of starch and 3% of nitro- genous matter. Warington states that the proportion of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous matter in the digestible part of potatoes is as i to 10-6. The composition of the tubers evidently varies according to season, soils, manuring, the variety grown, &c., but the figures cited will give a sufficiently accurate idea of it. The " ash " contains on the average of thirty-one analyses as much as 59-8% of potash, and 19-1% of phosphoric acid, the other ingredients being in very minute proportion. Where, as in some parts of northern Germany, the potato is grown for the purpose of manufacturing spirit great attention is necessarily paid to the quantitative analysis of the starchy and saccharine matters, which are found to vary much in particular varieties, irrespective of the conditions under which they are grown. It is to the Spaniards that we owe this valuable esculent. The Spaniards met with it in the neighbourhood of Quito, where it was cultivated by the natives. In the Cronica de Peru of Pedro Cieca (Seville, 1553), as well as in other Spanish books of about the same date, the potato is mentioned under the name " battata " or " papa." Hieronymus Cardan, a monk, is supposed to have been the first to introduce it from Peru into Spain, from which country it passed into Italy and thence into Belgium. Carl Sprengel, cited by Professor Edward Morren in his biographical sketch entitled Charles de I'Esduse, sa vie et ses oeuvres, states that the potato was introduced from Santa Fe into England by John Hawkins in 1563 (Garten Zeitung, 1805, p. 346). If this be so, it is a question whether the English and not the Spaniards are not entitled to the credit of the first introduction; but, according to Sir Joseph Banks, the plant brought by Drake and Hawkins was not the common English potato but the sweet potato. In 1587 or 1588 De FEscluse (Clusius) received the plant from Philippe de Sivry, lord of Waldheim and governor of Mons, who in his turn received it from some member of the suite of the papal legate. At the discovery of America, we are told by Humboldt, the plant was cultivated in all the temperate parts of the continent from Chile to Colombia, but not in Mexico. In 1 585 or 1 586, potato tubers were brought from what is now North Carolina to Ireland on the return of the colonists sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh, and were first cultivated on Sir Walter's estate near Cork. The tubers introduced under the auspices of Raleigh were thus imported a few years later than those mentioned by Clusius in 1588, which must have been in cultiva- tion in Italy and Spain for some years prior to that time. The earliest representation of the plant is to be found in Gerard's Herbal, published in 1597. The plant is mentioned under the name Papus orbiculatus in the first edition of the Catalogus of the same author, published in 1596, and again in the second edition, which was dedicated to Sir Walter Raleigh (1599). It is, however, in the Herbal that we find the first description of the potato, accompanied by a woodcut sufficiently correct to leave no doubt whatever as to the identity of the plant. In this work (p. 781) it is called " Battata virginiana sive Virginia- norum, et Pappus, Potatoes of Virginia." The " common potatoes " of which Gerard speaks are the tubers of Ipomoea Batatas, the sweet potato, which nowadays would not in Great Britain be spoken of as common. A second edition of the Herbal was published in 1636 by Thomas Johnson, with a different illustration from that given in the first edition, and one which in some respects, as in showing the true nature of the tuber, is superior to the first. The phenomenon of growing out or ," super-tuberation " is shown in this cut. Previous to this (in 1629) Parkinson, the friend and associate of Johnson, had published his Paradisus, in which (p. 517) he gives an indifferent figure of the potato under the name of Papas sen Battatas Virginianorum, and adds details as to the method of cooking the tubers which seem to indicate that they were still luxuries. Chabraeus, who wrote in 1666, tells us that the Peruvians made bread from the tubers, which they called " chunno." He further tells us that by the natives Virginieae insulae the plant was called " openauk," and that it is now known in European gardens, but he makes no mention of its use as an esculent vegetable, and, indeed, includes it among " plantae malignae et venenatae." Heriot (De Bry's Collection of Voyages), in his report on Virginia, describes a plant under the same name " with roots as large as a walnut and others much larger; they grow in damp soil, many hanging together as if fixed on ropes; they are good food either boiled or roasted." The plant (which is not a native of Virginia) was probably introduced there in consequence of the intercourse of the early settlers with the Spaniards. The cultivation of the potato in England made but little progress, even though it was strongly urged by the Royal Society in 1663; and not much more than a century has elapsed since its cultivation on a large scale became general. Botanists are agreed that the only species in general cultivation in Great Britain is the one which Bauhin, in his Phytopinax, p. 89 (1596), called Solanum tuberosum esculentum, a name adopted by Linnaeus (omitting the last epithet), and employed by all botanical writers. This species is probably native in Chile, but it is very doubtful if it is truly wild farther north. Baker (Journ. Linn. Soc., 1884, xx. 489), has reviewed the tuber-bearing species of Solanum from a systematic point of view as well as from that of geographical distribution. Out of twenty so-called species he con- siders six to be really distinct, while the others are merely synony- mous or trifling variations. The six admitted tuber-bearing species are 5. tuberosum, S. Maglia, S. Commersoni, S. cardiophyllum, S. Jamesii and 5. oxycarpum. S. tuberosum is, according to Mr Baker, a native not only of the Andes of Chile but also of those of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and Colombia, also of the mountains of Costa Rica, Mexico and the south-western United States. It seems most probable, however, that some at least of the plants mentioned in the northern part of America are the descendants of cultivated forms. 5. Maglia is a native of the Chilean coast as far sou th as the Chonos Archipelago, and was cultivated in the garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick in 1822, being con- sidered by Sabine, in his paper on the native country of the wild potato, to be the true 5. tuberosum and the origin of the cultivated forms. This species was also found by Darwin in Chile, and was con- sidered by him, as by Sabine before him, to be the wild potato. Baker refers to the plants figured by Sabine (Trans. Hort. Soc. Land. v. 249) (fig. i) as being without doubt 5. Maglia, but A. de Candolle (Origine des Plantes cultivees, p. 40) is equally emphatic in the opinion that it is 5. tuber- osum. S. Commersoni occurs in Uruguay, Buenos Aires and the Argentine Republic, in rocky situations at a low level. Under the name of S. Ohrondii it has been introduced into western France, where it is not only FlG. ,._Wiid Potato-plant in hardy but produces abundance bloom (j ^ ^ ) of tubers, which are palatable, but have a slightly acid taste. S. cardiophyllum, described by Lindley in the Journ. Hort. Soc. is a native of the mountains of central Mexico at elevations of 8000 to 9000 ft. S. Jamesii is a well-defined species occurring in the mountains of Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona, and also in Mexico. In a wild state the tubers are not larger than marbles. 5. oxycarpum is a (From Sabine's figure in the Trans. Sort. Soc. Land., 1824, vol. v. pi. ii. See teit.) 202 POTATO little known but very distinct tuberous species from central Mexico.1 A review of the localities in which the presence of 5. tuberosum and its tuber-bearing allies has been ascertained shows that, broadly, these varieties may be divided into mountainous and littoral. In either case they would not be subjected, at least in their growing season, to the same extremes of heat, cold and drought as plants growing on inland plains. Again, those forms growing at a high elevation would probably start into growth later in the season than those near the coast. The significance of these facts from a cultural point of view is twofold: for, while a late variety is desirable for culture in Great Britain, as ensuring more or less immunity from spring frost, it is, on the other hand, undesirable, because late varieties are more liable to be attacked by the potato disease (Phytophthora infestans) which as a rule appears about the time when the earliest varieties are ready for lifting, but before the late varieties are matured. In cultivation the potato varies very greatly not only as to the season of its growth but also as to productiveness, the vigour and luxuriance of its foliage, the presence or relative absence of hairs, the form of the leaves, the size and colour of the flowers, &c. The tubers vary greatly in size, form and colour; gardeners divide them into rounded forms and long forms or " kidneys," and there are of course varieties inter- mediate in form. The colour of the rind, yellowish, brown or purple, furnishes distinctions, as does the yellow or white colour of the flesh. The colour of the eyes and their prominence or depression are relatively very constant characteristics. These variations have arisen chiefly through cross-breeding, though not entirely so, there being a few cases upon record of the production of " sports " from tubers that have become the parents of new varieties, but authentic cases of the sporting of tubers are few and far between. If, on the other hand, the true seeds of any of our cultivated varieties are sown, the seedlings show very wide variations from one another and from the parents. In this connexion it is very interesting to observe that Messrs Sutton of Reading find that the seedlings of many of the varieties of potato that occur spontaneously in different parts of America come quite true to type from seed. The potato thrives best in a rather light friable loam ; and in thin sandy soils the produce, if not heavy, is generally of very good quality. Soils which are naturally wet and heavy, as well as those which are heavily manured, are not suitable. Indeed it is best, except when there is ample space, to grow only the earlier kinds in gardens. If the soil is of fair quality the less manure used upon it the better, unless it be soot or lime. Gypsum, bone-dust, superphosphate of lime and nitrate of soda may also be used, and wood ashes are advantageous if the soil contains much vegetable matter; but the best results are usually obtained when farmyard manure is supple- mented by artificials, not by using artificials alone. Potatoes are commonly propagated by planting whole^ tubers or by dividing the tubers, leaving to each segment or " set "one or two eyes or buds. The " sets " are then planted in rows at a distance varying from 15 in. to 3 ft., the distance being regulated by the height of the stems, and that between the sets varying from 6 to 12 in., 8 in. being a good average space for garden crops, with 2 ft. between the rows. The sets may be put in 6 in. deep. The planting of whole tubers instead of the cut sets usually gives a better return. 'Although these six are the only species admitted as such by Baker, it is well to note some of the varieties. The S. etuberosum of Lindley, differing from the common 5. tuberosum in not producing tubers, was found in Chile, and is probably not specifically distinct, although exceptional, for it is by no means very unusual to find even cultivated plants produce no tubers. S. Fernandezianum is, according to Baker, a form of S. tuberosum, but if .so its habitat in the mountain woods of Juan Fernandez is climatically different from that in the dry mountains of central Chile, where the true S. tuberosum grows. 5. otites was found more recently by Andr6 on the summit of Quindiu in Colombia, at a height of 11,483 ft. It produces tubers of the size of a nut. S. Andreanum, found by Andrd at Cauca (6234 ft.), was considered by the traveller to be the true S. tuberosum, but this view is not shared by Baker, who named it after the discoverer. Its tubers, if it produces any, have not been seen. 5. immite is probably only a slight variety of 5. tubero- sum, as are also the Venezuelan 5. colombianum, S. verrucosum, S. demissum and S. utile. S. Fendleri, a native of the mountains of New Mexico and Arizona, was considered by Asa Gray to be likewise a form of 5. tuberosum. The full-sized tubers are, however, preferable to smaller ones, as their larger buds tend to produce stronger shoots, and where cut sets are used the best returns are obtained from sets taken from the points of the tubers — not from their base. Thomas Dickson of Edinburgh long ago observed that the most healthy and productive crop was to be obtained by planting unripe tubers, and proposed this as a preventive of the disease called the " curl," which sometimes attacks the young stems, causing them and also the leaves to become crumpled, and few or no tubers to be produced; in this connexion it is interesting to note that Scottish and Irish seed potatoes give a larger yield than English, probably on account of their being less matured. It has also been notea that the sprouting of the eyes of the potato may be accelerated if, while still unripe, it is taken up and exposed for some weeks to the influence of a scorching sun. The best sets are those obtained from plants grown in elevated and open situations, and it is also beneficial to use sets grown on a different soil. The earliest crops should, if possible, be planted in a light soil and in a warm situation, towards the end of February, or as early as possible in March. In some cases the tubers for early crops are sprouted on a hotbed, the plants being put out as soon as the leaves can bear exposure. The main crop should be planted by the middle of March, sprouted sets being used; late planting is very undesirable. Those in- tended for storing should be dug up as soon as they are fairly ripe, unless they are attacked by the disease, in which case they must be taken up as soon as the murrain is observed ; or if they are then sufficiently developed to be worth preserving, but not fully ripe, the haulms or shaws should be pulled out, to prevent the fungus passing down them into the tubers; this may be done without dis- turbing the tubers, which can be dug afterwards. Forcing. — The earliest crop may be planted in December, and successional ones in January and February; the varieties specially suited for forcing being chosen. The mode of cultivation adopted by the London market gardeners is thus in substance explained by Cuthill: A long trench, 5 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep, is filled with hot dung, on which soil to the depth of 6 in. is put. The sets employed are middle-sized whole potatoes, which are placed close together over the bed, covered with 2 in. of mould, and then hooped and protected with mats and straw, under which conditions they will sprout in about a month. A bed of the requisite length (sometimes loo yds.) is then prepared of about 2 ft. thickness of hot dung, soil is put on to the depth of 8 in., and the frames set over all. The potatoes are then carefully taken up from the striking bed, all the shoots being removed except the main one, and they are planted 4 in. deep, radishes being sown thinly over them and covered lightly with mould. When the haulm of the potato has grown to about 6 in. in height the points are nipped off, in order to give the radishes fair play ; and, although this may stop growth for a few days, still the potato crop is always excellent. After planting nothing more is required but to keep up the temperature to about 70°, admitting air when practicable, and giving water as required. The crop is not dug1 up until it has come to maturity. Potatoes are also grown largely in hooped beds on a warm border in the open ground. The sets after having been sprouted, as above, are planted out in January in trenches 2 ft. deep filled with hot dung, the sets being planted 5 in. deep, and over all radishes are sown. The ridges are then hooped over, allowing about 2 ft. of space in the middle, between the mould and the hoop, and are covered with mats and straw, but as soon as the radishes come up they are uncovered daily, and covered again every night as a pro- tection against possible frosts. This is continued till the potatoes are ready for digging in May. Potatoes are sometimes grown in pots in heat, sprouted sets being planted in n-in. pots about two-thirds full of soil, and placed near the glass in any of the forcing-houses, where a temperature of from 65° to 70" is to be maintained. The plants are duly watered and earthed up as they advance in growth. POTATO DISEASES There are few agricultural subjects of greater importance than the culture of the potato and the losses entailed by potato disease. It is not unusual in bad seasons for a single grower to lose £30 per acre in one season. In extreme cases every tuber is lost, as the produce will not even pay the cost of lifting. The best-known disease of potatoes is caused by the growth of a fungus named Phylophihora infestans, within the tissues of the host plant, and this fungus has the peculiar property of piercing and breaking up the cellular tissues and setting up putrescence in the course of its growth. The parasite, which has a somewhat restricted range of host plants, chiefly invades the potato, Solatium tuberosum; the bittersweet, 5. Dulcamara, and other species of Solanum. It is also very destructive to the tomato, Lycopersicum esculentum, and to all or nearly all POTATO 203 the other species of Lycopersicum. At times it attacks petunias and even scrophulariaceous plants, as Anthocersis and Schiz- anl/tus. As a rule, although there are a few exceptions, the disease occurs wherever the potato is grown. It is known in South America in the home of the potato plant. In England the disease is generally first seen during the last ten days of July; its extension is greatly favoured by warm and showery weather. To the unaided eye the disease is seen as purplish brown or blackish blotches of various sizes, at first on the tips and edges of the leaves, and ultimately upon the leaf-stalks and the larger stems. On gathering the foliage for examination, especially in humid weather, these dark blotches are seen to be putrid, and when the disease takes a bad form the dying leaves give out a highly offensive odour. The fungus, which is chiefly within the leaves and stems, seldom emerges through the firm upper surface of the leaf; it commonly appears as a white bloom or mildew on the circumference of the disease- patches on the under surface. It grows within the tissues from central spots towards an ever-extending circumference, carrying putrescence in its course. As the patches extend in size by the growth of the fungus they at length become confluent, and so the leaves are destroyed and an end is put to one of the chief vital functions of the host plant. On the destruction of the leaves the fungus either descends the stem by the interior or the spores are washed by the rain to the tubers in the ground. In either case the tubers are reached by the fungus or its spores, and so become diseased. The fungus is very small in size, and under the microscope appears slightly whitish or colourless. The highest powers are required to see all parts of the parasite. The accompanying illustration shows the habit and structure of the fungus. The letters A B show a vertical section through a frag- ment ofapotato leaf, enlarged 100 diameters; A is the upper surface line, and B the lower ; the lower surface of the leaf is shown at the top, 0 FIG. 2. — Phytophthora infestans. Fungus of Potato Disease. the better to exhibit the nature of the fungus growths. Between A and B the loose cellular tissue of which the leaf is partly built up is seen in section, and at C the vertical palisade cells which give firmness to the upper surface of the leaf. Amongst the loose tissue of the leaf numerous transparent threads are shown; these are the mycelial threads or spawn of the fungus; wherever they touch the leaf-cells they pierce or break down the tissue, and so set up decomposition, as indicated by the darker shading. The lower surface of the potato leaf is furnished with numerous organs of transpiration or stomata, which are narrow orifices opening into the leaf and from which moisture is transpired in the form of vapour. Out of these small openings the fungus threads emerge, as shown at D, D, D. When the threads reach the air they branch in a tree-like manner, and each branch (sporangiophore) carries one or more ovate sporangia, as shown at E, E, E, which fall off and are carried by the wind. One is shown more highly magnified (400 diameters) at F ; the contained protoplasm breaks up into a definite number of parts as at G, forming eight minute mobile bodies called " zoospores," each zoospore being furnished with two extremely attentuated vibrating hairs termed " cilia," as shown at H. These zoospores escape and swim about in any film of moisture, and on going to rest take a spherical form, germinate and produce threads of mycelium as at K. The sporangia may also germinate directly without undergoing division. The mycelium from the germinating sporangia or zoospores soon finds its way into the tissues of the potato leaf by the organs of transpiration, and the process of growth already describedi is repeated 'over and over again till the entire potato leaf, or indeed the whole plant, is reduced to putridity. The germinating spores are not only able to pierce the leaves and stems of the potato plant, and so gain an entry to its interior through the epidermis, but they are also able to pierce the skin of the tuber, especially in young examples. It is therefore obvious that, if the tubers are exposed to the air where they are liable to become slightly cracked by the sun, wind, hail and rain, and injured by small animals and insects, the spores from the leaves will drop on to the tubers, quickly germinate upon the slightly injured places, and cause the potatoes to become diseased. Earthing up therefore prevents these injuries, but where practised to an immoderate extent it materially reduces the produce of tubers. The labour entailed in repeated earthing up is also considered a serious objection to its general adoption. The means of mitigating the damage done by this disease are (i) the selection of varieties found to resist its attacks; (2) the collection and destruction of diseased tubers so that none are left in the soil to become a menace to future crops; (3) care that no tubers showing traces of the disease are planted; (4) spraying with Bordeaux mixture at intervals from midsummer onwards. The last measure prevents the germination of the spores of the fungus on the leaves, and is a most useful mode of checking the spread of the disease; to be successful in its use, how- ever, entails care in the preparation of the spray and thorough- ness in its application. In spite of the many efforts in the direc- tion of obtaining a resistant variety no great measure of success has been attained. The earlier varieties of potato appear to escape the disease almost entirely, as they are usually ready to be lifted before it becomes troublesome; while certain of the later varieties are much less prone to it than the majority. They do not appear, however, to maintain the same degree of immunity over a long period of years, but to become more and more open to the attack as the variety becomes older; nor do they always exhibit the same degree of immunity in different localities. Something may be done to mitigate the loss arising from the disease by selecting comparatively immune varieties from time to time. Many ingenious attempts have been made to obtain a variety perfectly immune. Maule, thinking a hardier blood might be infused into the potato by crossing it with some of the native species, raised hybrids between it and the two common species of Solatium native in this country, S. Dulcamara, and S. nigrum, but the hybrids proved as susceptible as the potato itself. Maule also tried the effect of grafting the potato on these two specie's and, though he succeeded, there is no record to show whether the product was any hardier than the parents. Dean (Card. Chron., Sept. 1876, p. 304) succeeded in grafting the potato on the tomato, and Messrs Sutton have carried out similar experiments on an extensive scale (Journ. Roy. Hort. Soc. 1899, xxiii. Proc. p. 20), but in no case have the variations produced proved disease-proof. Various experimenters, especially Fenn, have asserted that by engrafting an eye of one variety into the tuber of another, not only will adhesion take place but the new tubers will present great variety of character; this seems to be the case, but it can hardly be considered as established that the variations in ques- tion were the result of any commingling of the essences of the two varieties. The wound may simply have set up that variation in the buds the occasional existence of which has been already noted. It is possible that the hybridizing of the potato with one or other of the wild types of tuberous Solanums may give rise to a variety which shall be immune, though unfortunately most are themselves liable to the attacks of the fungus, and one of the few crosses so made between the common potato and Solatium Maglia has exhibited the same undesirable trait. The form cultivated in England for some time under the name Solatium tuberosum (which, however, forms tubers and is probably not that known under this name by Lindley) seems so far to have escaped. In view of the fact that Biffen has proved that immunity from the attacks of a certain fungus in wheat is a transmissible recessive character reappearing in some of the individuals of the second generation, it would appear that there is ?reat hope of securing an immune variety with the aid of this form. t is possible, too, that continued cultivation in the rich soil of gardens may induce that tendency to vary when seedlings are raised that is so marked a feature of the potato of commerce, in one or more of the other species of tuberous Solanums. 204 POTATO RACE— POTCHEFSTROOM Another fungus attacking the leaves is Macrosporium Solani (fig. 3), but this attack usually comes earlier in the season than the foregoing. It is characterized by the curling of the leaves, which later show black spots due to the production of numerous dark spores in patches on the diseased leaves. The damage is often considerable, as the crop is greatly lessened by the interference with the func- tions of the leaf. The parasite may be held in check by spraying with Bordeaux mixture early in the season. The fungus passes the winter on pieces of leaf, &c., left on the ground. All such refuse should be cleared up and burned. A third fungus, Cerco- spora concors, also forms spots on the leaves and may be kept in check by the same means. Wilting of the foliage followed by the discoloration of the stem FIG. 3.— Portion of Leaf of and branches is characteristic Potato-Plant showing patches o{ disease of the tato of a black mould, Macrosporium , « -m i i » unj Solani, on the surface. known as "Blackleg." This disease is due to the presence of large numbers of Bacillus solanacearum in the tubes through which water is conveyed to the leaves from the roots. Their presence causes the appearance of blackish streaks in the stem and a dark ring some little distance below the surface in the tissues of the tuber. Tubers showing any trace of such a ring (From the Journal of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, by permission of the controller of H. M. Stationery Office.) FIG. 4. — Chrysophlyctis endobiotica (Oedomyces leproides) in the Potato. i and 2, Tubers deformed by the fungus. 3, Section through diseased tissue showing dark masses of spores. 4 and 5, Tissue-cell, more highly magnified, showing enclosed spores. should not be used for seed, and rotation of crops should be observed as a means of preventing the infection of the crop with the germ. Biting and sucking insects have been found to carry the bacilli from one plant to another. The tubers frequently show scurfy or scab-like spots upon their surface, thus greatly depreciating their value for market purposes. The fungus, Sorosporium scabies, which is the cause of the scab, does not penetrate into the flesh of the tuber, nor detract from its edible properties. Excess of lime in the soil is said to favour the devejopment of the fungus. Similar spots are produced on potatoes in America by the fungus Oospora scabies, and in both cases, if affected " seed " potatoes are steeped in a solution of $ pint formalin in 15 gallons of water for two hours before planting, the attack on the resulting crop is materially lessened. The fungus, Oedomyces leproides, produces large, blackish, irregular warts which sometimes involve the whole surface of the tuber. This disease is of recent introduction into Great Britain, but bids fair to be- come very troublesome. The spores of the fungus pass the winter in the soil and the delicate mycelium attacks the young shoots in the summer. These become brown, finally blackish and greatly contorted until a large scab is formed on the developing tuber, whence the name by which the disease is known — " black scab." Diseased potatoes left in the soil and even slightly diseased " sets " are a source of infection of succeeding crops. Rotation must be observed and no diseased sets planted. The rotting of tubers after lifting may be due to various causes, but the infection of the tubers by the Phytophthora already men- tioned is a frequent source of this trouble, while " Winter Rot " is due to the fungus Nectria Solani. This fungus finds conditions suitable for growth when the potatoes are stored in a damp con- dition; rotting from this cause rarely occurs when they are dried before being placed in heaps. The first signs of this fungus is the appearance of small white tufts of mycelium bursting through the skin of the tuber, the spores of the fungus being carried at the tips of the threads forming these tufts. This form of fruit is suc- ceeded by others which have received different names, and lastly by the mature Nectria which forms minute red flask-shaped pen- thecia on parts of the rotted potatoes that have dried up. The intermediate forms are known as Monosporium, Fusarium and Cephalosporium. The pieces of dried-up potato with the spores of Nectria upon them are a source of infection in the succeeding year, and care should be taken that diseased tubers are not planted. Flowers of sulphur plentifully sprinkled over the potatoes before storing has been found to check the spread of the rot in the heap. POTATO RACE, a running contest, where the winner is the first who collects in a basket or other receptacle a number of potatoes, usually eight, placed, as a rule two yards apart, along a straight line, and then crosses a finish line five or ten yards farther on. POTATO WAR (Kartoffelkrieg), the name given by the Prus- sians to the War of the Bavarian Succession in 1778-79. The Prussians and a Saxon contingent, commanded by Frederick the Great and his brother Prince Henry, were opposed to two Austrian armies under Loudon and Lacy. The operations consisted almost entirely of manoeuvres which had for their object the obtaining or the denial to the enemy of food-supplies. The war thus acquired the name of Kartoffelkrieg. Its duration was from the 3rd of July 1778 to the assembly of the congress of Teschen on the loth of March 1 7 79, and its total cost £4,3 50,000 and 20,000 men to all parties. The war may be studied from the military point of view as an extreme example of what Clausewitz calls " war with a restricted aim." POTAWATOMI (properly Potewatmik, fire-makers, in allusion to their secession from the Ojibway, and their establish- ment of a separate council-fire), a tribe of North- American Indians of Algonquian stock. When first known (about 1670), they lived around Green Bay, Wisconsin. They subsequently moved south and eventually settled in lower Michigan. They were allied with the French in their wars against the Iroquois and took part in the conspiracy of Pontiac (q.ii.). In the War of Independence they fought for England, as also in that of 1812. In 1846 most of them were removed to a reservation in Kansas. Of these the majority have abandoned their tribal relations and become citizens. Others are in Wisconsin and the bulk in Oklahoma. They now number some 2500. POTCHEFSTROOM, a town of the Transvaal, 88 m. S.W. of Johannesburg and 222 m. N.E. of Kimberley by rail. Pop. (1904), 9348, of whom 6014 were whites. The town stands 4100 ft. above the sea on the banks of the Mooi River, 15 m. POTEMKIN— POTENTIOMETER 205 above its junction with the Vaal. The streets are lined with fine willow trees, and there are public grounds in which are nurseries and a showyard. Golf links add to the attractions of the place, which is one of the healthiest in the Transvaal. In the neighbourhood are gold-mines; the reef appearing to be a continuation of the VVitwatersrand reefs. The Vaal river goldfields, of which Venterskroon is the centre, are 16 to 20 m. south-east of Potchefstroom. Potchefstroom was founded in November 1838 by Hendrik Potgieter, and is the oldest town in and first capital of the Transvaal. In 1862 it was the scene of civil war between rival Boer factions. In 1880-81 the garrison camped outside the town was besieged by Boers under Commandant P. A. Oonje. The British troops (250 in number) were confined to a fort 25 yds. square and lost over a third of their strength in killed and wounded before they surrendered on the 2ist of March, the investment having begun on the i8th of December 1880. Charges of treachery were brought against Cronje for failing to notify the besieged that an armistice had been agreed to by the Boer leaders. Of this armistice Colonel R. W. C. Winsloe, who was in command of the British, became aware before the surrender took place. On the suggestion of Com- mandant General Joubert the capitulation was considered as cancelled and a detachment of British troops reoccupied the town until the conclusion of peace. In the Anglo-Boer War of 1890-1902 Potehefstroom was occupied by the British without opposition. (See TRANSVAAL: History.) POTEMKIN, GRIGORY ALEKSANDROVICH, PRINCE (1739-1791), Russian statesman, was born at Chizheva near Smolensk. He was educated at the Moscow University, and in 1755 entered the " Reiter " of the Horse Guards. His participation in the coup d'etat of the 8th of July 1762 attracted the attention of the new empress, Catherine II., who made him a Kammerjunker and gave him a small estate. The biographical anecdotes relating to him during the next few years are obscure and mostly apocryphal. In 1768 he quitted the Guards and was attached to the court as a Kammerherr, but in 1769 he volunteered for the Turkish War and distinguished himself at Khotin, Focshani and Larga, besides routing the Turks at Olta. It was not till 1771 that he became Catherine's prime favourite. In that year he was made an adjutant-general, lieutenant-colonel of the Preobrazhensky Guards, a member of the council of state, and, in the words of a foreign contemporary diplomatist, " the most influential personage in Russia." Somewhat later he was created a count, and appointed com- mander-in-chief and governor-general of " New Russia," as the conquered provinces in the Ukraine were then called. In 1776, at Catherine's request, the emperor Joseph II. raised Potemkin to the rank of a prince of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1775 he was superseded in the empress's graces by Zavadovsky; but the relations between Catherine and her former lover continued to be most friendly, and his influence with her was never seriously disturbed by any of her subsequent favourites. A whole mass of facts testify to the enormous and extraordinary influence of Potemkin during the next ten years. His corre- spondence with the empress was uninterrupted. The most important state documents passed through his hands. Catherine loaded him with gifts. He was deeply interested in the question of the southern boundaries of Russia and consequently in the fate of the Turkish Empire. It was he who, in 1776, sketched the plan for the conquest of the Crimea which was subsequently realized; and about the same period he was busy with the so- called " Greek project," which aimed at restoring the Byzantine Empire under one of Catherine's grandsons. In many of the Balkan states he had well-informed agents. After he became field marshal, in 1 784, he introduced many reforms into the army, and built a fleet in the Black Sea, which, though constructed of very bad materials, did excellent service in Catherine's second Turkish War (1787-92). His colonizing system was exposed to very severe criticism, yet it is impossible not to admire the results of his stupendous activity. The arsenal of Kherson, begun in 1778, the harbour of Sevastopol and the new fleet of fifteen liners and twenty-five smaller vessels, were monuments of his genius. But there was exaggeration in all he attempted. He spared neither men, money, nor himself in attempting to carry out his gigantic scheme for the coloniza- tion of the south Russian steppes; but he never calculated the cost, and more than three-quarters of the design had to be abandoned when but half finished. Catherine's famous expedi- tion to the south in 1787 was a veritable triumph for Potemkin; for he contrived to conceal all the weak points of his administra- tion and to present everything in a rose-coloured light. On this occasion he received the title of prince of Tauris. The same year the second Turkish War began, and the founder of New Russia took upon himself the responsibilities of commander- in-chief. But the army was ill-equipped and unprepared; and Potemkin in an hysterical fit of depression gave everything up for lost, and would have resigned but for the steady encourage- ment of the empress. Only after Suvarov had valiantly defended Kinburn did he take heart again, and besiege and capture Ochakov and Bender. In 1 790 he conducted the military operations on the Dniester and held his court at Jassy with more than Asiatic pomp. In 1791 he returned to St Petersburg where, along with his friend Bezborodko (.), a border and rock- garden plant. Many of the species bear brilliantly coloured flowers and graceful foliage. A soil of a good loamy staple, enriched with rotten dung, will grow the potentilla to perfection. Potentillas may be increased, though not very freely, by parting them into as many pieces as there are crowns, the side growths being those which can usually be thus separated. This may be done in autumn or spring, and the plants will generally bloom the following season. The species and some of the varieties reproduce true from seed, and are readily increased by that means. The following are some of the best kinds: aurea, atrosanguinea, davurica, formosa, nitida, n. atro-rubra, speciosa, tridentata and villosa. POTENTIOMETER, an instrument for the measurement of electromotive force and also of difference of electric potential between two points. The term potentiometer is usually applied to an instrument for the measurement of steady or continuous potential difference between two points in terms of the potential difference of the terminals of a standard voltaic cell of some kind, such as a Clark or Weston cell. The modern potentio- meter has been developed out of an arrangement due to J. C. Poggendorff, employed also by J. Latimer Clark, but converted 206 POTENTIOMETER into its modern direct reading form by J. A. Fleming in 1885 (see Industries, 1886, i. 152). In principle the modern potentio- meter consists of an arrangement by means of which any potential difference not exceeding a certain assigned value can be compared with that of a standard cell having a known electromotive force. In simplest form it consists of a long, straight, fine, uniform wire stretched over a divided scale. The ends of this wire are connected to one or more secondary cells of constant electromotive force, a variable resistance being interposed so as to regulate the current flowing through the fine wire. To one end of this fine wire is attached one terminal of a sensitive galvanometer. Sliding contacts can be moved along the fine wire into any position. Supposing that the scale under this wire is divided into 2000 parts and that we are in possession of a standard Clark cell, the electromotive force being known at various temperatures, and equal, say, to 1-434 volts at 15° C. The first process is to set the potentio- meter. The slider is placed so as to touch the fine wire at division No. 1434 on the fine wire, and the Clark cell is connected in between the sliding contact and one terminal of the galvano- meter, so that its negative pole is connected through the galvano- meter with that end of the fine wire to which the negative pole of the working battery is attached. The resistance in circuit with the fine wire is then altered until the galvanometer shows no deflexion. We then know that the fall of potential down the 2000 divisions of the fine wire must be exactly 2 volts. If then we substitute for the standard cell any other source of electromotive force, we can move the slider into another position in which the galvanometer will show no deflection. The scale reading then indicates directly the electromotive force of this second source of potential. Thus, for instance, if an experiment were made with a Leclanche cell, and if the balancing-point were found to be at 1500 divisions on the scale, the electromotive force would be determined as 1-500 volts. Instead of adjusting in this manner the electromotive force of any form of cell, if we pass any constant current through a known resistance and bring wires from the extremities of that resistance into connexion with the slider and the galvanometer terminal, we can in the same way determine the fall of potential down the above resistance in terms of the electromotive force of the standard cell and thus measure the current flowing through the standard resistance. In the practical form the potentiometer wire is partly replaced by a number of coils of wire, say 14 (see fig. l), and the potentio- meter wire itself has a resistance equal to one of these coils. One terminal of the galvanometer can then be shifted to the junction (VWVWWW » I 2 + i f S 1 & 3 10 II III) . n^JJJJJJJJJJJLUs: ^- • vWVWWWS, I I R B FIG. i. between any pair of consecutive coils and the slider shifted to any point on the potentiometer wire. By such an arrangement the potential difference can be measured of any amount from o to 1-5 volts. In some cases the potentiometer wire is wholly replaced by a series of coils divided into small subdivisions. We may employ such a potentiometer to measure large potential difference greater than the electromotive force of the working battery, as follows: The two points between which the potential difference is required are connected by high resistance, say of 100,000 ohms or more, and from the extremities of a known fraction of this resistance, say, i/ioo or i/iooo or 1/10,000 wires are brought to the potentio- meter and connected in between the slider and the corresponding galvanometer terminal. We can thus measure as described the drop in volts down a known fraction of the whole high resistance and therefore calculate the fall in potential down the whole of the high resistance, which is the potential difference required. The potentio- meter and the divided resistance constitute a sort of electrical scaleyard by means of which any electromotive force or difference of potential can be compared with the electromotive force of a standard cell. Very convenient and practical forms of potentiometer have been devised by Crompton (fig. 2), Nalder, Elliot Bros., Fleming OcO ODQ OEO OFQ FIG. 2. — Diagram of the Internal Connexions of a Crompton Potentiometer. a b. The scale wire. c, The set of equal potentiometer coils in series with it. d, The double pole switch connecting the 6 pairs of terminals. A B c D E F in succession to the slide contacts. e, The resistance coils. /, The rheostat. g, The galvanometer key. A, B, C, D, E, F, Terminals to which standard cell or voltages to be tested are attached. and others. An essential accompaniment therefore of the potentio- meter is a series of standard low resistances, say of o-i, o-oi, o-ooi ohm, and also a series of higher resistances divided into known fractions. In practical work, the low resistances take the form of certain strips of metal which have on them two pairs of terminals, one termed " current terminals," and the other " potential ter- minals." These resistance strips, as they are called, are carefully adjusted so that the resistance between the potential terminals has a known low value. In order to measure the value of a con- tinuous electric current, and therefore to calibrate any amperemeter we proceed as follows: The amperemeter is placed in series with a suitable low resistance strip, say of o-oi ohm. From the potential terminals of the strip, wires are Drought to the potentiometer so a& to determine their potential difference in terms of the electromotive force of the standard Clark cell. An observation is then taken of the reading of the amperemeter and of the fall of resistance down the low resistance when a certain steady current is passing through the strip and amperemeter. Supposing that the potential fall down the strip is found to be -981 volt, the strip difference having a resistance of o-i ohm, it would be seen that the current passing through the strip was 98-1 amperes. If then the amperemeter scale reading was 100 it would show an error of that scale reading of minus 1-9 amperes or nearly 2 %. In the same manner the potentio- meter may be used to calibrate a voltmeter by the aid of a divided resistance of known value. In electrical measurements connected with incandescent electric lamps the potentiometer is of great use, as it enables us to make accurately and nearly simultaneously two measurements, one of the current through the lamp and the other of the potential differ- ence of the terminals. For this purpose a resistance, say, of one ohm is placed in series with the lamp and a resistance of 100,000 ohms placed across the terminals of the lamp; the latter resistance is divided into two parts, one consisting of 1000 ohms and the other of 99,000 ohms. The potentiometer enables us to measure therefore the current through the lamp by measuring the drop in volts down a resistance in series with it and the potential difference of the ter- minals of the lamp by measuring the drop in volts down the looth part of the high resistance of 100,000 ohms connected across the terminals of the lamp. Standard Cells. — A necessary adjunct to the potentiometer is some form of standard cell to be used as a standard of electromotive force. In the case of the Clark standard cell above mentioned the elements are mercury and zinc separated by a paste of mercurous sulphate mixed with a saturated solution of zinc sulphate. Other voltaic standards of electromotive force are in use, such as the Weston cadmium cell, the Helmholtz calomel cell, and the standard Daniell cell. The Clark cell is made in two forms, the board of trade or tubular form, and the H form of cell devised by Lord Rayleigh. The German experts seem to favour the latter form; the specifica- tion issued by the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt of Berlin may be found in the Electrician, xxxi. 265-266. The electromotive force of the cell diminishes with rise of temperature, the board of trade value being 1-434 volts at i5°C.land 1-434 (1—0-00077 (' — '5)) volts at t° C. A more exact expression is obtained if instead of 0-00077 the quantity 0-00078+0-000017 (/ — 15) is used. In the Weston standard cell cadmium and cadmium sulphate are substi- tuted for zinc and zinc sulphate; it has the advantage of a much smaller coefficient of temperature variation than the Clark cell. It is most conveniently made up in a glass vessel of H form, pure mercury and cadmium amalgam being the two elements (fig. 3), 1 According to K. Kahle and W. Wien, the electromotive force of the H form of Clark cell is 1-4322 volts at 15° C. POTENZA— POTGIETER 207 and when made as directed below it has at t" C. an electromotive force Ei volts, such that £-1-0184-0-0000406 (/ -20) -0.00000095 (/-2o)'4- o-oooooooi (t— 20)'. After the platinum wires have been sealed through the glass, a little aqua regia is placed in the cell legs until bubbles of gas arise from the platinum, when it is thrown put and replaced by a solution of mercurous nitrate. Then, by the use of another piece of platinum as anode, mercury is electro- lytically deposited upon the platinum, which may also be amalgamated by making it white hot in a Bunsen flame and plunging it in mercury. To prepare the cadmium amalgam, one part of pure cadmium is dissolved in six parts of pure mercury, and the product while warm and fluid is placed in one limb of the cell and warmed, to ensure perfect contact with the platinum wire. The cad- mium sulphate solution is FIG. 3. — Lord Rayleigh's H form of Standard Voltaic Cell. prepared by digesting a saturated solution of cadmium sulphate with cadmium hydroxide to remove free acid, care being taken not to raise the temperature above 70° C., and then by digesting it still further with mercurous sulphate until no more precipitation occurs. The cadmium sulphate solution must be saturated and have free crystals of the salt in it. The mercurous sulphate must be free from acid, and made neutral by trituration with finely divided mercury. In making the paste, so much cadmium sulphate must be added that a saturated solution of that salt is formed and is present in the cell. The cell has the electromotive force above stated if the amalgam of cadmium has from 6 to 13 parts of mercury to I of cadmium. The German investigators seem to have a great preference for the H form of cell, but it is clear that a narrow tubular cell of the British board of trade form not only conies more quickly to the temperature of the water bath in which it is placed, but is more certain to be wholly at one temperature. In a modification of the H form devised by F. E. Smith, of the National Physical Laboratory (Phil. Trans., A, 207, pp. 393-420), a contraction formed in the side of the vertical tube tends to hold the contents in place. Fig. 4 shows this cell, hermetically sealed, mounted in a brass case. In cases when great accuracy is not required, a Daniell cell can be used as a standard of electromotive force. The form designed by J. A. Fleming (Phil. Mag., 20, p. 126) consists of a U tube, one leg of which contains a rod of pure amalgamated zinc, and the other a rod of freshly electrptyped copper. The legs are filled with solutions of zinc sulphate and copper sulphate, the zinc rod being in the zinc sulphate and the copper rod in the copper sulphate. When so made, the cell has an electromotive force of 1-072 volts and no sensible temperature variation. The solu- tions are made by dissolving the purest recrystallized sulphate of copper and sulphate of zinc in dis- tilled water. For the zinc solution, take 55-5 parts by weight of crys- tals of zinc sulphate (ZnSOtfOH,) and dissolve in 44-5 parts by weight of distilled water; the resulting FIG. 4. — Method of mount- solution should have a specific Cell, gravity of 1-200 at about 20° C. For the sulphate of copper solution, take 16-5 parts by weight of pure crystals of copper sulphate (CuSO45OHa) and dissolve in 83-5 parts by weight of water; the resulting solution should have a specific gravity of i-iop at 20° C. The solutions should be adjusted exactly to these densities and kept in stock bottles, from which the reservoirs of the cell should be filled up as required. A form of potentiometer employing a vibration galvanometer and suitable for alternating current measurement by null methods has been devised by Dr Drysdale (see Proc. Phys. Soc. Land. 1909, 21, 561.) See J. A. Fleming, Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room, vol. i. (London, 1903) — vol. i contains on pp. 108-110 an extensive list of various original memoirs published on the Clark and Weston cells; G. D. Aspinall Parr, Electrical Engineering Measuring Instruments (London, 1903); W. C. Fisher, The Potentio- meter and its Adjuncts (London, 1906). ing Weston Normal Brass case removed. POTENZA (anc. Potentia), a town and episcopal see of Basil- icata, Italy, capital of the province of Potenza, 103 m. by rail E. by S. of Naples. Pop. (1001), 12,313 (town); 16,163 (com- mune). Situated 2700 ft. above sea-level on an isolated hill above the Basento (anc. Casuentus), it is much exposed to winds and has a far more northerly climate than its position (40° 40' N.) implies, and is indeed one of the coldest places in Italy (mean temp. Jan 37-8°, July 70-9°, for whole year 53° F.). It has been almost entirely rebuilt since the earthquake of 1857. It has a school of the industrial arts and sciences, grows good wine, and makes bricks. The ancient Potentia lay some 470 ft. lower, by the river. Its name shows that it was of Roman origin, and its importance was no doubt due to its position at the intersection of the road leading west to the Via Popillia and north-east to the Via Appia, with the Via Herculia. No remains are visible, but a consider- able number of inscriptions have been found. Potentia must be distinguished from Potentia in Picenum, on the Adriatic coast, near the modern Porto di Recanati, a colony founded in 184 B.C., the same year as Pisaurum, but of which little is known. The abandonment of the old site and the erection of the new town probably date from the earthquake of 1273. By the Angevines Potenza was made a domain of the San Severino family; in the beginning of the isth century it was held by Francesco Sforza, and in 1435 it passed to the Guevara family; the Loffredi, who succeeded by marriage, continued in possession till the abolition of the great fiefs. In 1694 there was a severe earthquake; and the more terrible earthquake which on the i6th and the 1 7th of December 1857 passed through southern Italy, and in Basilicata alone killed 32,475 persons, laid the greater part of Potenza in ruins. In 1860 it was the first town to rise against the Neapolitan government. POTGIETER, EVERHARDES JOHANNES (1808-1875), Dutch prose writer and poet, was born at Zwolle, in Overyssel, on the I7th of June 1808. He started life in a merchant's office at Antwerp. In 1831 he made a journey to Sweden, described in two volumes, which appeared at Amsterdam in 1836-1840. Soon afterwards he settled in Amsterdam, engaged in commercial pursuits on his own account, but with more and more inclination towards literature. With Heije, the popular poet of Holland in those days, and Bakhuizen van den Brink, the rising historian (see also GROEN VAN PRINSTERER), Potgieter founded De Muzen (" The Muses," 1834-1836), a literary review, which was, how- ever, soon superseded by De Gids (" The Guide "), a monthly, which became the leading magazine of Holland. In it he wrote, mostly under the initials of " W. D g," a great number of articles and poems. The first collected edition of his poems (1832-1868) appeared in 2 vols. (Haarlem, 1868-1875), preceded by some of his contributions to De Gids, in 2 vols. also (Haar- lem, 1864), and followed by 3 vols. of his Studien en Schetsen (" Studies and Sketches," Haarlem, 1879). Soon after his death (Feb. 3, 1875) a more comprehensive edition of Potgieter's Verspreide en Nagelaten Werken (" Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works ") was published in 8 vols. by his friend and literary executor, Johan C. Zimmerman (Haarlem, 1875-1877), who likewise supervised a more complete edition of Potgieter's writings which appeared at Haarlem in 1885- 1890 in 19 vols. Of Potgieter's Hel Noorden in Omtrekken en Tafreelen (" The North in Outlines and Pictures ") the third edition was issued in 1882, and an edition de luxe of his poems followed at Haarlem in 1893. Under the title oi Personen en Onderwerpen (" Persons and Subjects ") many of Potgieter's criticisms had collectively appeared in 3 vols. at Haarlem in 1885, with an introduction by Busken-Huet. Potgieter's favourite master among the Dutch classics was Hooft, whose peculiarities in style and language he admired and imitated. The same vein of altruistic, if often exaggerated and biased, abhor- rence of the wonted conventionalities of literary life runs through all his writings, even through his private correspondence with nuet, parts of which have been published. Potgieter remained to his death the irreconcilable enemy of the Dutch " Jan Salie," as the Dutchman is nicknamed who does not believe in the regeneration of the Dutch people. Potgieter held up the Netherlanders of the golden age of the 208 POTHIER— POTOCKI, S. F. l6th and I7th centuries as models to be emulated. In these views he essentially differed from Huet. Yet the two friends worked harmoniously together; and when Potgieter reluctantly gave up De Gids in 1865, it was Huet whom he chose as his successor. Both then proceeded to Italy, and were present at the Dante festivities at Florence, which in Potgieter's case resulted in a poem in twenty stanzas, Florence (Haarlem, 1868). In Holland Potgieter's influence has been very marked and beneficial ; but his own style, that of ultra- purist, was at times somewhat forced, stilted and not always easily understood. (H. Tl.) POTHIER, ROBERT JOSEPH (1699-1772), French jurist, was born at Orleans on the 9th of January 1699. He studied law for the purpose of qualifying for the magistracy, and was appointed in 1720 judge of the presidial court of Orleans, thus following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather. This post he held for fifty-two years. He paid particular atten- tion to the correction and co-ordination of the text of the Pandects, his Pandeclae Justinianae in novum ordinem digestae (Paris and Chartres, 1748-1752) being a classic in the study of Roman law. In 1749 he was made professor of law in the university of Orleans. He wrote many learned monographs on French law, and much of his work was incorporated almost textually in the French Code Civil. He died at Orleans on the 2nd of March 1772. Of his numerous treatises the following may be specially mentioned: Traite des obligations (1761); Du Control de vente (1762) ; Du Central de bail (1764) ; Du Control de societe (1765); Des Conlrals de prtt de consomplion (1766); Du Central de depot el de mandal (1766); Du Conlrat de nanlisse- menl (1767), &c. His works have several times been published in collected form (edited by Giffrein, 1820-1824; by Dupin, 1823- 1825, and by Bugnet, 2nd ed. n vols. 1861-1862). See Dupin, Dissertation sur la vie el les outrages de Pothier (Paris, 1825), and Fremont, Vie de R. J. Pothier (Orleans, 1850). POTHOOK, an S-shaped metal hook for suspending a pot over a fire. While one extremity is hooked to the handle of the pot, the other is caught upon an iron crane moving on a pivot over the fire. Modern cooking-ranges have obviated the necessity for this arrangement, but it is still to be seen in great numbers of country cottages and farmhouse kitchens all over England, and in small artisans' houses in the west midlands and the north. In the elementary teaching of writing the " pot- hook " is a script of similar shape. POTI, a seaport of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Kutais, at the mouth of the Rion on the coast of the Black Sea, 193 m. by rail W.N.W. of Tiflis and 35 m. by sea N. of Batum. Pop. (1882), 3112; (1897), 7666. The white walls of the fortress contrast with the green trees which surround them, and the lighthouse, 117 ft. high, is visible 17 m. Situated in a marshy delta not more than 25 ft. above the level of the river, Poti is extremely unhealthy, fever and ague prevailing in summer and autumn. The Russians have improved the town and port, but the latter is still exposed to west and south-west gales. A new entrance was constructed in 1905, and a new inner harbour was at the same time under construction. The shipping trade amounts to £500,000 to £600,000 a year, almost entirely manganese ore, with some maize. Poti represents the ancient Phasis, a commercial colony of the Greek city of Miletus. The present fortress was built in 1578 by Sultan Murad III. of Turkey at the time of a war with Persia. In 1640 it was destroyed by the Imeretians (Georgians), but it was restored and enlarged. The town was a great slave market. It was captured by the Russians in 1812 and 1829. POTLATCH, a term, corrupted from a Nootka Indian word for " gift," for a ceremonial custom among some of the Indian tribes of north-west America, consisting in the distribution by an individual of his property among his friends and neighbours, who make equivalent gifts, with interest, in return. POTOCKI, IGNATY (1741-1809), Polish statesman and writer, son of Eustachy Potocki, general of artillery of the army of Lithuania, was born at Podhajce. He was educated first at Warsaw beneath the eye of the pedagogic reformer Stanislaw Konarski (1700-1773), and subsequently in Italy, where he proposed to take orders. On returning home, however, he abandoned this idea, and as a member of the newly instituted commission of education rendered invaluable services to his country for the next sixteen years. He earnestly desired a reform of the constitution also, and was thus attracted to the party of the Czartoryscy. Elected deputy to every diet since 1778, he was a conspicuous member of the patriotic opposition. In matters of importance nothing was done without his advice, and he was esteemed as much for his character as for his talents. His influence was at its height during the Four Years' Diet, 1788-1792. He was appointed a member of the committee for the reform of the constitution, defended eloquently the right of the towns to the franchise, and was an advocate of an alliance with Prussia. Thus he was one of the creators of the constitu- tion of the 3rd of May 1791, although his aristocratic antecedents prevented him from going the lengths of the more radical reformers. On the formation of the confederation of Targowica, Potocki emigrated to Dresden; but on the outbreak of the revolution of 1794 returned to Poland, was appointed a member of the national government, and entrusted with the conduct of foreign affairs. On the fall of Warsaw he surrendered to Suvarov and was sent to Russia, where he remained till 1796. On his return to Poland he retired to the village of Klimuntowo, where for the next thirteen years he devoted himself to literature. At the end of the war of 1809 he was commissioned to go to Vienna to present to Napoleon the petitions of the Galicians for the incorporation of their province with the grand duchy of Warsaw. He died at Vienna the same year. The most notable of Potocki's works is: Vom Entstehen und Unlergange der polnischen Konstitutionen vom jten May 1791 (Lemberg, I793)- See August Sokolowski, Illustrated History of Poland (Pol.), vol. iv. (Vienna, 1901). (R. N. B.) POTOCKI, STANISLAW FELIX (1752-1805), Polish politician, son of Franciszek Salezy Potocki, palatine of Kiev, of the Tulczyn line of the family, was born in 1752. He entered the public service, and owing to the influence of his relations became grand standard-bearer of the Crown at the age of twenty-two. In 1782 he was made palatine of Russia, in 1784 a lieutenant- general, and in 1 789 he purchased the rank of a general of artillery from the Saxon minister, Briihl, for 20,000 ducats. Elected deputy for Braclaw at the famous Four Years' Diet, he began that career of treachery which was to terminate in the ruin of his country. Yet his previous career had awakened many hopes in him. A grand seigneur ruling patriarchally in his vast estates, liberal, enlightened, a generous master and a professed patriot, his popularity culminated in 1784 when he presented an infantry regiment of 400 men as a free gift to the republic. But he identified the public welfare with the welfare of the individual magnates. His scheme was the division of Poland into an oligarchy of autonomous grandees exercising the supreme power in rotation (in fact a perpetual interregnum), and in 1788 he won over to his views two other great lords, Xavier Branicki and Severin Rzewuski. The election of Malachowski (q.v.) and Kazimierz Sapieha as marshals of the diet still further alienated him from the Liberals; and, after strenuously but vainly opposing every project of reform, he retired to Vienna whence he continued to carry on an active propaganda against the new ideas. He protested against the constitution of the 3rd of May 1791, and after attempting fruitlessly to induce the emperor Leopold to take up arms " for the defence of the liberties of the republic," proceeded with his friends in March 1792 to St Petersburg, and subsequently with the connivance of the empress Catherine formed the confederation of Targowica for the maintenance of the ancient institutions of Poland (May 14, 1792), of which he was the marshal, or rather the dictator, directing its operations from his castle at Tulczyn. When the May constitution was overthrown and the Prussians were already hi occupation of Great Poland, Potocki (March 1793) went on a diplomatic mission to St Petersburg; but, finding himself duped and set aside, retired to Vienna till 1797, when he settled down at Tulczyn and devoted himself for the remainder of his h'fe to the improvement of his estates. He wrote On the POTOMAC— POTOSI 209 Polish Succession (Pol.) (Amsterdam, 1789); Protest against the Succession to the Throne (Pol.) (ibid. 1790); and other political works. See Friedrich Schulz, Poland in the year 1793 (Pol.) (Warsaw, 1899); Josef Zajaczek, History of the Revolution of 1704 (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1881). (R. N. B.) POTOMAC, a river in the east central part of the United States, having its source in the Alleghany Mountains and flowing S.E. into Chesapeake Bay. It is formed by the union of its north and south branches, about 15 m. S.E. of Cumberland, Maryland. The main stream has a length of about 450 m. and is navigable for large vessels for 113 m. above its mouth. The north branch, about 1 10 m. long, rises in the north-eastern part of West Virginia, pursues a north-easterly course, and forms part of the boundary between Maryland and West Virginia. The south branch has its sources in Highland county, Va., and in Pendleton county, W.Va., and flows north-east for about 140 m. until it joins the north branch. From the junc- tion of these two streams until it reaches Harper's Ferry the Potomac river separates Maryland from West Virginia. At Harper's Ferry it receives the waters of the Shenandoah river and cuts through the Blue Ridge Mountains in a gorge noted for its scenic beauty. From this point to its mouth it forms the boundary between Virginia and Maryland. The stream crosses the Blue Ridge Mountains at an elevation of about 245 ft., and at Georgetown (Washington), 62 m. distant, it meets tidewater. Of this descent about 90 ft. occurs about 15 m. above Washing- ton, at the Great Falls, a series of rapids about a mile long and including a cataract about 35 ft. high. Three and a half miles above Washington are the Little Falls, which mark the head of navigation. Large vessels, however, are prevented by a bridge from proceeding above Georgetown. At Washington there are two channels, with respective depths at mean low water of 18 and 21 ft. Large sums have been spent since 1870 on improving these channels. A few miles below the city the river broadens into a deep tidal estuary from 2\ to 7 m. wide; and channels 24 ft. deep and 200 ft. wide through all the shoals were secured by the project of 1899. The Anacostia river, or " East Branch," which flows into the Potomac just south of Washington, is navigable for large vessels for about 2 m. and for small scows and lighters as far as Bladensburg, Md., 8f m. above its mouth; its natural channel was narrow and tortuous, and about 18 ft. deep; in 1909 improvements (begun in 1902) had procured a channel 20 ft. deep at mean low water and 380 ft. wide. The Chesapeake & Ohio Canal, from Georgetown to Cumberland, Md., follows the Potomac closely on the Maryland side. The shipments over the Potomac above Washington in 1907 were valued at $7,596,494, and those below Washington at $21,093,800, the principal commodities being sand and gravel, ice, oils, naval ordnance and supplies, and building and paving materials. The shipments on the Anacostia river were of much the same character, and in 1907 were valued at $4,312,687. POTOROO, or RAT KANGAROO, any member of the diprotodont marsupial sub-family Potoroinae (see MARSUPIALIA). None of them exceed a common rabbit in size. They inhabit Australia and Tasmania, are nocturnal, and feed on the leaves of grasses and other plants, as well as roots and bulbs, which they dig up with their forepaws; in this way some of them do considerable damage to cultivated crops. About ten species are known,- presenting a considerable range of diversity in minor characters. The members of the type genus (Potorous) run, rather than leap, and do not use the hind feet for kicking. In the genus Bettongia the tail is prehensile, and with it they collect grass and twigs for making nests in their burrows. POTOSJ, a department of Bolivia occupying the south-western angle of that republic, bounded N. by Oruro, Cochabamba and Chuquisaca, E. by the two last departments and Tarija, S. by Argentina and W. by Chile and Oruro. Pop. (1900), 325,615, the larger part Indians; area, 48,801 sq. m. The eastern part of the department is traversed north to south by the eastern branch of the Andes, locally known as the Cordillera de los Frailes and the Sierras de Chichas. Spurs and broken ranges project eastward from these, between which are the headstreams of the Pilcomayo and Guapay, the first flowing south-east to the La Plata, and the second north-east to the Madeira and Amazon. The Pilcomayo itself rises in the department of Oruro, but several of its larger tributaries belong to Potosi — the San Juan, Cota- gaita and Tumusla in the south, and Cachimayo in the north. The western part of the department belongs to the great Bolivian allaplanicie, or southern extension of the Titicaca basin. It is a barren, saline waste, almost uninhabitable. In the north, bordering on the transverse ridge of which the Cerro de Tahua (17,454 ft.) forms a part, is the depression known as the Pampa de Empeza, 12,080 ft. above sea-level, which is largely a region of morasses and saline plains. On and near the southern frontier is another transverse ridge, in part formed by the Sierra de Lipez, and in part by apparently detached groups of high peaks; it is a wate/less desert like the Puna de Atacama. Potosi is essentially a mining department, though agriculture and grazing occupy some attention in the eastern valleys. The western plateau is rich in minerals, especially silver and copper. The Huanchaca group of mines, situated on the slopes of the eastern Cordillera, overlooking the Pampa de Empeza, has the largest output of silver in Bolivia. The Pulacayo mine, belonging to this group, 'Si1 53 ft. above sea-level, ranks next to the Broken Hill mine of Australia in production. Between 1873 and 1901 it yielded 4520 tons of silver, of an estimated value of £23,200,000. Farther south are the Portugalete mines, once very productive, and near the Argentine border are the Lipez mines. East of the Cordilleras are the famous " silver mountain " of Potosi, once the richest silver mine in the world; the snow-capped peak of Chorolque (18,452 ft.), which is claimed to have the highest mine in the world ; Porco, a few miles south-west of Potosi; Guadajupe, Colquechaca and Aullagas. Besides silver, the Chorolque mines also yield tin, copper, bismuth, lead and wolfram. In 1907 the national government undertook railways from Potosi to Oruro, 205 m., and from Potosi to Tupiza, 155 m., to connect with the Central Northern line of Argentina, which was opened to Quiaca on the frontier on the 25th of May 1908. In western Potosi the department is traversed by the Antofagasta & Oruro railway (0-75 metre gauge). Besides Potosf, the capital of the department, the principal towns are Huanchaca (pop. about 10,000 in 1904), the seat of famous silver mines, 13,458 ft. elevation, and overlooking the Pampa de Empeza; Uyuni, 9 m. from Huan- chaca, 12,100 ft. above sea-level, a small town but an important railway junction and commercial centre on the waterless plain, the shipping point and supply station for an extensive mining region; and Tupiza (pop. about 5000 in 1906), a prettily situated town near the Argentine frontier, on a small branch of the San Juan river, 9800 ft. above sea-level. POTOSf , a city of Bolivia, capital of the department of Potosf, 47 m. (direct) S.W. of Sucre1, or 88 m. by the post-road. Pop. (1906, estimate), 23,450. Potosf stands on a barren terrace on the northern slope of the Cerro Gordo de Potosi, 12,992 ft. above sea-level, and is one of the highest towns in the world. The famous cerro from which its name is taken rises above the town to a height of 15,381 ft., a barren, white-capped cone honeycombed with mining shafts. The town is regularly laid out with streets crossing each other at right angles. The smoke- begrimed buildings, many of which are unoccupied and in ruins, are commonly of adobe. A large plaza forms the conventional centre, around which are grouped various religious edifices, the government house, town hall, national college, the old " royal mint " dating from 1585, and the treasury. The city has a massive, plain cathedral, which in part dates from early colonial times, and in part from the closing years of Spanish rule. The water supply is derived from a costly system of reservoirs and aqueducts constructed by the Spanish government during the years of the city's greatest prosperity. There are 27 of these artificial lakes, and the aqueducts originally numbered 32, some of which are no longer serviceable. Rough mountain roads and pack animals are the only means of transportation to and from Potosf, but a railway from Oruro to Tupiza via Potosf, forming part of the projected Pan-American route, was con- tracted for in 1908. In 1611 the population of Potosi was reported to be 160,000, which probably included the whole mining district. A part of the diminution since then is explained by the fact that the great majority of the mines on the cerro have been abandoned. 210 POTOTAN— POTT, P. The foundation of the city dates from 1547, two years after the first discovery of silver on the cerro by an Indian herder named Gualci. Charles V. conferred upon it the title of " villa imperial." From 1545 to 1800 the crown tax of one-fifth upon the mineral product amounted to £32,600,000, showing an acknowledged output of £163,000,000. The actual output, however, must have been much greater, as Spain was flooded with contraband silver, and there was a large trade in it at La Plata ports, whence it was taken to Brazil and Portugal. The total output to 1864 has been estimated at more than £400,000,000, but the annual output at the beginning of the 2oth century barely exceeded 400,000 ozs. The struggle for independence began in Potosi on the 9th of November 1810, but the Spanish forces succeeded in retaining possession down to 1822. POTOTAN, a town of fhe province of Iloilo, island of Panay, Philippine Islands, on the Jalaur river, about 17 m. N. of Iloilo. Pop. (1903), 37,373, including the population of Dingle (12,129) and Mina (4280), annexed after the census was taken. There is a fine church in the old town and a large stone church in Dingle; in the old town are several other buildings of masonry and some beautiful " fire " trees for shade. The principal industries are the cultivation of sugar-cane, Indian corn, rice, tobacco and hemp, and the raising of cattle, carabaos, sheep and horses. POTSDAM, a town of Germany, the administrative capital of the Prussian province of Brandenburg, and one of the principal residences of the German Emperor, beautifully situated on the river Havel, 16 m. S.W. of Berlin, on the main line of railway to Magdeburg. Pop. (1905), 61,414. It is also connected with the capital by two local lines and by a steamboat service through the chain of lakes formed by the river. The greater part of the town lies on the right bank of the Havel and is connected with the Teltow suburb on the opposite bank by a long bridge (Lange Briicke). At the north end of this bridge rises the royal palace, a large quadrangular building of the i7th century, with a colonnade, chiefly interesting for the numerous relics it contains of Frederick the Great, who made it his favourite residence. At the south-eastern corner of the palace, close to the bridge, is the tree under which petitioners waited for the answer to their grievances, which Frederick the Great gave from an opposite window. It also contains reminiscences of Voltaire, who resided here for several years. The principal churches are the Nikolai- kirche; the Church of the Holy Ghost, built in 1728; the garrison church, containing the remains of Frederick the Great and his father, Frederick William I.; and the Friedenskirche, or Church of Peace, erected by Frederick William IV. in 1845-1850. To the Friedenskirche is attached a mausoleum built after the model of a chapel at Innichen in Tirol, in which are buried Emperor Frederick III. and his consort, the Princess Royal of Great Britain, and two of their children who died in infancy. Among other conspicuous buildings are the large barracks and other military establishments; the town hall; and the Brandenburg gate, in the style of a Roman triumphal arch. The town has fine statues of several of the Prussian kings, including Frederick the Great. The Lustgarten, the Wilhelmsplatz and the Plantage are open spaces laid out as pleasure-grounds and adorned with statues and busts. In spite of its somewhat sleepy appearance, Potsdam has manufactures of silk goods, chemicals, furniture, chocolate, tobacco and optical instruments. Market-gardening affords occupation to many of the inhabitants, and the cultiva- tion of winter violets is a specialty. The Havel is well stocked with fish. On a wooded eminence to the south of the town lies the observatory with extensive premises. Potsdam is almost entirely surrounded by a fringe of royal palaces, parks and pleasure-grounds, which fairly substantiate its claim to the title of a " German Versailles." Immediately to the west is the park of Sans Souci, laid out by Frederick the Great, and largely extended by Frederick William IV. It is in the formal French style of the period, and is adorned with fountains, statuary and artificial ruins. Near the palace is the famous .windmill ; now royal property, which, accbrding to a tradition now regarded as doubtful, its owner refused to sell to the king, meeting threatened violence by an appeal to the judges of Berlin. A little farther on is the Orangery, an extensive edifice in the Italian style, containing numer- ous pictures and other works of art. The park also includes the Charlottenhof, a reproduction of a Pompeian villa. At the west end of the park stands the New Palace, a huge brick edifice 375 ft. in length, erected by Frederick the Great at enormous expense in 1 763-1 769. It was occupied for a while by the emperor Frederick III., and was rechristened by him " Friedrichskron." On the accession of the emperor William II. its original name was restored. It is now the residence of the emperor. It contains reminiscences of Frederick and of Voltaire, a few pictures by ancient masters, a theatre, and a large hall decorated with shells and minerals. The spacious buildings at the back are devoted to the "Lehrbataillon, " a battalion of infantry composed of drafts from different regiments trained here to ensure uniformity of drill throughout the army. To the north of Potsdam lies a small Russian village, Alexandrowka, built in 1826 to accommodate the Russian singers attached to the Prussian guards. A little to the east of it, on the Heiligersee, is the New Garden, containing the Marble Palace. The list of Potsdam palaces may be closed with two situated on the left bank of the Havel-^-one at Klein-Glienicke, formerly the country-seat of Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia (the " Red Prince "), and the other on the hill of Babelsberg. The latter, designed as a miniature copy of Windsor Castle, in the midst of a park in the English taste, was formerly the summer residence of the emperor William I. Potsdam was originally a Slavonic fishing- village named Poztupimi, and is first mentioned in a document of 993. It became a town in the I4th century, but was unimportant until the great elector built a palace here between 1660 and 1682; and even at the close of his reign it only contained 3000 inhabitants. The elector Frederick William I. greatly enlarged Potsdam, and his stiff military tastes are reflected in the monotonous uniformity of the streets. Frederick the Great continued his father's work, and is the real creator of the modern splendour of the town, to which all his successors have contributed. See H. C. P. Schmidt, Geschichte und Topographic der Residenz- stadt Potsdam (Potsdam, 1825); G. Sello, P,otsdam und Sanssouci (Breslau, 1888); Mugge, Fuhrer durch Potsdam und Umgebung (Potsdam, 1896); Kopisch, Die koniglichen Schlosser und Garten zu Potsdam (Berlin, 1854); and Bethge, Die Hohenzollernanlagen Potsdams (Berlin, 1889). POTSDAM, a village of St Lawrence county, New York, U.S.A., in the township of Potsdam, on the Raquette river, about 68 m. N.E.of Watertown. Pop. of the village (1905) 4162; (1910) 4036; of the township (1905) 8992; (1910) 8725. The village is served by the New York Central & Hudson River railway. It has a public library and is the seat of a state Normal School (1869), an outgrowth of St Lawrence Academy (founded in 1810 by Benjamin Raymond and maintained by him until 1816, when it was incorporated) ; of the Thomas S. Clarkson Memorial School of Technology (1896), founded by his sisters in honour of Thomas Streatfield Clarkson (1837-1894); and of the Crane Normal Institute of Music. The village has a considerable trade in dairy products. In the neighbourhood are extensive quarries of the well-known " Potsdam sandstone," the uppermost division of the Cambrian system, described as a " fine-grained sandstone cemented with silica," and very durable. The House of Parlia- ment at Quebec, All Saints Cathedral at Albany, New York, and many other public edifices were built of this stone. The " Ten Towns " of St Lawrence county, including the township of Potsdam, were sold by the state in 1787. The first settlement was made on the Raquette river, close to the present village, in 1803; the township was incorporated in 1806 and the village in 1831. Potsdam was named after Potsdam in Prussia because of the occurrence in each locality of reddish sandstone. POTT, AUGUST FRIEDRICH (1802-1887), German philologist, was born at Nettelrede, Hanover, on the i4th of November 1802. He studied in Gottingen, and in 1825 became schoolmaster at Celle, Hanover; but after two years removed to Berlin, where he became privatdozent at the university. He studied comparative philology, and in 1883 was made professor at Halle, where he lived till his death on the sth of July 1887. His Etymologische Forschungen (1834-1836) entitled him to rank as Bopp's foremost disciple in the Indo-Germanic science of language. Pott also devoted much attention to the origins of the gipsies. POTT, PERCIVALL (1714-1788), English surgeon, was born in London on the 6th of January 1714. He served his appren- ticeship with Edward Nourse, assistant surgeon to St Bartholo- mew's Hospital, and in 1736 was admitted to the Barbers' POTTER, A.— POTTER, J. 211 Company and licensed to practise. He became assistant surgeon to St Bartholomew's in 1744 and full surgeon from 1749 till 1787. He died in London on the 22nd of December 1788. The first surgeon of his day in England, excelling even his pupil, John Hunter, on the practical side, he introduced various important innovations in procedure, doing much to abolish the extensive use of escharotics and the actual cautery that was prevalent when he began his career. A particular form of fracture of the ankle which he sustained through a fall from his horse in 1756 is still described as Pott's fracture, and his book, Some few Remarks upon Fractures and Dislocations, published in 1768 and translated into French and Italian, had a far-reaching influence in Great Britain and France. " Pott's disease " is a spinal affection of which he gave an excellent clinical description in his Remarks on that kind of Palsy of the Lower Limbs which is frequently found to accompany a Curvature of the Spine (1779). Among his other writings the most noteworthy are A Treatise on Ruptures (1756), Observations on the Nature and Consequences of those Injuries to which the Head is liable from external violence (1768), and Chifurgical Observations (1775). There are several editions of his collected works; that published by Sir James Earle in 1790 contains a sketch of his life. POTTER, ALONZO (1800-1865), American bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, was born at Beekman (now La Grange), Dutchess county, New York, on the 6th of July 1800. His ancestors, English Friends, settled in Portsmouth, Rhode Island, between 1640 and 1660; his father was a farmer, a Quaker, and in 1798 and in 1814 was a member of the New York Assembly. The son graduated at Union College in 1818, and in 1821-1826 was professor of mathematics and natural philo- sophy there. In 1824 he was ordained priest, and married a daughter of President Eliphalet Nott of Union College; she died in 1839, and in 1841 he married her cousin. He was rector of St Paul's Boston, from 1826 to 1831, when he became professor of moral and intellectual philosophy and political economy at Union. In 1838 he refused the post of assistant bishop of the eastern diocese (Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts and Rhode Island). He was vice-president of Union College in 1838-1845. After the suspension of Henry Ustick Onderdonk (1780-1858) from the bishopric of Pennsylvania Potter was chosen to succeed him, and was consecrated on the 23rd of September 1845. Owing to his failing health he visited England and France in 1858, and in April 1864 sailed from New York for California, but died on board ship in San Francisco harbour on the 4th of July 1865. In 1846 he established the western and north-eastern convocations of priests in his diocese; from 1850 to 1860, when its corner-stone was laid, he laboured for the " Hospital of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Philadelphia"; and in 1861 he established the Phila- delphia Divinity School. In 1842 with George B. Emerson (1797- 1871) he published The School and the Schoolmaster, which had a large circulation and great influence. In 1847, 1848, 1849 and 1853 he delivered five courses of lectures on the Lowell Institute founda- tion. He advocated temperance reform and frequently delivered a lecture on the Drinking Usages of Society (1852) ; he was an oppon- ent of slavery and published a reply to the pro-slavery arguments of Bishop John Henry Hopkins (1792-1868) of Vermont. He edited many reprints and collections of sermons and lectures, and wrote: Political Economy (1840), The Principles- of Science applied to the Domestic and Mechanic Arts (1841), Handbook for Readers and Students (1843), and Religious Philosophy. (1870). See M. A. de Wolfe Howe, Memoirs of the Life and Services of the Right Reverend Alonzo Potter, D.D. (Philadelphia, 1871). His brother, HORATIO POTTER (1802-1887), was bo™ in Beek- man, New York, on the 9th of February 1802. He graduated at Union College in 1826, was ordained a priest of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1828, was rector for several months in Saco, Maine, and in 1828-1833 was professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Washington (now Trinity) College, Hart- ford, Connecticut. In 1833-1854 he was rector of St Peter's, Albany; in November 1854 he was elected provincial bishop of New York in place of Benjamin Tredwell Onderdonk (1791- 1861), who had been suspended, and upon Onderdonk's death he became bishop. In 1868 his diocese was divided, the new dioceses of Albany, Central New York and Long Island being separated from it. Bishop Potter attended the Lambeth conferences of 1867 and 1868. His failing health put an end to his active service in 1883, when his nephew, H. C. Potter (q.v.), became his assistant. He died in New York City on the and of January 1887. POTTER, HENRY CODMAN (1835-1008), American Protes- tant Episcopal bishop, the son of Bishop Alonzo Potter, was born in Schenectady, New York, on the 25th of May 1835. He was educated in the Philadelphia Academy of the Protestant Episcopal Church and in the Theological Seminary of Virginia, where he graduated in 1857. He was ordained deacon in 1857 and priest in 1858; was rector of Christ Church, Greensburg, Pennsylvania, in 1858-1859, and of St John's Church, Troy, N. Y., in 1859-1866; refused the presidency of Kenyon College in 1863 and the bishopric of Iowa in 1875; was secretary of the House of Bishops in 1866-1883; and was assistant rector of Trinity Church, Boston, in 1866-1868, and rector of Grace Church, New York City, in 1868-1884. In October 1883 he was consecrated assistant to his uncle, Horatio Potter, bishop of New York, and in 1887 succeeded him. The Rev. David Hummell Greer (b. 1844) became his coadjutor in September 1903, and succeeded to the bishopric after the death of Bishop Potter in Cooperstown, N. Y., on the 2ist of July 1908. During Bishop Potter's administration the corner-stone of the Cathedral of St John the Divine was laid (in 1892). He was notable for his interest in social reform and in politics: as rector of Grace Church he worked to make it an " institutional church " with working-men's clubs, day nurseries, kindergartens, &c., and he took part in the summer work of the missions on the east side in New York City long after he was bishop; in 1900 he attacked the Tammany mayor (Robert A. Van Wyck) of New York City, accusing the city government of protecting vice, and was a leader in the reform movement which elected Seth Low mayor in the same year; he frequently assisted in settling labour disputes; he worked for the re-establishment of the army canteen and attempted to improve the saloon, which he called the " poor man's club " — notably by his taking part in the opening (August, 1904) of the unsuccessful Subway Tavern. He published: Sisterhoods and Deaconesses at Home and Abroad (1872); The Gates of the East (1876), a book of travels; Sermons of the City (1881); Waymarks (1892) ; The Scholar and the State (1897) ; The East of To-day and To- morrow (1902); The Industrial Situation (1002); Law and Loyalty (1903). and Reminiscences of Bishops and 'Arch-Bishops (1906). See Harriett A. Kayser, Bishop Potter, the People's Friend (New York, 1910). His brother, CLARKSON NOTT POTTER (1825-1882), was a civil engineer, then (1848-1868) a practising lawyer in New York City, and in 1869-1875 and in 1877-1881 a Democratic member of the National House of Representatives. Another brother, ROBERT BROWN POTTER (1829-1887), a lawyer and a soldier, commanded the 5151 New York Volunteers at Cedar Mountain, Second Bull Run and Antietam, was wounded at Antietam and at Petersburg, was commissioned major-general of volunteers in September 1865, and was mustered out in 1866. A third brother, ELIPHALET NOTT POTTER (1836-1901), was rector of the Church of the Nativity, South Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in 1862-1869, was professor of ethics in Lehigh University in 1869-1871, and was president of Union College in 1871-1884, of Hobart College in 1884-1897, and of Cosmopolitan University, a correspondence school, in 1897-1901. POTTER, JOHN (c. 1674-1747), archbishop of Canterbury, was the son of a linen-draper at Wakefield, Yorkshire, and was born about 1674. At the age of fourteen he entered University College, Oxford, and in 1693 he published notes on Plutarch's De audiendis poetis and Basil's Oratio ad juvenes. In 1694 he was elected fellow of Lincoln College, and in 1697 his edition of Lycophron appeared. It was followed by his Archaeologia graeca (2 vols. 8vo, 1697-1798), the popularity of which endured till the advent of Dr William Smith's dictionaries. A reprint of his Lycophron in 1702 was dedicated to Graevius, and the Antiquities was afterwards published in Latin in the Thesaurus of Gronovius. Besides holding several livings he became in 1704 chaplain to Archbishop Tenison, and shortly afterwards was made chaplain-in-ordinary to Queen Anne. From 1708 he was regius professor of divinity and canon of Christ Church, Oxford; and from 1715 he was bishop of Oxford. In the latter year appeared his edition of Clement of Alexandria. In 1707 he published a Discourse on Church Government, and he took a prominent part in the controversy with Benjamin Hoadly, 212 POTTER, P.— POTTO bishop of Bangor. In January 1737 Potter was unexpectedly appointed to succeed Wake in the see of Canterbury. He died on the loth of October 1747. His Theological Works, consisting of sermons, charges, divinity lectures and the Discourse on Church Government, were published in 3 vcls. 8vo, in 1753. POTTER, PAUL (1625-1654), Dutch animal painter, was born at Enkhuizen, Holland. He was instructed in art by his father, Peter Potter, a landscape and figure painter of some merit, and by Nicolas Moeyaert, of Amsterdam. Other masters and influences are mentioned by various writers, but more than any other of his contemporaries he learnt through direct study from nature. By the time he had attained his fifteenth year his productions were already much esteemed. In 1646 he went to Delft, where he became a member of the gild of St Luke. At the age of twenty he settled at the Hague, and there married in 1650. He was patronized by Maurice, prince of Orange, for whom he painted the life-size picture of the " Young Bull," now one of the most celebrated works in the gallery of the Hague. In 1652 he was induced by Burgomaster Tulp of Amsterdam to remove to that city. His constitution seems to have been feeble, and his health suffered from the unremitting diligence with which he pursued his art. He died on the isth of January 1654 at the age of twenty-nine. His paintings are generally small; early in life, however, he attempted, but with ill success, to work on a monumental scale, as in the " Bear Hunt " at the Rijks Museum and the " Boar Hunt " of the Carstanjen collection, Berlin. Even the famous "Equestrian Portrait of Tulp" in the Six collection, Amsterdam, is awkward and stiff and hard in handling. His animals are designed with careful accuracy, while the landscape backgrounds are introduced with spirit and appropriateness. His colour is clear and transparent, his execution firm and finished without being laboured. His view of nature is purely objective and unemotional; he painted with the greatest directness and simpli- city the things he saw before him, and his paintings of horses and cattle are so individualized that they become faithful portraits of the animals. The best among his small portraits of horses are in the Louvre and in the Schwerin Gallery; and certain of his studies are the most brilliant of all. The earliest dated picture of importance is " Abraham Entering Into Canaan " (1642), at the Germanic Museum in Nuremberg, in which he makes the Scriptural subject an excuse for painting the patriarch's herds, just as in his " Orpheus " of 1650 (Rijks Museum, Amsterdam) he makes similar use of the Greek myth. Among his finest works on a small scale are a cattle piece (1653) in the Due d'Arenberg's collection, and a similar, though earlier, picture in the Munich Pinakothek. In spite of his early death Paul Potter produced a great number of works. He worked with feverish appli- cation, as though he were aware of the short span of life that was granted him. He executed a series of some twenty etchings, mainly of animals, which are simple and direct in method and handling. Here, as in painting, his precocity was remarkable : his large plate of the " Herdsman,' produced when he was only eighteen, and that of the " Shepherd," which dates from the following year, show him at his best as an accomplished master of the point. Potter's works have been engraved by Bartolozzi, Danckerts, Visscher, Le Bas and others. Authentic paintings from his brush command very considerable prices. At the Stover sale in 1890 " The Dairy Farm " realized the record price of £6090. There are two of his paintings at the National Gallery, three in Buckingham Palace and a few in the duke of Westminster's collection. On the continent of Europe the most numerous and representative examples are to be found at the Rijks Museum in Amsterdam, the Hermitage in St Petersburg, and the Dresden Gallery. See Paulus Potter, sa vie et ses csuvres, by T. van Westrheene (the Hague, 1 867) ; Eaux-fortes de Paid Potter, by Georges Gratet Duplessis ; and an old but interesting Volume, Paul Potter, peintre de I'ecole hollandaise, by C. L. F. Lecarpentier (Rouen, 1818). (P. G. K.) POTTER, PHILIP CIPRIANI HAMBLEY (1792-1871), English musician, was born in London, the son of a pianoforte teacher, and godson of a sister of G. B. Cipriani, the painter. He was educated for the musical profession under Attwood, Callcott, Crotch and Woelfl; later at Vienna, where he received encourage- ment from Beethoven. In 1816 an overture by him was per- formed at a Philharmonic concert, and he began a distinguished career as a pianist. In 1822 he became a professor, and in 1832 principal (resigning in 1859) of the Royal Academy of Music; in 1860 an exhibition was founded there in his honour. Cipriani Potter composed many works, now mostly forgotten, though important in their day. He died on the 28th of September 1871. POTTERIES, THE, a name popularly applied to a district of north Staffordshire, the principal seat of the china and earthen- ware industry in England. It lies in the valley of the Trent a little south of its source, and extends into tributary valleys and up the hills flanking them. For a distance of 9 m. from south-east to north-west, and about 3 m. from north-east to south-west, the district resembles one great town, but the chief centres are Burslem, Hanley, Longton, Stoke-on-Trent, Fenton and Tunstall. Under the " Potteries federation " scheme (1908) these towns were amalgamated in 1910 as one municipal borough under the name of Stoke-on-Trent. New- castle-under-Lyme, though not sharing in the staple industry, may also be reckoned in the district. Among the lesser manufac- turing centres Etruria, ranking as a suburb of Hanley, is well known for its connexion with Josiah Wedgwood, who founded works here in 1769. The Wedgwoods and the Mintons are the two most famous family names connected with the china industry of the district. Coal and coarse clay are the only local natural products necessary to the industry; the finer clay and other ingredients are brought from Cornwall and elsewhere. Ironstone is raised in the district. The North Staffordshire and London & North-Western railways and the Grand Trunk canal are the principal means of communication. POTTHAST, AUGUST (1824-1898), German historian, was born at Hoxter on the i3th of August 1824, and was educated at Paderborn, Munster and Berlin. He assisted G. H. Pertz, the editor of the Monumenta Germaniae historica, and edited the Regesta pontificum romanorum, 1198-1304 (Berlin, 1874-1875). From 1874 to 1894 he was librarian of the German Reichstag. Potthast is chiefly known through his monumental Bibliolheca historica medii aevi (1862), a guide to the sources of European history in the middle ages. The work, in the form of an index, gives particulars of practically all the historical writers of Europe and their work between 375 and 1500. A new and enlarged edition appeared at Berlin in 1896. Potthast died on the I3th of February 1898. POTTINGER, ELDRED (1811-1843), Anglo-Indian soldier and diplomatist, entered the Bombay Artillery in 1827, and after some years of regimental duty was appointed to the political department under Colonel (afterwards Sir Henry) Pottinger. In 1837 he made a journey through Afghanistan in disguise. Arriving at Herat, he found it threatened by a Persian army (with which were some Russian officers) and immediately made himself known to the Afghan commander, offering his services. The attack which soon followed was conducted with the greatest vigour, but the defence, inspired by Pottinger, was invariably successful, and after a year the siege was raised. For this great service Pottinger was thanked by the governor-general, the earl of Auckland, made brevet-major, and also received the C.B. He was also appointed political officer at Herat. In 1841 he was political officer in Kohistan when the revolt against Shah Shuja broke out there. Taking refuge with the Gurkha garrison of Charikar, Major Pottinger stood a siege of fourteen days, and then made an adventurous retreat to Kabul. Less than a fortnight after his arrival Sir William Macnaghten was murdered, and Pottinger succeeded to his position as envoy to the Afghan court. The apathy of the military leaders made resistance hopeless, and it only remained to negotiate for the withdrawal of the British mission. Pottinger himself was one of the hostages handed over to Akbar Khan, and thus escaped the massacre in the Khyber Pass. Released, after many months' captivity, by Sir George Pollock's army, he returned to India, and a year later died while visiting Hong-Kong. POTTO, the native name of the West African slow-lemurs, popularly miscalled " sloths," and scientifically known as Perodicticus, a name referring to the aborted condition of the index finger, which forms their most distinctive feature. The ordinary potto (P. potto) is about the size of a squirrel, but with POTTSTOWN— POULTRY AND POULTRY-FARiMING 213 large staring eyes, and a mere stump of a tail; its general colour is rufous brown. Bates's potto (P. batesi), of the Congo, is nearly allied; but the awantibo (P. [Arctocebus] calabarensis) , of Old Calabar, differs by the complete loss of the tail (see PRIMATES). POTTSTOWN, a borough of Montgomery county, Penn- sylvania, U.S.A., on the Schuylkill river, 40 m. N.W. of Phila- delphia. Pop. (1910 census) 15,599. Pottstown is served by the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading railways, and by electric lines to neighbouring towns. In the borough is the Hill School (1851), an excellent secondary school for boys. There is trade with the surrounding country, which is devoted to farming and dairying and abounds in iron ore and limestone, but the principal industry is the manufacture of iron and steel, the first commercially important iron furnaces in Pennsylvania having been established near the site of Pottstown in 1716-1718. In 1905 the factory products were valued at $8,144,723 (10-7% more than in 1900). Three miles from Pottstown, in an amuse- ment park, are the " ringing rocks," which cover about an acre, and have varying tones when struck, so that tunes may be played upon them. Pottstown was settled and laid out in 1752 and was named Pottsgrove in honour of its founder, John Potts (1710-1768); in 1815 it was incorporated as a borough and in 1829 the present name was adopted. POTTSVILLE, a borough and the county-seat of Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at Schuylkill Gap through Sharp Mountain on the Schuylkill river, about 90 m. N.W. of Phila- delphia. Pop. (1910 census) 20,236. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Lehigh Valley and the Philadelphia & Reading railways, and by the Eastern Pennsylvania railway company to the borough of Minersville (pop., 1910, 7240), about4jm. N.N.E., and to the other boroughs in the immediate neighbourhood, for which Pottsville is a business and shipping centre. It is picturesquely situated in the famous Schuylkill coalfield and on the old Schuylkill canal and Tumbling Run, and has a con- siderable number of summer visitors. There are large repair shops of the Pennsylvania and of the Philadelphia & Reading railways at Pottsville. In 1905 the total value of the factory products was $5,805,788. The first settlers here, a single family, were massacred by the Indians in August 1780; a second settlement was established about 1795, and an iron furnace was erected a few years later. In 1804 this furnace was purchased by John Pott (1750-1827), the founder of the borough; in 1807 coal was discovered; in 1816 the town was laid out; in 1828 it was incorporated as a borough; and in 1851 the borough became the county-seat. In 1854-1877 Pottsville was a centre of the Molly Maguire disturbances, and here a number of the leaders were tried and convicted in 1876-1877. In 1908 the borough of Yorkville (pop., 1900, 1125) was annexed to Pottsville. POTWALLOPER, or POTWALLER, the name of a class of persons who were entitled in certain English boroughs to the parliamentary franchise. The word is usually taken to mean literally " one who boils a pot," from " wallop " or " gallop," which Skeat (Etym. Did., 1898) connects with the Old Low Ger. wallen, to boil, cf. " well," i.e. which springs or boils up. The " Potwalloper " was denned in Curry's Case, 1838 (Falc and Fitz., p. 311) as "one, whether he be a householder or a lodger, who has the sole dominion over a room with a fireplace in it, and who furnishes and cooks his own diet at his own fireplace." The Representation of the People Act (1832) reserved these ancient franchise rights to their then holders only. In the Return of Parliamentary Constituencies (Electors, &c.), 1898, there was one " potwalloper " on the register. POUCHED MOUSE, the colonial name for any member of the polyprotodont marsupial genus Phascologale (see MARSUPI- ALIA). There are over a dozen species, none larger, the most much smaller than a rat. The food of these animals is almost entirely insects, which some pursue among the branches of trees, while others are purely terrestrial. Pouched mice are found throughout Australia, where all the species have uniformly coloured fur, and also in New Guinea and the Aru and some of the adjacent islands, most of the Papuan forms being distinguished by striping on the back. In the view of Oldfield Thomas these marsupials fill the place held in Malaya by the tree-shrews, and in South America by the smaller opossums. POUGHKEEPSIE, a city and the county-seat of Dutchess county, New York, U.S.A., and on the east bank of the Hudson river, 73 m. N. of New York City. Pop. (1910 census), 27,936. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River, the New York, New Haven & Hartford, the West Shore, the Central New England, and the Poughkeepsie & Eastern (merged in the Central New England) railways, and by river steamboat lines on the Hudson. A cantilever railway bridge, 2260 ft. long (6767 ft., including approaches) and 200 ft. above the water, spans the Hudson at this point. The city is built partly on terraces rising 200 ft. above the river and partly on a level plateau above. On the Hudson here is the course for the inter- collegiate boat-races in which the American college crews (save those of Yale and Harvard, which row on the Thames at New London) have rowed annually, beginning in 1895, except in 1896, when the race was rowed at Saratoga. In the north-eastern part of the city is College Hill Park, and in the centre is Eastman Park (n acres, originally the home of Harvey Gridley Eastman). Vassar College (. ' j0/"^' i"sense, ('). is represented late in O.E. by the compounds fund-fold and pund-breche and by the derivative pyndan, to dam up enclose, and for-pyndan, to shut out. The origin is unknown' pen, an enclosure is from a different root ; " pond " a small pool ?L WA ?-r' 1S % i\h£dle EnJ?lish variant of " pound." In sense (2) the O.E. and M.E pund, Du. pond, Ger. Pfund, are derivatives ot the Lat. indeclinable substantive pondo — really an ablative singular as if from pondus (2nd declension)— a variant of pondus, t">"derts, weight. The Lat. pondo is used as a shortened form of libra pondo pound by weight. Finally is the verb " to pound " to crush by beating, to strike or beat; this in O.E. is punian, the d being excrescent as in " sound," noise. The word is rare outside English; cf. Mod. Du. puin, rubbish, broken stone. 221 varieties of pounds — as a common pound, an open pound and a close pound — are enumerated. By the Distress for Rent Act 1737 any person distraining for rent may turn any part of the premises into a pound pro hoc vice for securing the distress. Pounds are not now much used. (F. WA.) POUND (2) — (a) a measure of weight; (b) an English money of account, (a) The English standard unit of weight is the avoirdupois pound of 7000 grains. The earliest weight in the English system was the Saxon pound, subsequently known as the Tower pound, from the old mint pound kept in the Tower of London. The Tower pound weighed 5400 grains and this weight of silver was coined into 240 pence or 20 shillings, hence pound in sense (2) (a pound weight of silver). The pound troy, probably introduced from France, was in use as early as 1415 and was adopted as the legal standard for gold and silver in 1 527. The act which abolished the Tower pound (18 Hen. VIII. : the " pounde Troye which exceedeth the pounde Tower in weight iii quarters of the oz.") substituted a pound of 5760 grains, at which the pound troy still remains. There was in use together with the pound troy, the merchant's pound, weighing 6750 grains, which was established about 1270 for all commodities except gold, silver and medicines, but it was generally superseded by the pound avoirdupois about 1330. There was also in use for a short time another merchant's pound, introduced from France and Germany; this pound weighed 7200 grains. The pound avoirdupois has remained in use continuously since the I4th century, although it may have varied slightly at different periods — the Elizabethan standard was probably 7002 grains. The standard pound troy, placed together with the standard yard in the custody of the clerk of the House of Commons by a resolution of the House of the 2nd of June 1758, was destroyed at the burning of the houses of parliament in 1834. In 1838 a commission was appointed to consider the restoration of the standards, and in consequence of their report in 1841 the pound avoirdupois of 7000 grains was substituted for the pound troy as the standard. A new standard pound avoirdupois was made under the direction of a committee appointed in 1834 (which reported in 1854), by comparison with authenticated copies of the original standard (see Phil. Trans. 1856). This standard pound was legalized by an act of 1855 (18 & 19 Viet. c. 72). The standard avoirdu- pois pound is made of platinum, in the form of a cylinder nearly 1-35 in. high and 1-15 in. in diameter. It has a groove or channel round it to enable it to be lifted by means of an ivory fork (for illustration see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES) and is marked " P.S. 1844. i lb." P.S. meaning Parliamentary Standard. It is preserved at the Standards Office, in the custody of the Board of Trade. Copies were also deposited at the Houses of Parlia- ment, the Royal Mint, the Royal Observatory and with the Royal Society. See the Reports of the Standards Commission (6 parts, 1868-1873), especially 3rd report (on the abolition of troy weight) and 5th report (on the business of the Standards Dept. and the condition of the official standards and apparatus; description of the reveri- fication of the various official standards, with diagrams). (b) The English monetary unit is the pound; it was originally a pound weight of silver (hence written £ for libra, Lat. pound weight), coined into twenty shillings, and is now represented by the gold sovereign (q.v.). The pound Scots was at one time of the same value as the English pound, but through gradual debasement of the coinage was reduced at the accession of James I. to about one-twelfth of the value of the English pound, and was divided into twenty shillings, each about the value of an English penny. The Egyptian pound, written £E, is a gold coin of 100 piastres, and was made the monetary unit of the country by a decree of the i4th of November 1885. Its weight is 8-544 grammes of gold 0-875 fine and its value in English standard gold is £i, os. 6}d. The Turkish pound is written £T. The Turkish monetary system is dealt with at length under TURKEY: Monetary System. Valuable information from the historical point of view will be found in the Reports of the Standards Commission quoted above, and in H. W. Chisholm's On the Science of Weighing and Measuring (1877) and his Seventh Annual Report as warden of the standards; 222 POUSSIN— POVOA DE VARZIM R. Ruding, Annals of the Coinage (1819) and H. J. Chaney, Our Weights and Measures (1897). (T. A. I.) POUSSIN, NICOLAS (1594-1665), French painter, was born at Les Andelys (Eure) in June 1594. Early sketches attracted the notice of Quentin Varin, a local painter, whose pupil Poussin became, till he went to Paris, where he entered the studio of Ferdinand Elle, a Fleming, and then of the Lorrainer L'Alle- mand. He found French art in a stage of transition: the old apprenticeship system was disturbed, and the academical schools destined to supplant it were not yet established; but, having met Courtois the mathematician, Poussin was fired by the study of his collection of engravings after Italian masters. After two abortive attempts to reach Rome, he fell in with the chevalier Marini at Lyons. Marini employed him on illustrations to his poems, took him into his household, and in 1624 enabled Poussin (who had been detained by commissions in Lyons and Paris) to rejoin him at Rome. There, his patron having died, Poussin fell into great distress. Falling ill he was received into the house of his compatriot Dughet and nursed by his daughter Anna Maria to whom in 1629, Poussin was married. Among his first patrons were Cardinal Barberini, for whom was painted the " Death of Germanicus " (Barberini Palace) ; Cardinal Omodei, for whom he produced, in 1630, the "Triumphs of Flora" (Louvre); Cardinal de Richelieu, who commissioned a Bacchanal (Louvre) ; Vicenzo Giustiniani, for whom was executed the " Massacre of the Innocents," of which there is a first sketch in the British Museum; Cassiano dal Pozzo, who became the owner of the first series of the " Seven Sacraments " (Belvoir Castle) ; and Fieart de Chanteloup, with whom in 1640 Poussin, at the call of Sublet de Noyers, returned to France. Louis XIII. conferred on him the title of " first painter in ordinary," and in two years at Paris he produced several pictures for the royal chapels (the " Last Supper," painted for Versailles, now in the Louvre) and eight cartoons for the Gobelins, the series of the " Labours of Hercules " for the Louvre, the " Triumph of Truth " for Cardinal Richelieu (Louvre), and much minor work. In 1643, disgusted by the intrigues of Simon Vouet, Feuquieres and the architect Lemercier, Poussin withdrew to Rome. There, in 1648, he finished for De Chanteloup the second series of the " Seven Sacraments " (Bridgewater Gallery) , and also his noble landscape with Diogenes throwing away his Scoop (Louvre); in 1649 he painted the " Vision of St Paul " (Louvre) for the comic poet Scarron, and in ^651 the " Holy Family " (Louvre) for the duke of Crequi. Year by year he continued to produce an enormous variety of works, many of which are included in the list given by Felibien. He died on the igth of November 1665 and was buried in the church of St Lawrence in Lucina, his wife having predeceased him. The finest collection of Poussin's paintings as well as of his drawings is possessed by the Louvre; but, besides the pictures in the National Gallery and at Dulwich, England possesses several of his most considerable works: The " Triumph of Pan " is at Baisildon (Berkshire), and his great allegorical painting of the " Arts " at Knowsley. At Rome, in the Colonna and Valentin! Palaces, are nota- ble works by him, and one of the private apartments of Prince Doria is decorated by a great series of landscapes in distemper. Through- out his life he stood aloof from the popular movement of his native school. French art in his day was purely decorative, but in Poussin we find a survival of the impulses of the Renaissance coupled with conscious reference to classic work as the standard of excellence. In general we see his paintings at a great disadvantage, for the colour, even of the best preserved, has changed in parts, so that the keeping is disturbed ; and the noble construction of his designs can be better seen in engravings than in the original. Amongst the many who have reproduced his works Audran, Claudine Stella, Picart and Pesne are the most successful. Poussin left no children, but he adopted as his son Caspar Dughet (Gasparo Duche), his wife's brother, who took the name of Poussin. CASPAR POUSSIN (1613-1675) devoted himself to landscape painting and rendered admirably the severer -beauties of the Roman Campagna; a noteworthy series of works in tempera representing various sites near Rome is to be seen in the Colonna Palace; but one of his finest easel-pictures, the " Sacrifice of Abra- ham," formerly the property of the Colonna, is now, with other works by the same painter, in the National Gallery, London^ The frescoes executed by Caspar Poussin in S. Martino di Monti are in a bad state of preservation. The Louvre does not possess a single work by his hand. Caspar died at Rome on the 27th of May 1675. See Sandrart, A cad. nob. art. pict.; Lettres de Nicolas Poussin (Paris, 1824); Felibien, Entretiens; Gault de St Germain, Vie de Nicolas Poussin (1806); D'Argenville, Abrege de la vie des peintres; Bouchitte\ Poussin et son asuvre (1858); Emilia F. S. Pattison (Lady Dilke), Documents inedits, Le Poussin, in L'Art (1882). POUT, also whiting-pout or bib (Gadus luscus), a fish of the family Gadidae. It is a small species abundant on the coasts of northern and western Europe, but less so in the Mediterranean. It is distinguished from other species of the genus Gadus by having a deep short body, with more or less distinct dark bars; a short and obtuse snout, not longer than the eye; the upper jaw the longer; and a long barbel at the chin. A black spot occupies the upper part of the base of the pectoral fin. Pout affect certain localities of limited extent, where a number may be caught with hook and line. They are excellent food, but must be eaten soon after capture. A pout of 5 ft is considered a very large specimen. POUVILLON, 6MILE (1840-1906), French novelist, was born at Montauban (Tarn et Garonne). He published in 1878 a collection of stories entitled Nouvelles realities . Making himself the chronicler of his native province of Quercy, he painted its scenery and its life with great clearness of outline and without exaggeration. His books include Cesetle (1881), the story of a peasant girl; L 'Innocent (1884); Jean-de-Jeanne (1886); Le Cheval bleu (1888); Le VOM d'etre chaste (1900); Chante-pleure (1890); Les Antibel (1892); Petites Ames (1893); Mademoiselle Clemence (1896); Pays et paysages (1895); Petites gens (ip°5); Bernadette de Lourdes (1894), a mystery; and Le Roi de Rome (1898), a play. He died at Chambery. POVINDAH, a class of warrior nomadic traders in Afghanistan, who belong chiefly to the Nasir and Suliman Kuel tribes of Ghilzais. Their name, which designates their occupation, is derived from the same root as the Pushtu word for " to graze." They are almost wholly engaged in the carrying trade between India and Afghanistan and Central Asia. They assemble every autumn in the plains east of Ghazni, with their families, flocks, herds and long strings of camels and horses, laden with the goods of Bokhara and Kandahar; and forming caravans march through the Kakar and Waziri countries by the Zhob and Gomal passes of the Suliman hills. Entering Dera Ismail Khan district about October they leave their families and flocks, their arms and some two-thirds of their fighting men in the great grazing grounds which lie on either side of the Indus, and while some wander in search of employment, others pass on with their merchandise to the great cities of India, and even by rail as far as Calcutta, Karachi and Bombay. In the spring they again assemble, and return by the same route to their homes in the hills about Ghazni and Kalat-i-Ghilzai. When the hot season begins, the men, leaving their belongings behind them, move off again to Kandahar, Herat and Bokhara, with the Indian and European merchandise which they have brought from Hindustan. For generations the Waziris have carried on war to the knife with these merchant traders. To meet the opposition that awaited them on the road the Povindahs used to move heavily armed, in bodies of from 5000 to 10,000, and regular marches and en- campments were observed under an elected khan or leader. But since the Gomal Pass was taken over by the British and opened up in 1889 there has been comparative security on the border. During the Second Afghan War the tribes on the Tank border were stirred up by emissaries from Kabul, and the Suliman Khel joined the Mahsud Waziris in their daring raid on the town of Tank in January 1879. Colonel Boisragon, who commanded at Dera Ismail Khan, moved out against the Povindah settle- ments in the mouth of the Gomal Pass and severely punished them. The Povindahs paid a fine of nearly Rs. 60,000 (£6000), and agreed that in future their migratory bands should be dis- armed on their entry into British territory, their weapons to be deposited in a military arsenal, and returned to their owners when they again crossed the border. POVOA DE VARZIM, a seaport of northern Portugal, in the district of Oporto; on a small and ill-sheltered bay, 18 m. N. of Oporto by the branch railway to Villa Nova de Familicao. Pop. (1900), 12,623. In summer Povoa de Varzim is the most POWDER— POWER 223 frequented sea-bathing resort in northern Portugal; it is also the headquarters of important sardine, hake, and sea-bream fisheries. POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvls, pulveris, dust), the small loose particles into which solid matter is disintegrated by such processes as grinding, crushing, pounding, &c., hence any preparation which takes the form of such loose uncompacted particles, the most familiar example of such preparation being that of gunpowder ( = 2?rN. Then the rate at which work is done by the engine crank shaft is Tu foot-pounds per second, equivalent to Toj/55O horse power. This is now distributed to the several machines in varying proportions. Assuming for the sake of simplicity that the whole of the power is absorbed by one machine, let Ti be the torque on the first motion- shaft of the machine, and let o>i be its angular velocity, then the rate at which the machine is absorbing energy is T:«I foot-pounds per second. A certain quantity of energy is absorbed by the transmit- ting mechanism itself for the purpose of overcoming frictional and other resistances, otherwise the rate of absorption of energy by the machine would exactly equal the rate at which it was produced by the prime mover assuming steady conditions of working. Actually therefore Tiuj would be less than Tw so that j)To), (i) MECHANICAL] POWER TRANSMISSION 225 where ij is called the efficiency of the transmission. Considering now the general problem of a multiple machine transmission, if Ti, ui, T», wi, Ta, ui are the several torques and angular velocities of the respective first motion shafts of the machines, (T,o,l+T^,+T»u,+ . . . .) =i,To, (2) expresses the relations which must exist at any instant of steady motion. This is not quite a complete statement of the actual conditions because some of the provided energy is always in course of being stored and unstored from instant to instant as kinetic energy in the moving parts of the mechanism. Here, ij is the over-all efficiency of the distributing mechanism. We now consider the separate parts of the transmitting mechanism. § 3. Belts. — Let a pulley A (fig. i) drive a pulley B by means of a leather belt, and let the direction of motion be as indicated by the arrows on the pulleys. When the pulleys are revolving uniformly, A FIG. i. transmitting power to B, one side of the belt will be tight and the other side will be slack, but both sides will be in a state of tension. Let / and u be the respective tensions on the tight and slack side; then the torque exerted by the belt on the pulley B is (/ — u)r, where r is the radius of the pulley in feet, and the rate at which the belt does work on the pulley is (t— u)ru foot-pounds per second. If the horse-power required to drive the machine be represented by h.p., then assuming the efficiency of the transmission to be unity. This equation contains two unknown tensions, and before either can be found another condition is necessary. This is supplied by the relation between the tensions, the arc of contact 0, in radians (fig. 2), the coefficient of friction /it between the belt and the pulley, the mass of the belt and the speed of the belt. Consider an element of the belt (fig. 2) sub- tending an angle d8 at the centre of the pul- ley, and let / be the . tension on one side of t-T ld*the element and (t+dt) the tension of the other side. The ten- sion tending to cause the element to slide -td9 bodily round the sur- face of the pulley is dt. The normal pressure between the element and the face of the pulley due to the tensions is / d8, but this is diminished by the force necessary to constrain the element to move in the circular path determined by the curvature of the pulley. If W is the weight of the belt per foot, the constraining force required for this purpose is VJv'dB/g, where t; is the linear velocity of the belt in feet per second. Hence the frictional resistance of the element to sliding is (/— W»Vg)jtd0, and this must be equal to the difference of tensions dt when the element is on the point of slipping, so that (t — Wv°-/g)nde = dt. The solution of this equation is t+dt FIG. 2. t-Witlg u-\Vv-lg~''" ' where t is now the maximum tension and u the minimum tension, and e is the base of the Napierian system of logarithms, 2-718. Equations (3) and (4) supply the condition from which the power transmitted by a given belt at a given speed can be found. For ordinary work the term involving v may be neglected, so that (4) becomes «). And the rate of working U, in foot-pounds per second, is U = (t - u)v = (to - W»'/«) d -«-*•). Differentiating U with regard to », equating to zero, and solving for f , we have v — V (tg/$W). Utilizing the data of the previous example to illustrate this matter, 4 = 838 ID per square inch, W = i-4 Ib per foot, and consequently, from the above expression, 0 = 80 ft. per second approximately. A lower speed than this should be adopted, however, because the above investigation does not include the loss incurred by the continual bending of the belt round the circumference of the pulley. The loss from this cause increases with the velocity of the belt, and operates to make the velocity for maximum horse power considerably lower than that given above. § 6. Flexibility. — When a belt or rope is working power is absorbed in its continual bending round the pulleys, the amount depending upon the flexibility of the belt and the speed. If C is the couple required to bend the belt to the radius of the pulley, the rate at which work is done is Co> foot-pounds per second. The value of C for a given belt varies approximately inversely as the radius of the pulley, so that the loss of power from this cause will vary inversely as the radius of the pulley and directly as the speed of revolution. Hence thin flexible belts are to be preferred to thick stiff ones. Besides the loss of power in transmission due to this cause, the bending causes a stress in the belt which is to be added to the direct stress due to the tensions in the belt in order to find the maximum stress. In ordinary leather belts the bending stress is usually negligible ; in ropes, how- ever, especially wire rope, it assumes paramount importance, since it tends to overstrain the outermost strands and if these give way the life of the rope is soon determined. § 7. Rope Driving. — About 1856 James Combe, of Belfast, introduced the practice of transmitting power by means of ropes running in grooves turned circumferentially in the rim of (From Abram Combe, Pmc. list, ileck. Eng.) FIG. 3. — Rope driving; half-crossed rope drive, separate rope to each groove. the pulley (fig. 3). The ropes may be led off in groups to the different floors of the factory to pulleys keyed to the distributing shafting. A groove was adopted having an angle of about 45°, 5 226 POWER TRANSMISSION [MECHANICAL and this is the angle now used in the practice of Messrs Combe, Barbour and Combe, of Belfast. A section of the rim of a rope driving wheel showing the shape of the groove for a rope i j in. diameter is shown in fig. 4, and a rope driving pulley designed for six ifin. ropes is shown in fig. 5. A rope is less flex- ible than a belt, and therefore care must be j taken not to arrange *j? rope drives with pul- leys having too small a diameter relatively to the diameter of the rope. The principles of §§ 3, 4, S and 6, apply equally to ropes, but with the practical modification that the working stress in the rope is a much smaller fraction of the ultimate strength than in the FIG. 4. FIG. 5. — Rope Pulley, 10 ft. diam., 6 grooves, 2\ in. pitch, weight about 35 cwt. Constructed by Combe, Barbour & Combe, Ltd., Belfast. case of belting and the ratio of the tensions is much greater. The following table, based upon the experience of Messrs Combe, presents the practical possibilities in a convenient form: — Diameter of Rope. Smallest diameter of Pulley, which should . be used with the Rope. H.P. per Rope for smallest Pulley at too revs, per minute. in. 3 I I if 2j in. 14 21 42 66 i 8 I 8 16 The speed originally adopted for the rope was 55 ft. per second. This speed has been exceeded, but, as indicated above, for any particular case there is one speed at which the maximum horse power is transmitted, and this speed is chosen with due regard to the effect of centrifugal tension and the loss due to the con- tinual bending of the rope round the pulley. Instead of using one rope for each groove, a single continuous rope may be used, driving from one common pulley several shafts at different speeds. For further information see Abram Combe, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (July 1896). Experiments to compare the efficiencies of rope and belt driving were carried out at Lille in 1894 by the Societe Industrielle du Nord de la France, for an account of which see D. S. Capper, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (October 1896). Cotton ropes are used extensively for trans- mitting power in factories, and though more expensive than Manila ropes, are more durable when worked under suitable conditions. § 8. Shafts. — When a shaft transmits power from a prime mover to a machine, every section of it 'sustains a turning couple or torque T, and if co is the angular velocity of rotation in radians per second, the rate of transmission is Tw foot-pounds per second, and the relation between the horse power, torque and angular velocity is TS The load-factors are calculated on the actual recorded maximum output, and not on the estimated capacity of the plant running or installed. The daily periods of maximum output are shown in fig. 2. The table shows that the load-factors have not been much affected either by the increase of the area of supply or by the in- creased consumption of power. The coal used has been principally Durham small. The capital cost of the London undertaking has been about £950,000. In the central station at Wapping, erected in 1891, there are six sets of triple-expansion, surface-condensing vertical pumping engines of 200 i.h.p. each; six boilers with a working pressure of 150 Ib per square inch, and two accumulators with rams 20 in. diameter by 23 It. stroke loaded up to 800 Ib per square inch. The engines run at a maximum piston speed of 250 ft. per minute, and the pumps are single-acting, driven directly from the piston rods. The supply given from this station in 1009 was approximately 6,800,000 gallons per week, and the cost for fuel, wages, superintendence, lighting, repairs and sundry station expenses 4-28d. per 1000 gallons, the value of the coal used being 145. 1 1 -3d. per ton in bunkers. The capital cost of the station, including the land, was £70,000. The load-factor at this station for 1909 was •49, and the supply was maintained for 168 hours per week. The conditions are exceptionally favourable, and the figures represent the best result that has hitherto been obtained in hydraulic power central station work, having regard to the high price of fuel. The installation in Hull differs little from the numerous private plants at work on the docks and railways of the United Kingdom. The value of the experiment was chiefly commercial, and the large public hydraulic power works established since are to be directly attributed to the Hull undertaking. In Birmingham gas engines are employed to drive the pumps. In Liverpool there are two central stations. The working pressure is 850 Ib per square inch. There are 27 m. of mains, and about noo machines at work. In Manchester and Glasgow the pressure adopted is 1 100 Ib per square inch. In Manchester this pressure was selected principally in view of the large number of hydraulic packing presses usea in the city, and the result has been altogether satisfactory. The works were established by the corporation in 189^, the central station being designed for 1200 i.h.p. Another station has since been built of equal capacity, and nearly 5 million gallons per week are being supplied to work about 2100 machines. Twenty-three miles of mains are laid. In Antwerp a regular system of high-pressure hydraulic power transmission was established in 1894 specially to provide electric light for the city. The scheme was due to von Ryssleburgh, an electrical engineer of Ghent, who came to the conclusion that the most economical way of installing the electric light was to have a central hydraulic station, and from it transmit the power through pipes to various sub-stations in the town, where it could be converted Dy means of turbines and dynamos into electric energy. The coal cost of the electricity supplied — o-88d. per kw. hour — compares favourably with most central electric supply stations, although the efficiency of the turbines and dynamos used for the conversion does not exceed 40%. Von Ryssleburgh argued that hydraulic pumping engines would be more economical than steam-engines and dynamos, and that the loss in transmission from the central station to the consumer would be less with hydraulic converters than if the current were distributed directly. The loss in conversion, however, proved to be twice as great as had been anticipated, owing largely tp defec- tive apparatus and to under-estimation of the expense of maintaining the converting stations; and the net result was commercially un- satisfactory. At Buenos Aires hydraulic mains are laid in the streets solely for drainage purposes. Each of the sumps, which are provided at intervals, contains two hydraulic pumps which automatically pump the sewage from a small section of the town into an outfall sewer at a higher level. The districts where this system is at work lie below the general drainage level of Buenos Aires. The average efficiency (pump h.p. to i.h.p.) is 41 %, which is high, haying regard to the low heads against which the pumps work. In this application all the conditions are favourable to hydraulic power transmission. The work is intermittent, there is direct action of the hydraulic pressure in the machines, and the load at each stroke of the pumps is constant. The same system has been adopted for the drainage of Woking and district, and a somewhat similar installation is in use at Margate. Hydraulic power is supplied from the hydraulic mains on a sliding scale according to the quantity consumed. The minimum charge in London except for very'large quantities is is. 6d. per 1000 gallons. In 1000 gallons at 750 Ib per square inch there is an energy of 10,000X1730^8.^ hp hours; thus is. 6d. per 1000 gallons = 2d. 33,000X60 per h.p. hour nearly. This amount is made up approximately of oxl. per 1000 gallons for the cost of generation, distnbution and general expenses including rates and 90. for capital charges. The average rate charged to consumers in 1908 was about 2s. 4d. per 1000 gallons. Even under the most favourable circumstances it does not appear probable that hydraulic power at 750 Ib per square inch can be supplied from central stations in towns on a commercial basis over any considerable areas at less than is. per 1000 gallons. Allowing 230 POWER TRANSMISSION [HYDRAULIC 75% as the efficiency of the motor through which the power is utilized, this rate would give i-8;}d. per brake or effective h.p. hour. This cost seems high, and it is difficult to believe that it is the best hydraulic power transmission can accomplish having regard to the well-established fact that the mechanical efficiency of a steam pump- ing engine is greater than any other application of a steam-engine, and that the power can be conveyed through mains without any material loss for considerable distances. Still, no other system of power transmission except gas seems to be better off, and there is no method of transmission by which energy could, at the present time, be supplied retail in towns with commercial success at such an average rate when steam is employed as the prime mover. The average rate charged for hydraulic power in London and elsewhere FIG. 4. is much the same as the average rate charged for the supply of electrical energy to the ordinary consumer. Gas is undoubtedly cheaper, but in a large number of cases is mechanically inconvenient in its application. Hydraulic pressure, electrical energy and com- pressed air (with reheating) can all be transmitted throughout towns with approximately the same losses and at the same cost, because the power is obtained in each system from coal, boilers, and steam-engines, and the actual loss in transmission can be kept down to a small percentage. The use of any particular system of power does not, however, primarily depend upon the cost of running the central station and distributing the power, but mainly upon the mechanical convenience of the system for the purpose to which it is applied. One form of energy is, in practice, found most useful for one purpose, another form for another and no one can command the whole field. Pi* FIG. 5. When water is employed as the fluid in hydraulic transmission the effects of frost must usually be provided against. In London and other towns, the water, before being pumped u^oaa into the mains, is passed through the surface condensers of the engines, so as to raise its temperature. The mains are laid 3 ft. below the surface of the ground. Exposed pipes and cylinders are clothed, and means provided for draining them when out of use. When these simple precautions are adopted damage from frost is very rare. In special cases oil having a low freezing point is used, and in small plants good results have been obtained by mixing glycerin and methylated spirit with the water. A few gas jets judiciously distributed are of value where there is a difficulty in properly protecting the machinery by clothing. From the central station the hydraulic power must be transmitted through a system of mains to the various points at which it is to be used. In laying out a network of mains it is first neces- sary to determine what velocity of flow can be allowed. Owing to the weight of water, the medium usually employed for hydraulic transmission, a low velocity is necessary in order to avoid shocks. The loss of pressure due to the velocity is Distribu- tion. FIG. 6. — Half section and elevation at AB. Detail of 10* steel pipe. independent of the actual pressure employed, and at moderate velocities of 3 to 4 ft. per second the loss per 1000 yds. is almost a negligible quantity at a pressure of 700 Ib per square inch. For practical purposes Box's formula is sufficiently accurate — Loss of "ons2Xlegth inyard There is a further .. . v .. (diameter of pipes in inches X3)5 loss due to obstruction caused by valves and bends, but it has been found in London that a pressure of 750 Ib at the central accumulators is sufficient to ensure a pressure of 700 ft throughout the system. The greatest distance the power is conveyed from the central stations in London is about 4 m. The higher the initial velocity the more variable the pressure ; and in order to avoid this variation in any large system of mains it is usual to place additional accumulators at a FIG. 6. — Half back elevation, half front elevation. 10* steel pipe. Detail of HYDRAULIC] POWER TRANSMISSION 231 B distance from the central station. They act in the same way as air-vessels. The mains should be laid in circuit, and valves placed at intervals, so that any section can be isolated for repairs or for making connexions without affecting the supply at other points. The main valves adopted in London are shown in fig. 4. Valves are also fixed to control all branch pipes, while relief valves, washouts and air valves are fixed as required. The largest pipes used in London are 10 in. internal diameter, and the smallest laid in the streets are 2 in. The pipes from 8 in. and below are usually made in cast iron, flanged and provided with spigots and faucets. The joint (fig. 5) is made with a gutta-percha ring, though sometimes asbestos and leather packing rings are used. Cast iron pipes for hydraulic power transmission have been standardized by the Engineering Standards Committee. Fig. 6 shows the 10 in. steel main as used in London. The main was laid in 1903 from the Rotherhithe Pumping Station of the London Hydraulic Power Company through the Tower Subway, and is used as a feeder main for supply to the City. It is the first instance of the use of feeder mains in hydraulic transmission. The velocity of flow is 6 ft. per second, and is automatically disconnected from the general system should the pressure in this main fall below that of accumula- tor pressure. Other mains, similarly controlled, are now in use. Ellington's system of hydraulic feeder mains has been developed by the laying of a 6-in. steel main from the Falcon Wharf Station at Blackfriars to the Strand, over Waterloo Bridge. The Falcon Wharf Pumping Station at Blackfriars was the original central station in London, and the accumulators there are loaded to 750 Ib per square inch. The other pumping stations are situated about 3 m. from Falcon Wharf and about the same distance from each other. The accumulator pressure at the outlying stations is during the busy time of the day maintained at about 800 Ib per square inch. Consequently the smaller variations in demand for power throughout the system caused very intermittent running of the plant at Falcon Wharf, and the load-factor there is very low. The pumping plant has now been considerably increased, and part of the plant is constructed to pump into the feeder main at pressures of 8po, 900, or 1000 Ib per square inch according to the demand existing from hour to hour in the Strand district. By this means the output from Falcon Wharf has been doubled with a much improved load- factor. The accumulator in this system is of special construction (fig. 7). The pressure 750 Ib per square inch is main- tained in the cylinder A from the ordinary hydraulic supply main. The working ram B forms the cylinder for the fixed hollow ram C which is connected to the 6 in. bore feeder main D. The balancing rams E, E attached to the fixed head F serve the purpose of adjusting the pres- sure in the feeder main from 800 to looo ft per square inch according to the quantity of pressure water required to be transmitted through it. The higher pressure is required when the velocity m this main is 10 ft. per second. There is an automatic control valve at the junction of the feeder main with the service mains in the Strand, adjusted so that the same effect is produced as if a pumping station were in operation at that point of equal capacity to the maxi- mum flow through the 6 in. main. The I length of the feeder main in this case is 2000 yds., and at 10 ft. per second there is a loss of pressure of 240 Ib per square inch, but the effect on the coal consumption is almost negligible, as the maximum flow is seldom needed. The engines are specially con- structed to take the pressure overload. The feeder main is made of steel. The economical limit of the use of feeder mains is reached when the additional running expenses involved equal the annual value of the saving effected in the capital expenditure. In public supplies the power used is in all cases registered by meters, and since 1887 automatic instruments have been used at the central stations to record the amount supplied at each instant during the day and night. The ratio between the power registered at the consumers' machines and the "' power sent into the mains is the commercial efficiency of the whole system. The loss may be due to leakage from the mains or to defects in the meters ; or if, as is often the case, the exhaust from the machines is registered, to waste on the consumers' premises. The automatic recorders give the maximum and minimum supplies during 24 hours every day, the maximum record showing the power required for a given number and capacity of machines, and the minimum giving an indication of the leakage. It has been found practicable to obtain an efficiency of 95% in most public power transmission plants over a series of years, but great care is required to produce so good a result. In some years 98% has been registered. L'ntil 1888 no meters were available for registering a pressure of 700 Ib per square inch, and all that could be done was to register the water after it had passed through the machines and lost its pressure. This method is still largely adopted; but now high-pressure meters give excellent results, exhaust registration is being superseded to a con- siderable extent by the more satisfactory arrangement of registering the power on its entry into the consumers' premises. In Manchester Kent's high-pressure meters are now used exclusively. Venturi meters have also been used with success for registering automatically the velocity of flow, and, by integration, the quantity in hydraulic power mains, and form a most useful check on the automatic recorders. The water after the pressure has been eliminated by passage through the machines, may run to a drain or be led back to the central station in return mains ; the method adopted is a question of relative cost and convenience. We proceed to the machines actuated by hydraulic power, and by a comparison of the useful work done by them with the work done by the engines and boilers at the central station Machinery the mechanical efficiency of the system as a whole can be gauged. At the central station and in the distribution there is no great difficulty in determining the efficiency within narrow limits; it should be 80% at the point of entry to the machine in which the pressure is used. Where feeder mains are in use the efficiency of the system is neces- sarily reduced, owing to the higher velocities allowable in the feeder mains. Mechanical efficiency is then sacrificed for the sake of economy. The mechanical efficiency of the machines is a very uncertain quantity; the character of the machines and the nature of the conditions are so variable that a really accurate general statement is impossible. In most cases the losses in the machine are practically constant for a given size and speed of working; con- sequently the efficiency of a given machine may vary within very wide limits according to the work it has to do. For instance, a hydraulic pump of a given capacity, delivering the water to an elevation of 100 ft., will have an efficiency of 80%; but if the eleva- tion of discharge is reduced to 15 ft., even though the hydraulic- pressure rams may be proportioned to the reduced head, the efficiency falls below 50 %. The ultimate efficiency of the system, or PumP "-P- i.n.p., in the one case is 64%, and in the other under 40%. In crane or lift work the efficiency varies with the size of the apparatus, with the load and with the speed. Efficiency in this sense is a most uncertain euide. Some of the most useful and successful applications of hydraulic power — as, for instance, hydraulic capstans for hauling wagons in railway goods yards — have a very low efficiency ex- pressed on the ratio of work done to power expended. Hydraulic cranes for coal or grain hoisting have a high efficiency when well designed, but it is now very usual to employ grabs to save the labour of filling the buckets, and their use lowers the efficiency, expressed in tons of coal or grain raised, by 33 % or even 50 %. When hydrau- lic machines are fully loaded, 50% to 60% of the indicated power of the central station engine is often utilized in useful work done with a radius of 2 or 3 m. from the station. In very favourable circumstances the efficiency may rise to over 70% and in a great many cases in practice it no doubt falls below 25 %. If, however, energy in any form can be obtained ready for use at a moderate rate, the actual efficiency of the machines (i.e. the ratio of the useful work done to the energy absorbed in the process) is not of very great importance where the use is intermittent. Hydraulic pressure is more particularly advantageous in cases where the incompressibility of the fluid employed can be utilized, as in hydraulic lifts, cranes and presses. Hydraulic machines for these purposes have the peculiar and distinct advantage of direct action of the pressure on the moving rams, resulting in simplicity of construction, slow and steady movement of the working parts, absence of mechanical brakes and greatest safety in action. When the valve regulating the admission of the pressure to the hydraulic cylinder is closed, the water is shut in, and, as it is 232 POWER TRANSMISSION [PNEUMATIC incompressible, the machine is locked. Thus all hydraulic machines possess an inherent brake; indeed, many of them are used solely as brakes. Hydraulic power transmission does not possess the flexibility of electricity, its useful applications being comparatively limited, but the simplicity, efficiency, durability and reliability of typical hydrau- lic apparatus is such that it must continue to occupy an important position in industrial development. Sometimes a much higher pressure than 700 lb or 1000 ft per square inch is desirable, more particularly for heavy presses and for machine tools such as are used for riveting, for punching, shearing, &c. The development of these applications has been largely due to the very complete machinery invented and perfected by R. H. Tweddell. One of the principal installations of this kind was erected in 1876 at Toulon dockyard, where the machines are all connected with a system of mains of 2j-in. bore and about 1700 yds. long, laid throughout the yard, and kept charged at a pressure of 1500 lb per square inch by engines of 100 h.p. with two large accumulators. Marc Berrier-Fontaine, the superintending engineer of the dockyard, stated that the economy of the system over the separately-driven geared machines formerly used is very great. But while pressures so high as 3 tons per square inch (as in the I2,ooo-ton Armstrong- Whitworth press) have been used for forging and other presses, it is not desirable, in the distribution of hydraulic power for general purposes, that 1000 ft per square inch should be much exceeded ; otherwise the rams, which form the principal feature in nearly all hydraulic machines, if proportioned to the work required, will often become inconveni- ently small, and other mechanical difficulties will arise. The cost of the machinery also tends to become greater. In particular cases the working pressure can be increased to any desired extent by means of an intensifier (fig. 8). An important application of hydraulic power transmission is for ship work, the system being largely adopted both in H.M. navy and for merchant vessels. Hydraulic coal-discharging machinery was fitted by Armstrong as early as 1854 on board a small steamer, and in 1868 some hopper barges on the Tyne were supplied with hydraulic cranes. A. Betts Brown of Edinburgh applied hydraulic power to ship work in 1873, and in the same year the first use of this power for gunnery work was effected by G. M.Rendel on H.M.S. " Thunderer." The pressure usu- ally employed in H.M. navy is 1000 ft per square inch. Accumulators are not used and the engines have to be fully equal to supply directly the whole demand. The distance through which the power has to be trans- mitted is, of course, very short, and the high velocity of 20 ft. per second is allowed in the main pipes. The maximum engine-power required under these conditions on the larger ships is very consider- able. A recent development of hydraulic power on board ship is the Stone-Lloyd system of closing bulkhead doors. In hydraulic transmission of power it is usually the pressure which is employed, but there are one or two important cases in which the velocity of flow due to the pressure is utilized in the machine. Reference has already been made to the use of turbines working at 750 ft per square inch at Antwerp. The Pelton wheel has also been found to be adapted for use with such high pressures. Another useful ap- plication of the velocity due to the head in hydraulic transmission is in an adaptation of the well-known jet pump to fire hydrants. The value of the system of hydraulic transmission for the extinction of fire can hardly be overestimated where, as in London and most large towns, the ordinary pressure in the water mains is insufficient for the purpose. AUTHORITIES. — Armstrong, Proc. Inst. C.E. (1850 and 1877), Proc. Inst. Mech. E. (1858 and 1868); Elaine, Hydraulic Machinery (1897); Davey, Pumping Machinery (1905); Dunkerley, Hydraulics (1907); Ellington, Proc. Inst. C.E. (1888 and 1893), Proc. Inst. Mech. E. (1882 and 1895), Proc. Liverpool Eng. Sic. (1880 and 1885); Greathead, Proc. Inst. Mech. E. (1879); Marks, " Hydraulic Power," Engineering (1905); Parsons, "Sanitary Works, Buenos Aires," Proc. Inst. C.E. (1896); Robinson, Hydraulic Power and Hydraulic Machinery (1887); Tweddell, Proc. Inst. C.E. (1883 and 1894), Proc. Inst. Mech. E. (1872 and 1874); Unwin, Transmission of Power (1894), Treatise on Hydraulics (1907). (E. B. E.) Ill . — PNEUMATIC Every wind that blows is an instance of the pneumatic transmission of power, and every windmill or sail that catches the breeze is a demonstration of it. The modern or technical use of the term, however, is confined to the compression of air FIG. 8. at one point and its transmission to another point where it is used in motors to do work. The first recorded instance of this being done was by Denis Papin (b. 1647), who compressed air with power derived from a water-wheel and transmitted it through tubes to a distance. About 1800 George Medhurst (1750- 1827) took out patents in England for compressing air. He compressed and transmitted air which worked motors, and he built a pneumatic automobile. William Mann in 1829 took out a patent in England for a compound air compressor. In his application he states: " The condensing pumps used in compressing I make of different capacities, according to the densities of the fluid to be compressed, those used to compress the higher densities being proportionately smaller than those previously used to compress it to the first or lower densities," &c. This is a very exact description of the best methods of compressing air to-day, omitting the very important inter-cooling. Baron Van Rathen in 1849 proposed to compress air in stages and to use inter-coolers between each stage to get 750 lb pressure for use in locomotives. For the next forty years inventors tried without success all manner of devices for cooling air during compression by water, either injected into the cylinder or circulated around it, and finally, with few exceptions, settled down to direct compression with no cooling worthy of mention. Only in the last ten years of the igth century were the funda- mental principles of economical air compression put into general practice, though all of them are contained in the patent of William Mann and the suggestion of Van Rathen. The first successful application of compressed air to the trans- mission of power, as we know it, was at the Mont Cenis Tunnel in 1 86 1. The form of compressor used was a system of water rams — several of them in succession — in which water was the piston, compressing the air upwards in the cylinder and forcing it out. Although the air came in contact with the water, it was not cooled, except slightly at the surface of the water and around the walls of the cylinders. The compressors were loca- ted near the tunnel, and the compressed air was transmitted through pipes to drilling machines working at the faces in the tunnel. Rotary drills were tried first, but were soon replaced by percussion drills adapted from drawings in the United States Patent Office, copied by a French and Italian commission from the patent of j. W. Fowle of Philadelphia. H. S. Drinker (Tunneling, Explosive Compounds and Rock Drills, New York, 1893) states positively that the first percussion drill ever made to work successfully was patented by J. J. Couch of Philadelphia in 1849. Shortly afterwards Fowle patented his drills, in which the direct stroke and self-rotating principle was used as we use it now. The first successful drill in the Hoosac Tunnel was patented in 1866 by W. Brooks, S. F. Gates and C. Burleigh, but after a few months was replaced by one made by Burleigh, who had bought Fowle's patent and improved it. Burleigh made a compressor, cooling the air during compression by an injected spray of water in the cylinders. The successful work in the Mont Cenis and Hoosac Tunnels with the percussion drilling machines caused the use of compressed air to spread rapidly, and it was soon found there were many other purposes for which it could be employed with advantage. The larger tunnels and metal mines were naturally the earliest to adopt pneumatic transmission, often using it for pumping and hoisting as well as drilling. In Paris and Nantes, in Berne and in Birmingham (England), street tramways have been operated by pneumatic power, the transmission in these, however, being in tanks rather than pipes. Tanks on the cars are filled at the central loading stations with air at very high pressure, which is used in driving the motors, enough being taken to enable the car to make a trip and return to the loading station. Several attempts in pneumatic street traction were made in America, but failed owing to financial troubles and the successful intro- duction of electric traction. It is used very successfully, however, both in Europe and in America, in underground mine haulage, being especially adapted to coal mines, where electricity would be dangerous from its sparks. The copper smelting works at Anaconda, Montana, U.S.A., uses twelve large pneumatic ELECTRICAL] POWER TRANSMISSION 233 locomotives for charging the furnaces, removing slag, &c. Many stone quarries have a central plant for compressing air, which is transmitted through pipes extending to ail working points, and operates derricks, hoists, drills, stone cutters, &c., by means of motors. Every considerable ironworks, railroad shop or foundry has its pneumatic transmission plant. Also in the erection of the larger steel bridges or buildings a pneumatic transmission system is part of the contractor's outfit, and many railways have a portable compressing plant on a car ready to be moved to any point as needed. Dr Julius G. Pohle, of Arizona, patented in 1886, and intro- duced extensively, the use of compressed air for lifting water directly, by admitting it into the water column. His plan is largely adopted in artesian wells that do not flow, or do not flow as much as desired, and is so arranged that the air supply has a back pressure of water equal to at least half the lift. If it is desired to lift the water 30 ft. the air is admitted to the water column at least 30 ft. below the standing water surface. The air admitted being so much lighter than the water it dis- places, the column 60 ft. high becomes lighter than the column 30 ft. high and is constantly released and flows out at the top. The efficiency of this method is only 20 to 40%, depending on the lift, but its adaptation to artesian wells renders it valuable in many localities. A remarkable pneumatic transmission system was installed in 1890 by Priestly in the Snake River Desert, Idaho, U.S.A. On the north side of the river is a cliff, nearly perpen- dicular, about 300 ft. high. One hundred and ninety feet above the river, for a considerable distance along the cliff, streams of water gush out from between the bottom of the great lava bed and the hardened clay of the old lake bottom. Priestly, without knowledge of Pohle's system, built a pipe line down the bluff and trained the water into it in such a way that ii carried a very considerable quantity of air in the form of bubbles along with it down the pipe, compressing it on the way. The air was col- lected at the bottom in a covered reservoir, and taken up the cliff again to the lower part of an inverted siphon pipe, one side of which reached down from the water-supply about 60 ft. and the other side reached up and over the bluff. Allowing the water to fill both sides of the pipe to the level of the water-supply, he admitted his compressed air at about 75 lb pressure into the long side of the pipe near the bottom, and soon had water flowing upwards over the cliff and irrigating a large tract of rich lava land. He had made a power, a transmission and a motor plant without a moving part. A similar compressor was installed near Montreal, Canada, in 1896; another at Ainsworth, British Columbia, in 1898; and another at Norwich, Connecticut, U.S.A., in 1902. These are called hydraulic air compressors and show an efficiency of about 70%. They are particularly adapted to positions where there is a large flow of water with a slight fall or head. The actual transmission of power by air from the compressor to the motor is simple and effective. The air admits of a velocity of 15 to 20 ft. per second through pipes, with very slight loss by friction, and consequently there is no necessity for an expensive pipe system in proportion to the power transmitted. It is found in practice that, allowing a velocity as given above, there is no noticeable difference in pressure between the compressor and the motor several miles away. Light butt-welded tubing is largely used for piping, and if properly put in there is very slight loss from leakage, which, moreover, can be easily detected and stopped. _ In practice, a sponge with soap-suds passed around a joint furnishes a detective agency, the escaping air blowing soap bubbles. In good practice there need not be more than I % loss through leakage and I % possibly through friction in the pneumatic transmission of power. Air develops heat on compression and is cooled by expansion, and it expands with heat and contracts with cold. For the purpose of illustration suppose a cylinder io_ ft. long containing 10 cub. ft. of air at 60° F., with a frictionless piston at one end. If this piston be moved 7$ ft. into the cylinder, so that the air is compressed to one- quarter of its volume, and none of the heat developed by compression be allowed to escape, the air will be under a pressure of 90 lb per square inch and at a temperature of 460° F. If this air be cooled down to 60° F. the pressure will be reduced to 45 lb per square inch, showing that the heat produced in the air itself during compression gives it an additional expansive force of 45 tb per sauare inch. The average force or pressure in compressing this air without loss of heat is 21 lb per square inch, whereas if all the heat developed during compression had been removed as rapidly as developed the average pressure on the piston would have been only 1 1 tb per square inch, showing that the heat developed in the air during compression, when not removed as fast as developed, caused in this case an extra force of 10 lb per square inch to be used on the piston. If this heated air could be transmitted and used without any loss of heat the extra force used in compressing it could be utilized; but in practice this is impossible, as the heat is lost in transmission. If the piston holding the 2\ cub. ft. of air at 45 lb per square inch and at 60° F. were released the air expanding without receiving any heat would move it back within 3! ft. of the end only, and the temperature of the air would be lowered 170° F., or to 1 10° F. below zero. If the air were then warmed to 60 F. again it would move the piston the remaining 3$ ft. to its starting point. It is seen that the ideal air-compressing machine is one which will take all the heat from the air as rapidly as it is developed during compression. Such " isothermal compression " is never reached in practice, the best work yet done lacking 10 % of it. It follows that the most inefficient compressing machine is one which takes away no heat during compression — that is, works by " adiabatic compres- sion," which in practice has been much more nearly approached than the ideal. It also follows that the ideal motor for using com- pressed air is one which will supply heat to the air as required when it is expanding. Such " isothermal " expansion is often attained, and sometimes exceeded, in practice by supplying heat artificially. Finally, the most inefficient motor for using compressed air is one which supplies no heat to the air during its expansion, or works by adiabatic expansion, which was long very closely approached by most air motors. In practice isothermal compression is approached by compressing the air slightly, then cooling it, compressing it slightly again, and again cooling it until the desired compression is com- pjeted. This is called compression in stages or compound compres- sion. Isothermal expansion is approximately accomplished by allowing the air to do part of its work (as expanding slightly in a cylinder) and then warming it, then allowing it to do a little more and then warming it again, and so continuing until expansion is complete. It will be seen that the air is carefully cooled during compression to prevent the heat it develops from working against compression, and even more carefully heated during expansion to prevent loss from cold developed during expansion. More stages of compression of course give a higher efficiency, but the cost of machinery and friction losses have to be considered. The reheating of air is often a disadvantage, especially in mining, where there are great objections to having any kind of combustion underground; but where reheating is possible, as W. C. Unwin says, " for the amount of hieat supplied the economy realized in the weight of air used is surprising. The reason for this is, the heat supplied to the air is used nearly five times as efficiently as an equal amount of heat employed in generating steam." Practically there is a hot- air engine, using a medium much more effective than common air, in addition to a compressed-air engine, making the efficiency of the whole system extremely high. (A. DE W. F.) IV. — ELECTRICAL Though the older methods of power transmission, such as wire ropes, compressed air and high-pressure water, are still worked on a comparatively small scale, the chief commercial burden has fallen upon the electric generator and motor linked by a transmission line. The efficiency of the conversion from mechanical power to electrical energy and back again is so high, and the facility of power distribution by electric motors is so great, as to leave little room for competition in any but very exceptional cases. The largest single department of electrical power transmission — that is, transmission for traction purposes — is at present almost wholly carried on by continuous currents. The usual voltage is 500 to 600, and the motors are almost uni- versally series-wound constant-potential machines. The total amount of such transmission in daily use reaches probably a million and a half horse power. In long distance power trans- mission proper continuous currents are not used to any con- siderable extent, owing mainly to the difficulty of generating continuous currents at sufficient pressure to be available for such work, and the difficulty of reducing such pressure, even if it could be conveniently obtained, far enough to render it available for convenient distribution at the receiving end of the line. Single continuous current machines have seldom been built successfully for more than about 2000 to 3000 volts, if at the same time they were required to deliver any considerable amount of current. About 300 to 500 kilowatts per machine at this voltage appears to be the present limit, although it is by no means unlikely that the use of commutating poles and 234 POWER TRANSMISSION [ELECTRICAL other improvements may considerably increase these figures. For distances at which more than this very moderate voltage is desirable one must either depend on alternating currents or use machines in series. In American practice the former alter- native is universally taken. On the continent of Europe a very creditable degree of success has been achieved by adopting the latter, and many plants upon this system are hi use, mostly in Switzerland. In these generators are worked at constant current, a sufficient number in series being employed to give the necessary electromotive force. Power Transmission at Constant Current. — In this system, which has been developed chiefly by M. Thury, power is trans- mitted from constant current generators worked in series, and commonly coupled mechanically in pairs or larger groups driven by a single prime mover. The individual generators are wound for moderate currents, generally between 50 and 150 amperes, and deliver this ordinarily at a maximum voltage of 2000 to 3500, the output per armature seldom being above 300 kw. For the high voltages needed for long distance transmission as many generators as may be required are thrown in series. In the Moutiers-Lyons transmission of no m., the most considerable yet installed on this system, there are four groups, each consisting of four mechanically-coupled genera- tors. The common current is 75 amp., and the maximum voltage per group is about 15,000 volts, giving nearly 60,000 volts as the transmission voltage at maximum load. In the St Maurice-Lausanne transmission of about 35 m. the constant current is 150 amp. and the voltage per armature is 2300, five pairs being put in series' for the maximum load voltage of 23,000. Regulation in such plants is accomplished either by varying the field strength through an automatic governor or by similarly varying the speed of the generators. Either method gives sufficiently good results. The transmission circuit is of the simplest character, and the power is received by motors, or for local distribution by motor generators, held to speed by centrifugal governors controlling field- varying mechanism. For large output the motors, like the generators, are in groups mechanically coupled and in series. In the Moutiers- Lyons transmission motor-generators are even designed to give a three-phase constant potential distribution, and in reverse to permit interchange of energy between the continuous current and several polyphase transmission systems. The advantages of the system reside chiefly in easier line insulation than with alternating currents and in the abolition of the difficulties due to line inductance and capacity. It is probably as easy to insulate for 100,000 volts continuous current as for 50,000 volts alternating current. Part of the difference is due to the fact that in the latter case the crest of the E.M.F. wave reaches nearly 75,000 volts, and in addition static effects and minor resonant rise of voltage must be reckoned with. There is some possibility, therefore, of the advantage- ous use of continuous current in case very great distances, requiring enormous voltages, have to be covered. In addition, a constant current plant is at full voltage only at brief and rare periods of maximum load instead of all the time, which greatly increases the average factor of safety in insulation. On the other hand, the constant current generators are relatively expensive and of inconveniently small individual output for large transmission work, and require very elaborate precautions in the matter of insulation. Their efficiency is a little less than that of large alternators, but the difference is partially off-set by the transformers used with the latter for any considerable voltage. A characteristic advantage of the constant current system is the extreme simplicity and cheapness of the switching arrangements as compared with the complication and cost of the ordinary switch-board lor a polyphase station at high voltage. Comparing station with station as a whole it is at least an open question whether the poly- phase system would have any material advantage in cost per kw. in an average case. The principal gains of the alternating systems appear in the relative simplicity of the distribution. In dealing with a few large power units the constant current system has the best of the argument in efficiency, but in the ordinary case of widespread distribution for varied purposes the advantage is quite the other way. The high-voltage constant-current plant lends itself with especial ease to operation, at least in emergency, over a grounded circuit. In some recent plants, e.g. Moutiers-Lyons, provision is made at the sub-stations for grounding the central point of the system and either line in case of need, and in point of fact the voltage drop in working grounded is found to be within moderate and practicable limits. The possibilities of improvement in the system have by no means been worked out, and although it has been overshadowed by the enormous growth of polyphase transmission it must still be considered seriously. Transmission by Alternating Current. — The alternating current has conspicuous advantages. In the first place, whatever the voltage of transmission, the voltage of generation and that of distribution can be brought within moderate limits at a very high degree of efficiency by the use of transformers; and, in the second place, it is possible to build alternating-current generators of any required capacity, and for voltages high enough to permit the abolition of raising transformers except in unusual circum- stances. At present such generators, giving 10,000 to 13,500 volts directly from the armature windings, are in common and highly successful use; and while the use of raising transformers is preferred by some engineers, experience shows that they cannot be considered essential, and are probably not desirable for the voltages in question, which are as great as at the present time seem necessary for the numerical majority of transmission plants. Polyphase generators, especially in large sizes, can be successfully wound up to more than double the figures just mentioned. The plant at Manojlovac, Dalmatia, has been equipped with four 30,000 volt three-phase generators, giving each about 5000 kw. at 42 ~ with 420 revolutions per minute, the full load efficiency being 94%. But for very large trans- mission work to considerable distances where much higher voltages are requisite such transformers cannot be dispensed with. Alternating currents are practically employed in the polyphase form, on account both of increased generator output in this type of apparatus and of the extremely valuable proper- ties of the polyphase induction motors, which furnish a ready means for the distribution of power at the receiving end of the line. As between two- and three-phase apparatus the present prac- tice is about equally divided; the transmission lines themselves, however, are, with rare exceptions, worked three-phase, on account of the saving of 25% in copper secured by the use of this system. Inasmuch as transformers can be freely combined vectorially to give resultant electromotive forces having any desired magnitudes and phase relations the passage from two- phase to three-phase, and back again, is made with the utmost ease, and the character of the generating and receiving apparatus thus becomes almost a matter of indifference. As regards such apparatus it is safe to say that honours are about even: some- times one system proves more convenient, sometimes the other. The difficulty of obtaining proper single-phase motors for the varied purposes of general distribution has so far prevented any material use of single-phase transmission systems. Generators for Power Transmission. — The generators are usually large two- or three-phase machines, and in the majority of instances they are driven by water-wheels. Power transmission on a large scale from steam plant has, up to the present, made no substantial progress, save as the networks of large electrical supply stations have in some cases grown to cover radii of many miles. The size of these generators varies from 100 or 200 kw. in small plants, up to 10,000 or more in the larger ones. Their efficiency ranges from 92% or thereabouts in the smaller sizes up to 96% or a fraction more in the largest, at full load. The voltage of these generators varies greatly. When raising transformers are used it is usually from 500 to 2500 volts; without them the genera- tors are usually wound for 10,000 to 13,500 volts. Intermediate voltages have sometimes been employed, but are rather passing out of use, as they seem to fulfil no particularly useful purpose. The tendency at the present time, whatever the voltage, is towards the use of machines with stationary armatures and revolving field magnets, or towards a pure inductor type having all its windings stationary. At moderate voltages such an arrangement is merely a matter of convenience, but in high-voltage generators it is practi- cally a necessity. Low-voltage machines are usually provided with polyodontal windings, these windings having several separate arma- ture teeth per pole per phase, while the high-voltage machines are generally monodontal; in both classes the edges of the pole pieces are usually chamfered away in such form as to produce at least a close approximation to the sinusoidal form for the electromotive force. For this purpose, and to obtain a better inherent regulation under variations of load, the field magnets are, or should be, par- ticularly powerful. In the best modern generators the variation of electromotive force from no load to full load, non-inductive, is less than 10% at constant field excitation. Closeness of inherent regulation is an important matter in generators for transmission work- ELECTRICAL] POWER TRANSMISSION 235 inasmuch as there is as yet no entirely successful method of automatic voltage regulation on very large units; and the less hand regulation the better. Moreover, the design which secures this result also tends to secure stability of wave form in the electromotive force, a matter of even greater importance. There has been much discussion as to the l>ost wave form for use on alternating circuits, it having been conclusively shown that for a given fundamental frequency the sinusoidal wave does not give the most economical use of iron in the transformers. For transmission work, however, particularly over long lines, this is a matter of inconceivably small importance compared with the stability and the freedom from troubles from higher harmonics that result from the use of a wave as nearly sinu- soidal as can possibly be obtained. In every alternating circuit the odd harmonics are considerably in evidence in the electromotive force, either produced by the structure of the generator or introduced by the transformers and other apparatus. These are of no particular moment in work upon a small scale, but in transmission on a large scale to long distances, or especially through underground cables, they are, as will be seen in the consideration of the transmission line itself, a serious menace. Inasmuch as the periodicity of an alter- nating circuit must be maintained sensibly constant for successful operation, great care is usually exercised to secure such governing of the prime movers as will give constant speed at the generators. This can now be obtained, in all ordinary circumstances, by several forms of sensitive hydraulic governors which are now in use. The mat- ter of absolute periodicity has not yet settled itself into any final form. American practice is based largely upon 60 cycles per second, which is probably as high a frequency as can be advantageously employed. Indeed, even this leads to some embarrassment in securing good motors of moderate rotative speed, and the tendency of the frequency is rather downward than upward. An inferior limit is set by the general desirability of operating incandescent lamps off the trans- mission circuits. For this purpose the frequency should be held above 30 cycles per second ; below this point, flickering of the lamps becomes progressively more serious, especially with lamps having the very slender metallic filaments now commonly employed — so serious, indeed, as practically to prohibit their successful use — and plants installed for such low frequencies are generally confined to motor practice, or to the use of synchronous converters, which are somewhat easier to build in large units at low than at high periodici- ties. Occasional plants for railway and heavy motor service operate at as low as 15 ~, and more at 25 ~. Nearly all the general work of power transmission, however, is carried on between 30 and 60 ~. The inferior limit at which it is possible successfully to operate alternating arc lamps is about 40 ~ ; and if these are to be an impor- tant feature in transmission systems the indications are that practice will tend towards a periodicity above 40 ~, at which all the accessory apparatus can be successfully operated. European practice is based generally upon a frequency of 50 ~, which admirably meets average conditions of distribution. Transmission Lines. — Power transmission lines differ from those used for general electric distribution principally in the use of higher voltage and in the precautions entailed thereby. The economic principles of design are precisely the same here as elsewhere, save that the conductors vary less in diameter and far more in length. Inasmuch as transmission systems are frequently installed prior to the existence of a well-developed distribution system the conditions of load and the market for the power transmitted can seldom be predicted accurately; consequently, the cases are very rare in which Kelvin's law can be applied with any advantage; and as it is at best confined to determining the most economical conditions at a particular epoch this law is probably of less use in power transmission than in any other branch of electric distribution. A superior limit is set to the permissible loss of energy in the line by the difficulty attending regulation for constant potential in case the line loss is considerable. The inferior limit is usually set by the undesirability of too large an investment in copper, and lines are usually laid out from the standpoint of regulation rather than from any other. In ordinary practice it seldom proves advantageous to allow more than 15% loss in the line even under extreme conditions, and the cases are few in which less than 5% loss is advisable. These few cases comprise those in which the demand for power notably over- runs the supply as limited by the maximum power available at the generating station, and also the few cases in which a loss greater than 5% would indicate the use of a line wire too small from a mechanical standpoint. It is not advisable to attempt to construct long lines of wire smaller than No. 2 American wire-gauge (-257 in. diameter), although occasionally wire as small as No. 4 (-204 in. diameter) may safely be employed. Smaller diameter than this involves considerable added difficulty of insulation in lines operated at voltages in excess of about 50,000. The vast majority of trans- mission lines are composed of overhead conductors. In rare instances underground cables are used. In single-phase work these are preferably of concentric form, which, however, gets too com- plicated in the three-phase lines generally employed to secure economy in copper; for the latter, triplicate cables, lead sheathed, laid in glazed earthenware ducts, seem to give the best results. On account of the cost and the difficulty of repair of such lines they are not extensively used, and cables have not yet been produced for the extremely high voltages desirable in some very long circuits, although they are readily obtainable for voltages up to 30,000 or 40,000. As to the material of the conductors, copper is almost universally used. For very long spans, however, bronze wire of high tensile strength is occasionally employed as a substitute for copper wire, and more rarely steel wire ; aluminium, too, is beginning to come into use for general line work. Bronze of high tensile strength (say 80,000 to 100,000 Ib per square inch) has unfortunately less than half the conductivity of copper; and unless spans of many hundred feet are to be attempted it is better to use hard-drawn copper, which gives a tensile strength of from 60,000 to 65,000 B> to the square inch, with a reduction in conductivity of only 3 to 4 %. As to aluminium, this metal has a tensile strength slightly less than that of annealed copper, a conductivity about 60% that of copper, and for equal conductivity is almost exactly one-half the weight. Mechanically, aluminium is somewhat inferior to copper, as its coefficient of expansion with temperature is 50 % greater; and its elastic limit is very low, the metal tending to take a permanent set under comparatively light tension, and being seriously affected at less than half its ultimate tensile strength. Joints in aluminium wire are difficult to make, since the present methods of soldering are little better than cementing the metal with the flux ; in practice the joints are purely mechanical, being usually made by means of tight-fitting sleeves forced into contact with the wire. With suitable caution in stringing, aluminium lines can be successfully used, and are likely to serve as a useful defence against increase in the price of copper. Whatever the material, most important lines are now built of stranded cable, sometimes with a hemp core to give added flexibility. With respect to line construction the introduction of high voltages, say 40,000 and upwards, has made a radical change in the situation. The earlier transmission lines were for rather low voltages, seldom above 10,000. Insulation was extremely easy, and the transmission of any considerable amount of power implied heavy or numerous conductors. The line construction therefore followed rather closely the precedents set in telegraph and telephone construction and in low tension electric light service. In American practice the lines were usually of simple wooden poles set 40 to 50 to the mile, and carrying wooden cross-arms furnished with wooden pins carrying insulators of glass or porcelain. The poles were little larger than those used in telegraph lines, a favourite size being a 4O-ft. pole about 8 in. in diameter at the top and 15 in. at the butt, set 6 to 7 ft. in the earth. Such poles commonly bore two cross- arms, the lower and longer carrying 4 pins, and the shorter upper arm 2 pins, so disposed that the upper pin on each side of the pole would form with the nearer pins below an equilateral triangle 18 to 24 in. on the side. The poles therefore carried two three- phase circuits one on either side, one or both circuits being spiralled. In European practice iron poles have been more .frequently used, again following rather closely the model of telegraph practice, with similar spacing of poles, and with insulators, usually of porcelain, somewhat enlarged and improved over telegraph and electric light insulators, and spaced somewhat more widely. As between wooden and steel poles, the latter are of course the more durable and much the more costly. The difference in cost depends largely on the locality, and ultimately on the life of the wooden poles. This ranges from two or three up to ten or fifteen years, the latter figures only in favourable soils and when the lower ends of the poles nave been thoroughly treated with some preservative. Under such conditions wood is often ultimately the cheaper material. The use of very high voltages results in, for all moderate powers, the use of small and consequently light wires and in the necessity for heavy, large and costly insulators. For security against leakage and failure it becomes desirable to reduce the numer of insulation points, and with the resulting lengthening of span to design the line as a mechanical structure. A transmission line is subject to three sets of stresses. The most considerable are those due to the longi- tudinal pull of the catenary depending on the weight and tension of the wires. Under ordinary conditions these strains are balanced and come into play only when there is breakage of one or more wires and consequent unbalancing. It has been the common practice to give the poles sufficient strength to withstand this pull without failing. The maximum amount of the pull may be safely taken at the sum of the elastic limits of the wires, since it is unsafe so to design the spans as to be subject to larger stresses. There is also lateral stress on a line due to wind acting upon the poles and wires, the latter amounting to little unless their diameter is increased by a coating of sleet, a condition which gives maximum stresses on the line. Wind then tends to push the line over, and it also increases the longitudinal stresses, being added geometrically to the catenary stress. The actual possibility of wind pressure is very generally over-estimated, and has resulted in much needlessly costly construction. In the first place, save for actual tornadoes, for which no estimates can be given, even the highest winds at the level of any ordinary transmission line are of modest actual velocity. It is probable that no transmission line save on mountain peaks at a very high elevation is ever exposed to an actual wind velocity of 75 m. per hour, and only at intervals of years is a velocity of even 60 m. reached near the ground level. Further, the maximum wind velocities are practically never reached at very low temperatures when the line is under its maximum catenary stress, and sleet 236 POWER TRANSMISSION [ELECTRICAL formation, which takes place only within a very limited temperature range, is practically unknown under conditions of maximum wind. The relation of wind velocity to pressure in case of a suspended wire or cable may be approximately expressed by the equation P = o-oo2sV2, where P is the pressure per square foot of projected area of cable, and V is the actual wind velocity in miles per hour. Except for sleet conditions the wind pressure is, then, a matter of little concern. At times sleet may accumulate on bare wires to a thickness of half an inch to an inch. Even under these conditions the lateral stability of the line is a matter of less concern than the added component of stress in the catenary. The third element of line stress, the actual crushing stress of the wire load, is of no consequence in high voltage transmission work. In scientific line design the best example has been set by the Italian engineers, who, realizing that the longitudinal strains, which are very severe in case of breakage of spans rigidly supported from pole to pole, a_re immediately relieved by a slight increase in catenary drop, have introduced the principle of longitudinal flexibility. The poles or towers of structural steel are so designed as to be fairly stiff against lateral pressure and are given secure foundation against overturning, but are deliberately designed to deflect length- wise the line in the extreme case of breakage of wires so as at once to relieve the catenary tension without passing their elastic limit. In this way complete security is attained with a minimum of material and expense. In recent construction both in America and Europe the tendency is to use steel poles or towers of ample height, 40 to 60 ft. and spans ranging from 300 to 600 ft., occasionally more. The catenary drop allowed is considerable, often 3 to- 4% of the span length. Cross- arms and pins, when used, are commonly of iron or steel, and the interiors of the insulators are therefore fairly at earth potential. The insulators are of dense and hard-baked porcelain, built up of three or four shells cemented together to form a whole, with several deep petticoats to protect the inner surfaces from wetting. Such insulators may be 12 to 18 in. in diameter over all, and from top groove to base a little more. If well designed and made, insulators of this type can endure even under very heavy precipitation alter- nating voltages of 60,000 to 100,000 effective without flashing over, and double these figures when dry. For line voltages above 60,000 to 70,000 it is apparent that the insulating factor of safety would be seriously reduced, and some recent lines have been equipped with suspension insulators. These are in effect porcelain bells from 10 in. diameter upward strung together like a string of Japanese gongs. The bells are all the same size and are spaced about a foot apart, the suspensions being variously designed. These insulating groups can be as large as need be, and it is easy to push the aggregate insula- tjon resistance, both dry and wet, far beyond the figures just men- tioned. This suspension requires higher poles than the ordinary, but allows a considerable amount of longitudinal back lash, in case a wire burns off. Too extensive slip along the line is checked by guys fitted with strain insulators, like the suspension ones, at suitable intervals. The suspension insulator gives promise of successful use of voltages much higher than 100,000 volts. The wires on high voltage systems are generally widely spaced : very seldom less than 2 ft. between centres, and for the higher voltages something like I ft. for each 10,000 volts. Voltage. — The most important factor in the economy pf the con- ducting system is the actual voltage used for the transmission. This varies within very wide limits. For transmissions only a few miles in length the pressures employed may be from 2000 to 5000 volts, but for the serious work of power transmission less than 10,000 volts are now seldom used. This pressure, under all ordinary con- ditions and in all ordinary climates, can be and is used with complete success, and apparently without any greater difficulty than would be encountered at much lower voltage. It is regarded as the stan- dard transmission voltage in American practice for short distances up to 10 or 15 m. Beyond this, and sometimes even on shorter lines, it is greatly increased; up to 20,000 volts there seems to be no material difficulty whatever in effecting and maintaining a sufficient insulation of the line. In the higher voltages there were in 1908 more than fifty plants in regular operation at 40,000 volts and above. Of these more than a score are operated at 60,000 volts and above. The highest working voltage employed in 1909 was 110,000 volts, which was successfully used in two American plants: that of the Grand Rapids — Muskegon (Michigan) system.and in the transmission work of the Central Colorado system. These both employ suspen- sion insulators with five bells in series, and operate with no more trouble than falls to the lot of systems using ordinarily high voltages. The Rio de Janeiro transmission system, operates at 88,000 volts with large porcelain insulators, 17-5 in. in over-all diameter and 19-75 in height, carried on steel pins; the Kern River (California) plant at 75,000 volts with similar construction ; the Missouri River Power Co. (Montana) at 70,000 volts, using glass insulators on wooden pins saturated with insulating material. There is no especial difficulty in building transformers for still higher pressures, the real problem lying in the insulation of the line. Taken as a whole these high voltage lines have given good service, those near the upper limit doing apparently as well as those near the lower, owing to more careful precautions in construction. Likewise the distances of transmission have steadily risen. There are, all told, nearly a score of power transmissions over 100 m. in length, the longest distance yet covered being from De Sabla to Sausalito (California), a distance of 232 m. This, like most other long American transmissions, is at 6o~, and it is interesting to note that even over such distances there seems to be very little evidence of trouble due to frequency. In point of fact, those who have had the most experience with long distance transmission are the last to worry about the difficulties of using alternating current. Some unusual phenomena turn up in high voltage work, but they are rather interesting than alarming. The lines become self-luminous from " coronal " discharge at a little above 20,000 volts, and at 40,000 or 50,000 volts the phenomenon, which is sometimes aggravated by resonance, becomes of a striking, not to say startling, character. At above 100,000 volts this coronal discharge must be given serious consideration. Resonance, in substance, is due to synchronism of the periodic electromotive force, or a harmonic thereof, with the electro-magnetic time-constant of the system. The frequency of the currents actually employed in transmission work is so low that resonance with the fundamental frequency must be extremely rare; resonance with the harmonics is, however, common — much commoner than is generally supposed. In every electromotive force wave the odd harmonics are more or less in evidence, particularly the third, fifth and seventh. If the electromotive force wave departs notably from a sinusoidal form, traces of harmonics up to at least the isth may generally be found ; the third, seventh and the alternate higher har- monics are manifest in flattening the crest of the wave. Supposing, what is seldom quite true, that the harmonics are symmetrically disposed in phase with the fundamental, all the harmonics tend somewhat to elevate the shoulders of the wave; a wave, therefore, with peaked shoulders and a depression in the centre is certain to be affected by harmonics, while if it has a high central crest, there is evidence of great predominance of the fifth and higher harmonics. Generally the harmonics are slightly out of phase with the fundamen- tal, so that the wave is both deformed and unsymmetrical. As to the amplitude pf these harmonics, the third is usually the largest, and may sometimes in commercial machines amount to as much as 20 % of the amplitude of the fundamental, and frequently 10%. In machines giving nearly sinusoidal waves it is of course much less, but it is not difficult to find even the seventh and higher harmonics producing variations as great as 5%. Since, other things being equal, the rise in electromotive force due to resonance is directly projjortional to the magnitude of the harmonics, and the chance of getting it increases rapidly with the presence of those of the higher orders, the desirability of using the closest possible approximation to a sinusoidal wave is self-evident. The greater the inductance and capacity of the system and the less its ohmic resistance, the greater the chance of getting serious resonance. As regards the distributed capacity and inductance due to the line alone, the ordinary conditions are not at all formidable; the general effect of such distributed capacity and inductance is to produce in the system a series of static waves, their length varying inversely with the frequency. At commercial frequencies the wave length is very great, so great that even in the longest lines at present employed only a small fraction of a single wave length appears; the total length of the line is generally much less than one quarter the com- plete wave length, and the only notable effect is a moderate rise of potential along the line. The time-constant of the alternating circuit is T = -00629 V (LC), where L is the absolute self-induction in henrys and C the capacity in microfarads; and if the frequency, or a marked harmonic thereof, coincide with this time-period, resonance may safely be looked for, and resonance of the harmonics may appear conspicuously in lines of ordinary lengths. The follow- ing table gives the values, both L and C, per mile of three-phase circuit, of the sizes (American wire-gauge) ordinarily employed for transmission circuits, the wires being assumed to be strung 48 in. apart and about the height already indicated : — Size No. Diameter. L. C. inch. oooo 0-460 O-OO3I2 0-0167 ooo 0-4IO O-OO322 0-0164 oo 0-365 0-00328 0-0160 o 0-325 0-00336 0-0157 i 0-289 0-00338 0-0154 2 0-258 0-00347 0-0151 3 0-229 0-0035I • 0-0148 4 O-2O4 0-00358 0-0145 In cases where underground cables form a part of the system, the above values of C are very largely increased, and the probability of resonance is in proportion enhanced. A still further complication is introduced by the capacity and inductance of the apparatus used upon the system, which may often be far greater than that due to the entire line, even if the latter be of considerable length. In point of fact, it is altogether probable that resonance due to the distributed capacity and inductance of the overhead line alone is of rare occur- rence and generally of trivial amount, while it is equally probable ELECTRICAL] POWER TRANSMISSION 237 that resonance due to localized capacity and inductance other than that of the line conductors may, and often does, cause very serious disturbances upon the system. The subject has never been ade- quately investigated, but the tendency towards formidable sparking and arcing at various points on long-distance transmission systems is generally far greater than can be accounted for by consideration of the nominal voltages alone. The conditions may be still further complicated by the effect of earths or open circuits, which sometimes may produce, temporarily, appalling resonance phenomena, through bringing into action the capacity and inductance of the apparatus and introducing surges. In ordinary working the resonance of the harmonics is not very conspicuous, and the fact that it occurs not systematically, but only in special ways and under special conditions, indicates more strongly than anything else that the vital point is not the time-constant of the line alone, but those of the apparatus connected thereto. A definite and persistent tendency towards resonance may sometimes be effectively checked by the introduction of suitable inductance in the parts of the system most seriously affected, but the best general policy is to avoid as far as possible the presence of the higher harmonics, which are the chief sources of danger. Closely allied to and connected with resonance is the phenomenon known as " surging," which is due to the discharge of the electro- magnetic energy stored in a circuit containing inductance and capa- city when that circuit is broken. This discharge is an oscillatory one, going on with decreasing amplitude until it is frittered away by resistance and other sources of loss. Its frequency is that of the system affected, and the surge may get reinforcement from resonance proper. It is sufficiently serious on its merits, however, since the resulting rise of voltage increases directly with the current and may produce terrific results when the break comes as the result of a short circuit. Minor surging occurs when there is a sudden and violent change in the conditions of the circuit even without an actual break. Such a change produces an impulsive redistribution of energy that may give a sharp rise in voltage. Every point of abrupt variation in the electrical constants on the system is liable to be affected by minor surges. Such disturbances when trivial are commonly referred to as " static." Surging, depending as it does on the current ruptured, may, and indeed often does, give particularly formidable effects on circuits of moderate voltage, while on high voltage transmission circuits the usually moderate current and the large margin of safety in the insulation are important ameliorating influences. Maintenance. — Transmission lines are, when practicable, laid out through open country, and along roads which furnish easy access for inspection and repairs. The chief sources of danger in temperate climates are mechanical injury from the falling of branches of trees across the circuits, sleet and wind storms, and lightning. The first- mentioned difficulty may be avoided by keeping clear, so far as possible, of wooded country, and it should be remembered that, at the voltages customarily used for transmission, a twig the size of a lead-pencil falling across the wires may set up arcing, and it will end by burning the wires completely off — not directly by fusion, but by persistent arcing. A properly constructed overhead line is practically safe against all storms, save those of most extraordinary violence, and with care may be made secure even against these. As a matter of practice, interruptions of service upon transmission systems are very rarely due to trouble upon the main line itself, but are far more likely to occur in some part of the distributing system. The most dangerous combination of circumstances is a sleet storm sufficient to coat the wires with ice, followed by heavy winds ; if the line, however, is constructed with proper factors of safety, bearing this particular danger in mind, there need be very little fear of serious results. Lightning is a much more formidable enemy. The lightning discharges observed upon electric circuits are of two general descriptions: first, a direct discharge of lightning upon the fine, more or less severe, and always to be dreaded ; and secondly, induced discharges due to lightning flashes which do not hit the line, or to static disturbances which may or may not produce actual lightning. Discharges of the former class are vastly more severe than those of the latter, and, fortunately, are somewhat rare. They may actually shatter the line, or may distribute themselves along it for a considerable distance, leaping from wire to pole, and thence to earth, without actually damaging the line to any marked degree. The induced discharges are felt principally in the apparatus, causing many of the burn-outs observed in transformers and generators. There is no complete protection against the effects of lightning upon the apparatus. Even the best lightning arresters are palliatives rather than preventives. If, however, a number of arresters are put in parallel, with reactance coils between them on the way towards the apparatus, the vast majority of lightning discharges, to whatever cause they may be due, will be deflected harmlessly to earth. Moreover, the apparatus itself has a considerable power of resistance, due to its high insulation. The ends of the line should be very thoroughly protected by such lightning arresters, and other points, such as prominent elevations along the line, should receive similar additional protection. In some cases a substantial steel-wire ca_ble stretched along the tops of the poles several feet above the line wires and well grounded at frequent intervals has been found very advantageous. With the best protection at present available, lightning is not a serious menace to continuity of service, and the apparatus of the distributing system is far more difficult to protect than the main line and its apparatus. Sub-stations. — In most long-distance transmission work the trans- mission line itself terminates in a sub-station, which bears to the general distribution system precisely the same relations which are borne by a central electric supply station to its distributing lines. Such a sub-station should be treated, in fact, as a central station, receiving its electric energy from a distance instead of employing local generators driven by prime movers. The design of the sub- station, however, is somewhat different from that of the ordinary central station. The transmission lines terminate generally in a bank of reducing transformers, bringing the voltage from the 10,000 or higher voltage employed upon the line to the 2000 or more generally used in the distribution. These transformers are usually- large, and their magnitude should be determined by the same con- siderations which apply to determining the size of the units to be employed in a generating station. The general rule to be followed is that the separate units shall be of such size that one of them may be dispensed with without serious inconvenience. In the case of transformers, the unit in two- or three-phase working is the bank of transformers, which must be used together. In Continental practice three-phase reducing transformers are frequently made to include all three phases in a single structure ; this practice is less frequently followed in American plants, separate transformers being more often used in each phase. In this case, two or three transformers, accord- ing as the two- or three-phase system is used, constitute a single transformer unit in the sense just mentioned. If a change is to DC made from three-phase line to two-phase distribution, the change is made by the appropriate vector connexion of the transformers. The full-load efficiency of large sub-station transformers is commonly 97 to 98%. In any case, the sub-station is furnished with voltage regulating appliances, to enable the voltage upon the distribution lines to be held constant and uniform. These regulators are, in practice, transformers with a variable transformation ratio. This is obtained in divers ways — sometimes by changing the inductive relations of the primary and secondary coils, sometimes by changing the relative number of effective turns in primary and secondary. Sets of these inductive regulators enable the voltage to be controlled over a sufficiently wide range to secure uniform potential on the system, and with a degree of delicacy that obviates any undesirable changes in voltage. The regulation is usually manual, no automatic regulator yet having proved entirely satisfactory. In very large systems it is worth noting that the so-called " skin effect " in alternating current conductors may become conspicuous. In the transmission circuits them- selves the wires are, in practice, never large enough to produce any sensible difference in conductivity for continuous and for alter- nating currents. In the heavy omnibus-bars of a large sub-station this immunity may not be continued, but in such cases flat strips are frequently employed. If these are not more than, say, a centi- metre in thickness, the " skin effect " is practically insignificant for all frequencies used commercially. Not infrequently the sub-station also contains devices for the changing of alternating to continuous current, usually synchronous converters feeding either traction system or electric lighting mains. Beyond these converters the system becomes an ordinary continuous-current system, and is treated as such. When very close regulation is necessary, motor- generators are often preferred to synchronous converters. Series arc lighting from transmission circuits is a much more serious problem. At the present time two methods are in vogue: first, the operation of continuous-current series-arc machines by synchronous or induction motors driven from the transmission system; and, secondly, series alternating apparatus for feeding alternating arcs. This apparatus consists either of constant- current transformers with automatically moving secondaries, or of inductive regulators, also automatic in their action, supplemented by transformers to supply them with the necessarily rather high voltage employed for arc distribution. As between these two systems practice is at present divided; electrically, the alternating apparatus gives a rather higher real efficiency, but in- volves the use of alternating arcs, which are somewhat less efficient, watt for watt, as light producers than the continuous-current arcs. The apparatus, however, requires practically no care, while the arc machines, driven by motors, require the same amount of care as if they were driven by other power. Arc light transformers, however, are likely to have low power factors, hardly above 0-8 at full load, and rapidly falling off at lower loads. Synchronous rectifiers changing the alternating current into a unidirectional current, suit- able for use." with arc lights, have been employed with some success, but not to any considerable extent. They are satisfactory in avoid- ing the use of alternating currents in the arc, and consume but little energy in the transformation from one form of current to the other, but involve the use of static transformers automatically giving con- stant current, which are somewhat objectionable on the score of low- power factor. Mercury rectifiers are now used rather extensively and give excellent results, although they are as yet of somewhat uncertain life, and, like the synchronous rectifiers, require special transformers when worked at constant current. In Continental practice arc lights are almost universally worked off constant 238 POWIS, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF— POYNINGS potential circuits, and hence the difficulties just considered are for the most part peculiar to American systems. Distances of Transmission. — The ultimate determining factor in the distance to which power can be commercially transmitted is the economic side of the transmission, the maximum distance being the maximum distance at which the transmission will pay. As a mere engineering feat the transmission of power to a distance of many hundred miles is perfectly feasible, and, judging from the data available, the phenomena encountered in increasing the length of lines have not been of such character as to cause any hesitation in going still farther, provided the increase is commercially feasible. In American practice, it is within the truth to say that nearly all transmissions of reasonable size (say a few hundred kilowatts) to distances of twenty miles, or less, are pretty certain to pay. At distances up to fifty miles, in a large proportion of cases power can be delivered at prices which will enable it to compete with power locally generated by steam. From fifty to one hundred miles (on a large scale — several thousand kilowatts) the chances for commercial success are still good. The larger the amount of power transmitted, the better on the whole is the commercial outlook. The longest one yet operated has already been noted, and may be regarded as a commercial success. In certain localities where the cost of fuel is extremely high, transmissions of several hundred miles may prove successful from a commercial as well as an engineering standpoint, but the growth of industry, which indicates the necessity for such a transmission, may go on until, through improved facilities of trans- port, the cost of fuel may be greatly lowered and the economic conditions entirely changed. Such a modification of the con- ditions sometimes takes place much more quickly than would be anticipated at first sight, so that when very long distance trans- missions are under consideration, the permanence of the conditions which will render them profitable should be a very serious subject of consideration. (L. BL.) POWIS, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. Before the Norman Conquest the Welsh principality of Powis, comprising the county of Montgomery and part of the counties of Brecknock, Radnor, Shropshire, Merioneth and Denbigh, was subject to the princes of North Wales. Early in the i2th century it was divided into upper and lower Powis. In 1283 Owen ap Griffin, prince of upper Powis, formally resigned his princely title (nomen et circulum principatus) and his lands to the English king Edward I. at Shrewsbury, and received the lands again as an English barony. (See Montgomeryshire Collections, 1868, vol. i.). This barony of Powis passed through female inherit- ance to the family of Cherleton and in 1421 to that of Grey. It fell into abeyance in 1551. In 1587 Sir Edward Herbert (d. 1594), a younger son of William Herbert, earl of Pembroke, purchased some of the lands of the barony, including Red castle, afterwards Powis castle, near Welshpool, and in 1629 his son William (c. 1573-1656) was created Baron Powis. William's grandson, William, the 3rd baron (c. 1629-1696), was created earl of Powis in 1674 and Viscount Montgomery and marquess of Powis in 1687. The recognized head of the Roman Catholic aristocracy in England, Powis was suspected of complicity in some of the popish plots and was imprisoned in the Tower of London from 1678 to 1684. He followed James II. into exile and was created duke of Powis by the dethroned king. The English government deprived him of his estates, but these were restored to his son William, the 2nd marquess, in 1722. William, who had a somewhat chequered career as a Jacobite, died in October 1745, and when his son William, the 3rd marquess, died in 1748 the titles became extinct. In 1748 Henry Arthur Herbert (d. 1772), who had been made Baron Herbert of Chirbury in 1743, was created Baron Powis and earl of Powis. He allied himself with the earlier holders of these titles, with which family he was distantly connected, by marrying Barbara, a niece of the 3rd marquess. The titles became extinct a second time when his son George Edward died in January 1801. George's sister and heiress, Henrietta Antonia (1758-1830), married Edward Clive (1754-1829), son and heir of the great Lord Clive. In 1794 he was made Baron Clive of Walcot, and in 1804, after serving as governor of Madras from 1798 to 1803, he was created Baron Powis and earl of Powis. His son Edward, the 2nd earl (1785-1848), took the name of Herbert in 1807 in lieu of that of Clive. He was a member of parliament from 1806 to 1839, and was elected in opposition to the Prince Consort, as chancellor of the university of Cambridge in 1847. His second son was Lieut.-General Sir Percy Egerton Herbert (1822-1876), who distinguished him- self in the Crimean War, and Sir Percy's son, George Ckarles (b. 1862), became the 4th earl in 1891. POWNALL, THOMAS (1722-1805), British colonial states- man and soldier, was born at Saltfleetby, Lincolnshire, Eng- land, in 1722. He was educated at Lincoln and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1743. He entered the office of the lords commissioners of trade and plantations, of which his brother John was then secretary; and in 1753 he went to America as private secretary to Sir Danvers Osborn, just appointed governor of New York. Osborn committed suicide soon after reaching New York (Oct. 6), but Pownall remained in America, devoting himself to studying the con- dition of the American colonies. At the Albany Congress, in 1754, ha met Benjamin Franklin, and a life-long friendship between the two resulted. In 1756 he returned to England, and presented to Pitt a plan for a campaign against the French in Canada, to begin with the investment of Quebec. In 1757 Pitt appointed him governor of Massachusetts,1 in which office he heartily supported Pitt's policy during the Seven Years' War, and in 1758 encouraged the equipment of a force of 7000 men, to be recruited and armed in New England; but the French power in America once broken, Pownall came more directly under the influence of the lords of trade, and his unwillingness to carry out the repressive policies of that body caused his transfer to the governorship of South Carolina in February 1760. This office he held nominally for about a year; but he never went to South Carolina, and in June 1760 he returned to Eng- land. In 1762-1763 he was commissary-general of the British troops in Germany. As member of parliament for Tregony in 1768-1774 and for Minehead in 1774-1780, he at first sided with the Whigs in opposing all plans to tax the American colonists, but he supported North's administration after the outbreak of the War of Independence. He died at Bath on the 25th of February 1805. In 1764 he published (at first anonymously) his famous Administration of the Colonies (other editions appeared in 1765, 1766, 1768 and 1774), in which he advocated a union of all British possessions upon the basis of community of commercial interests. For an extended account of Pownall's career and a bibliography of his publications see Thomas Pownall, M.P., F.R.S. (London, 1908), by Charles A. W. Pownall, a distant kinsman, who attempts to prove that Pownall was the " author behind the scenes " of the " Letters of Junius " and " that Francis was his subordinate." POYET, GUILLAUME (1473-1548), French magistrate, was born at Angers. After practising successfully as a barrister at Angers and Paris, he was instructed by Louise of Savoy, mother of the king, Francis I., to uphold her rights against the constable de Bourbon in 1521. This was the beginning of his fortunes. Through the influence of the queen-mother he obtained the posts of advocate-general (1530) and president of the parlement of Paris (1534), and became chancellor of France in 1538. He was responsible for the legal reform con- tained in the ordinance of Villers-Cotterets (1539), the object of which was to shorten procedure. This ordered the keeping of registers of baptisms and deaths, and enjoined the exclusive use of the French language in legal procedure. With the con- stable de Montmorency he organized an intrigue to ruin Admiral Chabot, and procured his condemnation in 1541; but after the admiral was pardoned, Poyet was himself thrown into prison, deprived of his offices, and sentenced to a fine of 100,000 livres. He recovered his liberty in 1545, and died in April 1548. See C. Poree, Guillaume Poyet (Angers, 1898). POYNINGS, SIR EDWARD (1450-1521), lord deputy of Ire- land, was the only son of Robert Poynings, second son of the 5th Baron Poynings. His mother was a daughter of Sir William Paston, and some of her correspondence is to be found in the 1 In September 1755 Pownall had been made lieutenant-governor of New Jersey, but he had little to do with the affairs of that province and resigned soon after his appointment to Massachusetts. POYNTER— POZZO DI BORGO 239 Fasten Letters. Robert Poynings was implicated in Jack Cade's rebellion, and Edward was himself concerned in a Kentish rising against Richard III., which compelled him to escape to the Continent. He attached himself to Henry, earl of Rich- mond, afterwards King Henry VII., with whom he returned to England in 1485. By Henry VII. Poynings was employed in the wars on the Continent, and in 1493 he was made governor of Calais. In the following year he went to Ireland as lord deputy under the viceroyalty of Prince Henry, afterwards King Henry VIII. Poynings immediately set about Anglicizing the government of Ireland, which he thoroughly accomplished, after inflicting punishment on the powerful Irish clans who supported the imposture of Perkin Warbeck. He then sum- moned the celebrated parliament of Drogheda, which met in December 1494, and enacted the " Statutes of Drogheda," famous in Irish history as " Poynings's law " (see STATUTE: Ireland), which made the Irish legislature subordinate to, and completely dependent on, that of England, till its repeal in 1782. After defeating Perkin Warbeck at Waterford and driving him out of Ireland, Poynings returned to England in 1496, and was appointed warden of the Cinque Ports. He was employed both in military commands and in diplomatic missions abroad by Henry VII., and later by Henry VIII., his most important achievement being the successful negotiation of the " holy league " between England, Spain, the emperor, and the pope, in 1513. In 1520 he was present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, in the arrangement of which he had taken an active part. He died in 1521. By his wife, Elizabeth Scot, Poynings left no surviving issue, and his estates passed through a collateral female line to the earl of Northumberland. He had several illegitimate children, one of whom, Thomas Poynings, was created Baron Poynings in 1545, but died in the same year without heirs. See Sir Francis Bacon, The History of the Reign of King Henry VII. (London, 1641); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (2 vols., London, 1885); J. T. Gilbert, History of the Viceroys of Ireland (Dublin, 1865) ; J. A. Froude, The English in Ireland (3 vols., London, 1872-1874) ; Wilhelm Busch, England under the Tudors, ed. by James Gairdner (London, 1895). POYNTER, SIR EDWARD JOHN, BART. (1836- ), English painter, son of Ambrose Poynter, architect, was born in Paris on the 20th of March 1836. He pursued his art studies in England and in Paris (under Gleyre, 1856-1859), and exhibited his first picture at the Royal Academy in 1861. In 1869, after the exhibition of " Israel in Egypt " and " The Catapult," he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1876, the year of " Atalanta's Race," full Academician. In the decorative arts he practised freely as a designer in fresco, mosaic, stained glass, pottery, tile-work and the like. While still quite a young man, he was encouraged by the architect William Burges, A.R.A., to design panels for his quaint Gothic cabinets; Messrs Powell obtained from him cartoons of designs for stained- glass; for the decoration of Waltham Abbey church he was employed on a series of thirty important designs. Attracted by these, Dalziel Brothers commissioned a number of full-page drawings on wood for the illustration of their celebrated " Bible Gallery. The car- toons for " St George " and " St David," the mosaic panels now embellishing the outer lobby of the Palace of Westminster, were produced in 1870, and they were followed by the " Apelles " and Phidias," in the same method of reproduction, in the Victoria and Albert Museum; by the important series of frescoes in St Stephen's, Dulwich — scenes from the life of the saint ; by the decoration of the grill room at the Museum at South Kensington, with the tiles en camaieu — an achievement strikingly successful and pregnant with results. Always a lover of water-colour drawing and of the art of landscape painting, he was elected to the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1883. In 1874 he designed the Ashantee medal; and in 1892, for the coinage of that year, the reverse of the shilling and florin, to the obverse of Mr Thomas Brock, R.A. When the art teaching centre of South Kensington was assuming the importance it has since attained, Mr Poynter was appointed director for art in the Science and Art Department, and principal of the National Art Training Schools (now the Royal College of Art), and by virtue of his vigorous and successful administration he invested his office with a distinction which, after his resignation in 1881, it soon notoriously lacked. The directorship of the National Gallery became vacant in 1894, and Poynter, profoundly versed in the works of the Old Masters, especially of the Italian schools, was appointed to the post, which he held for ten years. Under his rule the National Gallery of British Art, at Millbank, presented by the late Sir Henry Tate, became a department of the National Gallery, and thither were removed many pictures formerly in the British rooms at Trafalgar Square, as well as the Chantrey Collection from South Kensington, &c. One of the most important services by the director was the editing of the great Illustrated Catalogue of the National Gallery (1889-1900), in which every picture in the collection is reproduced — an unprecedented achievement in the annals of art-publishing. On the death of Sir John Millais in 1896, Poynter was elected to the presidency of the Royal Academy, and was knighted. He was made a baronet in 1902. Paintings. — Among Sir Edward Poynter's most notable pictures have been the following: "Israel in Egypt" (1867); "The Catapult " (1868) ; " Perseus and Andromeda (1872) ; " Atalanta's Race " (1876); " The Fortune-Teller " (1877); " Nausicaa and Her Maidens " (1879); " Visit to Aesculapius " (1880), now in the Chan- trey Collection in the Tate Gallery; " The Ides of March " (1883); " Diadumene " (1885), now destroyed; " On the Terrace " (1889); " The Meeting of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba " (1891) ; " Horae Serenae " and " Idle Fears " (1894), and numerous portraits and water-colour drawings. Lectures. — In his series of Slade Lectures, delivered from 1875 to 1879, and first published in 1879 (republished, with additions, in 1897), Sir Edward Poynter deals with the whole subject of art education, considering in turn Decorative Art, Old ana New Art, Systems of Art Education, Hints on the Formation of a Style, Training of Art Students, The Study of Nature, The Value of Things, Objects of Study, Professor Ruskin on Michelangelo (hotly con- troversial in tone), Influence of Art in Social Life, and Ancient Decorative Art. See also Cosmo Monkhouse, " Sir E. J. Poynter, P.R.A. : His Life and Work," Art Annual (1897); M. H. Spielmann, " Sir E. J. Poynter, P.R.A., and his Studies," The Magazine of Art (1897). POZHAREVATS (also written Passarowitz and Pozarevac), a town in Servia, situated in the Morava valley, 4 m. E. of the Morava river and 8 m. S. of the Danube. The station for steamers, Dubravitsa, with its custom-house, standing on the banks of the Danube, forms practically the harbour of Pozhare- vats. The town has no special industry, but is the principal market of a very extensive and fruitful plain between the rivers Morava, Mlava and Danube. It is the capital of a depart- ment bearing the same name, and the seat of a prefecture, a tribunal of justice, a college and several national or normal schools. It has a large modern penitentiary, with a department for political offenders and a prison for women. Two miles to the west, towards Morava, is situated Lubichevo, a model farm and stud belonging to the government. The shady park and flower gardens are a popular resort of the people of Pozharevats. The town is known in the history of international treaties as the place at which the famous peace of Passarowitz between Austria and Turkey was concluded in 1718. Pop. (1900), 12,957. Lignite is worked at Kostolats, 7 m. N. by E., and the hills between Pozharevats and Kostolats show many traces of Roman mines. A number of coins, sarcophagi and inscriptions found in the neighbourhood are also Roman. POZOBLANCO, a town of southern Spain in the province of Cordova, near the head-waters of the Guadamatillas and of other small sub-tributaries of the Guadiana. Pop. (1900), 12,792. Pozoblanco is one of the chief towns in the lowlands of Los Pedroches, which lie between the Sierra de la Alcudia on the north and the Sierra Morena on the south. Although there is no railway in the district, Pozoblanco has a thriving trade. Its fairs are famed for their exhibits of live stock and agricultural products. There are zinc and argentiferous lead mines in the neighbourhood, and manufactures of cloth and leather in the town itself. POZZO DI BORGO, CARLO ANDREA, COUNT (1764-1842). Russian diplomatist, was born at Alata, near Ajaccio, of a noble Corsican family, on the 8th of March 1764, some four years before the cession of the island to France. He was educated 240 POZZUOLI— PRAED at Pisa, and in early life was closely associated with Napoleon and Joseph Bonaparte, the two families being at that time closely allied in politics. Pozzo was one of the two delegates sent to the National Assembly in Paris to demand the political incorporation of Corsica in France, and was subsequently one of the Corsican deputies to the Legislative Assembly, where he sat on the benches of the right until the events of August 1792. On his safe return to Corsica he was warmly received by Paoli, but found himself in opposition to the Bonaparte brothers, who were now veering to the Jacobin party. Under the new con- stitution Pozzo was elected procureur-general-syndic, that is, chief of the civil government, while Paoli commanded the army. With Paoli he refused to obey a summons to the bar of the Convention, and the definite breach with the Bonaparte family, who actively supported the revolutionary authorities, dates from this time. Eventually Paoli and Pozzo accepted foreign help, and from 1794 to 1796, during the English pro- tectorate of Corsica, Pozzo was president of the council of state under Sir Gilbert Elliot. When Napoleon sent troops to occupy the island he was excepted from the general amnesty, and took refuge in Rome, but the French authorities demanded his ex- pulsion, and gave orders for his arrest in northern Italy. After a short stay in London he accompanied in 1798 Sir Gilbert Elliot (now become Lord Minto) on an embassy to Vienna, where he lived for six years and was well received in political circles. Hatred of Napoleon was his dominant passion, and even as an exile of no official standing he was recognized as a dangerous enemy. In 1804 through the influence of Prince Adam Czar- toryski he entered the Russian diplomatic service, and was em- ployed in 1805 as Russian commissioner with the Anglo-Neapoli- tan, and in 1806 with the Prussian army. He was entrusted with an important mission to Constantinople in 1807, but the conclusion of the alliance between Alexander I. and Napoleon at Tilsit in July interrupted his career, necessitating a tem- porary retirement after the completion of his business with the Porte. He returned to Vienna, but on the demand of Napoleon for his extradition Metternich desired him to leave the capital. In London, where he found safety from Napoleon, he renewed many old ties, and remained in England until 1812, when he was recalled by Alexander. He diligently sought to sow dis- sension in the Bonaparte household, and in a mission to Sweden he secured the co-operation of Bernadotte against Napoleon. On the entry of the allies into Paris he became commissary general to the provisional government. At the Bourbon restora- tion General Pozzo di Borgo became Russian ambassador at the Tuileries, and sought to secure a marriage between the duke of Berry and the Russian grandduchess Anna, Alexander's sister. He assisted at the Congress of Vienna, and during the Hundred Days he joined Louis XVIII. in Belgium, where he was also instructed to discuss the situation with Wellington. The tsar dreamed of allowing an appeal to the people of France on the subject of the government of France in accordance with his vague liberalizing tendencies, but Pozzo's suggestions in this direction were met by violent opposition, the duke refusing to make any concessions to what he regarded as rebellion; but in Petersburg, on the other hand, his attachment to the Bourbon dynasty was considered excessive. During the early years of his residence in Paris Pozzo laboured tirelessly to lessen the burdens laid on France by the allies and to shorten the period of foreign occupation. That his French sympathies were re- cognized in Paris is shown by the strange suggestion that he should enter the French ministry with the portfolio of foreign affairs. He consistently supported the moderate, party at court, and stood by the ministry of the due de Richelieu, thus earning the distrust and dislike of Metternich, who held him responsible for the revival of Liberal agitation in France. His influence at the Tuileries declined with the accession of Charles X., whose reactionary tendencies had always been dis- tasteful to him; but at the revolution of 1830, when the Tsar Nicholas was reluctant to acknowledge Louis Philippe, he did good service in preventing difficulties with Russia. In 1832 he visited Petersburg; the next year he was in London renewing his relations with Wellington, and early in 1835 he was sud- denly transferred to the London embassy in succession to Prince Lieven. Although he did not lose in official standing, Pozzo was aware that this change was due to suspicions long har- boured in various quarters in St Petersburg that his diplomacy was too favourable to French interests. In London his health suffered, and he retired from the service in 1839 to spend the rest of his days in Paris, where he died on the isth of February 1842. He had been made a count and peer of France in 1818. See Ouvaroff, Stein et Pozzo (St Petersburg, 1846) ; Correspondance diplomatique du comte Pozzo di Borgo et du comte de Nesselrode, ed. by Charles Pozzo di Borgo (2 vols., Paris, 1890-1897); Vicomte A. Maggiolo, Corse, France et Russie. Pozzo di Borgo, 1764-1842 (Paris, 1890) ; J.B.H.R. Capefigure, Les Diplomates europeens (4 vols., 1843-1847). POZZUOLI (anc. Puleoli, q.v.), a seaport and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, 7j m. W. of it by rail. Pop. (1906), 17,017 (town); 22,838 (commune). It is situated on and at the base of a hill projecting into the bay at Pozzuoli, separated from the main portion of the Gulf of Naples by the promontory of Posilipo. Its mineral baths are frequented in summer; and the volcanic pozzolana earth (also found near Rome), used now as in Roman times for making cement and concrete, derives its name from the place. In the middle ages Pozzuoli was frequently sacked and also damaged by the natural convulsions of 1198 and 1538. To the north- east of the town is the Solfatura, a half extinct volcano crater, in which sulphurous gases are exhaled. PRABHU, the writer caste of Western India, corresponding to the Kayasth of Bengal. Though numbering only 21,941 in Bombay in 1901, they occupy a very high position socially and in the professions. The first Indian to be appointed to the executive council at Bombay was a Prabhu, of the well-known Chaubal family. PRADIER, JAMES (1792-1862), French sculptor, was born at Geneva. He was a member of the French Academy, and a popular sculptor of the pre-Romantic period, representing in France the drawing-room classicism which Canova illustrated at Rome. His chief works are the Niobe group (1822), "Ata- lanta" (1850), "Psyche" (1824), "Sappho" (1852) (all ia the Louvre), "Prometheus" (Tuileries Gardens), a bas-reliet on the triumphal arch of the Carrousel, the figures of " Fame " on the Arc de 1'Etoile, and a statue of J. J. Rousseau for Geneva. Besides these mention should be made of his "'Three Graces " (1821). PRADILLA, FRANCISCO (1847- ), Spanish painter, was born at Villanueva da Callage (Saragossa). Having studied first at the Fernando Academy, and then at the Spanish Academy in Rome, of which he was afterwards director, he became the leading historical painter of modern Spain. In 1896 he was appointed director of the Madrid Museum. Though he is best known for such large historical compositions as "Joan the Mad " (gold medal, Paris, 1878), and " The Surrender of Granada " (gold medal, Munich, 1883), in which he discarded the heavy colouring of Laurens for a lighter and more atmospheric key, he has painted many excellent genre pictures in the manner of Fortuny, and some decorative compositions in which he follows the example of Tiepolo. The best of these are his decorations in the Murgo Palace in Madrid. Among his best known works are " Elopement," " Strand at Vigo," " Procession in Venice," " La Fiorella," " Reading on the Balcony," " Don Alfonso the Warrior," and " Don Alfonso the Scholar." He became member of the Berlin Academy in 1892. PRAED, WINTHROP MACKWORTH (1802-1839), English poet, was born in London on the 26th of July 1802. The old family name was Mackworth, the additional name of Praed being derived from the marriage of the poet's great grand- father with a Cornish heiress. His father, William Mackworth Praed, was a serjeant-at-law. His mother belonged to the English branch of the New England family of Winthrop. In 1814 Praed was sent to Eton College. He there founded a manuscript periodical called Apis matina. This was suc- ceeded in October 1820 by the Etonian, a paper projected and PRAEFECT 241 edited by Praed and Walter Blount, which appeared every month until July 1821, when the chief editor, who signed his contributions " Peregrine Courtenay," left Eton, and the paper died. Henry Nelson Coleridge, William Sidney Walker, and John Moultrie were the three best known of his coadjutors in this periodical, which was published by Charles Knight, and of which many interesting particulars are given in Knight's A utobiography and in Maxwell Lyte's Eton College. Before Praed left school he succeeded in establishing over a shop at Eton a " boys' library," the books of which are now amalgamated in the School Library. His career at Cambridge, where he matricu- lated at Trinity College, October 1821, was marked by excep- tional brilliancy. He gained the Browne medal for Greek verse four times, and twice the chancellor's medal for English verse. He was bracketed third in the classical tripos in 1825, won a fellowship at his college in 1827, and three years later carried off the Seatonian prize. At the Union his speeches were only rivalled by those of Macaulay and of Charles Austin (1799- 1874), who subsequently made a great reputation at the par- liamentary bar. The character of Praed during his university life is described by Bulwer Lytton in the first volume of his Life. He began to study law, and in 1829 was called to the bar at the Middle Temple. He went the Norfolk circuit, where his prospects of advancement were bright, but the bias of his feelings inclined him towards politics, and after a year or two he devoted himself entirely to political life. Whilst at Cam- bridge he leaned to Whiggism, and even to the autumn of 1829 his feelings were bent towards the same side, but during the agitation for parliamentary reform his opinions changed, and when he was returned to parliament for St Germans (Dec. 17, 1830) his election was due to the Tory party. He sat for that borough until December 1832, and on its extinction contested the borough of St Ives, within the limits of which the Cornish estates of the Praeds were situated. The squibs which he wrote on this occasion were collected in a volume printed at Penzance in 1833 and entitled Trash, dedicated without respect to James Halse, Esq., M.P., his successful competitor. Praed sat for Great Yarmouth from 1835 to 1837, and was secretary to the Board of Control during Sir Robert Peel's short adminis- tration. He sat for Aylesbury from 1837 until his death. During the progress of the Reform Bill he advocated the creation of three-cornered constituencies, in which each voter should have the power of giving two votes only, and maintained that freeholds within boroughs should confer votes for the boroughs and not for the county. Neither of these suggestions was then adopted, but the former ultimately formed part of the Reform Bill of 1866. He married in 1835 Helen Bogle. He died of consumption at Chester Square, London, on the isth of July 1839. Praed's lighter poetry was the perfection of ease. Mr Austin Dobson has justly praised his " sparkling wit, the clearness and finish of his style, and the flexibility and unflagging vivacity of his rhythm " (Ward's English Poets). It abounded in happy allusions to the characters and follies of the day. In his humorous effusions he found numerous imitators. His poems were first edited by R. W. Griswold (New York, 1844) ; another American edition, by W. A. Whitmore, appeared in 1859; an authorized edition with a memoir by Derwent Coleridge appeared in 1864: The Political and Occasional Poems of W. M. Praed (1888), edited with notes by his nephew, Sir George Young, included many pieces collected from various newspapers and periodicals. Sir George Young separated from his work some poems, the work of his friend Edward Maryborough Fitzgerald, generally confused with his. Praed's essays, contributed to various magazines, were published in Morley's Universal Library in 1887. PRAEFECT (praefeclus), the title of various Roman officials, both civil and military. A praefect was not one of the magis- trates proper; he was, strictly speaking, only the deputy or lieutenant of a superior magistrate or commander. The fol- lowing were the most important. i. The city praefect (praefeclus urbis) acted at Rome as the deputy of the chief magistrate or magistrates during his or their absence from the city. Thus he represented in the earliest times the king and in later times the consul or consuls when he or they were absent on a campaign or on other public duties, such as the celebration of the annual Latin festival on the Alban Mount. The absence of the chief magistrate for more than a single day rendered the appointment of a praefect obligatory; but the obligation only arose when all the higher magistrates were absent. Hence so long as the consuls were the only higher magistrates their frequent absence often rendered the appoint- ment of a praefect necessary, but after the institution of the praetorship (367 B.C.) the necessity only arose exceptionally, as it rarely happened that both the consuls and the praetor were absent simultaneously. But a praefect continued to be regularly appointed, even under the empire, during Pnefectut the enforced absence of all the higher magistrates Urbi* at the Latin festival. The right and duty of appoint- feriarum ing a praefect belonged to the magistrate (king, LaUa*n"a- dictator or consul) whose deputy he was, but it seems to have been withdrawn from the consuls by the Licinian law (367), except that they still nominated praefects for the time of the festival. No formalities in the appointment and no legal qualifications on the part of the praefect were required. The praefect had all the powers of the magistrate whose deputy he was, except that he could not nominate a deputy to him- self. His office expired on the return of his superior. There could only be one city praefect at a time, though the dictator Caesar broke the rule by appointing six or eight praefects simultaneously. Under the empire there was introduced a city prefecture which differed essentially from the above. Augustus occa- sionally appointed a city praefect to represent him in his absence from Italy, although the praetors, or even one of the consuls, remained in the capital. In the absence of Tiberius from Rome during the last eleven years of his reign (A.D. 26-37) the city prefecture, hitherto an exceptional and temporary office, be- came a regular and permanent magistracy; in all subsequent reigns the praefect held office even during the presence of the emperor in Rome. He was always chosen by the emperor and usually from men who had held the consulship; his office was regarded, like the censorship under the republic, as the crown- ing honour of a long political career. It was not conferred for any definite length of time, but might be held for years or for life.' As under the republic, the praefect was not allowed to quit the city for more than a day at a time. His duty was the preservation of peace in the capital; he was, in fact, the chief of the police, being charged with the superintendence pf the streets, markets and public buildings. He was further entrusted by Augustus with a summary criminal jurisdiction over slaves and rioters, which was, however, gradually extended till in the time of Severus or even earlier it embraced all offences by whomsoever committed. Further, he had the power of dealing with civil cases where his interference seemed requisite in the interests of the public safety, but such occasions were naturally few. By the beginning of the 3rd century, and perhaps earlier, appeals to the emperor in civil cases were handed over by him to be dealt with by the praefect. Except where special re- strictions interfered, an appeal lay from the praefect to the emperor. Though, not a military officer, the praefect com- manded the city cohorts (cohortes urbanae), which formed part of the garrison of Rome and ranked above the line regiments, though below the guards (see PRAETORIANS). The military power thus placed in the hands of the chief of the police was one of the most sorely-felt innovations of the empire. The con- stitutional changes of Diocletian and Constantine extended still further the power of the praefect, in whom, after the dis- banding of the guards and the removal from Rome of the highest officials, the whole military, administrative and judicial powers were centred. 2. Under the republic judicial praefects (praefeeti jure diccndo) were sent annually from Rome as deputies of the praetors to administer justice in certain towns of the Italian allies. These towns were called prefectures (praefecturae). After the Social War (90-89 B.C.), when all Italy had received the Roman 242 PRAEMUNIRE franchise, such prefectures ceased to exist in fact, though the name was sometimes retained. 3. Under the empire the praetorians or imperial guards were commanded by one, two, or even three praefects (praefecli praelorio), who were chosen by the emperor from among the knights and held office at his pleasure. From the time of Alex- ander Severus the post was open to senators also, and if a knight was appointed he was at the same time raised to the senate. Down to the time of Constantino, who deprived the office of its military character, the prefecture of the guards was regu- larly held by tried soldiers, often by men who had fought their way up from the ranks. In course of time the command seems to have been enlarged so as to include all the troops in Italy except the corps commanded by the city praefect (cohortes urbanae). Further, the praetorian praefect acquired, in addition to his military functions, a criminal jurisdiction, which he exercised not as the delegate but as the representative of the emperor, and hence it was decreed by Constantino (331) that from the sentence of the praetorian praefect there should be no appeal. A similar jurisdiction in civil cases was acquired by him not later than the time of Severus. Hence a knowledge of law became a qualification for the post, which under Marcus Antoninus and Commodus, but especially from the time of Severus, was held by the first jurists of the age, (e.g. Papinian, Ulpian and Paullus), while the military qualification fell more and more into the background. Under Constantino the insti- tution of the magistri militum deprived the praetorian pre- fecture altogether of its military character, but left it the highest civil office of the empire. The title of " praefect " was borne by various other Roman officials, of whom we may mention the following : — 4. Praefectus Socium (sociorum). — Under the republic the con- tingents furnished to the Roman armies by the Italian allies were commanded by Roman officers called praefecti socium (sociorum), who were nominated by the consuls and corresponded to the tribunes in the legions. 5. Praefectus Classium. — Down to near the close of the republic a naval command was never held independently but only in connexion with the command of an army, and, when the general appointed an officer to command the fleet in his room, this lieutenant was styled " praefect of the fleet " (praefectus classium). When in 31 1 B.C. the people took the appointment of these lieutenants into their own hands the title was changed from " praefects " to duo mri navales, or "two naval men"; but under the empire the admirals went by their old name of praefects. 6. Praefectus Fabrum. — The colonel of the engineer and artillery corps (fabri) in a Roman army was called a praefect; he did not belong to the legion, but was directly subordinate to the general in command. 7. Praefectus Annonae. — The important duty of provisioning Rome was committed by Augustus (between A.D. 8 and 14) to a praefect, who was appointed by the emperor from among the knights and held office at the imperial pleasure. 8. Praefectus Aegypti (afterwards Praefectus augustalis). — Under the empire the government of Egypt was entrusted to a viceroy with the title of " praefect," who was selected from the knights, and was surrounded by royal pomp instead of the usual insignia of a Roman magistrate. He stood under the immediate orders of the emperor. The exceptional position thus accorded to Egypt was due to a regard on the part of the emperors to the peculiar character of the population, the strategic strength of the country, and its political importance as the granary of Rome. (J. G. FR.) 9. Praefectus Castrorum, from the time of Augustus to Severus the title of the commander of the fixed camps of the legions in different parts of the empire. He was a purely military man appointed by the emperor, usually a centurion whose term of service was com- pleted. From the time of Domitian, when each legion had a separate camp, the name of the legion was added to the title, e.g. praefectus castrorum legionis xiii. gem. (C.I.L. iii. 454). The duties of this officer included : the arrangement of the camp and medical service, the transport of the baggage, the construction of roads, bridges and fortifications, the supply of ammunition and engines of war. 10. Praefectus Vigilum, the commander of the seven cohortes vigilum, a night police force instituted by Augustus (A.D. 6). To each cohort, consisting of about 1000 men (chiefly freedmen), was entrusted the care of two of the fourteen city districts; one of its chief duties was that of a fire brigade. The policing of the city had formerly been one of the duties of the aediles, but was now trans- ferred to the praefectus vigilum, appointed by the emperor from the equites. He exercised criminal jurisdiction in cases of incendiarism and offences committed against the law during the night, and in later times this jurisdiction was considerably extended. The different kinds of praefects are fully discussed in Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht (1887) vols. ii., iii. ; see also T. M. Taylor, Con- stitutional and Political History of Rome (1899). There is an excellent monograph on the Praefectura urbis by P. E. Vigneaux (1896). Mommsen deals very cursorily with the praefectus castrorum, but there is a special article by G. Wilmanns, in Ephemeris epigraphica (1872), vol. i.," De praefecto castrorum et praefecto legionis." For the French prefet see PREFECT. (X.) PRAEMUNIRE (Lat. praemonere, to pre-admonish or fore- warn), in English law an offence so called from the introductory words of the writ of summons issued to the defendant to answer the charge, " Praemunire facias A.B,.," &c., i.e. " cause A.B. to be forewarned." From this the word came to be used to denote the offences, usually ecclesiastical, prosecuted by means of such a writ, and also the penalties they incurred. The statute of Richard II., Purchasing bulls from Rome (1392), is usually designated the Statute of Praemunire, but it is only one of numerous stringent measures (some still unrepealed, and, as a body, of the most confused character) passed for the pur- pose of putting restraint on the papal usurpation of authority in England. From the beginning of the I4th century papal aggression had been particularly active, more especially in two forms. The one, the disposal of ecclesiastical benefices, before the same became vacant, to men of the pope's own choosing; the other, the encouragement of resort to himself and his curia rather than to the courts of the country. The Statute of Provisors 1306, passed in the reign of Edward I., was, according to Coke, the foundation of all subsequent statutes of praemunire. This statute enacted " that no tax imposed by any religious persons should be sent out of the country whether under the name of a rent, tallage, tribute or any kind of imposition." A much greater check on the freedom of action of the popes was imposed by the Statute of Provisors (1350-1351) and the Statute of Praemunire passed in the reign of Edward III. The former of these, after premising "that the Pope of Rome, accroaching to him the seignories of possession and benefices of the holy Church of the realm of England doth give and grant the same benefices to aliens which did never dwell in England, and to cardinals, which might not dwell here, and to others as well aliens as denizens, as if he had been patron or advowee of the said dignities and benefices, as he was not of right by the laws of England . . . ," ordained the free election of all dignities and benefices elective in the manner as they were granted by the king's progenitors. The Statute of Praemunire (the first statute so called) 1353, though expressly levelled at the pre- tensions of the Roman curia, excludes any direct reference to it in actual words. By it, the king " at the grievous and clam- orous complaints of the great men and commons of the realm of England " enacts " that all the people of the king's ligeance of what condition that they be, which shall draw any out of the realm in plea " or any matter of which the cognizance properly belongs to the king's court shall be allowed two months in which to answer for their contempt of the king's rights in transferring their pleas abroad. The penalties which were attached to the offence under this statute involved the loss of all civil rights, forfeiture of lands, goods and chattels, and imprisonment during the royal pleasure. Many other statutes followed that of 1353, but that passed in the sixteenth year of Richard II. 's reign is, as mentioned before, usually referred to as the Statute of Praemunire. This statute, after first stating " that the right of recovering the present- ments to churches, prebends, and other benefices . . . be- longeth only to the king's court of the old right of his crown, used and approved in the time of all his progenitors kings of England," proceeds to condemn the practice of papal trans- lation, and after rehearsing the promise of the three estates of the realm to stand with the king in all cases touching his crown and his regally, enacts "that if any purchase or pursue, or cause to be purchased or pursued in the court of Rome, or elsewhere, any such translations, processes, and sentences of excommunications, bulls, instruments or any other things what- soever ... he and his notaries, abettors and counsellors " shall be put out of the king's protection, and their lands, PRAENESTE 243 tenements, goods and chattels forfeit to the king, and they shall be attached by their bodies or process made against them by pracmunire facias. This statute, says Stubbs, was one of the strongest defensive measures taken during the middle ages against Rome and was called for by the conduct of the pope, who had forbidden the bishops to execute the sentences of the royal courts in suits connected with ecclesiastical patronage. The last ancient statute concerning praemunire, until the Refor- mation, was an extension in the reign of Henry IV. (1400) of the Statute of Provisors, by which all persons who accepted any provision from the pope to be exempt from canonical obedience to their proper ordinary were subjected to the penalties pre- scribed. The range and description of offences subject to the penalties of praemunire were greatly widened after the Refor- mation, so that acts of a very miscellaneous character were from time to time brought within the scope of enactments passed for a very different purpose. For instance, the penalties of praemunire were incurred, under an act of Queen Elizabeth (1571), for denying the Queen's title; and under an act of James I. the Statute of Monopolies (1623), for obtaining any stay of proceedings (other than by arrest of judgment or a writ of error) in any suit for a monopoly; under an act of Charles I. (1640) the attempting to restrain the importation or making of gunpowder was a praemunire; in the reign of Charles II. an act of 1661 made the asserting maliciously and advisedly, by speaking or writing, that both or either house of parliament has a legis- lative authority without the king, a praemunire. In the same reign, the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 made the committing of any man to prison out of the realm a praemunire, unpardonable even by the king. It thus appears that while the Crown by its prerogative might at any time remit the whole or any part of the punishment incurred by a praemunire, an exception was made in transgressions of the Statute of Habeas Corpus.1 An act of William III. (1695) made Serjeants, counsellors, proctors, attorneys, and all officers of courts practising without having taken the proper oaths guilty of a praemunire. By the Suc- cession to the Crown Act 1707, verbally to assert the rights of a person to the Crown contrary to the Acts of Settlement and Union is praemunire (to do so by writing or printing is treason). The Royal Marriages Act 1772 is the last statute which sub- jects anyone to the penalties of a praemunire. A peer charged with praemunire is not entitled to trial by his peers, but is to be tried by a jury. The most famous historical instance of a prosecution of the Statute of Praemunire was that of Cardinal VVolsey in 1529. AUTHORITIES. — Statutes of the Realm; Coke, Institutes; Collier, Ecclesiastical History; Hallam, Middle Ages; Reeves' History of English Law; Stephen's Commentaries on the Laws of England; Sir J. Stephen's History of Criminal Law ; Sir T. E. Tomlin's Law Diction- ary ; Stubbs, Constitutional History. (T. A. I.) PRAENESTE (mod. Palestrina), a very ancient city of Latium, lies 23 m. E. of Rome by the Via Praenestina (see below), on a spur of the Apennines facing the Alban Hills. To the natural strength of the place and its commanding situation Praeneste owed in large measure its historical importance. There are various legends as to its foundation. Objects in metal and ivory discovered in the earliest graves prove that as early as the 8th or 7th century B.C. Praeneste had reached a considerable degree of civilization and stood in commercial relations not only with Etruria but with the East. At this time the city was pro- bably under the hegemony of Alba Longa, then the head of the Latin League. In 499 B.C., according to Livy, Praeneste with- drew from the Latin League, in the list of whose members given by Dionysius (v. 61) it occurs, and formed an alliance with Rome. After Rome had been weakened by the Gallic invasion (390) Praeneste joined its foes in a long struggle with Rome. The struggle culminated in the great Latin War (340-38), in which the Romans were victorious, and Praeneste was punished for 1 Sir T. E. Tomlins says that there is only one instance of a prose- cution on a praemunire to be found in the state trials, in which case the penalties were inflicted upon some persons for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to Charles II. its share in the war by the loss of part of its territory. It was not, however, like most other Latin cities, embodied In the Roman state, but continued in the position of a city in alliance with Rome down to the Social War, when it received the Roman franchise (in 90 B.C., probably as one of those cities which had not rebelled or had laid down their arms at once), which in 215 B.C. some of its citizens — who had bravely held Casilinum against Hannibal, and only surrendered when pressed by hunger — had refused to accept. As an allied city it furnished contingents to the Roman army and possessed the right of exile (jus exilii), i.e. persons banished from Rome were allowed to reside at Praeneste. To judge from the works of art and inscriptions of this period (338 to oo B.C.), it must have been for the place a time of prosperity, and even luxury. The nuts of Praeneste were famous and its roses were amongst the finest in Italy. The Latin spoken at Praeneste was somewhat peculiar,2 and was ridiculed to some extent by the Romans. In the civil wars of Sulla the younger Marius was blockaded in the town by the Sullans (82 B.C.); and on its capture Marius slew himself, the male inhabitants were mas- sacred in cold blood, and a military colony was settled on part of its territory, though, possibly owing to the extravagance of the new coloni, we find that in 63 B.C. this was already in the possession of large proprietors. It was probably in 82 B.C. that the city was removed from the hill-side to the lower ground at the Madonna dell' Aquila, and that the temple of Fortune was enlarged so as to include much of the space occupied by the ancient city. From an inscription found in 1907 it appears that Sulla delegated the foundation of the new colony to M. Terentius Varro Lucullus, who was consul in 73 B.C. Under the empire Praeneste, from its elevated situation and cool salubrious air, became a favourite summer resort of the wealthy Romans, whose villas studded the neighbourhood. Horace ranked it with Tibur and Baiae, though as a fact it never became so fashionable a residence as Tibur or the Alban Hills. Still, Augustus resorted thither; here Tiberius recovered from a dangerous illness, and here Hadrian probably built himself a villa. Marcus Aurelius also had a villa here. Amongst private persons who owned villas at Praeneste were Pliny the younger and Symmachus. Inscriptions show that the inhabitants of Praeneste were especially fond of gladiatorial shows. But Praeneste was chiefly famed for its great temple of Fortune and for its oracle, in connexion with the temple, known as the " Praenestine lots " (sortes praentstinae). The oldest portion of the sanctuary was, however, that situated on the lowest terrace but one. Here is a grotto in the natural rock, containing a beautiful coloured mosaic pavement, representing a sea-scene — a temple of Poseidon on the shore, with various fish swimming in the sea. To the east of this is a large space, now open, but once very possibly roofed, and forming a basilica in two storeys, built against the rock on the north side, and there decorated with pilasters also; and to the east again is an apsidal hall, often identified with the temple itself, in which the famous mosaic with scenes from the Nile, now in the Palazzo Barberini on the uppermost terrace, was found. Under this hall is a chamber, which, as an inscription on its walls shows, served as a treasury in the 2nd century B.C. In front of this temple an obelisk was erected in the reign of Claudius, fragments of which still exist. The modern cathedral, just below the level of this temple, occupies the civil basilica of the town, upon the facade of which was a sun-dial, described by Varro (traces of which may still be seen). In the modern piazza the steps leading up to this latter basilica and the base of a large monument were found in 1907; so that only a part of the piazza represents the ancient forum. As extended by Sulla the sanctuary of Fortune occu- pied a series of five vast terraces, which, resting on gigantic 1 Thus the Praenestines shortened some words : they said conia for ciconia, tammodo for tantummodo (Plaut. True. iii. 2, 23 ; Id. Trinum. iii. i, 8; cf. Comment, on Festus, p. 731, ed. Lindemann), and inscriptions exhibit the forms Acmemeno and Tondrus for Agamemno and Tyndarus. They said nef rones for nefrendes in the sense of testiculi and tpngitio for notio (Festus, s.v. " nefrendes " and " tongere "). Cf. Quintilian, Instit. i. 5, 56. 244 PRAENESTINA, VIA— PRAETOR substructions of masonry and connected with each other by grand staircases, rose one above the other on the hill in the form of the side of a pyramid, crowned on the highest terrace by the round temple of Fortune. This immense edifice, probably by far the largest sanctuary in Italy, must have presented a most imposing aspect, visible as it was from a great part of Latium, from Rome, and even from the sea. The ground at the foot of the lowest terrace is 1476 ft. above sea-level; here is a cistern, divided into ten large chambers, in brick-faced concrete. The goddess Fortuna here went by the name of Primigenia (First-Born, but perhaps in an active sense First- Bearer); she was represented suckling two babes, said to be Jupiter and Juno, and she was especially worshipped by matrons. The oracle continued to be consulted down to Christian times, until Constantine, and again later Theodosius, forbade the practice and closed the temple. A bishop of Praeneste is first mentioned in A.D. 313. In 1297 the Colonna family, who .then owned Praeneste (Palestrina), revolted from the pope, but in the following year the town was taken and razed to the ground. In 1437 the city, which had been rebuilt, was captured by the papal general Cardinal Vitelleschi and once more utterly destroyed. It was rebuilt and fortified by Stefano Colonna in 1448. In 1630 it passed by purchase into the Barberini family. Prae- neste was the native town of Aelian, and in modern times of the great composer (Giovanni) Pierluigi da Palestrina. The modern town of Palestrina, a collection of narrow and filthy alleys, stands on the terraces once occupied by the temple of Fortune. On the summit of the hill (2471 ft.), nearly a mile from the town, stood the ancient citadel, the site of which is now occupied by a few poor houses (Castel San Pietro) and a ruined medieval castle of the Colonna. The magnificent view embraces Soracte, Rome, the Alban Hills and the Campagna as far as the sea. Considerable portions of the southern wall of the ancient citadel, built in very massive Cyclopean masonry of blocks of limestone, are still to be seen ; and the two walls, also polygonal, which formerly united the citadel with the town, can still be traced. The ruins of the villa attributed to Hadrian stand in the plain near the church of S. Maria della Villa, about three-quarters of a mile from the town. Here was discovered the Braschi Antinoiis, now in the Vatican. The calendar, which, as Suetonius tells us, was set up by the grammarian, M. Verrius Flaccus in the forum of Praeneste (the reference being to the forum of the imperial period, at the Madonna dell' Aquila), was discovered in the ruins of the church of S. Agapitus in 1771, where it has been used as building material (C. Hiilsen in Corp. inscr. lat. 2nd ed. i. 230). Excavations made, especially since 1855, in the ancient necropolis, which lay on a plateau surrounded by valleys at the foot of the hill, and of the town, have yielded important results for the history of the ait and manufactures of Praeneste. Of the objects found in the oldest graves, and supposed to date from about the 7th century B.C., the cups of silver and silver-gilt and most of the gold and amber jewelry are Phoenician (possibly Carthaginian), or at least made on Phoenician models; but the bronzes and some of the ivory articles seem to be Etruscan. No objects have been discovered belonging to the period intermediate between the 7th and 3rd centuries B.C.; but " from about 250 B.C. onwards we have a series of Praenestine graves surmounted by the characteristic 1 pine-apple ' of local stone, containing stone coffins with rich bronze, ivory and gold ornaments beside the skeleton. From these come the bronze cistae and specula with partly (but far from wholly) Etruscan inscriptions, for which Praeneste is renowned " (Conway, Ital. Dial.). Among these is the famous Ficoroni casket, engraved with pictures of the arrival of the Argonauts in Bithynia and the victory of Pollux over Amycus. It was found in 1738. "_The caskets are unique in Italy, but a large number of mirrors of precisely similar style have been discovered in Etruria and are published in full by the German Archaeological School at Rome: Etruskische Spiegeln, vol. v. sqq. (Berlin, 1884). Hence, although a priori it would be reasonable to conjecture that objects with Etruscan character- istics came from Etruria, the evidence, positive and negative, points decisively to an Etruscan factory in or near Praeneste itself " (Con- way, ibid.). Most of the objects discovered in the necropolis are preserved in the Roman collections, especially in the Kircherian Museum (which possesses the Ficoroni casket) and the Barberini library. See E. Ferntque. Prtneste (Blblioth^que des Ecoles Franchises, fasc. 17, Paris, 1880); H. Dessau in Corp. inscr. lat. xiv. 288 sqq., Corp. inscr. etrusc. vol. ii.; O. Marucchi, Guida archeologica dell' antica Preneste (Rome, 1885), and in Bulletlino comunale (1904), 233 sqq. ; R. S. Conway, Italic Dialects, i. 311 sqq. (Cambridge, 1897) ; T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, i. 132 sqq.; R. De\bruck,HeUenistische Bauten in Latium, p. 47 sqq. (Berlin, 1907) ; Notizie degli Scavi, passim; and especially D. Vaglieri (1907), p. 132, &c. ; R. van Deman Magoffin, Topography and Municipal History of Praeneste (Johns Hopkins University Studies, xxvi. 9, 10) ; (Balti- more, 1908). (J. G. FR.; R. S. C.; T. As.) PRAENESTINA, VIA, an ancient road of Italy, leading from Rome E. by S. to Praeneste, a distance of 23 m., Gabii being situated almost exactly half-way. At the ninth mile the road crosses a ravine by the well-preserved and lofty Ponte di Nona, with seven arches, the finest ancient bridge in the neigh- bourhood of Rome. The line of the road is, considering the difficulty of the country beyond Gabii, very straight. .In the stretch beyond Gabii it is only used as a track, and well preserved. Half-way between Gabii and Praeneste is the well-preserved single-arched bridge, known as Ponte Amato. See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, \. 149 sqq. (T. As.) PRAETOR (Lat. prae-itor, " he who goes before," "a leader"), originally a military title, was in classical times the designation of the highest magistrates in the Latin towns. The Roman consuls were at first called praetors; in the early code of the Twelve Tables (450 B.C.) they appear to have had no other title. By the Licinian law of 367, which abolished the military tribunes with consular power and enacted that the supreme executive should henceforward be in the hands of the two consuls, a new magistrate was at the same time created who was to be a colleague of the consuls, though with lower rank and lesser powers. This new magistrate was entrusted with the exclusive jurisdiction in civil cases; in other respects his powers resembled those of the consuls. His distinctive title was the city praetor (praetor urbanus), and in aftertime, when the number of praetors was increased, the city praetor always ranked first. To this new magistrate the title of " praetor " was thenceforward properly restricted.1 About 242 the increase of a foreign population in Rome necessitated the creation of a second praetor for the decision of suits between foreigners (peregrini) or between citizens and foreigners. This praetor was known at a later time as the " foreign praetor " {praetor peregrinus)? About 227 two more praetors were added to administer the recently acquired provinces of Sicily and Sardinia. The conquest of Spain occasioned the appointment of two more in 197, of whom one governed Hither and the other Further Spain. The number of praetors, thus augmented to six, remained stationary till Sulla's time (82). But in the interval their duties vastly multiplied. On the one hand, five new provinces were added to the Roman dominions — Macedonia and Achaia in 146, Africa in the same year, Asia in 134, Gallia Narbonensis in 118, Cilicia probably in 102. On the other hand, new and permanent jury courts (quaestiones perpetuae) were instituted at Rome, over which the praetors were called on to preside. To meet this increase of business the tenure of office of the praetors and also of the consuls was practically prolonged from one to two years, with the distinction that in their second year of office they bore the titles of propraetor and proconsul instead of praetor and consul. The prolongation of office, together with the participation of the proconsuls in duties which properly fell to the praetors, formed the basis of Sulla's arrangements. He increased the number of the praetors from six to eight, and ordained that henceforward all the eight should in their first year administer justice at Rome and in their second should as propraetors undertake the government of provinces. The courts over which the praetors presided, in addition to those of the city praetor and the foreign praetor, dealt with the following offences: oppression of the provincials by governors (repetundarum), bribery (ambitus), embezzlement (peculatus), treason (majestatis), murder (de sica- riis et veneficis), and probably forgery (falsi). A tenth province 1 Some writers, following Livy vi. 42, assert that at first the praetofship was open to patricians only, but Mommsen (Rom. Staaisrechi ii. 195 [204] shows that this is probably a mistake. The election of a plebeian to the office for the first time in 337 was certainly opposed by the consul who presided at the election, but there appears to have been no legal obstacle to it. ! [His official title in republican times was Praetor qui inter pere- grines jus dicit, under the empire Praetor qui inter ctves peregrines jus dicit, until the time of Vespasian, when the abbreviated title praetor peregrinus came into use.] PRAETORIANS 245 (Gallia cisalpina) was added to the previous nine, and thus the number of judicial and provincial departments corresponded to the annual number of praetors, propraetors and proconsuls. The proportion, however, was not long maintained: new pro- vinces were added to the empire — Bithynia in 74, Cyrene about the same time, Crete in 67, Syria in 64 — and one or more new law courts were instituted. To keep pace with the increase of duties Julius Caesar increased the number of praetors successively to ten, fourteen and sixteen; after his time the number varied from eight to eighteen. The praetors were elected, like the consuls, by the people assembled in the comitia centuriata and with the same formal- ities.1 They regularly held office for a year; only in the transition period between the republic and the empire was their tenure of office sometimes limited to a few months.2 The insignia of the praetor were those common to the higher Roman magistrates — the purple-edged robe (toga praetexta) and the ivory chair (sella curulis); in Rome he was attended by two lictors, in the provinces- by six. The praetors elect cast lots to determine the department which each of them should ad- minister. A praetor was essentially a civil judge, and as such he was accustomed at or before his entry on office to publish an edict setting forth the rules of law and procedure by which he intended to be guided in his decisions. As these rules were often accepted by his successors, the praetor thus acquired an almost legislatorial power, and his edicts, thus continued, corrected and amplified from year to year, became, under the title of the " perpetual " edicts, one of the most important factors in mould- ing Roman law. Their tendency was to smooth away the occasional harshness and anomalies- of the civil law by substitu- ting rules of equity for the letter of the law, and in this respect the Roman praetor has been compared to the English chancellor. His functions were considerably modified by the introduction of the standing jury courts (quaestiones perpetuae). Hitherto the praetor had conducted the preliminary inquiry as to whether an action would lie, and had appointed for the actual trial of the case a deputy, whom he instructed in the law applicable to the case and whose decisions he enforced. The proceedings before the praetor were technically known as jus in distinction from indicium, which was the actual trial before the deputy judge. But in the standing jury courts (of which the first — that for repelundae — was instituted in 149), or rather in the most im- portant of them, the praetors themselves presided and tried the cases. These new courts, though formally civil, were sub- stantially criminal courts; and thus a criminal jurisdiction was added to the original civil jurisdiction of the praetors. Under the empire various special functions were assigned to certain praetors, such as the two treasury praetors (praetores aerarii),3 appointed by Augustus in 23; the spear praetor (praetor has- tarius), who presided over the court of the Hundred Men, which dealt especially with cases of inheritance; the two trust praetors (praetores fideicommissarii) , appointed by Claudius to look after cases of trust estates, but reduced by Titus to one; the ward praetor (praetor tutelaris), appointed by Marcus Aurelius to deal with the affairs of minors; and the liberation praetor (praetor de liberalibus causis), who tried cases turning on the liberation of slaves.4 There is no evidence that the praetors continued to preside over the standing courts after the beginning of the 3rd century A.D., and the foreign praetorship disappears about this time.5 Even the jurisdiction of the city praetor seems not to have survived the reforms of Diocletian, though the office itself continued to exist. But of the praetorships with special juris- diction (especially the ward praetorship and the liberation 1 [Until the time of Tiberius, when their election was transferred to the Senate.] 2 [The age for the office was forty under the republic, thirty under the empire.] 8 [They took the place of the quaestors; this arrangement continued till the time of Claudius.] 4 [The fiscal praetor (praetor fiscalis) was appointed by Nerva to hear claims preferred against the imperial fiscus.] 6 Marquardt conjectures with much probability that when Caracalla extended the Roman franchise to the whole empire he at the same time abolished the foreign praetorship. praetorship) some lasted into the 4th century and were copied in the constitution of Constantinople. Besides their judicial functions, the praetors, as colleagues of the consuls, possessed, though in a less degree, all the con- sular powers, which they regularly exercised in the absence of the consuls; but in the presence of a consul they exercised them only at the special command either of the consul or, more usually, of the senate. Thus the praetor possessed military power (imperium) ; even the city praetor, though attached by his office to Rome, could not only levy troops but also in certain cir- cumstances take the command in person. As provincial gover- nors the praetors had frequent occasion to exercise their military powers, and they were often accorded a triumph. The city praetor presided over popular assemblies for the election of certain inferior magistrates, but all the praetors officiating in Rome had the right to summon assemblies for the purpose of legislation. In the absence of the consuls the city praetor, and in default of him the other praetors, were empowered to call meetings of the senate. Public religious duties, such as the fulfilment of state vows, the celebration of sacrifices and games, and the fixing of the dates of movable feasts, probably only fell to the praetors in the absence of the consuls. But since in the early times the consuls as a rule spent only the first months of their year of office in Rome, it is probable that a consider- able share of religious business devolved on the city praetor; this was certainly the case with the Festival of the Cross-roads (compitalia), and he directed the games in honour of Apollo from their institution in 212. Augustus in 22 placed the direction of all the popular festivals in the hands of the praetors, and it is not without significance that the praetors continued thus to minister to the pleasures of the Roman mob for centuries after they had ceased almost entirely to transact the business of the state. (For the praetor as provincial governor see PROVINCE.) (J.G.FR.;X.) A full account of the praetorship will be found in Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht (1887), vol. ii. and P. Willems, Le Droit public remain (1883); T. M. Taylor's Constitutional and Political History of Rome (1899) will also be found useful. There is a monograph by E. Labatut, Histoire de la preture (1868). PRAETORIANS. In the early Roman republic, praetor (q.v.) meant commander of the army: in the later republic praetor and propraetor were the usual titles for provincial gover- nors with military powers. Accordingly, the general's quarters in a camp came to be called praetorium,6 and one of the gates porta praetoria, and the general's bodyguard cohors praetoria, or, if large enough to include several cohorts, cohortes prae- toriae. Under the empire the nomenclature continued with some changes. In particular cohortes praetoriae now designated the imperial bodyguard. This, as founded by Augustus, con- sisted of nine cohorts, each 1000 strong, some part of which was always with the emperor, whether in Rome or elsewhere. In A.D. 23 his successor Tiberius concentrated this force on the eastern edge of Rome in fortified barracks: hence one cohort in turn, clad in civilian garb, was sent to the emperor's house on the Palatine, and large detachments could be despatched to foreign wars. The men were recruited voluntarily, in Italy or in Italianized districts, and enjoyed better pay and shorter service than the regular army: they were under praefecti praetorio (usually two; later, sometimes three, rarely only one), who during most of the empire might not be senators. This force was the only body of troops in Rome (save a few cohortes urbanae, a fire brigade, and some non-Roman personal guards of the emperor), or, indeed, anywhere near the capital. Accordingly it could make or unmake emperors in crises — at the accession of Claudius in A.D. 41, in 68-69, and again late in the second century. But its normal influence was less than is often asserted. Moreover, its prefects, since they were two and liable to be disunited, and since they could not be senators, neither combined with the 6 In permanent forts and fortresses, praelorium probably denoted strictly a residence: the official headquarters building (though commonly styled praelorium by moderns) was the principta. On the other hand praetorium could denote any lord's residence, even on a civilian's estate. 246 PRAETORIUS— PRAGMATISM senators to restore an oligarchy nor themselves aspired as pretenders to the throne. These prefects were at first soldiers, but later mostly lawyers who relieved the emperors of various civil and criminal jurisdiction. In the second century the praetorian cohorts became ten in number, and at the end of it Septimius Severus reorganized them so that they consisted prac- tically of barbarian soldiers and held constant conflict with the people of Rome. At the end of the third century the praefecti praetorio were reconstituted as four officers, each ruling one quarter of the now divided empire. In 312 the Praetorian Guard was suppressed by Constantine. Their barracks at Rome covering a rectangle of 39 acres (1210 by 1410 ft.), were included by Aurelian in the walls of Rome, and three sides of the enceinte can still be seen near the Porta Pia, with brickwork as old as Tiberius: the interior (now barracks for the Italian army) is archaeologically less interesting. PRAETORIUS, MICHAEL (1571-1621), German musical historian, theorist and composer, was born at Kreuzberg, in Thuringia, on the isth of February 1571. His father's name was Michael Schultheis.1 While he was still quite young he visited the university of Frankfort on the Oder for three years. Here he studied philosophy, and on the death of his brother, on whose support he relied, he was given a post as organist in the town. He acted as kapellmeister at Liineburg early in life, was engaged first as organist and later as kapellmeister and secretary to the duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, and was eventually rewarded for his long services with the priory of Ringelheim, near Goslar. He died at Wolfenbiittel on the isth of February 1621. Of his very numerous compositions copies are now very scarce. The most important are : Polyhymnia (15 vols.), Musae Sioniae (16 vols.), and Musa Aonia (g vols.), all written partly to Latin and partly to German words. But more precious than all these is the Syntagma 'musicum (3 vols. and a cahier of plates, 410, Wittenberg and Wolfenbiittel, 1615-1620). In the original prospectus of the work four volumes were promised, but it is certain that no more than three were ever published. The fourth volume mentioned in Forkel's catalogue is clearly nothing but the cahier of plates attached to vol. ii. The chief value of this very remarkable work lies in the information it gives concerning the condition of instrumental music in the early years of the i7th century. The plates include excellent representations of all the musical instruments in use at the time they were published, together with many forms even then treated only as antique curiosities. The work thus throws a light upon the earlier forms of instrumental music which to the historian is invaluable. In fact, without the information bequeathed to us by Praetorius it would be impossible to reconstruct in theory the orchestra of the earlier half of the 1 7th century, during which the opera and the oratorio both sprang into existence, or even to understand the descrip- tions left us by other less careful writers. PRAETUTTII (also called UpairerTiol), a tribe of ancient Italy inhabiting the south of Picenum. Their territory lay between the rivers Vomanum and Tessinnus (Pliny iii. § no), and therefore included Castrum Novum, Interamnia and the Truentus, as well as probably the original of Hadria. From this name was derived the medieval form Aprutium (quoted by Kiepert in his A lie Geographic), and hence the modern Abruzzo (more commonly in the plural gli Abruzzi), denoting the whole central mountain land of Italy. We have no evidence, except their name, and that throws no light on their language, for separating them from the other inhabitants of Picenum (q.v.). (R. S. CO PRAGMATIC SANCTION (Lat. pragmatica sanctio, from the Gr. TrpttT^o, business), originally a term of the later Roman law. It is found in the Theodosian and Justinian codes, together with such variants as a pragmaticum, pragmatica jussio, com- mand; annotatio, an imperial rescript; constitutio, a regulation; 1 German Schultz or Schultze (Schultheiss), meaning the head-man of a township, latinized into praetor or praetorius. Many other members of the family of Praetorius were eminent as musicians. and pragmaticum rescriptum. It was a decision of the state dealing with some interest greater than a question in dispute between private persons, and was given for some community (universitas hominum) and for a public cause. In more recent times it was adopted by those countries which followed the Roman law, and in particular by despotically governed countries where the rulers had a natural tendency to approve of the maxims and to adopt the language of the imperial Roman lawyers. A pragmatic sanction, as the term was used by them, was an expression of the will of the sovereign or " the prince," defining the limits of his own power, or regulating the succession. Justinian regulated the government of Italy after it had been reconquered from the Ostrogoths by pragmatic sanctions. In after ages the king of France, Charles VII., imposed limits on the claims of the popes to exercise jurisdiction in his dominions by the pragmatic sanction of Bourges in 1438. The emperor Charles VI. settled the law of succession for the dominions of the house of Habsburg by pragmatic sanction first published on the ipth of April 1713, and thereby prepared the way for the great war which ensued upon his death. Philip V., the first of the Bourbon kings of Spain, introduced the Salic law by a pragmatic sanction, and his descendant, Ferdinand VII., revoked it by another. The term was not used in England even for such things as the will by which Henry VIII. regulated the succession to the throne, which would have been a pragmatic sanction in a country of the Roman law. The term and the thing signified by it have become obsolete owing to the spread of constitutional government in modern Europe. PRAGMATISM, in philosophy, etymologically a theory or method of dealing with real things (Gr. irpcryjuara: cf. 7rpa7/ia),the originals of which belonged to Primary Prakrits other than those of the Midland. In the Outer Band there is also a rich variety of grammatical forms, many of which are found in the Veda and not in classical Sanskrit, and some (e.g. Pr. -hi, Pali -dhi, Greek -0i) which cannot be traced to any known Primary Prakrit form, but which must have existed in that stage and beyond it, back into Indo-European times. Phonetics. — The Skr. diphthongs e and o are treated in Pr. as pure vowelsj and may each be either long or short. Ai and au become either e and S or a'i and ail respectively. The vowel T becomes a, i, or, under the influence of a neighbouring labial, «. Befpre two con- sonants an original long vowel becomes short, and i and u are (according to the grammarians) changed to e and o respectively. The last rule is an instance of grammarians' over-generalization, and is not universally true. Examples, Skr. m&rga-, Pr. magga-; Skr. sindura-, Pr. sendura-; Skr. pustaka-, Pr. potthaa-. Conversely, a short vowel before two consonants is lengthened on one of them being elided. Thus, Skr. isvara-, Pr. issara- or Isara-; Skr. jihva, Pr. jiha. In Ap. the quantity of vowels is very loosely observed. In all dialects n becomes n unless it is followed by a dental mute, but in Jaina works nn and initial « remain unchanged. Judging from modern vernaculars, the latter seems to have been the real state of affairs. In Mg. j becomes y and r becomes /. Here also s and s become £ , a peculiarity still preserved by the modern Bengali. Elsewhere i and i usually become s, but the change of a sibilant to h is not uncommon in the Outer Prakrits (even in Mg.), though rare in the more archaic S. Initial y becomes j except in Mg., in which, on the contrary, j becomes y. Subject to the foregoing general rules, all other initia' consonants usually remain unchanged. As regards medial single consonants : — 1. K, g, c, j, t, d and y are usually elided. As a hiatus is causec by the elision, a faintly sounded y (or in some cases ») is substitutec for the elided consonant, though only written in Jaina MSS. Ex- amples: Skr. loka-, Pr. lo(y)a-; Pr. maa = Skr. mata-, mada-, maya- mr&a or mrjta-. The latter example illustrates the extraordinary confusion which results from the strict application of this rule o elision of medial consonants. Such a Prakrit would have failec in the main object of a .language — the connotation of distinct ideas by distinct sounds. To the present writer it seems impossible tha such a language could ever have existed, and he is persuaded that the rule just given is merely another instance of grammarians over-generalization. A rule has been made out of a tendency and this tendency was evidently, first, to soften a hard letter, anc then (but not necessarily) to elide it. We see this well illustratec by Apabhramsa, in which k, t and * are usually preserved under the forms g, d and 6. In the Outer Prakrits also k often becomes g as in Skr. fravaka-, Jaina M. and AMg. savaga-, Mg. Savaga-. S. anc Mg. always preserve a medial t, changing it to d; thus, Skr. gala- 's. Mg. gada-, elsewhere ga(y)a-. 2. Kh, gh, th, dh, ph and bh similarly become h. Also, as above S. and Mg. change th to dh. Th becomes dh, and ph may become bh The other aspirates (ch, jh, <}h), and also sometimes bh, remain unchanged. In Ap., as before, kh, th and ph are usually preserved n gh, dh and bh respectively. 3. T becomes 4, 9 becomes / (often written /), which when doubled >econies dentalized to tt, as in the case of the Jaina nn. P and b usually become v. The Outer languages often cerebralize dental sounds and change t to /. 4. N, m, I and h remain unchanged. V disappears before u, >ut otherwise generally remains unchanged. In Ap. m may >ecome a v nasalized by anunasika; thus, Skr. bhramara-, Ap. >haVara-. Final consonants usually disappear altogether, except nasals, which become anusvara. Thus, Skr. samantat, phalam, Pr. samantd, phalam. The following rules will be found to include the great majority of possible cases of compound consonants. They show clearly the character of all) changes from Primary to Secondary Prakrit, viz. :he substitution, mainly by a process of assimilation, of a slurred or a distinct pronunciation : — 1. In Pr. a conjunct consonant cannot consist of more than two elements, and, except in Mg. and Ap., can only be a double consonant or a consonant preceded by a nasal, a consonant followed by r, or one of the following: nh, nn, mh, Ih. The consonants r and h cannot oe doubled. 2. In Pr. the only conjuncts which can begin a word are nh, nh, mh, and Ih. If any other conjunct consonant be initial, the first member of the Pr. form of it is dropped. Thus, in Pr. kr becomes kk, and the Skr. akramati becomes Pr. akkamai. If we omit the initial preposition a- (Pr. a-), the kk becomes initial, and we have kamai, not *kkamai. Similarly, Skr. sthira- becomes Pr. thira- for tthira-. 3. L and t; are elided when they stand first or last in a compound, and the remaining letter is doubled, if it admits of doubling. Thus, Skr. ulka, Pr. ukka; Skr. pakva, Pr. pakka-. The same rule is followed regarding r, but when it follows a consonant it is sometimes, especially in Ap., retained even when initial. Thus, Skr. arka-, Pr. akka; Skr. priya-, Pr. pia- or (Ap.) pria-. 4. M, n and y are elided when standing last in a compound, and the remaining letter is doubled ; thus, Skr. rasmi-, Pr. rassi-. (see rule 2). 6. The above rules hold in the order given above; that is to say, rule 3 holds in preference to rules 4 and 5, and rule 4 in preference to rule 5. Thus, in the Skr. compound kr, the r is elided under rule 3, and not the k under rule 5, so that the Pr. form is kk. 7. Special Rules for Mg. — In this form of Pr. there are several peculiar changes. Dy, rj, ry, all become yy; tiy, ny, jn, nj become nn; medial cch becomes sc\ ft, ft, ?{h become s(; and rth, sth become st. Other changes also occur, besides dialectic variations of those given above. Declension. — Pr. has preserved the three genders of Skr., but has lost the dual number. As a rule, the gender of a noun follows that of the Skr. original, though in AMg. there is already a tendency to substitute the masculine for the neuter, and in Ap. these two genders are frequently confused, if the distinction is not altogether neglected. In the formation of cases, the phonetic rules just given are fully applied, but there are also other deviations from the Skr. original. The consonantal stems which form an important part of Skr. declen- sion are frequently given vocalic endings, and there is a general tendency to assimilate their declension to that of a-bases, corre- sponding to the first and second declensions in Latin. This tendency is strongly helped by the free use of pleonastic suffixes ending in o, which are added to the base without affecting its meaning. Of these the most common are -ka-, -4a;, and -alia-, -ilia- or -ulla-. The first of these was also very common in Skr., but its use became much extended in Pr. In accordance with the general rule, the k is liable to elision ; thus, Skr. gho(a-ka-, Pr. ghoda-a-. It may even be doubled, as in Skr. bahu-, much, Pr. bahu-a-a-, for bahu-ka-ka-. -Da- is confined to Ap., and may be used alone or together with the other two, as in Skr bahubala-, strength of arm, Ap. bahubal-ulla- 4a-(k)a-. Ilia- is most common in the Outer languages, and especi- ally so in AMg. and M.; thus, Skr. pura-, M. pur-ilia-. All the Skr. cases are preserved except the dative, which has altogether disappeared in the Midland, but has survived in the singu- lar number in the Outer languages. Everywhere the genitive can be employed in its place. Most of the case-forms are derived from Sanskrit according to the phonetic rules, but Ap. has a number of dialectic forms which cannot be referred to that language (cf. the remarks above about -hi=6i). It also rarely distinguishes between the nominative and the accusative. As an example, we may give the commoner forms of the declension of the Skr. putra, Pr. putta-, a son (see next page). It should be understood that numerous other forms were also in use, but the ones given here are selected because they are both common and typical. The declension of neuter a-bases closely resembles the above, differing only in the nominative and accusative singular and plural. Ap. has almost lost the neuter termination in the singular. Feminine a-stems are declined on the same lines, but the cases have run more into each other, the instrumental, genitivg and locative singular PRAKRIT 253 being identical in form. Very similarly arc declined the bases ending in other vowels. The few still ending in consonants and which have not become merged in the o-declension, present numerous apparent irregularities, due to the inevitable phonbtic changes, which must be learned from the textbooks. Skr. S. Ap. M. AMg. Mg. Singular: Nom. putras pulto Putin putti putte putte Ace. putram puttam pultu puttarh puttam puttam Instr. putrena puttena putti puttena(m) pultena(m) puttena Dat. putraya — — puttaa putt&e pult&a Abl. putr&t puttado putlahu puttad puttad puttado Gen. putrasya puttassa puttaho, puttassa puttassa, puttassa puttaha puttaha Loc. putre putte putti. putte, putte. putte, *putrasmin pultammi puttammi puttammi. puttaM puttdhim Plural: Nom. putras putta putta putta putta putta Ace. putran putte putte putte putte. putte putta putta putta Instr. *pulrebhis puttehim puttahl puttehim' puttehim puttehim Abl. putrebhyas puttahim-to puttaha puttahim-to puttehim-to puttahim-to Gen. putrandm putt (in arii puttaha puttdnam puttdnam puttdnam, puttaha Loc. putresu puttesu (in) puttahl puttesu puttesu puttesu(m) All the Skr. pronouns appear in Pr., but often in extremely abraded shapes. It would, for instance, be difficult to recognize the Skr. tvam in the Ap. pai. There is also a, most luxuriant growth of by-forms, the genitive plural of the pronoun of the second person being, e.g., represented by no less than twenty-five different words in M. alone. We also find forms which have no original in classical Skr. Thus, in that language, the pronoun sa-, he, is only used in the nominative singular of two genders, but occurs also in other cases in Pr. Conjugation. — The Pr. verb shows even more decay than does the noun. With a few isolated exceptions, all trace of the second, or consonantal, conjugation of Skr. has disappeared, and (much as has happened in the case of nouns) all verbs are now conjugated after the analogy of the a-conjuga- tion. This o-conjugation, on the other hand, falls into two classes, the first being the o-conjuga- tion proper, and the second the e-conjugation, in which the e represents the aya of the Skr. loth class and of causal and denominative verbs. The atmanepada voice of Skr. has practically disappeared in the Midland, and even in the Outer languages it is not common. The present participle is the only form which has everywhere survived. The other forms are supplied by the paras- maipada. All the past tenses (imperfect, perfect and aorists) have fallen into disuse, leaving only a few sporadic remains, their place being supplied, as in the case of the tertiary vernaculars, by the participles, with or without auxiliary verbs. The present tense of the verb substantive has survived from Skr., but it is usual to employ atthi ( = Skr. asti) for both numbers and all persons of the present, and dsi (=dsit) for both numbers and all persons of the past. It is interesting to note that the latter has survived in the modern Panjabi si, was, in which language it is universally, but wrongly, described as a feminine. Another verb substantive (Skr. V bhu) has also survived, generally in the form hoi or huva'i for bhavati. In AMg. and M. we also have bhava'i pretty frequently, and the same form also occurs, but less often, in §. and Mg. Its usual past participle is hua- or Mg. huda-, §. bhuda-. The forms are given here as they are important when the history of the Tertiary Prakrits comes under consideration. These two verbs substantive make periphrastic tenses with other participles, and, in the case of the past participles and gerundives of transitive verbs (both of which are passive in signification), the agent or subject is put into the instrumentaj case, the participle being used either personally or impersonally, as in the tertiary languages. Thus, lena girivaro di((hp, by him a mountain was seen, i.e. he saw a mountain; tena pa4ivannam, it was acknowledged by him, he acknowledged. The gerundive, or future passive participle, is also used impersonally in the case of intransitive verbs, as in duram gantawam, it is to be gone far, we must go far. Besides the participles, the infinitive and the indeclinable parti- ciple (gerund) have also survived. So also the passive voice, con- jugated in the same tenses as the active, and generally with paras- maipada terminations. The causal has been already mentioned. There are also numerous denominative verbs (many of them onoma- topoeic), and a good supply of examples of frequentative and desiderative bases, mostly formed, with the necessary phonetic modifications, as in Skr. The present participle in the parasmaipada ends in -anta- (-enta-), declined according to the o-declension, and in the atmanepada in -mono-. The termination -(t')to- of the Skr. past participle passive has survived under the form -to-. Many direct representatives of Skr. participles in -to- (without the t) and -no- also appear. Thus, Skr. dr,ffto-, Pr. di((ha-, seen; Skr. lagna-, Pr. lagga-, attached. As usual there is a tendency to simplification, and the termination ia is commonly added to the Pr. present base, instead of following Skr. analogy. Thus, not only have we tatta- formed directly from the Skr. tapta-, but we have also tavia- from the Pr. present stem tav-ai ( = Skr. tapati), he is hot. All the three forms of the future passive participle or gerundive, in -tavya-, -antya- and -yo-, have sur- vived. The infinitive has survived, not only with the form corresponding to the classical Sanskrit termination -him, but also with several old Vedic forms. The same is the case with the gerund, in which both the classical forms in -tva and -(t)ya have survived, but with the loss of the distinctive use which obtained in Sanskrit. Besides these there are also survivals of Vedic forms, and even of Primary Prakrit forms not found in the Veda. .The passive is generally formed by adding -jja or, in S. and Mg., -ta-, to the root or, more often, to the present stem. Thus, M. pucchijjai or S. pucchiadi, he is being asked. The following are therefore the only tenses which are fully conjugated in Pr. : the present, the imperative, the future and the optative. Except in Ap., the personal terminations in general correspond to the Skr. ones, but in Ap. there are some forms which probably go back to unrecorded Primary Prakrits and have not as yet been explained. As an example we take the conjugation of the base puccha-, ask (Skr. pr.cchati), in the present tense. Skr. S. Ap. M. AMg. Mg. Sing. I. 2. Phir. i. 2. 3- pr.cchdmi pr.cchasi pr.cchati pr.cchamas prcchatha pr.cchanti pucchami pucchasi pucchadi pucchamo pucchadha pucchanti pucchau pucchasi or-hi pucchai pucchahu pucchahu pucchahl pucchami pucchasi pucchai pucchamo pucchaha pucchanti pucchami pucchasi pucchai pucchamo pucchaha pucchanti puscami puscasi puscadi puscdmo puscadha puscanti The imperative similarly follows the Skr. imperative. The S. second person singular is generally puccha, while the Outer languages often have a form corresponding to pucchehi. The base of the optative is generally formed by adding -ejja- in the Outer languages and -ea- in S. ; thus, S. puccheam, others gucchejjami, &c., may I ask. The Skr. future termination -isya- is represented by -issa- or -ihi- ; thus, pucchissami or pucchihimi, I shall ask. Prakrit Literature. — The great mass of Prakrit literature is devoted to the Jaina religion, and, so far as it is known, is described under the head of JAINS. Here it is LKentarff sufficient to state that the oldest Jaina sutras were in ArdhamagadhI, while the non-canonical books of the Svetam- bara sect were in a form of Maharastri, and the canon of the Digambaras appears to have been in a form of Sauraseni. Besides these religious works, Prakrit also appears in secular literature. In artificial lyric poetry it is pre-eminent. The most admired work is the Sattasai (Saptaiaptika) , compiled at some time between the 3rd and 7th centuries A.D. by Hala. The grace and poetry of this collection, in which art most happily succeeds in concealing art, has rarely been exceeded in literature of its kind. It has had numerous imitators, both in Sanskrit and in the modern vernaculars, the most famous of which is the Satsai of Bihari Lai (i7th century A.D.). Hala's work is important, not only on its own account, but also as showing the existence of a large Prakrit literature at the time when it was compiled. Most of this is now lost. There are some scholars (including the present writer) who believe that Sanskrit literature owes more than is generally admitted to works in the vernacular, and that even the Mahabharata first took its form as a folk-epic in an early Prakrit, and was sub- sequently translated into Sanskrit, in which language it was further manipulated, added to, and received its final shape. In literary Prakrit we have two important specimens of formal 254 PRAM— PRATINCOLE epic poetry — the Rdvanavaha or Selubandha (attributed to Pravarasena, before A.D. 700), dealing with the subject of the Rdmdyana, and the Gautfavaha of Vakpati (yth-Sth century A.D.), celebrating the conquest of Bengal by Yasovarman, king of Kanauj. Reference must also be made to the Kumarapala- carita, the title of the last eight cantos of the huge Dvydsraya Mahdkdvya of Hemacandra (A.D. 1150). The whole work was written to serve as a series of illustrations to the author's Sanskrit and Prakrit grammar, the Siddha-hemacandra. The last eight cantos are in Prakrit, and illustrate the rules of the corresponding portion of his work. Its hero is Kumara-pala of Anhilvada. Dramatic literature has also an ad mired example in the Karpura- manjari (" Camphor-cluster," the name of the heroine) by Raja-sekhara (A.D. 900), an amusing comedy of intrigue. An important source of our knowledge of Prakrit, and especially of dialectic Prakrit, is the Sanskrit drama. It has already been pointed out that in works of this class many of the characters speak in Prakrit, different dialects being employed for different purposes. Generally speaking, Sauraseni is employed for prose and Maharastri (the language of lyric poetry) for the songs, but special characters also speak special dialects according to their supposed nationality or profession. In India there is nothing extraordinary in such a polyglot medley. It is paralleled by the conditions of any large house in Bengal at the present day, in which there are people from every part of India, each of whom speaks his own language and is understood by the others, though none of them attempts to speak what is not his mother tongue. The result is that in the Sanskrit drama we have a valuable reflection of the local dialects. It is some- what distorted, for the authors wrote according to the rules laid down by technical handbooks, and the dialects which they employed were, in the case of the later writers, as dead as Sanskrit. But nevertheless, if not an absolutely true representa- tion, it is founded on the truth, and it is almost our only source of information as to the condition of the Indian vernaculars in the first five centuries A.D. The drama which gives the best examples of these dialects is the M^cchakatikd. For further particulars regarding the Sanskrit drama, reference should be made to the article SANSKRIT. AUTHORITIES. — The father of Prakrit philology was Ch. Lassen, the author of the Institutiones linguae pracriticae (Bonn, 1837). This famous work, a wonderful product of the learning of the time, is now out of date, and has been definitely superseded by R. Pischel's Grammatik der Prakritsprachen (Strasburg, 1900). As an introduc- tion to the study of the language, the best work is H. Jacobi's Ausgewahlte Erzahlungen in Mdhdrdsh{ri zur Einfiihrung in das Sludium des Prakrit, Grammatik, Text, Worterbuch (Leipzig, 1886). The best editions of the native grammars are E. B. Cowell's of Vararuci's Prakrta-prakdsa (London, 1868), R. Pischel's of Hemacandra (Halle, 1877, 1889) [see above], and E. Hultzsch's of Sirhharaja's Prakr.tarupavatara (London, 1969). For Desya words, see Piscnel's The Defindmamdld of Hemachandra (Bombay, 1880). For A pabhramsa, in addition to his edition of Hemacandra's grammar, see the same author's Materialen zur Kenntnis des Apabhrarhsa (Berlin, 1902). For the mutual relationship of the various Prakrits, see S. Konow, " Maharashtri and M&rathi,"inthe Indian Antiquary, (1903), xxxii., 180 sqq. For Jaina Prakrit, see under JAINS. As regards the secular texts mentioned above the following are the best editions : A. Weber, Das Saptatac.atakam des Hdla (Leipzig, 1 88 1 ) ; another edition by Durgaprasad and Kaslnath Pano'urang Parab under the title of The Gdthasapatasatt of Sdtavdhana (Bombay, 1889) [a good commentary] ; S. Goldschmidt, Ravanavaha oder Setubandha (Strasburg. 1880-1883) [text and translation]; Sivadatta and Parab, The Setubandha of Pravarasena (Bombay, 1895) ; Shankar Pandurang Paijdit, The Gaiidavaho, a Historical Poem in Prakrit, by Vdkpati (Bombay, 1887) ; the same editor, The Kumdrapdla-charita (Bombay, 1900); Rajafekhara's Karpuramanjari, edited by S. Konow, trans- lated by C. R. Lanman (Cambridge, Mass., 1901). The literature of the Sanskrit drama is given under SANSKRIT. (G. A. GR.) PRAM (Du. praam), the name of a flat-bottomed boat or barge used as a " lighter " for discharging and loading cargo in the ports of the Baltic and North Sea. The word, which is common in various forms to all the languages bordering on those seas, is originally Slavonic; its ultimate etymology connects it with the words found in all Indo-European languages which are to be traced to the root par-, to go through, travel; cf. " fare," " ferry," " far," Gr. 7r6pos, way, Lat. portare, carry, &c. PRANTL, KARL VON (1820-1888), German philosopher, was born at Landsberg on the Lech on the 28th of January 1820, and died on the I4th of September 1888 at Oberstdorf. In 1843 he became doctor of philosophy at Munich Observatory, where he was made professor in 1859. He was also a member of the Academies of Berlin and Munich. Strongly in agreement with the Hegelian tradition, he defended and amplified it in Die gegemviirtige Aufgabe der Philosophic (1852) and Verslehen una Beurteilen (1877). In these works he emphasized the identity of the subjective and the objective for consciousness, and the fact that the perception of this unity is peculiar to man. He is more important, however, as a commentator and scholar, and made valuable contributions to the study of Aristotle. He published Aristoteles ilber die Farben (1849), Aristoteles' acht Bilcher der Physik (1857), and numerous minor articles on smaller points, such as the authenticity of the thirty-eight books of the Problems. The work by which he is best known is the Geschichte der Logik im Abendland (Leipzig, 1855-1870). Chr. Sigwart, in the preface to the first edition of his Logic, makes " special mention " of the assistance he obtained from this book. PRATI, GIOVANNI (1815-1884), Italian poet, was born at Dasindo and educated in law at Padua. Adopting a literary career, he was inspired by anti-Austrian feeling and devotion to the royal house of Savoy, and in early life his combination of a sympathy for national independence with monarchical senti- ments brought him into trouble in both quarters, Guerrazzi expelling him from Tuscany in 1849 for his praise of Carlo Alberto. In 1862 he was elected a deputy to the Italian parlia- ment, and in 1876 a senator. He died at Rome on the oth of May 1884. Prati was a prolific poet, his volumes of verse ranging from his romantic narrative Ermenegarda (1841) to the lyrics collected in Psiche (1875) and Iside (1878). His Opere varie were published in five volumes in 1875, and a selection in one volume in 1892. PRATINAS (the quantity of the second vowel is doubtful), one of the oldest tragic poets of Athens, was a native of Phlius in Peloponnesus. About 500 B.C. he competed with Choerilus and Aeschylus, when the latter made his first appearance as a writer for the stage. Pratinas was also the introducer of satyric dramas as a species of entertainment distinct from tragedy, in which the rustic merry-makings and the extravagant dances of the satyrs were retained. The associations of his home, not far from Corinth, where Arion was said to have established the cyclic choruses of satyrs, may account for his preference for this kind of drama. Pratinas was also a writer of dithyrambs and the choral odes called hyporchemata (a considerable fragment of one of these is preserved in Athenaeus xiv. 617). It is related that, during the performance of one of his plays, the scaffolding of the wooden stage gave way, in consequence of which the Athenians built a theatre of stone; but recent excava- tions make it doubtful whether a stone theatre existed in Athens at so early a date. A monument was erected by the inhabitants of Phlius in honour of Pratinas's son Aristias, who, with his father, enjoyed the reputation of excelling all, with the exception of Aeschylus, in the composition of satyric dramas, one of which was called Cyclops. See Pausanias ii. 13; Suidas q.v.; fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici graeci, vol. iii. PRATINCOLE, a word apparently invented by J. Latham (Synopsis, v. 222), being the English rendering of Pratincola, applied in 1756 by P. Kramer (Elenchus, p. 381) to a bird which had hitherto received no definite name, though it had long before been described and even recognizably figured by Aldrovandus (Ornithologia, xvii. 9) under the vague designation of " hirnndo marina." It is the Glareola pratincola of modern ornithologists, forming the type of a genus Glareola, founded by M. J. Brisson in 1760, belonging to the group Limicolae, and constituting to- gether with the coursers (Cursorius) a separate family, Glareolidae. The pratincoles, of which some eight or nine species have been described, are all small birds, slenderly built and mostly delicately coloured, with a short stout bill, a wide gape, long pointed wings, PRATO— PRAXITELES 255 and a tail more or less forked. In some of their habits they are thoroughly plover-like, running very swiftly and breeding on the ground, but on the wing they have much the appearance of swallows, and, like them, feed, at least partly, while flying.1 The ordinary pratincole of Europe, G. pralincola, breeds abun- dantly in many parts of Spain, Barbary and Sicily, along the valley of the Danube, and in southern Russia, while owing to its great powers of flight it frequently wanders far from its home, and more than a score of examples have been recorded as occur- ring in the British Islands. In thesouth-east of Europe a second and closely-allied species, G. nordmannl or G. melanoptera, which has black instead of chestnut inner wing-coverts, accom- panies or, farther to the eastward, replaces it; and in its turn it is replaced in India, China and Australia by G. orienlalis. Australia also possesses another species, G. grallaria, remarkable for the great length of its wings and much longer legs, while its tail is scarcely forked — peculiarities that have led to its being considered the type of a distinct genus or sub-genus Stiltia. Two species, G. lactea and G. cinerea, from India and Africa respectively, seem by their pale coloration to be desert forms, and they are the smallest of this curious little group. The species whose mode of nidification is known lay either two or three eggs, stone-coloured, blotched, spotted, and streaked with black or brownish-grey. The young when hatched are clothed in down and are able to run at once — just as are young plovers. (A. N.) PRATO, a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Florence, n m. by rail N.W. of Florence, 207 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906), 20,197 (town); 55,298 (com- mune). It is situated on the Bisenzio, and is dominated by a medieval castle and surrounded by walls of the nth and I4th centuries. The cathedral of St Stephen was begun in the I2th century in the Tuscan Romanesque style; to this period belongs the narrow nave with its wide arches; the raised transepts and the chapels were added by Giovanni Pisano in 1317-1320; the campanile dates from 1340 (it is a much smaller and less elabo- rate version of Giotto's campanile at Florence), while the facade, also of alternate white sandstone and green serpentine, belongs to 1413. It has a fine doorway with a bas-relief by Andrea della Robbia over it ; but the most striking external feature is the lovely open-air pulpit at an angle of the building, erected by Donatello and Michelozzo for displaying to the people without risk the Virgin's girdle, brought from the Holy Land by a knight of Prato in 1130. The pulpit itself has beautiful reliefs of dancing children; beneath it is a splendid bronze capital. The contract was given out in 1428, but the work was seriously begun only in 1434 and finished in 1438. The Chapel of the Girdle has good frescoes by Agnolo Gaddi (1365), a statue of the Virgin by Giovanni Pisano, and a handsome bronze open-work screen. The frescoes in the choir, with scenes from the life of St John the Baptist and St Stephen, are by Fra Filippo Lippi (1456-1466) and are his best work; the dance of Salome and the lying in state of St Stephen are the finest of the series. Among other works of art may be mentioned the clay statue of the Madonna dell' Ulivo by Benedetto da Maiano. The massive old Palazzo Pretorio (i3th century) has been somewhat modified in details; the adjacent Palazzo Comunale contains a small picture gallery 1 This combination of characters for many years led systematizers astray, though some of them were from the first correct in their notions as to the Pratincole's position. Linnaeus, even in his latest publication, placed it in the genus Hirundo; but the interleaved and annotated copies of his Systema naturae in the Linnean Society's library show the species marked for separation and insertion in the Order Grallae — Pratincola trachelia being the name by which he had meant to designate it in any future edition. He seems to have been induced to this change of view mainly through a specimen of the bird sent to him by John White, the brother of Gilbert White; but the opinion published in 1769 by Scopoli (Ann. I. hist, naiuralis, p. Iio) had doubtless contributed thereto, though the earlier judgment to the same effect of Brisson, as mentioned above, had been disregarded. Different erroneous assignments of the form have been made even by recent authors, who neglected the clear evidence afforded by the internal structure of the Pratincole. For instance, Sundevall in '873 (Tentamen, p. 86) placed Glareola among the Caprimulgidae, a position which osteology shows cannot be maintained for a moment. with works by Filippo and Filippino Lippi. A beautiful Madonna by the latter (1497) is in a small street shrine at the corner of the Via S. Margherita. The Church of S. Domenico is a Gothic edifice of 1281; that of S. Francesco has an almost Renaissance facade, fine cloisters with a good 15th-century tomb, and a chapter-house with Giottesque frescoes. The Madonna del Buon Consiglio has some good reliefs by Andrea della Robbia, by whom is also the beautiful frieze in the Madonna delle Carceri. This church, by Giuliano da Sangallo (1485-1491), is a Greek cross, with barrel vaults over the arms, and a dome; it is a fine work, and the decoration of the exterior in marble of different colours (unfinished) is of a noble simplicity. Some remains exist of the 13th-century fortress, and the large Piazza Mercatale is picturesque. The works of art visible in Prato are due, as will be seen, entirely to Florentine artists. As a whole the town has a somewhat modern aspect. The industries of Prato embrace the manufacture of woollens (the most important), straw-plaiting, biscuits, hats, macaroni, candles, silk, olive oil, clothing and furniture, also copper and iron works, and printing. Prato is said to be first mentioned by name in 1107, but the cathedral appears as early as 1048 as the parish church of Borgo Cornio or Santo Stefano. It was subject to the Alberti until 1180, and was then under the Imperial supremacy. It appears to have freed itself from this at the end of the I3th century. In 1313 the town acknowledged the authority of Robert, king of Naples, and in 1350 Niccola Acciajoli, seneschal of Joanna, sold it to the Florentines for 17,500 florins of gold. In 1512 it was sacked by the Spaniards under General Cardona. In 1653 it obtained the rank of city. See E. Corradini, Prato (Bergamo, 1905). PRATT, ORSON (1811-1881), Mormon apostle, was born of humble parents at Hartford, New York. In 1830 he joined the Mormon Church, becoming a member of its council of twelve in 1834 and one of its twelve apostles in 1835. Pratt was also a mathematician of some note. He was professor of mathematics in the university of Deseret and wrote several books on this subject, these including Cubic and Biquadratic Equations (1866). He was a member, and several times speaker, of the Utah House of Representatives. Among his writings may be mentioned Key to the Universe (1866), and The Bible and Polygamy (1870). PRAWN, the name of an edible large shrimp-like crustacean in Great Britain usually applied to Leander serratus (see SHRIMP). The word is in M. Eng. prayne or prane, and no cognate forms are found in any other languages. It has been often referred to the Lat. perna, a ham-shaped shellfish, but this is due to Florio, who by a mistake glosses parnocchie, prawne-fishes or shrimps. The O. Ital. perna and pernocchia meant a shellfish which yielded " nacre " or mother-of-pearl. PRAXIAS and ANDROSTHENES, Greek sculptors, who are said by Pausanias (x. 19, 4) to have executed the pediments of the temple of Apollo at Delphi. Both were Athenians; Praxias a pupil of Calamis. The statement raises historic difficulties, as, according to the leaders of the recent French excavations at Delphi, the temple of Apollo was destroyed about 373 B.C. and rebuilt by 339 B.C., a date which seems too late for the lifetime of a pupil of Calamis. In any case no fragments of the pedi- ments of this later temple have been found, and it has been suggested that they were removed bodily to Rome. PRAXILLA, of Sicyon, Greek lyric poetess, one of the so-called nine " lyric " Muses, flourished about 450 B.C. According to Athenaeus (xv. 694), she was famous as a composer of scolia (short lyrical poems sung after dinner), which were considered equal to those of Alcaeus and Anacreon. She also wrote dithyrambs and hymns, chiefly on mystic and mythological subjects, genealogies, and the love-stories of the gods and heroes. A dactylic metre was also called by her name. Fragments in T. Bergk, Poetat lyrici graeci, vol. iii.; see also C. F. Neue, De PraxUlae Sicyoniae reliquiis (progr. Dorpat, 1844). PRAXITELES, of Athens, the son of Cephissodotus, the greatest of the Attic sculptors of the 4th century B.C., who has left an imperishable mark on the history of art. It has been maintained by some writers that there were two sculptors of the name, one a contemporary of Pheidias, the other, more 256 PRAYER celebrated, of two generations later. This duplication is de- fended in Furtwiingler's Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture (pp. 99, 102, seq.) but on insufficient grounds. There is, however, no reason why the great Praxiteles should not have had a grand- father of the same name: all that we can say is that at present we have no certain evidence that this was the case. Though Praxiteles may be considered as in some ways well known to us, yet we have no means for fixing his date accurately. It seems clear that he was no longer working in the time of Alexander the Great, or that king would have employed him. Pliny's date, 364 B.C., is probably that of one of his most noted works. Our knowledge of Praxiteles has received a great addition, and has been placed on a satisfactory basis, by the discovery at Olympia in 1877 of his statue of Hermes bearing the infant Dionysus, a statue which has become famous throughout the world (GREEK ART, fig. 43 and Plate VI. fig. 82). Hermes is represented as in the act of carrying the child Dionysus to the nymphs who were charged with his rearing. He pauses on the way, and holds out to the child a bunch of grapes to excite his desire. The young child can hardly be regarded as a success; he is not really childlike. But the figure of the Hermes, full and solid without being fleshy, at once strong and active, is a masterpiece, and the play of surface is astonishing. In the head we have a remarkably rounded and intelligent shape, and the face expresses the perfection of health and enjoyment. This statue must for the future be our best evidence for the style of Praxiteles. It altogether confirms and interprets the statements as to Praxiteles made by Pliny and other ancient critics. Gracefulness in repose, and an indefinable charm are also the attributes of works in our museums which appear to be copies of statues by Praxiteles. Perhaps the most notable of these are the Apollo Sauroctonus, or the lizard-slayer, a youth leaning against a tree and idly striking with an arrow at a lizard, and the Aphrodite at the bath (GREEK ART, Plate V., fig. 71) of the Vatican, which is a copy of the statue made by Praxiteles for the people of Cnidus, and by them valued so highly that they refused to sell it to King Nicomedes, who was willing in return to discharge the whole debt of the city, which, says Pliny, was enormous. The Satyr of the Capitol at Rome has commonly been regarded as a copy of one of the Satyrs of Praxiteles; but we cannot identify it in the list of his works. Moreover, the style is hard and poor; a far superior replica exists in a torso in the Louvre. The attitude and character of the work are certainly of Praxitelean school. Excavations at Mantineia in Arcadia have brought to light the basis of a group of Leto Apollo and Artemis by Praxiteles. This basis was doubtless not the work of the great sculptor him- self, but of one of his assistants. Nevertheless it is pleasing and historically valuable. Pausanias (viii. 9, i) thus describes the base, " on the base which supports the statues there are sculptured the Muses and Marsyas playing the flutes." Three slabs which have survived represent Apollo, Marsyas, a slave, and six of the Muses, the slab which held the other three having disappeared. A head of Aphrodite at Petworth in England, and a head of Hermes in the British Museum (Aberdeen Hermes), have lately been claimed by competent authorities as actual works of Praxiteles. Both are charming works, but rather by the suc- cessors of Praxiteles than by himself. Besides these works, connected with Praxiteles on definite evidence, there are in our museums works without number of the Roman age, statues of Hermes, of Dionysus, of Aphrodite, of Satyrs and Nymphs and the like, in which a varied amount of Praxitelean style may be discerned. Four points of composi- tion may be mentioned, which appear to be in origin Praxitelean: (i) a very flexible line divides the figures if drawn down the midst from top to bottom; they all tend to lounging; (2) they are adapted to front and back view rather than to being seen from one side or the other; (3) trees, drapery and the like are used for supports to the marble figures, and included in the design, instead of being extraneous to it; (4) the faces are presented in three-quarter view. The subjects chosen by Praxiteles were either human beings or the less elderly and dignified deities. It is Apollo, Hermes and Aphrodite who attract him rather than Zeus, Poseidon or Athena. And in his hands the deities sink to the human level, or, indeed, sometimes almost below it. They have grace and charm in a supreme degree, but the element of awe and reverence is wanting. Praxiteles and his school worked almost entirely in marble. At the time the marble quarries of Paros were at their best; nor could any marble be finer for the purposes of the sculptor than that of which the Hermes is made. Some of the statues of Praxiteles were coloured by the painter Nicias, and in the opinion of the sculptor they gained greatly by this treatment. (P. G.) PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere), a term used generally for any humble petition, but more technically, in religion, for that mode of addressing a divine or sacred power in which there predominates the mood and intention of reverent entreaty. Prayer and its Congeners. — Prayer in the latter sense is a characteristic feature of the higher religions, and we might even say that Christianity or Mahommedanism, ritually viewed, is in its inmost essence a service of prayer. At all stages of religious development, however, and more especially in the case of the more primitive types of cult, prayer as thus understood occurs together with, and shades off into, other varieties of observance that bear obvious marks of belonging to the same family. Confining ourselves for the moment to forms of explicit address, we may group these under three categories according as the power addressed is conceived by the applicant to be on a higher, or on much the same, or on a lower plane of dignity and authority as compared with himself, (i) Only if the deity be regarded as altogether superior is there room for prayer proper, that is, reverent entreaty. Of this we may perhaps roughly distinguish a higher and a lower type, according as there is either complete confidence in the divine benevolence and justice, or a disposition to suppose a certain arbitrariness or at any rate condition- ality to attach to the granting of requests. In the first case prayer will be accompanied with disinterested homage, praise and thankgiving, and will in fact, tend to lose its distinctive character of entreaty or petition, passing into a mystic commun- ing or converse with God. In the second case it will be supported by pleading, involving on the one hand self-abasement, with confession of sins and promises of repentance and reform, or on the other hand self-justification, in the shape of the expression of faith and recitation of past services, together with reminders of previous favour shown. (2) If, however, the worshipper place his god on a level with himself, so far at any rate as to make him to some extent dependent on the service man contracts to render him, then genuine prayer tends to be replaced by a mere bargaining, often conjoined with flattery and with insincere promises. This spirit of do ut des will be found to go closely with the gift-theory of sacrifice, and tx> be especially character- istic of those religions of middle grade that are given over to sacrificial worship as conducted in temples and by means of organized priesthoods. Not but what, when the high gods are kind for a consideration, the lower deities will likewise be found addicted to such commerce; thus in India the hedge-priest and his familiar will bandy conditions in spirited dialogue audible to the multitude (cf. W. Crooke, Things Indian, s.i>. " Demon- ology," pp. 132, 134). (3) Lastly, the degree of dependency on human goodwill attributed to the power addressed may be so great that, instead of diplomatic politeness, there is positive hectoring, with dictation, threats and abuse. Even the Italian peasant is said occasionally to offer both abuse and physical violence to the image of a recalcitrant saint; and antiquity wondered at the bullying manner of the Egyptians towards their gods (cf. lamblichus, De mysteriis, vi. 5-7). This frame of mind, however, is mainly symptomatic of the lower levels PRAYER 257 of cult. Thus the Zulu says to the ancestral ghost, " Help me or you will feed on nettles "; whilst the still more primitive Australian exclaims to the " dead hand " that he carries about with him as a kind of divining-rod, " Guide me aright, or I throw you to the dogs." So far we have dealt with forms of address explicitly directed towards a power that, one might naturally conclude, has personality, since it is apparently expected to hear and answer. At the primitive stage, however, the degree of personification is, probably, often far slighter than the words used would seem to suggest. The verbal employment of vocatives and of the second person may have little or no personifying force, serving primarily but to make the speaker's wish and idea intelligible to himself. When the rustic talks in the vernacular to his horse he is not much concerned to know whether he is heard and understood; still less when he mutters threats against an absent rival, or kicks the stool that has tripped him up with a vicious " Take that! " These considerations may help towards the understanding of a second class of cases, namely forms of implicit address shading off into unaddressed formulas. Wishings, blessings, cursings, oaths, vows, exorcisms, and so on, are uttered aloud, doubtless partly that they may be heard by the human parties to the rite, but likewise in many cases that they may be heard, or at least overheard, by a consentient deity, perhaps represented visibly by an idol or other cult-object. The ease with which explicit invocations attach themselves to many of these appar- ently self-contained forms proves that there is not necessarily any perceived difference of kind, and that implicit address as towards a " something not-ourselves " is often the true designa- tion of the latter. On the other hand, there is reason to believe that the magical spell proper is a self-contained and self- sufficient form of utterance, and that it lies at the root of much that has become address, and even prayer in the fullest sense. From Spell to Prayer. — Of course to address and entreat a fellow-being is a faculty as old as that of speech, and, as soon as it occurred to man to treat sacred powers as fellow-beings, assuredly there was a beginning of prayer. We do not know, and are not likely to know, how religion first arose, and the probability is that many springs went to feed that immense river. Thus care for the dead may well have been one amongst such separate sources. It is natural for sorrow to cry to the newly dead " Come back! " and for bereavement to add " Come back and help!" Another source is mythologic fancy, which, in answer to childlike questions; "Who made the world?" "Who made our laws?" and so on, creates " magnified non- natural men," who presently made their appearance in ritual (for to think a thing the savage must, dance it) ; whereupon personal intercourse becomes possible between such a being and the tribesmen, the more so because the supporters of law and order, the elders, will wish to associate themselves as closely as possible with the supreme law-giver. From Australia, where we have the best chance of studying rudimentary religion in some bulk, comes a certain amount of evidence showing that in the two ways just mentioned some inchoate prayer is being evolved. On the other hand, it is remarkable how conspicuous, on the whole, is the absence of prayer from the magico-religious ritual of the Australians. Uttered formulas abound; yet they are not forms of address, but rather the self-sufficient pronounce- ments of the magician's^a/. Viewed analytically in its developed nature, magic is a wonder-working recognized as such, the core of the mystery consisting in the supposed transformation of suggested idea into accomplished fact by means of that sugges- tion itself. To the magician, endowed in the opinion of his fellows (and doubtless of himself) with this wonderful power of effective suggestion, the output of such power naturally repre- sents itself as a kind of unconditional willing. When he cries " Rain, rain," or otherwise makes vivid to himself and his hearers the idea of rain, expecting that the rain will thereby be forced to come, it is as if he had said " Rain, now you must come," or simply "Rain, come!" and we find as a fact that xxu. 9 magical formulas mostly assume the tone of an actual or virtual imperative, " As I do this, so let the like happen," " I do this in order that the like may happen," and so on. Now it is easy to " call spirits from the vasty deep," but disappointed experience shows that they will not always come. Hence such imperatives have a tendency to dwindle into optatives. " Let the demon of small-pox depart!" is replaced by the more humble "Grand- father Smallpox, go away!" where the affectionate appellative (employed, however, in all likelihood merely to cajole) signalizes an approach to the genuine spirit of prayer. Again, the magician conscious of his limitations will seek to supplement his influence — his mana, as it is termed in the Pacific — by tapping, so to speak, whatever sources of similar power lie round about him; and these the " magomorphism " of primitive society perceives on every hand. A notable method of borrowing power from another magic-wielding agency is simply to breathe its name in connexion with the spell that stands in need of reinforcement ; as the name suggests its owner, so it comes to stand for his real presence. It is noticeable that even the more highly developed forms of liturgical prayer tend, in the recitation of divine titles, attributes and the like, to present a survival of this magical use of potent names. Prayer as a Part of Ritual. — An exactly converse process must now be glanced at, whereby, instead of growing out of it, prayer actually generates spell. In advanced religion, indeed, prayer is the chosen vehicle of the free spirit of worship. Its mechanism is not unduly rigid, and it is largely autonomous, being rid of subservience to other ritual factors. In more primitive ritual, however, set forms of prayer are the rule, and their function is mainly to accompany and support a ceremony the nerve of which consists in action rather than speech. Hence, suppose genuine prayer to have come into being, it is exceedingly apt to degenerate into a mere piece of formalism; and yet, whereas its intrinsic meaning is dulled by repetition according to a well-known pyschological law, its virtue is thereby hardly lessened for the undeveloped religious consciousness, which holds the saving grace to lie mainly in the repetition itself. But a formula that depends for its efficacy on being uttered rather than on being heard is virtually indistinguishable from the self- sufficient spell of the magician, though its origin is different. A good example of a degenerated prayer-ritual comes from the Todas (see W. H. R. Rivers, The Todas, ch. x.). The prayer itself tends to be slurred over, or even omitted. On the other hand, great stress is laid on a preliminary citation of names of power followed by the word idith. This at one time seems to have meant " for the sake of," carrying with it some idea of supplica- tion; but it has now lost this connotation, seeing that it can be used not merely after the name of a god, but after that of any sacred object or incident held capable of imparting magic efficacy to the formula. Even the higher religions have to fight against the tendency to " vain repetitions " (often embodying a certain sacred number, e.g. three), as well as to the use of prayers as amulets, medicinal charms, and so on. Thus, Buddhism offers the striking case of the praying-wheel. It remains to add that throughout we must carefully distinguish in theory, however hard this may be to do in practice, between legitimate ritual understood as such, whether integral to prayer, such as its verbal forms, or accessory, such as gestures, postures, incense, oil or what not, and the formalism of religious decay, such as generally betrays itself by its meaninglessness, by its gibberish phrases, sing-song intonation and so forth. Silent Prayer. — A small point in the history of prayer, but one that has an interesting bearing on the subject of its relation to magic, is concerned with the custom of praying silently. Charms and words of power being supposed to possess efficacy in themselves are guarded with great secrecy by their owners, and hence, in so far as prayer verges on spell, there will be a disposition to mutter or otherwise conceal the sacred formula. Thus the prayers of the Todas already alluded to are in all cases uttered " in the throat," although these are public prayers, each village having a form of its own. At a later stage, when the distinction between magic and religion is more clearly recognized 258 PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON and an anti-social character assigned to the former on the ground that it subserves the sinister interests of individuals, the overt and as it were congregational nature of the praying comes to be insisted on as a guarantee that no magic is being employed (cf. Apuleius, Apol. 54, " tacitas preces in templo dis allegasti: igitur magus es "), a notion that suffers easy transla- tion into the view that there are more or less disreputable gods with whom private trafficking may be done on the sly (cf . Horace, Ep. I. xvi. 60, " labra movet metuens audiri, Pulchra Laverna, da mihi fallere ")• Thus it is quite in accordance with the out- look of the classical period that Plato in his Laws (900-910) should prohibit all possession of private shrines or performance of private rites; " let a man go to a temple to pray, and let any one who pleases join with him in the prayer." Nevertheless, instances are not wanting amongst the Greeks of private prayers of the loftiest and most disinterested tone (cf. L. R. Farnell, The Evolution of Religion, p. 202 seq.). Finally we may note in this connexion that in advanced religion, at the point at which prayer is coming to be conceived as communion, silent adoration is sometimes thought to bring man nearest to God. The Moralizalion of Prayer. — When we come to consider the moral quality of the act of prayer, this contrast between the spirit of public and private religion is fundamental for all but the most advanced forms of cult. In its public rites the com- munity becomes conscious of common ends and a common edification. We may observe how even a very primitive people such as the Arunta of Australia behaves with the greatest solemnity at its ceremonies, and professes to be made " glad " and " strong " thereby; whilst of his countrymen, whom he would not trust to pray in private, Plato testifies that in the temples during the sacrificial prayers " they show an intense earnestness and with eager interest talk to the Gods and beseech them " (Laws, 887). We may therefore assume that, in acts of public worship at any rate, prayer and its magico-religious congeners are at all stages resorted to as a " means of grace," even though such grace do not constitute the expressed object of petition. Poverty of expression is apt to cloak the real spirit of primitive prayer, and the formula under which its aspirations may be summed up, namely, " Blessings come, evils go," covers all sorts of confused notions about a grace to be acquired and an impurity to be wiped away, which, as far back as our clues take us, invite interpretations of a decidedly spiritualistic and ethical order. To explicate, however, and purge the meaning of that " strong heart " and " clean " which the savage after his fashion can wish and ask for, remained the task of the higher and more self-conscious types of religion. A favourite contrast for which there is more to be said is that drawn between the magico-religious spell-ritual, that says in effect, " My will be done," and the spirit of " Thy will be done " that breathes through the highest forms of worship. Such resignation in the face of the divine will and providence is, however, not altogether beyond the horizon of primitive faith, as witness the following prayer of the Khonds of Orissa: " We are ignorant of what it is good to ask for. You know what is good for us. Give it to us." (Tylor, Prim. Culture, 4. 369.) At this point prayer by a supreme paradox virtually extinguishes itself, since in becoming an end in itself, a means of contemplative devotion and of mystic communing with God, it ceases to have logical need for the petitionary form. Thus on the face of it there is something like a return to the self-sufficient utterance of antique religion; but, in reality, there is all the difference in the world between a suggestion directed outwardly in the fruitless attempt to conjure nature without first obeying her, and one directed towards the inner man so as to establish the peace of God within the heart. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The following works deal generally with the subject of prayer from the comparative standpoint: E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ch. 18 (1903) ; C. Tiele, Elements of the Science of Religion (Gifford lectures.lect. 6) (1897) ; F. Max Miiller, " On Ancient Prayers," in Semitic Studies in Memory of Rev. Dr Alexander Kohut (June, 1904); W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic (1900). Degeneration of prayer: W. H. R. Rivers, The Tpdas, ch. 10 (1906). Use of the name of power: F. Giesebrecht, Die alttestamentliche Schdtzung des Gottesnamens (1901); W. Heitmiiller, Im Namen Jesu (1903). Silent prayer: S. Sudhaus, " Lautes und Icises Beten " in Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft, 185 seq. (1906). Beginnings of Prayer in Australia: A. W. Howitt, The Native Tribes of South-East Australia, 394, cf. 546 (1904); K. Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe, 79 seq. (!9°5) ; the evidence discussed in Man, 2, 42, 72 (1907). Prayer and spell in North American religion: W. Matthews, " The Prayer of a NavajoShaman," in American Anthropologist,!.; idem, "The Mountain Chant ; a Navajo Ceremony," in Fifth Report of Bureau of American Ethnology; J. Mooney, " The Sacred Formulas of the Cherokces," (7th Kept. 1891). Greek prayer : C.Ausfeld,I>« graecorum precationibus quaestiones (1903). Christian prayer: E. von der Goltz, Das Cebet in der altesten Christenheit (1901); id., Tischgebete und Abendmahls- gebete (1905) ; O. Dibelius, Das Vaterunser: Umrisse zu einer Geschifkte des Gebets in der alien und mittleren Kirche (1903); T. K. Cheyne, article " Prayer," in Ency. Bib. (1902). (R. R. M.) PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON, the title of the official service book of the Church of England. One of the most important steps taken at the Reformation was the compilation and provi- sion of a comprehensive service book for general and compulsory use in public worship in all cathedral and parish churches throughout the Church of England. Apart from alterations in detail, both as to doctrine and ritual, which will be referred to later, the following main advantages were achieved from the very first and apply to all editions of the Prayer Book equally. 1. The substitution of the English language for the Latin language, which had hitherto been in universal and almost complete use, and in which all the old service books were written. 2. Unification and simplification. The number of books required for the performance of divine service in pre-Reformation days was very large; the most important being the Missal for the service of Holy Communion or the Mass; the Breviary for the daily service or performance of the divine office; the Manual for the minor sacramental offices usually performed by the parish priest; and the Pontifical, containing such services as were exclusively reserved for performance by the bishop. Many of the contents of these larger volumes were published in separate volumes known by a great variety — over one hundred — different names. The Prayer Book represents in a much condensed and abbreviated form the four chief ancient service books, viz.: the Missal, Breviary, Manual and Pontifical. In addition to a multiplicity of books there was much variety of use. Although the Sarum Use prevailed far the most widely, yet there were separate Uses of York and Hereford, and also to a less degree of Lincoln, Bangor, Exeter, Wells, St Paul's, and probably of other dioceses and cathedral churches as well. Cranmer's preface " Concerning the Service of the Church " expressly mentions the abolition of this variety as one of the things to be achieved by a Book of Common Prayer. It says: " And whereas heretofore there hath been great diversity in saying and singing in Churches within this Realm; some following Salisbury Use, some Hereford Use, and some the Use of Bangor, some of York, some of Lincoln; now from henceforth all the whole Realm shall have but one Use." We will next enumerate the sources from which the Prayer Book was compiled. I. It has been already indicated that the older pre-Reformation service books formed the main quarry, especially those according to the Use of Sarum. Morning and Evening Prayer, including the psalter and the lessons, were taken from the Breviary, Matins being compiled out of Nocturns (or Matins), Lauds and Prime; and Evensong out of Vespers and Compline. The Order* of Holy Communion, including the collects, epistles and gospels, was taken from the Missal. The sacramental and other offices which occupy a position in the Prayer Book between the Order of Holy Communion and the Psalms were taken from the Manual ; and the services for consecration or ordering of bishops, priests and deacons were taken from the Pontifical; but in all cases not only with a change of Latin into English, but with numerous alterations* omissions and additions. 2. The reformed Latin Breviary of Cardinal Quignon, Francis de Quinones, a Spaniard, a Franciscan and cardinal of the Holy ^ross, brought out a reformed Latin breviary with papal sanction In. !535- A second and revised edition appeared in 1537. It met with considerable favour, and was adopted into use in many places, without, however, winning universal acceptance, and in 1558 papal PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON 259 sanction was withdrawn and it ceased to be printed. From this rrt'ormnl hn-viary the compilers of the Prayer Book borrowed the following, (a) Many passages — almost verbatim — in the preface " Concerning the Service of the Church." It would occupy too much space to print them in parallel columns here, (ft) Making tin- Sunday and Holy-day services identical in structure with the wi c -k -il.iv s»-rviri-.. (c) The removal of all antiphons and responds. This refers to Quignon's first edition only, (d) The increased amount of Holy Scripture read. Quignon provided a first lesson from the Old Testament; a second lesson from the New Testament; and on Saints' Days a third lesson from the Lives of the Saints, thouyh this li-sson was also occasionally taken from Holy Scripture. (e) The prefixing to every service a form of confession and absolu- tion. The idea, not the actual language, is borrowed by the Prayer Book. (/) The substitution of the Athanasian Creed for the Apostles' I'nx-d on certain days instead of the former being an addition to the Litter. So in the Prayer Book, when used, the Athanasian • I is substituted for, not added to, the shorter creed, (g) The uniform assignment of three Psalms to each hour suggests the average number and arrangement of the Psalms in the Prayer Book at Matins and Evensong. 3. The Mozarabic Missal, (a) The four short prayers preceding the prayer for the consecration of the water in the office for the public baptism of infants are adapted from the benediction of the font in the Mozarabic Liturgy (Migne, Pat. Lat. torn. Ixxxv. col. 465). The evidence for this borrowing is still plainer in the larger form of prayer for this purpose provided in the first book of Edward VI. The Mozarabic Liturgy was printed and published under Cardinal Ximenes in 1500, and may well have been in Cranmer's hands; whereas the Missale gallicanum, a Galilean Sacramentary, contain- ing the same prayers with slight variations, was first published by Cardinal Thomesius in 1680 and must have been unknown to Cranmer. (ft) According to F. Procter and W. H. Frere (A New History of the Book of Common Prayer, p. 375: London, 1902), the use of the plural number instead of the singular in the form of the opening yersicles of Morning and Evening prayer is a following of Mozarabic usage. But we have been unable to verify this statement. (c) Many of the new collects introduced into the Prayer Book, though not transferred bodily from any Mozarabic service book, are modelled upon a Mozarabic pattern, and preserve some Mozarabic ideas and phrases, e.g. the references to the Second Advent in the collects for the first and third Sundays in Advent take their tone from the Mozarabic Advent services. The collect for Christmas Day is based on a collect for Christmas Day Lauds in the Mozarabic Breviary (Migne, Pat. Lat. torn. Ixxxvi., col. 122). The collect for the first Sunday in Lent is based on a preface (Inlatio) in the Mass for the Wednesday after the fifth Sunday in Lent (ibid., torn. Ixxxv., col. 382). The collect for the first Sunday after Easter is based upon an " Alia Oratio " (ibid., col. 517), and an " Oratio ad pacem " (col. 518) for the Saturday in Easter week. The collect for St Andrew's Day is based on a Missa in the Mozarabic Mass for the same festival (ibid., col. 159). Other examples might be given, but this is hardly the«place for complete details, (d) The many addresses, beginning with " Dearly beloved brethren " (" the Scripture moveth us," &c.), introduced into most of the services in the Prayer Book, correspond to the addresses which, under the title of " Missa," and generally addressed to " fratres dilectissimi " or " carissimi," form part of every Mozarabic Mass, (e) The prayer of consecration in the Order of Holy Communion, especially as regards the recital of the words of institution commencing " Who in the same night," &c., follows a Mozarabic rather than the Sarum or Roman model in several respects, but the same features are found in the consecra- tion prayer in the Brandenburg-Nurnberg agenda of 1533, and it is doubtful whether the Anglican borrowing is from a Mozarabic or a Lutheran source. Possibly both the Anglican and Lutheran formulae are derived independently from the Mozarabic ; because, as we have 'seen, a Mozarabic missal was certainly in Cranmer's hands and studied by him. 4. Eastern Liturgies. These were certainly known to Cranmer, but it is remarkable how little he borrowed from them, (a) The prayer which was placed at the end of the Litany in 1549, and now stands as the last prayer but one at the end of Matins and Evensong, as well as of the Litany, was undoubtedly borrowed from the Liturgy of St Chrysostom, where, as likewise in the Liturgy of St Basil, it forms the prayer of the third antiphon after the Deacon's Litany in the Mass of the Catechumens, (ft) The concluding prayer of Matins and Evensong, " The Grace of our Lord," &c., which was added in 1662, may have been taken from Greek liturgies. It is the opening salutation in the Mass of the Catechumens in the Clementine Liturgy, where it occurs again, as it does in the Greek Liturgies before the " Sursum corda " ; though there is no evidence to prove that it was not taken directly from Holy Scripture (2 Cor. xiii. 14). (c) The Epiklesis or invocation of the Holy Spirit upon the elements, must have been copied from an Eastern Liturgy. It occurs in the 1549 Prayer Book, but has been omitted in all subsequent editions. It runs thus: " Hear us, O merciful Father, we beseech Thee, and with Thy holy Spirit and word vouchsafe to bjtess and sanc|tify these Thy gifts and creatures of bread and wine, that thev may be unto us the body and blood of Thy most dearly beloved Son Jesus Christ." This is not an exact translation of any known epiklesis, and Cranmer altered its position from after to immediately before the words of institution, (d) Four petitions in the Litany. " That it may please Thee to illuminate all Bishops, Priests and Deacons," &c. (altered in 1661 from all Bishops, pastors and ministers) and " That it may please Thee to give to all nations unity, peace and concord," and " That it may please Thee to succour, help and comfort all that are in danger, necessity and tribulation," and " That it may please Thee to preserve all that travel by land or by water, all women labouring of child, all sick persons, and young children, and to show Thy pity upon all prisoners and captives ! " are almost certainly modelled on corresponding petitions in the Deacon's Litany in the Liturgy of St Chrysostom (ed. F. E. Brightman, p, 362, i. 35, and p. 363, lines 4, 17, 15). At least, they resemble far more closely the Greek petitions than they do any correspond- ing Latin petitions in the Old Sarum Litany. 5. Lutheran and other continental Protestant service books. The most considerable quantity of the new material which was imported into the Prayer Book was drawn from Lutheran and Genevan service books. The Litany, for example, in the Prayer Book is based upon the medieval Latin Litany, but great variation both in substance and language and by way of addition and omission, are made in it. These variations are largely borrowed from and closely follow the language of various Lutheran litanies, especially that given in the consultation of Archbishop Hermann of Cologne issued in 1543. Lutheran influence can likewise be traced in way of variation introduced into the baptismal and other sacramental or occasional offices. So in the Communion service the most striking departures from ancient precedent have a Protestant origin. The introduction of the Ten Commandments in 1553 seems to be derived from the order of service published by Valerandus Pollanus (Pullain) in 1551 ; and that of the Comfortable Words in 1549 is borrowed, though all the texts chosen are not identical, from the Consultation of Hermann. It is impossible to pursue this subject here further in detail. 6. Original compositions of the compilers of the Prayer Book, not traceable to ancient or 16th-century originals. These are not numerous. They include most of the collects on Saints' Days, for which, though no direct evidence of authorship is as yet forthcoming, Cranmer is probably responsible, and certain other collects, such as that for the Royal Farhily (Archbishop Whitgift) ; that for the high court of parliament (Archbishop Laud) ; that for all conditions of men (Bishop Gunning), &c. We proceed to describe next the various stages through which the Book of Common Prayer has passed and the leading features of each revision. Of changes preceding the first Prayer Book it will only be necessary to mention here: (a) The compiling and publishing of the Litany in English by Cranmer in 1544. (b) Royal injunctions in August 1 547 ordering the Epistle and Gospel to be read in English at High Mass, (c) A royal proclamation, dated the 8th of March 1548, imposing for use at the coming Easter The Order of the Communion. This was an order or form of service in English for the communion of the people in both kinds. It was to be inserted into the service after the communion of the priest, without making any other alteration in the Latin Mass. It comprised the long exhortation or notice to be given on Sunday, or on some other day, previous to the Communion, the longer exhortation, and the shorter invitation, the confession, absolution, comfortable words, prayer of humble access, formulae of administration and the concluding peace, all as they exist at present, though with variations of some importance. The first complete vernacular Book of Common Prayer was issued in 1549. It was carried through both houses of parliament by the 2ist of January 1549, by an Act of Uniformity which made its use compulsory on and after the following Whit-Sunday. The exact date of the giving of the royal assent, and the question whether this Book received the assent of Convocation, are historical points of difficulty and uncertainty which cannot be treated at length here. Some of the chief points of difference between this and subse- quent Prayer Books were the following: Matins and Evensong began with the Lord's Prayer, and ended with the third collect; there were no alternative Psalm-canticles for Benedictus, Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis; the Athanasian Creed was introduced after the Benedictus on six festivals only, and in addition to the Apostles' Creed; the Litany was placed after the Communion service, for which an alternative title was given, viz.: "commonly called the Mass." Introits were provided for use on every Sunday and Holy-Day; after the offertory 26o PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON intending communicants were directed to " tarry still in the quire or in some convenient place nigh the quire"; in the prayer " for the whole state of Christ's church," the blessed Virgin Mary was commemorated by name among departed saints; prayer for the departed was explicitly retained; also an invoca- tion .of the Holy Spirit before the words of institution, the prayer of oblation immediately following them. The mixed chalice was ordered to be used, and the Agnus Dei to be sung during the Communion of the people. A large selection of short scriptural post-Communions was provided. Unleavened bread was to be used and placed not in the hand but in the mouth of the communicant. The sign of the cross was to be made not only in the eucharistic consecration prayer, but also in Baptism, Confirmation, Holy Matrimony and the Visitation of the Sick. Reservation for the sick and unction of the sick were retained; and exorcism, unction, trine immersion and the chrisom were included in the baptismal service. The prayer in the burial service, as in the Communion service, contained distinct inter- cessions for the departed; and a form of Holy Communion was provided for use at funerals with proper introit, collect, epistle and gospel. As to vestments, in the choir offices, the surplice only was to be used; the hood being added in cathedrals and colleges; and by all graduates when preaching, everywhere. At Holy Communion the officiating priest was to wear " a white Albe plain with a vestment or Cope," and the assistant clergy were to wear " Albes with tunicles." Whenever a bishop was celebrant he was to wear, " beside his rochette, a surplice or albe, and a cope or vestment," and also to carry " his pastoral staff in his hand, or else borne or holden by his chaplain." The mitre was not mentioned. The ordinal was not attached to this Prayer Book at its first appearance, but it was added under another act of parliament in the following year, 1550. It was very similar to the present ordinal except that the words " for the office and work of a Priest in the Church of God, now committed unto thee by the Imposition of our hands " were wanting, and the chalice or cup with the bread were delivered, as well as a Bible, to each newly-ordained priest. We pass on to 1552 when a new and revised edition of the Prayer Book was introduced by an act of parliament which ordered that it should come into use on All Saints' Day (Nov. i). The alterations made in it were many and important, and as they represent the furthest point ever reached by the Prayer Book in a Protestant direction, they deserve special mention and attention. 1. The introductory sentences, exhortation, confession and absolution were prefixed to the Order for Morning Prayer daily throughout the year and ordered to be read before Evening Prayer as well. Alternative Psalms were provided for Benedictus, Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis. 2. Numerous and most important alterations were made in the Order for Holy Communion, in the title of which the words " commonly called the Mass " were left out. (a) The Introits were omitted, (ft) Gloria in excelsis was transferred from near the beginning to near the end of the service, (c) The ten com- mandments with an expanded tenfold Kyrie eleison were intro- duced, (d) The long new English canon of 1549 was split up into three parts: the first part becoming the prayer for the church militant; the second part becoming the prayer of consecration, the third part, or prayer of oblation, becoming the first post- Communion collect; the epiklesis or invocation of the Holy Ghost upon the elements was entirely omitted, (e) The mixed chalice, the use of the sign of the cross in the consecration prayer; the commemoration of the blessed Virgin Mary and of various classes of saints were omitted. (/) The Agnus Dei and the post- Communion anthems were omitted, (g) The words of adminis- tration in the 1549 book were abolished, viz.: " The body of our Lord Jesus Christ which was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life," and " The blood of our Lord Jesus Christ which was shed for thee preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life," and the following words were substituted : " Take and eat this in remembrance that Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith, with thanks- giving," and " Drink this in remembrance that Christ's blood was shed for thee, and be thankful." (h) A long rubric was added at the end of the service explanatory of the attitude of kneeling at the reception of Holy Communion, in which it was stated that " it is not meant hereby that any adoration is done, or ought to be done, either unto the sacramental bread and wine there bodily received, or to any real and essential presence there being of Christ's natural flesh and blood," &c. (i) Exorcism, unction, trine immersion and the chrisom were omitted from the baptismal service, (k) Unction and communion with the reserved sacrament were removed from the services for the visitation and the communion of the sick. (/) Prayers for the dead and provision for a celebration of Holy Communion at a funeral were removed from the burial service, (m) The vest- ments retained and ordered under the Prayer Book of 1549 were abolished by a new rubric which directed that both at the time of Communion and at all other times of ministration a bishop should wear a rochet and that a priest or deacon should have and wear a surplice only; (n) on the other hand, the directions as to daily service were extended to all clergy and made much stricter, (6) and the number of days on which the Athanasian Creed was to be used was raised from six to thirteen. The main objects of these drastic alterations have been thought to have been two-fold. 1. To abolish all ritual for which there was not scriptural warrant. If this was their object it was not consistently or completely carried out. No scriptural warrant can be found for the use of the surplice, or for the use of the sign of the cross in baptism, both of which were retained. 2. To make the services as unlike the pre-Reformation services as possible. This object too was not fully attained; no liturgical precedent can be found for the violent dislocation of certain parts of the Order for Holy Communion, especially in the case of the prayer of oblation and of the Gloria in Excelsis; but the orders for Morning and Evening Prayer and the Holy Communion retained features of the Breviary and Missal services, the bulk of their component material being still drawn from them. While the alterations, therefore, were violent enough to alarm and offend the Catholic party, they were not violent enough to satisfy the extreme Puritan party, who would no doubt have agitated for and would probably have obtained still further reformation and revision. But this Prayer Book only lived for eight months. It came into use on All Saints' Day (Nov. i) 1552, and on the 6th of July 1553 Edward VI. died and was succeeded by his sister Mary, under whom the Prayer Book was abolished and the old Latin services and service books resumed their place. On the death of Queen Mary and the accession of her sister Elizabeth (Nov. 17, 1558) all was reversed, and the Book of Common Prayer was restored into use again. The Act of Uniformity, which obtained final parliamentary authority on the 28th of April 1559, ordered that the Prayer Book should come again into use on St John the Baptist's Day (June 24, 1559). This was the second Prayer Book of King Edward VI., with the following few but important alterations, which, like all the alterations introduced at subsequent dates into the Prayer Book, were in a Catholic rather than in a Protestant direction. 1. Morning and Evening Prayer were directed to be " used in the accustomed place of the church, chapel or chancel, instead of " in such place as the people may best hear." 2. The rubric ordering the use of the rochet only by the bishop and of surplice only by a priest or deacon was abolished. The eucharistic vestments ordered in the first Prayer Book of Edward VI. were brought back by a new rubric which directed that " the minister at the time of the communion and at all other times in his ministration, shall use such vestments in the church as were in use by authority of parliament in the second year of the reign of King Edward the VI. according to the act of parliament set in the beginning of this book. 3. In the Litany the following petition found in both the PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON 261 Edwardian Prayer Books was omitted " from the tyranny of the bishop of Rome and all his detestable enormities, good Lord deliver us." 4. In the Communion service the two clauses of administration found in the first and second Prayer Books of King Edward's reign were combined. 5. The rubric explanatory of " kneeling for reception," com- monly known as " the Black Rubric " was omitted. 6. In the Ordinal in the rubric before the oath of the queen's sovereignty the words " against the power and authority of all foreign potentates " were substituted for " against the usurped power and authority of the Bishop of Rome," and in the oath itself four references to the bishop of Rome, by name, were omitted. There were a few more minor alterations, without doctrinal or political significance which need not be described in detail here. The only further addition or alteration made in Queen Elizabeth's reign was in 1561, when all the present black letter Holy Days were added to the Kalendar except St George (April 23) Lammas (Aug. i), St Laurence (Aug. 10) and St Clement (Nov. 22), which already existed, and except St Enurchus (Sept. 7), added in 1604, and the Venerable Bede (May 27) and St Alban (June 17) added in 1662. A smouldering artd growing Puritan discontent with the Prayer Book, suppressed with a firm hand under Queen Elizabeth, burst out into a flame on the accession of King James I. in 1603. A petition called the millenary petition, because signed by no less than one thousand ministers, was soon presented to him, asking, among other things, for various alterations in the Prayer Book and specifying the alterations desired. As a result the king summoned a conference of leading Puritan divines, and of bishops and other leading Anglican divines, which met under his presidency at Hampton Court in January 1604. After both sides had been heard, certain alterations were determined upon and were ordered by royal authority, with the general assent of Convocation. These alterations were not very numerous nor of great importance, but such as they were they all went in the direction of catholicizing rather than of puritanizing the Prayer Book; the one exception being the substitution of some chapters of the canonical scriptures for some chapters of the Apocrypha, especially of the book of Tobit. Other changes were: — 1. The addition of one more black letter Saint's Day, viz.: Enurchus (by error for Evurtius) on the 7th of September. This was a small but a very extraordinary and an inexplicable change to make. The only explanation offered, which is a pure guess and seems barely possible, is that it was desired to place some mark of dignity upon a day which during the late reign had been kept with great festivity as the birthday of Queen Elizabeth. 2. The words, " The absolution to be pronounced by the minister alone " at Morning and Evening Prayer, were altered to " The Absolution, or Remission of Sins, to be pronounced by the priest alone, standing; the people still kneeling." 3. A prayer for the royal family was added after the prayer for the king, and a petition was added in the Litany to the same effect, both exhibiting slight verbal differences from the prayer and petition as used to-day. 4. Thanksgiving prayers were added for rain, for fair weather, for plenty, for peace and victory. 5. Important alterations were introduced into the service for the private baptism of children in houses, with the object of doing away with lay baptism and securing the administration by the minister of the parish, or some other lawful minister. 6. The confirmation service was entitled and explained thus: " The Order of Confirmation, or Laying on of Hands upon Children Baptized, and able to render an account of their faith according to the Catechism following." 7. The concluding portion of the Catechism, consisting of eleven questions on the sacraments, was now added. There were other slight changes of a verbal kind, involving no doctrinal or political significance and which therefore need not be described here. The next important stage in the history of the Prayer Book was its total suppression in 1645 for a period of fifteen years. " the Directory for the Public Worship of God in the Three Kingdoms " being established in its place. The restoration of King Charles II. in 1660 brought with it toleration at once, and soon afterwards complete restoration of the Prayer Book, but not exactly in the same form which it had before. Non- conformists pressed upon the king, either that the Prayer Book should not be re-introduced, or that if it were re-introduced, features which they objected to might be removed. The result was that a conference was held in 1661, known from its place of meeting as the Savoy Conference, the church being represented by twelve bishops and the Nonconformists by twelve eminent Presbyterian divines, each side accompanied by nine coadjutors. The objections raised from the Nonconformist point of view were numerous and varied, but they, were thoroughly discussed between the first meeting on the isth of April and the last on the 24th of July 1661; the bishops agreeing to meet the Puritan wishes on a few minor points but on none of fundamental importance. Later in the year, between the 2oth of November and the 2oth of December, Convocation assembled and under- took the revision of the Prayer Book. In the earlier part of the following year the book so revised came before parliament. No amendment was made in it in either house and it finally received the royal assent on the igth of May 1662, being annexed to an Act of Uniformity which provided for its coming into general and compulsory use on St Bartholomew's Day (Aug. 24). The alterations thus introduced were very numerous, amount- ing to many hundreds, and many of them were more important than any which had been introduced into the Prayer Book since 1552. Their general tendency was distinctly in a Catholic as opposed to a Puritan direction, and the two thousand Puritan incumbents who vacated their benefices on St Bartholomew's Day rather than accept the altered Prayer Book bear eloquent testimony to that fact. It is impossible to give here an exhaustive list of the alterations : but the following were some of the principal changes made in 1662. (a) The preface " It hath been the wisdom of the Church of England," &c., composed by Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln, was prefixed to the Prayer Book, (b) The authorized version of the Bible of 1611 was taken into use, except in the case of the Psalms, where the great Bible of 1539-1540 was retained as much smoother for singing, and in parts of the Communion service, (c) The rubric preceding the absolution in Morning and Evening Prayer, viz.: " The absolu- tion to be pronounced by the minister alone,' was altered into " The Absolution, or Remission of Sins, to be pronounced by the priest alone, standing; the people still kneeling. (d) In the Litany the phrase " Bishops, Pastors and Ministers of the Church," was altered into " Bishops, Priests and Deacons," and in the clause commencing " From all sedition and privy conspiracy ,"&c., the words" rebellion " and " schism " were added. («) Among the " Prayers and Thanks- givings upon several occasions, " were added the two Ember week prayers, the prayer for the high court of parliament, the collect or prayer for all conditions of men, the general thanksgiving, and that ' For restoring Public Peace at Home." (/) In the Communion service two rubrics were prefixed to the prayer " for the whole state of Christ's Church militant here in earth " ordering the humble presentation and placing of the alms upon the Holy Table, and the placing thereon then of so much Bread and Wine as the priest shall think sufficient; and (g) the commemoration of the departed was added to the prayer itself. (/») The rubric explanatory of the posture of kneeling for reception, known us the Black Rubric, which had been added in 1 562 , but omitted in 1 559 and 1 604, was re-introduced ; but the words " to any real and essential presence there being of Christ's natural flesh and blood " were altered to " unto any Corporal Presence of Christ's natural Flesh and Blood " — a very important and significant alteration which affected the meaning of the whole rubric, (i) Rubrics were also added ordering the manual acts by the rjriest in the prayer of consecration, and the covering of the remainder of the consecrated elements after Communion with a fair linen cloth, (k) A new office was added for the Ministration of Baptism to such as are of riper years. (/) A rubric was prefixed to the Order for the Burial of the Dead, forbidding that order tp be used " for any that die unbaptized, or excommunicate, or have laid violent hands upon themselves." (m) In the " Ordering of Priests," and " the Consecration of Bishops," in the formula for ordination, after the words, " Receive the Holy Ghost," these words were added " for the Office and Work of a Pnest (or Bishop) in the Church^ of God, now committed unto thee by the Imposition of our hands." (n) The ornaments rubric, regulating the vesture of the 262 PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD clergy was thrown into its present shape, referring back not to 1604 °r '559 °r I552> but to the first Prayer Book of Edward VI. in 1549 for the rule to be followed. The above are the important alterations, among numerous others of minor significance, introduced into the Prayer Book in 1662. Their general trend is obvious. It is not in the Puritan direction, but intended to emphasize and to make more clear church doctrine and discipline, which in recent years had become obscured or decayed. No substantial alteration has been made in the Prayer Book since 1662, but two alterations must be chronicled as having obtained the sanction of the Convocations of Canterbury and York, and also legal force by act of parliament. In 1871 a new Lectionary was substituted for the previously existing one, into the merits and demerits of which it is not possible to enter here; and in 1872, by the Act of Uniformity Amendment Act, a shortened form of service was provided instead of the present form of Morning and Evening Prayer for optional use in other than cathedral churches on all days exeept Sunday, Christmas Day, Ash Wednesday, Good Friday and Ascension Day; provision was also statutably made for the separation of services, and for additional services, to be taken, however, except so far as anthems and hymns are concerned, entirely out of the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer. In the year 1907 letters of business were issued by the Crown to the Convocations inviting and enabling them to make altera- tions in the Prayer Book (afterwards to be embodied in an act of parliament). These letters were issued in compliance with the second recommendation (1906) of the Royal Commission on Ecclesiastical Discipline, viz.: that " Letters of business should be issued to the Convocations with instructions: (a) to consider the preparation of a new rubric regulating the orna- ments (that is to say, the vesture) of the ministers of the church, at the times of their ministrations, with a view to its enact- ment by parliament; and (b) to frame, with a view to their enactment of parliament, such modifications in the existing law relating to the conduct of Divine Service, and to the orna- ments and fittings of churches as may tend to secure the greater elasticity which a reasonable recognition of the comprehensive- ness of the Church of England and of its present needs seems to demand." A few words are added in conclusion about the state services. Until the year 1859 they were four in number. 1. A Form of Prayer with Thanksgiving to be used yearly upon the Fifth Day of November, to commemorate the happy deliverance of King James I. and the Three Estates of England from the Gun- powder Plot in 1604. 2. A Form of Prayer with Fasting to be used yearly on the Thirtieth Day of January, to commemorate the Martyrdom of the Blessed King Charles the First in 1649. 3. A Form of Prayer with Thanksgiving to be used yearly on the Twenty-ninth Day of May, to commemorate the Restoration to the throne of King Charles the Second in 1660. 4. A Form of Prayer with Thanksgiving to be used yearly on the Day of the Accession of the reigning Monarch. The first three of these services were abolished in 1859 by royal warrant — that is to say by the exercise of the same authority which had instituted them. The fourth form of service was retained in its old shape till 1901, when a new form, or rather new forms of service, having been prepared by Convocation, were authorized by royal warrant on the gth of November. (F. E. W.) PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD. Wherever there is a belief in the continued existence of man's personality through and after death, religion naturally concerns itself with the relations between the living and the dead. And where the idea of a future judg- ment obtains, prayers are often offered on their behalf to the Higher Powers. Prayers for the dead are mentioned in 2 Mac- cabees xii. 43-45, where the writer is uncertain whether to regard the sacrifice offered by Judas as a propitiatory sin-offering or as a memorial thank-offering, a distinction of great importance in the later history of the practice. Prayers for the dead form part of the authorized Jewish services. The form in use in England contains the following passage: " Have mercy upon him; pardon all his transgressions . . . Shelter his soul in the shadow of Thy wings. Make known to him the path of life." The only passage in the New Testament which is held to bear directly on the subject is 2 Tim. i. 18, where, however, it is not certain that Onesiphorus, for whom St Paul prayed, was dead. Outside the Bible the proof of the early use of prayers for the dead has been carried a step farther by Professor Ramsay's discoveries, for it is now impossible to doubt the genuineness of the copy (contained in the spurious acts of the saint) of the inscription on the tomb of Abercius of Hieropolis in Phrygia (see Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, pt. ii. vol. i. p. 492 sqq.). The igth line of the inscription runs thus: " Let every friend who observeth this pray for me," i.e. Abercius, who throughout speaks in the first person: he died in the latter part of the 2nd century. The inscriptions in the Roman catacombs bear similar witness to the practice, by the occurrence of such phrases as " Mayst thou live among the saints " (3rd century) ; " May God refresh the soul of ... "; " Peace be with them." Among Church writers Tertullian is the first to mention prayers for the dead, and that not as a concession to natural sentiment, but as a duty: " The widow who does not pray for her dead husband has as good as divorced him." This passage occurs in one of his later Montanistic writings, dating from the beginning of the 3rd century. Subsequent writers similarly make incidental mention of the practice as prevalent, but not as unlawful or even disputed (until Aerius challenged it towards the end of the 4th century). The most famous instance is St Augustine's prayer for his mother, Monica, at the end of the gth book oi his Confessions. An important element in the liturgies of the various Churches consisted of the diptychs or lists of names of living and dead who were to be commemorated at the Eucharist. To be inserted in these lists was an honour, and out of the practice grew the canonization of saints; on the other hand, to be excluded was a condemnation. In the middle of the 3rd century we find Cyprian enjoining that there should be no oblation or public prayer made for a deceased layman who had broken a Church rule by appoint- ing a cleric trustee under his will: " He ought not to be named in the priests' prayer who has done his best to detain the clergy from the altar." Although it is not possible, as a rule, to name dates for the exact words used in the ancient liturgies, yet the universal occurrence of these diptychs and of definite prayers for the dead in all parts of the Church in the 4th and sth centuries tends to show how primitive such prayers were. The language used in the prayers for the departed is very reserved, and contains no suggestion of a place or state of pain. We may cite the following from the so-called liturgy of St James: — " Remember, O Lord, the God of Spirits and of all Flesh, those whom we have remembered and those whom we have not remem- bered, men of the true faith, from righteous Abel unto to-day; do thou thyself give them rest there in the land of the living, in thy kingdom, in the delight of Paradise, in the bosom of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, our holy fathers, from whence pain and sorrow and sighing have fled away, where the light of thy countenance visiteth them and always shineth upon them." Public prayers were only offered for those who were believed to have died as faithful members of Christ. But Perpetua, who was martyred in 202, believed herself to have been encouraged by a vision to pray for her brother, who had died in his eighth year, almost certainly unbaptized; and a later vision assured her that her prayer had been answered and he translated from punishment. St Augustine thought it needful to point out that the narrative was not canonical Scripture, and contended that the child had perhaps been baptized. Similarly, a medieval legend relates that Gregory the Great was so struck with the justice of the emperor Trajan, that he prayed for him, and in consequence he was admitted to Paradise (cf. Dante, Purg. x., Par ad. xx.). As time went on, further developments took place. Petitions to God that he would hear the intercessions of the departed became direct requests to them to pray (Ora pro nobis); and, finally, the saints were asked themselves to grant grace and help. Again, men felt difficulty in supposing that one who repented at the close of a wicked life could at once enjoy the fellowship of the saints in Paradise (St Luke xxiii. 43), and it seemed unfair that they should be made equal with those who had borne the PRAYING WHEEL— PREACHING 263 burden and heat of the day (St Matt. xx. 12). And so the simple severance between good and bad indicated in St Luke vi. 26, became the threefold division made familiar by Dante. These speculations were further fixed by the growth of the theory of satisfaction and of Indulgences: each forgiven soul was supposed to have to endure an amount of suffering in proportion to the guilt of its sins, and the prayers and pious acts of the living availed to shorten this penance time in Purgatory (see INDUL- GENCES). It thus came about that prayers for the dead were regarded only as aiming at the deliverance of souls from pur- gatorial fires; and that application of the Eucharist seems to have overshadowed all others. The Council of Trent attempted certain reforms in the matter, with more or less success; but, broadly speaking, the system still remains in the Roman Catholic Church, and masses for the dead are a very important part of its acts of worship. The Reformation took its rise in a righteous protest against the sale of Indulgences; and by a natural reaction the Protestants, in rejecting the Roman doctrine of Purgatory, were inclined to disuse all prayers for the dead. Important changes have been made, in the successive revisions of the Prayer Book, in the commemorations of the dead at the Eucharist and in the Burial Service. In the Communion Service of 1549, after praise and thanks were offered for all the saints, chiefly the Blessed Virgin, came the following: " We commend into thy mercy all other thy servants, which are departed hence from us with the sign of faith and now do rest in the sleep of peace: grant unto them, we beseech thee, thy mercy and everlasting peace." The Burial Service of the same date contained explicit prayers for the deceased, and introit, collect, epistle and gospel were provided for " the Celebration of the Holy Communion when there is a Burial of the Dead." In 1552, under the influence of Bucer, all mention of the dead, whether commemorative or intercessory, was cut out of the Eucharist; the prayers in the Burial Service were brought into their present form; and the provision for Holy Communion at a Burial was omitted. The thankful commemoration of the dead in the Eucharist was restored in 1661, but prayers for them remained, if they remained at all, veiled in ambiguous phrases. The Church of England has never forbidden prayers for the dead, however little she has used them in her public services. It was proposed in 1552 to condemn the scholastic doctrine De precatione pro defunctis in what is now the 22nd of the Thirty- Nine Articles, but the proposal was rejected. And these inter- cessions have been used in private by a long list of English divines, among whom Andrewes, Cosin, Ken, Wesley and Keble form an almost complete chain down to the present day. On the tomb of Bishop Barrow (1680) stands a request to passers-by to pray for their fellow-servant. And in a suit (1838) as to the lawfulness of an inscription, " Pray for the soul of . . .," the Court decided that " no authority or canon has been pointed out by which the practice of praying for the dead has been expressly prohibited." As Jeremy Taylor put it (Dissuasive from Popery, I. i. iv.), " General prayers for the dead the Church of England never did condemn by any express articles, but left it in the middle." H. M. Luckock, After Death (isted., London, 1879) ;E~.H.Plumptre, The Spirits in Prison (London, 1884). (W. O. B.) PRAYING WHEEL, a mechanical apparatus used by the Lamaist Buddhists in Tibet and elsewhere for offering prayers. Strips of paper bearing a manifold repetition of the words " The Jewel in the Lotus, Amen," are wrapped round cylinders of all sizes — from hand-mills to wind- or water-mills. As the wheel revolves these uncoil and the prayer is considered to be offered. PREACHING (Fr. precher, from Lat. pracdicare, to proclaim), the proclamation of a Divine message both to those who have not heard it, and to those who, having heard it, have not accepted it, and the regular instruction of the converted in the doctrines and duties of the faith, is a distinctive though not a peculiar feature of the Christian religion. The Mahommedans exercise it freely, and it is not unknown among the Buddhists. The history of Christian preaching with which alone this article is concerned has its roots (i) in the activity of the Hebrew prophets and scribes, the former representing the broader appeal, the latter the edification of the faithful, (2) in the ministry of Jesus Christ and His apostles, where again we have both the evan- gelical invitation and the teaching of truth and duty. Which- ever element is emphasized in preaching, the preacher is one who believes himself to be the ambassador of God, charged with a message which it is his duty to deliver. i. The Patristic Age, to the Death of St Augustine, A.D. 430. — Of the first two centuries we have very little information. From the Acts of the Apostles we gather something as to the methods adopted by St Peter and St Paul, and these we may believe were more or less general. The Apostles who had known the Lord would naturally recall the facts of His life, and the story of His words and works would form a great deal of their preaching. After they had passed away and before the Christian Scriptures were canonically sifted and collected there was a gap which for us is only slenderly filled by such productions as the so-called 2nd Epistle of Clement, really a rambling homily on repentance and confession (see CLEMENTINE LITERATURE), and by what we can imagine was the practice of men like Ignatius and, on the other hand, the Apologists. Most of these were primarily writers, but Justin Martyr has left a reputation for speaking, especially in debate, as well. Some of the writings of Tertullian (c. 200), e.g. those on Patience and Penitence, read as though they had been spoken, and it is hard to believe that this brilliant rhetorician did not consecrate his powers of address to his new faith. Cyprian (d. 258), too, was a finished speaker; his Epistle to Donatus emphasizes the need of a simple and un- decorated style in the proclamation of the gospel. None of his sermons, however, unless we regard his book on the Lord's Prayer as a homily, has come down to us. By this time the canon of New Testament Scripture was fairly settled, and with Origen (d. 254) we find the beginning of preach- ing as an explanation and application of definite texts. Origen was pre-eminently a teacher, and the didactic side of preaching is thus more conspicuous in his work. When we allow for his excessive use of the allegorical method, there is still left a great deal of power and suggestiveness. In his hands, as may be seen from the 19 homilies on Jeremiah that have been preserved in the Greek (and others in the Latin of Rufinus), the crude homily of his predecessors began to take a more dignified, orderly and impressive form. Alongside Origen we may rank Hippolytus of Rome on the strength of the one sermon of his which is extant, a panegyric on baptism based on the theophany which marked the baptism of Jesus. The 4th century marks the culmination of early Christian preaching. The imperial patronage had made education and social distinctions a greater possibility for the preacher, and the decline of political eloquence furnished an opening for pulpit oratory. The didactic element was no longer in sole possession of the field, for the inrush of multitudes to the Christian faith and the building of large churches necessitated a return to the evangelical or proclamatory type of sermon. It was the age of doctrinal controversy, and the intellectual presentation of the Christian position was thus sharpened and developed. The Antiochene school had set a worthy example of careful exegesis of scripture. It was in the East especially that preaching flourished: Eusebius of Caesarea, Eusebius of Emesa, Athanasius, Macarius, Cyril of Jerusalem, Ephraem Syrus among the ortho- dox; and of the Arians, Anus himself and Ulfilas the great Gothic missionary, are all of high quality; but above even these stand out the three Cappadocians,Basil (q.v.) of Caesarea,cultured, devout and practical; his brother Gregory (q.v.) of Nyssa, more inclined to the speculative and metaphysical, and Gregory (q.v.) of Nazianzus, richly endowed with poetic and oratorial gifts, the finest preacher of the three. At the apex of the pyramid stands John of Antioch, Chrysostom (q.v.), who in 387, at the age of 40, began his 1 2 years' ministry in his native city and in 399, the six memorable years in Constantinople, where he loved 264 PREACHING the poor, withstood tyranny and preached with amazing power. His sermons, says Dr E. C. Dargan, " show the native oratorical instinct highly trained by study and practice, a careful and sensible (not greatly allegorical) interpretation of Scripture, a deep concern for the spiritual welfare of his charge, and a thorough consecration to his work. His style is impetuous, rich, torrential at times; his thought is practical and imaginative rather than deeply philosophical. His knowledge of human nature is keen and ample, and his sermons are a remarkable reflection of the manners and customs of his age. His ethical appeal is constant and stimulating." In the West the allegorical method of Alexander had more influence than the historical exegesis of Antioch. This is seen in Ambrose of Milan, with whom may be named Hilary of Poitiers and Gaudentius of Brescia, the friend of Chrysostom, and a link between him and Ambrose. But the only name of first rank in preaching is that of Augustine, and even he is curiously unequal. His fondness for the allegorical and his manifest carelessness of preparation disappoint as often as his profundity, his devout mysticisms, his practical application attract and satisfy. Augustine's De doctrina Christiana, bk. iv., is the first attempt to formulate the principles of homiletics. 2. The Early Middle Ages, 430-1100. — After the days of Chrysostom and Augustine there was a great decline of preaching. With the poor exceptions of one or two names like those of Theodore of Mopsuestia and John of Damascus, the Eastern Church produced no preachers of distinction. The causes of the ebb were both internal and external. Within the Church there was a departure from the great experimental truths of the Gospel, their place being taken by the preaching of nature and morality on a theistic basis. To this we may add a fantastic and absurd allegorization, the indiscriminate laudation of saints and martyrs, polemical strife, the hardening of the doctrine into dogma, the development of a narrow ecclesiasticism, and the failure of the missionary spirit in the orthodox section of the Eastern Church (as contrasted with the marvellous evangelistic activity of the Nestorians (q.v.). Outside the Church the break- up of old civilizations, the confused beginnings of medieval kingdoms, with the attendant war and rapine, the inroads of the Saracens and the rise of Islam, were all effective silencers of the pulpit. Yet the night was not without its stars; at Rome Leo the Great and Gregory the Great could preach, and the missionaries Patrick, Columba, Columbanus, Augustine, Wilfrid, Willibrord, Gall and Boniface are known by their fruits. The homilies of Beda are marked by a tender devoutness, and here and there rise to glowing eloquence. In the 8th century Charlemagne, through the Capitularies, tried in vain to galvanize preaching; such specimens as we have show the sermons of the times to be marked by superstition, ignorance, formality and plagiarism. It was the age when the papacy was growing out of the ruins of the old Roman Empire, and the best talents were devoted to the organization of ecclesiasticism rather than to the preaching of the Word. Liturgies were taking shape, penance was deemed of more importance than repentance, and there was more insistence on discipline than on Christian morality. Towards the end of the period we note the beginnings of the triple division of medieval preaching into cloistral, parochial and missionary or popular preaching, a division based at first on audiences rather than on subject-matter, the general character of which — legends and popular stories rather than exposition of Scripture — was much the same everywhere. About this time, no doubt, some preachers began to use the vernacular, though no examples of such a practice have been preserved. There are few great names in the pth, loth and nth centuries: Anselm was a great Churchman, but no great preacher; perhaps the most worthy of mention is Anskar, the missionary to the Scandinavians. Rabanus Maurus published an adaptation of Augustine's De doctrina Christiana, bk. iv. But certain forces were at work which were destined to bring about a great revival, viz. the rise of the scholastic theology, the reforms of Pope Hilde- brand, and the preaching of the First Crusade by Pope Urban II. (d. 1009) and Peter the Hermit. 3. The Later Medieval Age, 1100-1500. — In the izth century the significant feature is the growing use of the various national languages in competition with the hitherto universal Latin. The most eminent preacher of the century was Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-1153), esteemed alike by gentle and simple, and summing up the popular scholastic and mystical types of preaching. His homilies, though tediously minute, still breathe a charm and power (see BERNARD, ST). Alongside Bernard may be placed the two mystics of St Victor, Hugo and Richard, and a little later Peter Waldo of Lyons, who, like Henry of Lausanne, preached a plain message to the poor and lowly. The i3th century saw the culmination of medieval preaching, especially in the rise of the two great mendicant orders of Francis and Dominic. Representative Franciscan names are Antony of Padua (d. 1231), who travelled and preached through southern Europe; Berthold of Regensburg (d. 1272), who, with his wit and pathos, imagination and insight, drew huge crowds all over Germany, as in homeliest vernacular he denounced sin with all the severity of a John the Baptist; and Francis Bonaventura, the schoolman and mystic, who wrote a little book on The Art of Preaching. Of the Dominicans Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), the theologian, was perhaps also the greatest preacher. With the i4th century a new note, that of reformation, is struck; but on the whole there was a drop from the high level of the I3th. In Italy Bernardino of Siena on the scholastic side, Robert of Lecce and Gabriel Barletta on the popular, are the chief names; in Germany these phases are represented by John Gritsch and John Geiler of Kaiserburg respectively. Among the popular preachers vigour was often blended with coarseness and vulgarity. Mysticism is represented by Suso, Meister Eckhart, above all Johann Tauler (q.v.) of Strassburg (d. 1461), a true prophet in an age of degeneration. Towards the close of the century comes John Wycliffe (q.v.) and his English travelling preachers, who passed the torch to Hus and the Bohemians, and in the next age Savonarola, who was to Florence what Jeremiah had been to Jerusalem. 4. The Reformation Period, 1500-1700. — It is here that the story of modern preaching may be said to begin. The Reformers gave the sermon a higher place in the ordinary service than it had previously held, and they laid special stress upon the interpretation and application of Scripture. The controversy with Rome, and the appeal to the reason and conscience of the individual, together with the spread of the New Learning, gave preaching a new force and influence which reacted upon the old faith, as John Wild (d. 1554), one of the best Roman Catholic preachers of the day, a man noted for his " emphasis on Scripture, his grasp of evangelical truth, his earnest piety, amiable character and sustained power in the pulpit," fully admitted. Other famous preachers on the same side were the Spaniards Luiz of Granada and Thomas of Villanova, the Italians Cornelio Musso, Egidio of Viterbo and Carlo Borromeo, and the German Peter Canisius. Among the Reformers were, of course, Martin Luther and most of his German collaborators; the Swiss Zwingli, Bui- linger, Farel and Calvin; the English Latimer, John Bradford, John Jewel; the Scot John Knox. Nor can even so cursory a sketch omit to mention Bernardino Ochino and the Anabaptist Hiibmaier. In all these cases fuller details will be found in the articles bearing their names. Most of the Reformation preachers read their sermons, in contrast to the practice of earlier ages. The English Book of Homilies was compiled because competent preachers were comparatively rare. The 17th-century preaching was, generally speaking, a continu- ation of that of the i6th century, the pattern having been set by the Council of Trent and by the principles and practice of the Reformers. In Spain and Germany, however, there was a decline of power, in marked contrast to the vigour manifested in France and England. In France, indeed, the Catholic pulpit now came to its perfection, stimulated, no doubt, by the toleration accorded to the Huguenots up to 1685 and by the patronage of Louis XIV. The names of Bossuet, Flechier, Bourdaloue, Fenelon and Massillon, all supreme preachers, despite a certain artificial pompousness, belong here, and on the reformed side PREAMBLE— PREANGER 265 are Jean Claude (d. 1687), author of the Essay on the Sermon, and Jacques Saurin (d. 1730). In England the rivalry was not between Catholic and Reformer, but between Anglican and Nonconformist, or, if we may use the wide but less correct term, Puritan. On the one hand are Andrewes, Hall, Chillingworth, Jeremy Taylor, Barrow and South; on the other Baxter, Calamy, the Goodwins, Howe, Owen, Bunyan, in each case but a few names out of many. The sermons of these men were largely scriptural, the cardinal evangelical truths being emphasized with reality and vigour, but with a tendency to abstract theology rather than concrete religion. The danger was felt by the university of Cambridge, which in 1674 passed a statute for- bidding its preachers to read their sermons. Germany, harassed by the Thirty Years' War and deadened by a rigid Lutheranism, can show little besides Andrea and Johann Arndt until the coming of the Pietists (see PIETISM), A. H. Francke and Philipp Spencer, with Paul Gerhardt and his cousin Johann. The early years of the i8th century were a time of deadness as regards preaching. The Illumination in Germany and Deism in England were largely responsible for this, though the names of J. A. Bengel (better known as a commentator), Zinzendorf, Butler and the Erskines helped to redeem the time from the reproach of being the dark age of Protestantism. In the Roman Catholic Church the greatest force was Bridaine in France, a popular preacher of high worth. But, generally speaking, there was no heart in preaching, sermons were unimpassioned, stilted and formal presentations of ethics and apologetics, seldom delivered extempore. 5. The Modern Period may be said to begin in 1738, the year in which John Wesley began his memorable work. Preaching once more was based on the Bible, which was expounded with force and earnestness, and though throughout the century there remained a good many pulpiteers who produced nothing but solemn fudge, the example and stimulus given by Wesley and Whitefield were almost immeasurably productive. Whitefield was the greater orator, Wesley the better thinker; but, diverse in temperament as they were, they alike laid emphasis on open- air preaching. In their train came the great field preachers of Wales, like John Elias and Christmas Evans, and later the Primitive Methodists, who by their camp meetings and itiner- ancies kept religious enthusiasm alive when Wesleyan Methodism was in peril of hardening. Meanwhile, in America the Puritan tradition, adapted to the new conditions, is represented by Cotton Mather, and later by Jonathan Edwards, the greatest preacher of his time and country. Whitefield's visits raised a band of pioneer preachers, cultured and uncultured, men who knew their Bibles but often interpreted them awry. In the early igth century the pulpit had a great power, especially in Wales, where it was the vehicle of almost every kind of knowledge. And it may be doubted whether, all in all, preaching has ever reached so uniformly high a level or been so powerful a force as during the ipth century, and this in spite of other forces similarly making for enlightenment and morality. It shared to the full in all the quickening that transformed so many departments of civilization during that epoch, and has been specially influenced by the missionary enterprise, the discoveries of science, the fuller knowledge of the Bible, the awakened zeal for social service. Modern preaching, like ancient preaching, has been so varied, depending, as it so largely does, on the personality of the preacher, that it is not possible to speak of its characteristics. Nor can one do more than enumerate a few outstanding modern names, exclusive of living preachers. In the Roman Catholic Church are the Italians Ventura and Curci, the Germans Diepenbrock and Foerster, the French Lacordaire, Dupanloup, Loyson (Pe're Hyacinthe) and Henri Didon. Of Protestants, Germany produced Schleiermacher, Claus Harms, Tholuck and F. W. Krummacher; France, Vinet and the Monods. In England representative Anglican preachers were Newman (whose best preaching preceded his obedience to Rome), T. Arnold. F. W. Robertson, Liddon, Farrar, Magee; of Free Church- men, T. Binney, Thomas Jones, R. W. Dale and Joseph Parker (Congregationalist); Robert Hall, C. H. Spurgeon and Alexander Maclaren (Baptists); W. M. Punshon, Hugh Price Hughes and Peter Mackenzie (Wesleyan); James Martineau (Unitarian). The Scottish Churches gave Edward Irving, Thos. Chalmers, R. S. Candlish, R. M. McCheyne and John Caird. In America, honoured names are those of W. E. Channing, Henry Ward Beecher, Horace Bushnell, Phillips Brooks, to mention only a few. See J. M. Neale, Medieval Preachers and Preaching (1857); R. Rothe, Geschichte der Predigt vom Anfang bis auf Schleiermacher (1881); J. P. Mahaffy, Decay of Modern Preaching (1882); E. C. Durgan, A History of Preaching (1906), and preface to The Pulpit Encyclopaedia, vol. i. (1909); and the various volumes of the Yale Lectures on Preaching. Also SERMON. (A. J. G.) PREAMBLE (Med. Lat. praeambulum, from praeambulare, to walk before), an introductory statement, a preliminary explana- tion. The term is particularly applied to the opening paragraph of a statute which summarizes the intention of the legislature in passing the measure; thus the preamble of the statute, of which the title is the Children Act 1908, is as follows: " An Act to consolidate and amend the Law relating to the Protection of Children and Young Persons, Reformatory and Industrial Schools and Juvenile Offenders, and otherwise to amend the Law with respect to Children and Young Persons." The procedure in the British parliament differs in regard to the preambles of public and private bills. The second reading of a public bill affirms the principle, and therefore in committee the preamble stands postponed till after the consideration of the clauses, when it is considered in reference to those clauses as amended and altered if need be (Standing Order 35). On the other hand, the preamble of a private bill, if opposed, is considered first in committee, and counsel for the bill deals with the expediency of the bill, calls witnesses for the allegation in the preamble, and petitions against the bill are then heard; if the preamble is negatived the bill is dropped, if affirmed it is gone through clause by clause. On unopposed private bills the preamble has also to be proved, more especially with regard to whether the clauses required by the standing orders are inserted (see May, Parliamentary Practice, 1006, pp. 483, 808 seq.). PREANGER, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East Indies, bounded S. by the Indian Ocean, W. by Bantam, N. by Batavia and Krawang, and N.E. and E. by Cheribon and Banyumas. It is officially termed the Preanger Regencies, of which there are five, covering the several administrative divisions. It also includes the small island of Nusa Were. The natives are Sudanese. The whole residency is mountainous, but there are two main parallel ranges of peaks along the northern boundary and through the middle. Among these are to be found a singu- larly large number of both active and inactive volcanoes, includ- ing the well-known Salak and Cede in the north, and bunched together at the eastern end the Chikorai, Papandayan, Wayang, Malabar, Guntur, &c., ranging from 6000 to 10,000 ft. in height. The rivers of the province belong to the basins of the Indian Ocean and the Java Sea respectively, the water-parting being formed by the western and eastern ends respectively of the northern and southern lines of mountain peaks. The two which drain the largest basin are the Chi Manuk and the Chi Tarum, both rising in the eastern end of the province and flowing north- east and north-west respectively to the Java Sea. The Chi Tandui, also rising here, flows south-east to the Indian Ocean, and alone of all the rivers in this province is navigable. Large stretches of marsh occur on each side of this river, as well as here and there among the hills where inland lakes formerly existed, as, for instance, near Bandung. Crater lakes are Telaga (lake) Budas, in the crater of the volcano of the same name in the south-east, and Telaga Warna, on the slopes of the Cede, famous for its beautiful tinting. On the same side of the Cede is the health resort of Sindanglaya (founded 1850-1860), with a mineral spring containing salt, and close by is the country residence of Chipanas, belonging to the governor-general. Numerous warm springs are scattered about this volcanic region. Petroleum and coal have been worked, and there is a rich yield of chalk, while a good quality of bricks is made from the 266 PREBENDARY— PRE-CAMBRIAN red clay. The soil is in general very fertile, the principal products being rice, maize and pulse (kachang) in the lower grounds, and cinchona, coffee and tea, as well as cocoa, tobacco and fibrous plants in the hills. The coffee cultivation has, however, consider- ably diminished. Forest culture, mat-making, weaving and fish-breeding are also practised, the last-named in the marshes after the rice harvest. The plantations are almost entirely owned by the government and Europeans, but the rice mills are in the hands of Chinese. Irrigation works have been carried out in various parts. The principal towns are Bandung, the capital of the residency, Sukabumi, Chianjar, Sumedang, Chichalengka, Garut, Tasik Malaya and Manon Jaya, all with the exception of Sumedang connected by railway. PREBENDARY (Lat. praebendo = give or grant, through Low Lat. praebenda), one who holds a prebend, namely an endowment in land, or pension in money, given to a cathedral or conventual church in praebendam — that is, for the maintenance of a secular priest or regular canon. In the early Church the title had a more general signification. The word praebenda originally signified the daily rations given to soldiers, whence it passed to indicate daily distributions of food and drink to monks, canons, &c. It became a frequent custom to grant such a prebend from the resources of a monastery to certain poor people or to the founder. Such persons were, literally, prebendaries. At a later date, when the custom in collegiate churches of living in common had become less general, a certain amount of the church revenue was divided among the clergy serving such a church, and each portion (no longer of meat or drink only) was called a prebend. The clergy of such churches were generally canons, and the titles canon and prebendary were, and are, sometimes used as synonymous. A member of such a college is a canon in virtue of the spiritual duties which he has to perform, and the assignation to him of a stall in choir and a place in chapter; he is a prebendary in virtue of his benefice. In the Roman Catholic Church the duties of a prebendary as such generally consist in his attendance at choral office in his church. In the Anglican Church he usually bears his part in the conducting of the ordinary church services, except when he has a vicar, as in the old cathedral foundations (see CATHEDRAL). A prebendary may be either simple or a dignitary. In the former case he has no cure and no more than his revenue for his support ; in the latter he has always a jurisdiction annexed. In the Anglican Church the bishop is of common right patron of all prebends, and if a prebend is in the gift of a lay patron he must present his candidate to the bishop who institutes as to other benefices. No person may hold more than one prebend in the same church; therefore, if a prebendary accepts a deanery in his church his prebend becomes void by cession. A prebend is practically a sinecure, and the holder has no cure of souls as such. He may, and often does, accept a parochial office or chaplaincy in addition. In the middle ages there were many less regular kinds of prebends: e.g. praebenda doctoralis, with which teaching duties were connected, praebenda lectoralis, praebenda missae, to which the duty of saying a certain number of masses was attached, praebenda mortuaria, founded for the saying of masses for the dead. Chantries belonged to this class. All these prebends were generally assigned to special holders, but there were also praebendae currentes, which were not held by any persons in particular. Sometimes prebends were held by boys who sang in choir, praebendae pueriles. Occasionally the name of prebendary was applied to those servants in a monastery who attended to the food. In England the word prebendary was some- times used as synonymous with prebend, as prebend was occasionally used for prebendary. Du Cange, Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis, ed. L. Favre (Niort, 1883, &c.); Migne, Encyclopedie theologique, 1st series, vol. x. (s. Droit Canon) ; Sir R. J. Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of England (2nd ed., 1895). (E. O'N.) PRE-CAMBRIAN, in geology, the enormously long and indistinctly denned period of time anterior to the Cambrian period. In the restricted sense in which it is now often employed it embraces a period or group of periods subsequent to the Archean (q.v.) and anterior to the Cambrian, although some writers still prefer to include the former. The superior limit of pre-Cambrian rocks is fixed by the Olenellus fauna at the base of the Cambrian (some geologists speak of certain pre-Olenellus beds as eo-Cambrian) ; the lower limit has not yet been generally established, though it is sufficiently clear in certain regions. The rocks of this period are much more obviously of sedimentary origin than those of the Archean; they include conglomerates, sandstones, greywackes, quartzites, slates, limestones and dolomites, which appear to have been formed under conditions similar to those which obtained in later epochs. Although the sediments prevail, they are often very highly metamorphosed and distorted by crustal movements; igneous rocks occur in great bulk in some regions. Fossils are usually extremely rare and very ill-preserved; but indications of protozoa, coelenterates, echinoderms, molluscoids, mollusca, worms and arthropods have been distinguished. The name pre-Cambrian is the equivalent of the " Algonkian " of the United States Geological Survey, and of the " Proterozoic " of other American authorities; the terms eozoic, archaeozoic, agnotozoic, cryptozoic, eparchaic and others have also been applied to the same period. Three or more great stratigraphical breaks have been recog- nized within the system of pre-Cambrian rocks; but how far these breaks synchronize in widely separated regions where they are found is difficult to determine in the absence of good palae- ontological evidence. The most striking development of pre-Cambrian rocks in Great Britain is the Tprridpnian (q.v.) group of the north-west highlands of Scotland, which lies with strong unconformability between the Lewisian gneiss and the basal quartzite of the Cambrian. The Eastern or Dalradian (q.v.) schists of Scotland and their equivalents in Ireland and Anglesey may be, in part at least, of the same age. In Shropshire, in the neighbourhood of the Welsh border, is the remnant of an ancient ridge now forming the Longmynd and the smaller hills to the west, Caer Caradpc, the Wrekin, and the Carding- ton Hills. The latter are built mainly of much altered porphyries and tuffs which C. Callaway named the Uriconian series; this series is clearly of pre-Cambrian age. The great mass of grits, flags and slates forming the Longmynd cannot yet be definitely assigned to this period, though they may be provisionally retained here under Callaway's name, Londmyndian. Probably contemporaneous with the Uriconian are the volcanic series of Barnt Green, Licky Hill and Caldecote. The micaceous schists of Rushton (Salop) may be placed here. In the Charnwood Forest a group of crystalline rocks, named Charnian by W. W. Watts, rises up in the form of small hills amid the surrounding Trias; they are classed as follows in descending order: The Brand series, including the slates of Swithland and Groby, quartzite and conglomerate and purple and green beds; the Maplewell series, including the olive hornstones of Bradgate, the Woodhouse beds, the slate-agglomerate of Roecliffe, the Beacon Hill hornstones and a felspathic agglomerate; and the Blackbrook series of grits and hornstones. The ancient volcanic rocks of St Davids, Pembrokeshire, were formerly regarded by H. Hicks as of pre-Cambrian age, in which he recognized a lower, " Dimetian," a middle, " Arvonian," and an upper, " Pebidian," series. The pre- Cambrian age of these rocks was for a long time disputed, but J. F. N. Green (Q. J. Ceol. Soc., 1908, 64, p. 363) made it clear that there is an Upper Pebidian (Rhyolitic group), and a Lower Pebidian (Trachytic group), and that Hicks's " Dimetian," the St Davids granophyre, is a laccolitic mass intrusive in the Pebidian. Both the Pebidian volcanic rocks and the intruded granophyre are separated from the Cambrian by an unconformity. In Finnp-Scandinavia pre-Cambrian rocks are well developed. In the Scandinavian mountain ranges are the Seve and Sparagmite formations; the latter, a coarse-grained felspathic sandstone, is very similar to the Torridonian of Scotland; it occurs also in Enontekis in Finland. Next in descending order come the Jotnian sandstones (2000 metres), which retain ripple-marks; they are associated with conglomerates and slates and intrusive diabase and the Rapakiwi granite. The Jotnian group rests unconfprmably upon the Jatulian quartzites and schists, with slates, dolomite and carbonaceous beds (north of Lake Onega is a bed of anthracite 2 metres thick). Out- flows of diabase and gabbro occur in this series, which is from 1600 to 2000 metres in thickness. Below the Jatulian is another group of schistose sediments, the Kalevian, more strongly folded than the former and separated from the groups above and below by unconformable junctions. These rocks are regarded by J. J. Sederholm as older than the Huronian of North America (possibly analogous to the Keewatin formation), and yet several groups of sediments in this region (Bptnian schists, &c.) lie between the Kalevian series and the granitic (Archean) complex. Pre-Cambrian rocks occupy large areas and attain an enormous thickness in North America; all types of sediment are represented in various stages of metamorphism, and with these are igneous rocks, often developed upon a vast scale. They have been subdivided into the following groups or formations: an upper Keweenawan PRECARIOUS— PRECEDENCE 267 and a lower Huronian group; the latter is subdivided into an up|KT Animikean (north-east Minnesota) or Penokean (north-wi-st Wisconsin); a middle and a lower division. Each of these four groups is separated by marked unconformity from the rocks above and below. Huronian rocks are well developed in the following district*: the Marquette region of northern Michigan, comprising quartzites, slates and conglomerates, with important iron-bearing ! and schists and ferruginous cherts; in the Menominee district of Michigan and Wisconsin similar rocks occur; the Penokee-Gogebic district of Wisconsin and Michigan comprises quartzites, shales and limestones, with beds and dikes of diabase and olivine-gabbro; the same rocks occur in the Crystal Falls, north Michigan; the Mesabi and Vermilion districts, Minnesota, and north of Lake Michigan rock groups of this age take an important place. The valuable iron ores of Mesabi, Penokee-Gogebic and Menominee belong mainly to the Animikean group; in the Penokee rocks of this age vast thicknesses of igneous rocks constitute the greater part of the formation. The Keweenawan rocks are said to attain the enormous thickness of 50,000 ft.; the higher beds are mainly sandy sediments and conglomerates; in the lower portions are great igneous masses, gabbros, diabase and porphyries; thus in the St Croix valley, north- west Wisconsin and Minnesota, no fewer than 65 lava flows and 5 conglomeratic beds have been counted, which together aggregate some 20,000 ft. in thickness. Some of these lava flows appear to have been due to fissure eruptions. The native copper deposits of this age in north Michigan are the most extensive known. 1 're-Cambrian rocks occupy large areas and reach great thicknesses in the eastern provinces of Canada; in Newfoundland 10,000 ft. of strata lie between the Archean and Cambrian (the Terranovian series of South Hunt; Avalon group of others); similar rocks occur also north of the Great Lakes and in the Hudson Bay region. They are found also in great force in the Colorado Canyon, in the Adirondack Mountains, and Black Hills of S. Dakota and elsewhere. Turning to Europe, we find pre-Cambrian rocks in Brittany, the " phyllades de Saint L6," or BrioveVian of Chas. Barrois; and along the western border of France and south-west of the central massif. In the Fichtelgebirge, the Silesian mountains and east Thuringia similar rocks occur; the Przibramer Schiefer of Lipold and rocks in J. Barrande's stage A are of this age. Probably the metamor- phosed eruptive rocks on the southern border of the Hunsruck and Taunus are pre-Cambrian. Large tracts of metamorphic sedimentary rocks that may be classed here are found in Shantung and north China, and probably also in Brazil, India and Australia. In South Africa the gold-bearing Witwatersrand beds of the Transvaal and the overlying Ventersdorp and Potchefstroom systems; the Griqua- land system and Cango and Ibeques systems of Cape Colony, all occur above Archean rocks and below those of Devonian age; they cannot as yet, therefore' be classed as pre-Cambrian and their age is still uncertain. Little can be said of the climatic conditions of this remote period, the fossil evidence being so poor; but it is of interest to note that in certain regions, viz. in the Lake Huron region, in the Gaisa series of Varanger Fjord, Norway, and in the Yangtse district in China, conglomerate beds are found in which many of the boulders are scratched like those of the Dwyka beds of South Africa, and thus suggest the possibility of glacial conditions at some stages of the period. For literature see Geological Literature added to the Geological Society's Library (annual). . (J. A. H.) PRECARIOUS, literally, held on the good-will of another, or on entreaty (Lat. prex, precis, prayer) to another. The word is used, in law, of a tenure of land, office, &c., held at the pleasure of another. In general usage it has the significance of something uncertain, dangerous or risky. PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede). This word in the sense in which it is here employed means priority of place, or superiority of rank, in the conventional system of arrangement under which the more eminent and dignified orders of the community are classified on occasions of public ceremony and in the intercourse of private life.. In the United Kingdom there is no complete and comprehensive code whereby the scheme of social gradation has been defined and settled, once and for all, on a sure and lasting foundation. The principles and rules at present controlling it have been formulated at different periods and have been derived from various sources. The Crown is the fountain of honour, and it is its undoubted prerogative to confer on any of its subjects, in any part of its dominions, such titles and distinctions and such rank and place as to it may seem meet and convenient. Its discretion in this respect is altogether unbounded at common law, and is limited in those cases only wherein it has been submitted to restraint by act of parliament. In the old time all questions of precedence came in the ordinary course of things within the jurisdiction of the court of chivalry, in which the lord high constable and earl marshal presided as judges, and of which the kings of arms, heralds and pursuivants were the assessors and executive officers. When, however, points of unusual moment and magni- tude happened to be brought into controversy, they were occasionally considered and decided by the sovereign in person, or by a special commission, or by the privy council, or even by the parliament itself. But it was not until towards the middle of the i6th century that precedence was made the subject of any legislation in the proper meaning of the term.1 In 1539 an act " for the placing of the Lords in Parliament " (31 Hen. VIII. c. 10) was passed at the instance of the king, and by it the relative rank of the members of the royal family, of the great officers of state and the household, and of the hierarchy and the peerage was definitely and definitively ascertained. In 1563 an act "for declaring the authority of the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal and the Lord Chancellor to be the same" (5 Eliz. c. 1 8) also declared their precedence to be the same. Questions concerning the precedence of peers are mentioned in the Lords Journals 4 & 5 Ph. and M. and 39 Eliz., but in the reign of James I. such questions were often referred to the commissioners for executing the office of earl marshal. In the reign of Charles I. the House of Lords considered several ques- tions of precedency and objected in the earl of Banbury's case to warrants overruling the statute of 31 Hen. VIII. In 1689 an act " for enabling Lords Commissioners of the Great Seal to execute the office of Lord Chancellor or Lord Keeper " (i Will, and Mary c. 21) gave to the commissioners not being peers of the realm place next to the speaker of the House of Commons and to the speaker place next to the peers of the realm. In 1707 the Act of Union with Scotland (6 Anne c. n) provided that all peers of Scotland should be peers of Great Britain2 and should have rank immediately after the peers of the like degrees in England at the time of the union and before all peers of Great Britain of the like degrees created after the union. In 1800 the Act of Union with Ireland (39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67) provided that the lords spiritual of Ireland should have rank immediately after the lords spiritual of the same degree in Great Britain, and that the lords temporal of Ireland should have rank immediately after the lords temporal of the same degree in Great Britain at the time of the union, and further that " peerages of Ireland created after the union should have precedence with peerages of the United Kingdom created after the union according to the dates of their creation." At different times too during the current century several statutes have been passed for the reform and extension of the judicial organization which have very materially affected the precedence of the judges, more especially the Judicature Act of 1873 (36 & 37 Viet. c. 66), under which the lords justices of appeal and the justices of the High Court now receive their appointments. But the statute of Henry VIII. " for the placing of the Lords " still remains the only legislative measure in which it has been attempted to deal directly and systematically with any large and important section of the scale of general precedence; and the law, so far as it relates to the ranking of the sovereign's immediate kindred whether lineal or collateral, the principal ministers of the Crown and court, and both the spiritual and temporal members of the House of Lords, is to all practical intents and purposes what it was made by that statute nearly 350 years ago. Where no act of parliament applies precedence is determined either by the will and pleasure of the sov- ereign or by what is accepted as " ancient usage and established 1 Ample materials for the satisfaction of the curiosity of those who are desirous of investigating the history of precedence under its wider and more remote aspects will be found in such writers as Selden or Mackenzie, together with the authorities quoted or referred to by them : Selden, Titles of Honor, pt. ii. p. 740 seq. (London, 1672) ; Mackenzie, Observations upon The Laws and Customs of Nations as to Precedency (Edinburgh, 1680; and also reprinted in Guillim, Display of Heraldry, 6th ed., London, 1724). 1 For the parliamentary rights of Scottish peers see article PEERAGE. 268 PRECEDENCE custom." Of the sovereign's will and pleasure the appropri- ate method of announcement is by warrant under the sign- manual, or letters patent under the great seal. But, although the Crown has at all periods very frequently conceded special privileges of rank and place to particular persons, its interference with the scale of general precedence has been rare and excep- tional. In 1540 it was provided by warrant from Henry VIII. that certain officers of the household therein named should precede the secretaries of state when and if they were under the degree of barons.1 In 1612 James I. directed by letters patent, not without long and elaborate argument in the Star Chamber, that baronets, then newly created, should be ranked after the younger sons of viscounts and barons, and that a number of political and judicial functionaries should be ranked between knights of the Garter and such knights bannerets as should be made by the sovereign in person " under his standard displayed in an army "royal in open war."2 Four years later he further directed, also by letters patent, that the sons of baronets and their wives and the daughters of baronets should be placed before the sons of knights and their wives and the daughters of knights " of what degree or order soever." 3 And again in 1620 the same king commanded by warrant " after solemn argument before his majesty " that the younger sons of earls should precede knights of the privy council and knights of the Garter not being "barons or of a higher degree."4 If we add to these ordinances the provisions relating to precedence contained in the statutes of several of the orders of knighthood which since then have been instituted or reconstructed, we shall nearly, if not quite, exhaust the catalogue of the interpositions of the sovereign with regard to the rank and place of classes as distinguished from individuals. Of " ancient usage and established custom " the records of the College of Arms furnish the fullest and most trustworthy evidence. Among them in particular there is a collection of early tables of precedence which were published by authority at intervals from the end of the I4th to the end of the isth century, and to which peculiar weight has been attached by many successive generations of heralds. On them, indeed, as illustrative of and supplementary to the action of parliament and the Crown, all subsequent tables of precedence have been in great measure founded. The oldest is the "Order of All Estates of Nobles and Gentry," prepared apparently for the coronation of Henry IV. in 1399, under the supervision of Ralph Nevill, earl of Westmorland and earl marshal; and the next is the " Order of All States of Worship and Gentry," prepared, as announced in the heading, for the coronation of Henry VI. in 1429, under the supervision of the lord protector Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, and the earl marshal, John Mowbray, duke of Norfolk. Two more are of the reign of Edward IV., and were severally issued by John Tiptoft, earl of Worcester and lord high constable, in 1467, and by Anthony Widvile, Earl Rivers and lord high constable, in 1479. The latest is commonly and shortly known as the " Series Ordinum," and was drawn up by a special commission presided over by Jasper Tudor, duke of Bedford, it is presumed for observance at the marriage of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of York in 1486. To these may be added the " Order for the Placing of Lords and Ladies," taken at a grand entertainment given by command of Henry VIII. at the king's manor-house of Richmond in 1520 by Charles Somerset, earl of Worcester, lord chamberlain of the household, to the French ambassador, Olivier de la Vernade, seigneur de la Batie; the " Precedency of All Estates," arranged in 1594 by the commissioners for 1 Quoted by Sir Charles Young from State Papers: published by Authority (410, 1830), p. 623, in Privy Councillors and their Precedence (1850), p. 15. 1 Patent Rolls, loth Jac., pt. x. mem. 8. It is commonly stated that the bannerets here referred to could be made by the prince of Wales as well as by the king. But the privilege was conferred by James I. on Henry, the then prince of Wales, only (Selden, Titles of Honor, pt. ii. p. 750). 1 Ibid., I4th Jac., part ii. mem. 24; Selden, Titles of Honor, part ii. p. 752. 4 Cited by Sir Charles Young, Order of Precedence, with Authorities and Remarks, p. 27 (London, 1851). executing the office of earl marshal; and the " Roll of the King's Majesty's most Royal Proceeding through London " from the Tower to Whitehall on the eve of the coronation of James I., also arranged by the commissioners for executing the office of earl marshal. On many isolated points, too, of more or less importance, special declaratory decisions have been from time to time propounded by the earls marshal, their substitutes and deputies; for example, in 1594, when the younger sons of dukes were placed before viscounts; in 1625, when-the rank of knights of the Bath and their wives was fixed; and in 1615 and 1677, when the eldest sons of the younger sons of peers were placed before the eldest sons of knights and of baronets. It is from these miscellaneous sources that the precedence among others of all peeresses, the eldest sons and their wives and the daughters of all peers, and the younger sons and their wives of all dukes, marquesses and earls is ascertained and established. And further, for the purpose of proving continuity of practice and disposing of minor questions not otherwise and more conclusively set at rest, the official programmes and accounts preserved by the heralds of different public solemnities and processions, such as coronations, royal marriages, state funerals, national thanks- givings and so on, have always been considered to be of great historical and technical value.6 i. — General Precedence of Men. The sovereign; (i) prince of Wales; (2) younger sons of the sovereign; (3) grandsons of the sovereign; (4) brothers of the sovereign; (5) uncles of the sovereign; (6) nephews of the sover- eign;6 (7) ambassadors; (8) archbishop of Canterbury, primate of all England; (9) lord high chancellor of Great Britain or lord keeper of the great seal; (10) archbishop of York, primate of England;7, (ii) prime minister; (12) lord high treasurer of Great 6 Selden, Titles of Honor, pt. ii. p. 753. 8 The precedence of the members of the royal family depends on their relationship to the reigning sovereign and not on their relation- ship to any of the predecessors of the reigning sovereign. It is pro- vided by 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10 that no person, " except only the King's children, shall have place " at the side of the Cloth of Estate in the Parliament Chamber, ' and that " the King's Son, the King's Brother, the King's Nephew, or the King's Brother's or Sister's Sons," shall have place before all prelates, great officers of state and peers. Lord Chief Justice Coke was of opinion that the king's nephew meant the king's grandson ornepos (Institutes, vol. iv. ch. 77). But, as Mr Justice Blackstone says, " under the description of the King's children his grandsons are held to be included without having recourse to Sir Edward Coke's interpretation of nephew " (Commentaries, vol. i. ch. 4). Besides, if grandson is to be understood by nephew, the king's grand- son would be placed after the king's brother. The prince of Wales is not specifically mentioned in the statute " for the placing of the Lords " ; but, as he is always, whether the son or the grandson of the sovereign, the heir-apparent to the Crown, he is ranked next to the sovereign or the queen-consort. With the exception of the prince of Wales, all the male relations of the sovereign are ranked first in the order of their degrees of consanguinity with him or her, and secondly, in the order of their proximity to the succession to the Crown ; thus the members of the several groups into which the royal family is divided take precedence according to their own seniority and the seniority of their fathers or mothers, the sons of the sons or brothers of the sovereign being preferred to the sons of the daughters or sisters of the sovereign among the sovereign's grandsons and nephews. 7 By 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10, the king's vicegerent " for good and due ministration of justice in all causes and cases touching the ecclesiastical jurisdiction " is placed immediately before the arch- bishop of Canterbury. The office of vicegerent or vicar-general was then held by Thomas, Lord Cromwell, afterwards earl of Essex, together with that of lord privy seal, and it was never conferred on any other person. By the Act of Union with Ireland the archbishops of Ireland had place next to the archbishops of England, and if consecrated before and not after the disestablishment of the Church in Ireland they retain this position under the Irish Church Act of 1869. At the coronation of William IV. the lord chancellor of Ireland walked next after the lord chancellor of Great Britain and before the lord president of the council and lord privy seal. In Ireland, if he is a peer he has precedence between the archbishops of Armagh and Dublin, and if he is not a peer'after the archbishop of Dublin. But, except in the House of Lords, the precedence of the lord chancellor of Great Britain or the lord keeper of the great seal is the same whether he is a peer or a commoner. The lord keeper has the same precedence as the lord chancellor under 5 Eliz. c. 1 8. But the last appointment to the lord keepership was that of Sir Robert Henley, afterwards Lord Henley, lord chancellor, and earl of Northington, in 1757, and the office is not likely to be revived. PRECEDENCE 269 Britain 1(13) lord president of the privy council 1(14) lord keeper of the privy seal;1 (15) lord great chamberlain of England; (16) lord high constable of England; (17) earl marshal; (18) lord high admiral; (19) lord steward of the household; (20) lord chamber- lain of the household;2 above peers of their own degree; (21) dukes;3 (22) marquesses; (23) dukes' eldest sons;4 (24) earls; (25) marquesses' eldest sons; (26) dukes' younger sons; (27) viscounts; (28) earls' eldest sons; (29) marquesses' younger 1 The lord president of the council and the lord privy seal, if they are peers, are placed by 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10 before all dukes except dukes related to the sovereign in one or other of the degrees of consanguinity specified in the act. And, since the holders of these offices have been and are always peers, their proper precedence if they are commoners has never been determined. 1 It is provided by 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10 that " the Great Chamber- lain, the Constable, the Marshal, the Lord Admiral, the Grand Master or Lord Steward, and the King's Chamberlain shall sit and be placed after the Lord Privy Seal in manner and form following : that is to say, every one of them shall sit and be placed above all other person- ages being of the same estates or degrees that they shall happen to be of, that is to say the Great Chamberlain first, the Constable next, the Marshal third, the Lord Admiral the fourth, the Grand Master or Lord Steward the fifth, and the King's Chamberlain the sixth." The office of lord high steward of England, then under attainder, is not mentioned in the act for the placing of the Lords, " because it was intended," Lord Chief Justice Coke says, " that when the use of him should be necessary he should not endure longer than hac vice " (Inst. iv. 77). But it may be noted that, when his office is called out of abeyance for coronations or trials by the House of Lords, the lord high steward is the greatest of all the great officers of state in England. The office of lord great chamberlain of England is hereditary in the coheirs of the last duke of Ancaster, who inherited it from the De Veres, earls of Oxford, in whose line it had descended from the reign of Henry I. The office of lord high constable of England, also under attainder, is called out of abeyance for and pending coronations only. The office of earl marshal is hereditary in the Howards, dukes of Norfolk, premier dukes and, as earls of Arundel, premier earls of England, under a grant in special tail male from Charles II. in 1672. The office of lord high admiral, like the office of lord high treasurer, is practically extinct as a dignity. Since the reign of Queen Anne there has been only one lord high admiral, namely, William, duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., for a few months in the Canning administration of 1827. The lord steward and the lord chamberlain of the household are always peers, and have seldom been under the degree of earls. We may here remark that both the Scottish and Irish Acts of Union make no reference to the precedence of the great officers of state of Scotland and Ireland. Not to mention the prince of Wales, who is by birth steward of Scot- land, the earl of Shrewsbury is hereditary great seneschal of Ireland; the duke of Argyll is hereditary master of the household; the earl of Errol is hereditary lord high constable of Scotland; but what places they are entitled to in the scale of general precedence is alto- gether doubtful and uncertain. In Ireland the great seneschal ranks after the lord chancellor if he is a commoner, and after the archbishop of Dublin if the lord chancellor is a peer, and in both cases before dukes (" Order of precedence," Dublin Gazette, June 3, 1843). Again, on George IV.'s visit to Edinburgh in 1821, the lord high constable had place as the first subject in Scotland immediately after the members of the royal family. At every coronation from that of George III. to that of Queen Victoria, the lord high constable of Scotland has been placed next to the earl marshal of England, and, although no rank has been assigned on these occasions to the hereditary great seneschal of Ireland, the lord high constable of Ireland appointed for the ceremony has been at all or most of them placed next to the lord high constable of Scotland. It is worthy of notice, however, that Sir George Mackenzie, writing when lord advocate of Scotland in the reign of Charles II., says that " the Constable and Marischal take not place as Officers of the Crown but according to their creation as Earls," and he moreover expresses the opinion that " it seems very strange that these who ride upon the King's right and left hand when he returns from his Parliaments and who guard the Parliament itself, and the Honours, should have no precedency by their offices " (Observations, &c., p. 25, in Guillim's Display of Heraldry, p. 461 seq.; but see also Wood-Douglas, Peerage of Scotland, i. 557). 1 Both Sir Charles Young and Sir Bernard Burke place " Dukes of the Blood Royal " before dukes, their eldest sons before marquesses, and their younger sons before marquesses' eldest sons. In the " Ancient Tables of Precedence," which we have already cited, dukes of the blood royal are always ranked before other dukes, and in most of them their eldest sons and in some of them their younger sons are placed in a corresponding order of precedence. But in this connexion the words of the act for the placing of the Lords are perfectly plain and unambiguous: " All Dukes not aforementioned, i.e. all except only such as shall happen to be the king's son, the king's brother, the king's uncle, the king's nephew, or the king's brothers or sister's son, " Marquesses, Earls, Viscounts and Barons, not having any of the offices aforesaid, shall sit and be placed after their ancienty as sons; (30) bishops; (31) barons;6 (32) speaker of the House of Commons; (33) commissioners of the great seal;' (34) treasurer of the household; (35) comptroller of the household; (36) master of the horse; (37) vice-chamberlain of the household; (38) secretaries of state;7 (39) viscounts' eldest sons; (40) earls' younger sons; (41) barons' eldest sons; (42) knights of the Garter;8 (43) privy councillors;' (44) chancellor of the exchequer; (45) chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster; (46) lord chief it hath been accustomed." As Lord Chief Justice Coke and Mr Justice Blackstone observe, the degrees of consanguinity with the sovereign to which precedence is given by 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10 are the same as those within which it was made nigh treason by 28 Hen. VIII. c. 18 for any man to contract marriage without the consent of the king. Queen Victoria, by letters patent under the great seal in 1865, ordained that, " besides the children of Sovereigns of these realms, the children of the sons of any of the Sovereigns of Great Britain and Ireland shall have and at all times hold and enjoy the style or attribute of ' Royal Highness ' with their titular dignity of Prince or Princess prefixed to their respective Christian names, or with their other titles of honour." But, notwithstanding this, their rank and place are still governed by the act for the placing of the Lords. The duke of Cumberland has no precedence as a cousin of the king, being the grandson of a son of George III. and would not be a Royal Highness " at all if his father nad not been, like his grandfather, king of Hanover. In Garter's Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, the official list of the House of Lords, the duke of Cumberland is entered in the precedence of his dukedom after the duke of Northumberland. Under the combined operation of the act for the placing of the Lords and the Acts of Union with Scotland (art. 23) and with Ireland (art. 4), peers of the same degrees, as dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts and barons, severally, have precedence according to priority in the creation of their respective peerages. But peerages of England created before 1707 precede peerages of Scotland created before 1707, peerages of Great Britain created between 1707 and 1801 precede peerages of Ireland created before 1 80 1, and peerages of Ireland createa before 1801 precede peerages of the United Kingdom and of Ireland created after 1801, which take precedence in common. The relative precedence of the members of the House of Lords, including the representative peers of Scotland and Ireland, is officially set forth in Garter's roll, which is prepared by the Garter king of arms at the commencement of each session of parliament, that of the Scottish peers generally in the Union Roll, and that of the Irish peers generally in Ulster's Roll, a record which is under the charge of and is periodically corrected by the Ulster king of arms. The Union Roll is founded on the " Decreet of Ranking " pronounced and promulgated by a royal commission in 1606, which, in the words of an eminent authority in such matters, " was adopted at once as the roll of the peers in Parliament, convention and all public meetings, and continued to be called uninterruptedly with such alterations upon it as judgments of the Court of Session upon appeal in modification of the precedency of certain peers rendered necessary, with the omission of such dignities as became extinct and with the addition from time to time of newly created peerages — down to the last sitting of the Scottish Parliament on tne 1st of May 1707 " (The Earldom of Mar, &c., by the earl of Crawford (25th) and Balcarres (8th), ii. 16). 4 Eldest sons of peers of any given degree are of the same rank as, but are to be placed immediately after, peers of the first degree under that of their fathers; and the younger sons of peers of any given degree are of the same rank, but are to be placed after peers of the second degree and the eldest sons of peers of the first degree under that of their fathers. • Secretaries of state, if they are barons, precede all other barons under 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10. But if they are of any higher degree their rank^is not influenced by their official position. 6 Under I Will, and Mary, c. 21, being the only commissioners for the execution of any office who have precedence assigned to them. 7 The officers of the household who, under Henry VIII. 's warrant of 1540, precede the secretaries of state have been for a long time always peers or the sons of peers, with personal rank higher, and usually far higher, than their official rank. The practical result is, seeing also that the great seal is only very rarely indeed in commission, that the secretaries of state, when they are commoners whose personal precedence is below a baron's, have official precedence immediately after the speaker of the House of Commons. The principal secretaries, for so they are all designated, are officially equal to one another in dignity, and are placed among themselves according to seniority of appoiikmcnt. • During more than two centuries only one commoner has been indebted for his precedence to his election into the order, and that was Sir Robert Walpole, the minister, who at the coronation of George II. in 1727 was placed as a knight of the Garter immediately before privy councillors. The proper precedence of both knights of the Thistle and knights of St Patrick is undecided. • Privy councillors of Great Britain and of Ireland take precedence in common according to priority of admission. The chancellors of the exchequer and of the duchy of Lancaster, the lord chief justice 270 PRECEDENCE justice of England; (47) master of the rolls; (48) lords justices of appeal;1 (49) judges of the High Court of Justice;2 (50) knights bannerets made by the sovereign in person; (51) vis- counts' younger sons; (52) barons' younger sons; (53) sons of lords of appeal;3 (54) baronets;4 (55) knights bannerets not made by the sovereign in person; (56) knights of the first class of the Bath, the Star of India, St Michael and St George;5 (57) the Indian Empire, the Royal Victorian Order; (58) knights of the second class of the Bath, the Star of India, and St Michael and St George;6 other orders K.C.I.E., &c.;(s9) knights bache- lors;7 (60) sons of commanders of the Royal Victorian Order; (61) judges of county courts;8 (62) eldest sons of the younger sons of peers; (63) baronets' eldest sons; (64) knights' eldest sons; (65) baronets' younger sons; (66) knights' younger sons;9 of England, the master of the rolls, and the lords justices of appael are always members of the privy council, and have rank and place as privy councillors, if they are not also peers. 1 The lords justices of appeal have precedence among themselves according to seniority of appointment. Until recently they were preceded by the lord chief justice of the common pleas and the lord chief baron of the exchequer (divisions of the High Court of Justice). But under existing arrangements these offices have fallen into abey- ance, although they have not been formally abolished. The vice- chancellors used to follow the lords justices of appeal; but, in spite of the fact that there is still one vice-chancellor remaining, the office of vice-chancellor is extinct and will altogether disappear on his decease. In Ireland all these offices are in existence, but they have no precedence allotted to them in England; as the judges holding them are invariably privy councillors, however, they are ranked accordingly. And it is the same with regard to the lord justice- general and the lord justice-clerk in Scotland. 2 The judges of all the divisions of the High Court of Justice are ranked together according to seniority of appointment. Neither the senators of the College of Justice in Scotland nor the judges of the various divisions of the High Court in Ireland have any precedence in England. The precedence of the Scottish judges among them- selves is settled by a royal warrant of Nisbet in his System of Heraldry. The precedence of the Irish judges among themselves is the same as the precedence of the English judges among themselves used to be before the offices of chief justice of the common pleas and chief baron of the exchequer were suspended. 3 By warrants of the 3Oth of March 1898, although lords of appeal rank with hereditary barons in order of creation, their sons stand in a class by themselves. 4 It is a question whether baronets ought or ought not to have precedence, like peers, according as they are of England, Scotland, Great Britain, Ireland or the United Kingdom. Baronets are not referred to in either the Scottish or the Irish Act of Union; and Sir Bernard Burke contends that, since the Acts of Union are silent with regard to them, they are still entitled to whatever pre- cedence was originally conferred on them. He therefore places the whole body of the baronets together in the order merely of the dates of their several creations, and in this he appears to us to have both law and reason on his side. 'These knights consist of grand crosses of the first, grand commanders of the second, and grand crosses of the third order, and have precedence in their respective orders according to seniority of creation. By the statutes of the order of the Bath, as revised in 1847, it is ordained that the knights grand crosses are to be placed " next to and immediately after baronets," thus superseding knights bannerets not created by the sovereign in person. 6 Knights commanders of all three orders are placed in each order according to seniority of creation. 7 Knights bachelors are ranked together according to seniority of creation, whether they are made by the sovereign or the lord lieutenant of Ireland. 8 Royal x. Warrant of 1884. • The sons of all persons, when any specified rank is assigned to them, are placed in the precedence of their fathers. Eldest sons of the younger sons of peers were ranked before the eldest sons of knights by order of the earl marshal, the l8th of March 1615, and before the eldest sons of baronets by order of the earl marshal, the 6th of April 1677. But no precedence has been given to the younger sons of the younger sons of peers, although precedence is given to the younger as well as the eldest sons of baronets and knights by James I. s decree of 1616. Moreover, no precedence has been given to either the eldest or the younger sons of the eldest sons of peers. But in practice this omission is generally disre- garded, and the children of the eldest sons of dukes, marquesses and earls, at all events, are accorded the same rank and titles which they would have if their fathers were actual instead of quasi peers of the degree next under that of their grandfathers. Sir Charles Young says that " by decision (Chap. Coll. Arms of 1680) if the eldest son of an earl died in his father's lifetime leaving a son and heir, such son and heir during the life of the earl his grandfather is (67) companions of the Bath, the Star of India, St Michael and St George and the Indian Empire;10 (68) members of the 4th class of the Royal Victorian Order; (69) companions of the Distinguished Service Order; (70) members of the 5th class of the Royal Victorian Order; (71) esquires;11 (72) gentlemen.12 2. — General Precedence of Women The Queen;13 (i) queen dowager; (2) princess of Wales; (3) daughters of the sovereign; (4) wives of the sovereign's younger sons; (5) granddaughters of the sovereign; (6) wives of the sovereign's grandsons; (7) sisters of the sovereign; (8) wives of the sovereign's brothers; (9) aunts of the sovereign; (10) wives of the sovereign's uncles; (n) nieces of the sovereign; entitled to the same place and precedence as was due to his father : so had the father been summoned to parliament as the eldest son of a peer the grandson would succeed to the dignity even during the grandfather's lifetime " (Order of Precedence, p. 27). And, oi course, what applies to the grandson and heir of an earl applies equally to the grandsons and heirs of dukes and marquesses. But the grandsons and heirs of viscounts and barons are differently situated, and have neither honorary additions to their names nor any ascer- tained place and precedence even by the etiquette of society. "".Companions are members of the third class of the first three orders and the only members of the fourth order, except the sovereign and the grand master. Sir Charles Young and Sir Bernard Burke concur in placing the companions of these orders before the eldest sons of the younger sons of peers, on the ground that under their statutes they are entitled to precede " all Esquires of the Realm." But the sons of peers themselves — the eldest as well as the younger — are merely esquires, and are ranked before, and not among, other esquires because they have a particular preced- ence of their own assigned to them. Similarly the eldest sons of the younger sons of peers and the eldest sons of baronets and of knights who are also esquires, and likewise the younger sons of baronets and of knights who are not esquires, have a particular precedence of their own assigned to them. All of them are placed before esquires as a specific grade in the scale of general precedence, and it seems clear enough that it is before esquires, considered as a specific grade, that the companions of the orders ought to be placed and not before any other persons who, whether they are or are not esquires, have a definite and settled rank which is superior to that specific grade in the scale of general precedence. 11 It appears to be admitted on all hands that the following persons are esquires and ought to be so described in all legal docu- ments and processes: first, the eldest sons of peers in the lifetime of their fathers, and the younger sons of peers both in and after the lifetime of their fathers; secondly, the eldest sons of the younger sons of peers and their eldest sons in perpetual succession, and the eldest sons of baronets and knights; thirdly, esquires created with or without the grant of armorial bearings by the sovereign; fourthly, justices of the peace, barristers-at-law and mayors of corporations; and fifthly, those who are styled esquires in patents, commissions or appointments to offices under the Crown in the state, the household, the army or navy and elsewhere. Sir Bernard Burke accords precedence to serjeants-at-law and masters in lunacy, not only before esquires as such, but also before the companions of the orders of knighthood. It is, however, enough to observe with regard to the first, since no more of them are to be created, that, in spite of the extravagant pretensions which have been fre- quently urged by them and on their behalf, " they have not in the general scale," as Sir Charles Young says, " any precedence, and when under the degree of a Knight rank only as Esquires "; and with regard to the second, that the statute 8 & 9 Viet. c. 100, on which the Ulster king of arms bases their claims, simply provides that they " shall take the same rank and precedence as the masters in ordinary of the High Court of Chancery," who are now extinct, " apparently," to recur to Sir Charles Young, " assuming the rank of the masters without defining it." " The masters, however," he adds, " as such have not a settled place in the order of general precedency emanating from any authority by statute or otherwise " (Order of Precedence, p. 71). Sir William Blackstone says that before esquires " the Heralds rank all Colonels, Serjeants-at-Law and Doctors in the three learned professions " (Commentaries, vol. i. ch. 12). But the only foundation for this statement seems to be a passage in Guillim, which is obviously without any authority. 12 The heralds and lawyers are agreed that gentlemen are those who, by inheritance or grant from the Crown, are entitled to bear coat armour (see Coke, Inst. iv. ch. 77; Blackstone, Comm. i. ch. 12; Selden, Titles of Honor, pt. ii. ch. 8; Guillim, Display of Heraldry, pt. ii. ch. 26). 13 The queen-consort is the second personage in the realm, and has precedence of the queen-dowager. But the husband of a reign- ing queen has no rank or place except such as is specially accorded to him by the sovereign. PRECEDENCE 271 (u) wives of the sovereign's nephews;1 (13) wives of dukes of the blood royal; (14) duchesses;2 (15) wives of eldest sons of dukes of the blood royal; (16) marchionesses; (17) wives of the eldest sons of dukes; (18) dukes' daughters;* (19) countesses; (20) wives of younger sons of dukes of the blood royal 5(21) wives of the eldest sons of marquesses; (22) marquesses' daughters; (23) wives of the younger sons of dukes; (24) viscountesses; (25) wives of the eldest sons of earls; (26) earls' daughters, (27) wives of the younger sons of marquesses; (28) baronesses; (29) wives of the eldest sons of viscounts; (30) viscounts' daughters; (31) wives of the younger sons of earls; (32) wives of the eldest sons of barons; (33) barons' daughters; (34) maids of honour to the queen;4 (35) wives of knights of the Garter; (36) wives of knights bannerets made by the sovereign in person; (37) wives of the younger sons of viscounts; (38) wives of the younger sons of barons; (39) baronets' wives; (40) wives of knights bannerets not made by the sovereign in person; (41) wives of knights of the Thistle; (42) wives of knights of St Patrick; (43) wives of knights grand crosses of the Bath, grand commanders of the Star of India, and grand crosses of St Michael and St George; (44) wives of knights commanders of the Bath, the Star of India, and St Michael and St George; (45) knights bachelors' wives; (46) wives of the eldest sons of the younger sons of peers; (47) daughters of the younger sons of peers; (48) wives of the eldest sons of baronets; (49) baronets' daughters; (50) wives of the eldest sons of knights; (51) knights' daughters; (52) wives of the younger sons of baronets; (53) wives of the younger sons of knights;4 (54) wives of commanders of the Royal Victorian Order, companions of the Bath, the Star of India, St Michael and St George, and the Indian Empire; (55) wives of members of the 4th class Royal Victorian Order; (56) wives of esquires;6 (57) gentlewomen;7 A special table of precedence in Scotland is regulated by a royal warrant dated the i6th of March 1905, and a special table of precedence in Ireland was set forth by authority of the Lord Lieutenant (Jan. 2, 1895). Both contain errors and will probably be revised. Attention to the foregoing tables will show that general precedence is of different kinds as well as of several degrees. It is first either personal or official, and secondly either substan- tive or derivative. Personal precedence belongs to the royal 1 There is no act of parliament or ordinance of the Crown ref- lating the precedence of the female members of the royal family. But the above is the gradation which appears to have become established among them, and follows the analogy supplied by the act for the placing of the lords in the case of their husbands and brothers. 1 Peeresses in their own right and peeresses by marriage are ranked together, the first in their own precedence and the second in the precedence of their husbands. 3 Among the daughters of peers there is no distinction between the eldest and the younger as there is among; the sons of peers. Their precedence is immediately after the wives of their eldest brothers, and several degrees above the wives of their younger brothers. They are placed among themselves in the precedence of their fathers. But the daughter of the premier duke or baron ranks after the wife of the eldest son of the junior duke or baron. • Maids of honour to the queen are the only women who have any official precedence. They have the style or title of honour- able, and are placed immediately after barons' daughters by Sir Bernard Burke, the rank which is accorded to them by the eti- quette of society. But Sir Charles Young does not assign any precedence to them, and we do not know on what authority the Ulster king of arms does so, although he is by no means singular in the course he has taken. 6 The wives of baronets and knights, the wives of the eldest sons and the daughters of the younger sons of peers, and the wives of the sons and the daughters of baronets and knights are all placed severally in the precedence of their respective husbands, husbands' fathers and fathers. " Esquire " and " gentleman " are not names of " dignity " but names of " worship," and esquires and gentlemen do not, in strictness, convey or transmit any precedence to their wives or children (see Coke, Inst. ii., " Of Additions," p. 667). "And generosus and generosa are good additions: and if a gentlewoman be named Spinster in any original writ, i.e. appeal or indictment, she may abate and quash the same, for she hath as good right to that addition as Baroness, Viscountess, Marchioness or Duchess have to theirs " (Coke, Inst. ii., "Of Additions," p. 668). family, the peerage and certain specified classes of the com- monalty. Official precedence belongs to such of the dignitaries of the Church and such of the ministers of state and the household as have had rank and place accorded to them by parliament or the Crown, to the speaker of the House of Commons and to the members of the privy council and the judicature. Substantive precedence, which may be either personal or official, belongs to all those whose rank and place are enjoyed by them indepen- dently of their connexion with anybody else, as by the arch- bishop of Canterbury, the lord high chancellor or the lord great chamberlain, peers and peeresses, baronets, knights and some esquires. Derivative precedence, which can only be personal, belongs to all those whose rank and place are determined by their consanguinity with or affinity to somebody else, as the lineal and collateral relations of the sovereign, the sons, daugh- ters and daughters-in-law of peers and peeresses in their own right, and the wives, sons, daughters and daughters-in-law of baronets, knights and some esquires. It is to be observed, however, that the precedence of the sovereign is at once official and personal, and that the precedence of peeresses by marriage is at once derivative and substantive. In the case of the sover- eign it is his or her actual tenure of the office of king or queen which regulates the rank and place of the various members of the royal family, and in the case of peeresses by marriage, although their rank and place are derivative in origin, yet they are substantive in continuance, since during coverture and widow- hood peeresses by marriage are as much peeresses as peeresses in their own right, and their legal and political status is precisely the same as if they had acquired it by creation or inheritance. Bearing the above definitions and explanations in mind, the following canons or rules may be found practically useful: — 1. Anybody who is entitled to both personal and official precedence is to be placed according to that which implies the higher rank. If, for example, a baron and a baronet are both privy councillors, the precedence of the first is that of a baron and the precedence of the second is that of a privy councillor. And similarly, except as hereafter stated, with respect to the holders of two or more personal or two or more official dignities. 2. Save in the case of the sovereign, official rank can never supply the foundation for derivative rank. Hence the official precedence of a husband or father affords no indication of the personal precedence of his wife or children. The wives and children, for example, of the archbishop of Canterbury, the lord high chancellor or the speaker of the House of Commons do not participate in their official rank but only in their personal rank, whatever it may be. 3. Among subjects men alone can convey derivative rank, except in the case of the daughters and sisters of the sovereign, or of peeresses in their own right. But no man can acquire any rank or place by marriage. The sons-in-law or brothers-in-law of the sovereign and the husbands of peeresses in their own right have as such no precedence whatever. And the daughter and heiress of the premier duke of England, unless she happens to be also a peeress in her own right, does not transmit any rank or place to her children. 4. Within the limits of the peerage derivative rank is as a rule always merged in personal, as distinguished from official, substantive rank. If, for example, the younger son of a duke is created a baron or inherits a barony, his precedence ceases to be that of a duke's younger son and becomes that of a baron. But where the eldest son of a duke, a marquess or an earl is summoned to the House of Lords in a barony of his father's, or succeeds as or is created a baron, he is still, as before, " com- monly called " by some superior title of peerage, as marquess, earl or viscount, and retains his derivative precedence on all occasions, except in parliament or at ceremonies which he attends in his character as a peer. The younger sons of all peers, however, who are created or who inherit peerages — which they often do under special limitations — are everywhere placed according to their substantive rank, no matter how inferior it may be to their derivative rank. But if the son of a duke or a 272 PRECEDENCE marquess, whether eldest or younger, or the eldest son of an earl is consecrated a bishop his derivative rank is not merged in his substantive rank, because it is official, and his derivative and personal rank implies the higher precedence. Again, the daugh- ters of dukes, marquesses and earls who become peeresses by marriage or creation, or who inherit as peeresses, are placed according to their substantive and not according to their deriva- tive rank, although they may thereby be assigned a far lower precedence than that to which their birth entitles them. 5. The widows of peers and baronets have precedence imme- diately before the wives or widows of the next successors in their husbands' dignities. But the sons and daughters of peers and baronets have precedence immediately before the sons and daughters of the holders of the dignities to whom their fathers succeeded. The reason of this is that the first are senior in the dignities and the second are nearer in the line of succession to them. 6. The widows of peers who marry again either share the precedence of their second husbands or resume the precedence belonging to them independently of their marriage with their first husbands. Thus, if the daughter of a duke or an esquire marries first an earl and secondly a baron, although she remains a peeress, she is placed as a baroness instead of a countess. But if either of them should marry a commoner as her second husband, whatever may be his rank or degree, she ceases to be a peeress. While, however, the duke's daughter, if her second husband were not the eldest son of a duke, would resume her precedence as the daughter of a duke, the esquire's daughter would share the precedence of her second husband, whether he were a peer's son, a baronet, a knight or an esquire. The widows of peers have long kept their former rank in society, but they have no such right unless by permission of the sovereign, which permission has on several recent occasions been refused. 7. The widows of the eldest and younger sons of dukes and marquesses and of the eldest sons of earls, and also the widows of baronets and knights who marry again, are permitted by the etiquette of society to keep the titles and rank acquired by their first marriage if their second marriage is with a commoner whose precedence is considerably lower. But the widows of the younger sons of earls and of the eldest and younger sons of viscounts and barons, although their precedence is higher than that of the widows of baronets and knights, are not allowed to retain it, under any circumstances, after a second marriage. 8. Marriage does not affect the precedence of peeresses in their own right unless their husbands are peers whose peerages are of a higher degree, or, being of the same degree, are of more ancient creation than their own. If, for example, a baroness in her own right marries a viscount she is placed and described as a viscountess, or if she marries a baron whose barony is older than hers she is placed in his precedence and described by his title. But if she marries a baron whose barony is junior to hers she keeps her own precedence and title. 9. The daughters of peers, of sons of peers, baronets and knights retain after marriage the precedence they derive from their fathers, unless they marry peers of any rank or commoners of higher rank than their own. Hence, for example, the daughter of a duke who marries the eldest son of a marquess is placed as a duke's daughter, not as the wife of a marquess's eldest son, and the daughter of a baronet who marries the younger son of a knight is placed as a baronet's daughter and not as the wife of a knight's younger son. 10. What are termed " titles of courtesy " are borne by all the sons and daughters of peers and peeresses in their own right, who in this connexion stand on exactly the same footing. The eldest sons of dukes, marquesses and earls are designated by the names of one or other of the inferior peerages of their fathers, usually a marquessate or an earldom in the first, an earldom or a viscounty in the second and a viscounty or barony in the third case. The rule applicable in former times, still adhered to by the older English dignities, was that a duke's eldest son was styled earl, the son of a marquess, viscount, the son of an earl, baron. No such rule obtained in Scotland. But, whatever it may be, it is altogether without effect on the rank and place of the bearer, which are those belonging to him as the eldest son of his father. The younger sons of dukes and marquesses are styled " lords," followed by both their Christian names and surnames. The younger sons of earls and both the eldest and the younger sons of viscounts and barons are described as " honourable" before both their Christian names and surnames. The daughters of dukes, marquesses and earls are styled " ladies " before both their Christian names and surnames. The daughters of viscounts and barons are described as " honourable " before both their Christian names and surnames. If the eldest son of a marquess or an earl marries a woman of rank equal or inferior to his own, she takes his title and precedence; but if she is of superior rank she retains, with her own precedence, the prefix " lady " before her Christian name followed by the name of her husband's title of courtesy. Again, if the younger son of a duke or a marquess marries a woman of rank equal or inferior to his own, she is called " lady," with his Christian and sur- name following, and is placed in his precedence, but, if she is of superior rank, she retains, with her own precedence, the prefix " lady " before her Christian name and his surname. If the daughter of a duke, a marquess or an earl marries the younger son of an earl, the eldest or younger son of a viscount or baron, a baronet, a knight or an esquire, &c., she retains, with her own precedence, the prefix " lady " before her Christian name and her husband's surname. If the daughter of a viscount marries the younger son of an earl or anybody of inferior rank to him, or the daughter of a baron marries the younger son of a viscount or anybody of inferior rank to him, she retains her own precedence with the prefix " honourable " before the addition " Mrs v and his surname or Christian name and surname. But, if her husband is a baronet or a knight, she is called the Honour- able Lady Smith or the Honourable Lady Jones, as the case may be. The wives of the younger sons of earls and of the eldest and younger sons of viscounts and barons, if they are of inferior rank to their husbands, take their precedence and are described as the Honourable Mrs, with the surnames or Christian names and surnames of their husbands following. The judges were placed by James I. before the younger sons of viscounts and barons and accorded the title of " honourable " (q.v.). But in this addition their wives do not participate, since it is merely an official distinction. It is manifest on even a cursory examination of the tables we have given that, although they embody the only scheme of general precedence, whether for men or for women, which is authoritatively sanctioned or recognized, they are in many respects very imperfectly fitted to meet the circumstances and requirements of the present day.1 In both of them the limits prescribed to the royal family are pedantically and inconveni- ently narrow, and stand out in striking contrast to the wide and ample bounds through which the operation of the Royal Marriage Act (12 Geo. III. c. n) extends the disabilities but not the privileges of the sovereign's kindred. Otherwise the scale of general precedence for women compares favourably enough with 1 " There are no doubt certain public ceremonials of State, such as Coronations, Royal Public Funerals and Processions of the Sovereign to Parliament, &c., wherein various public functionaries walk and have for the occasion certain places assigned to them, but which they may not at all times find the same, as it by no means follows that they are always entitled to the same place for having been there once: there is to a certain extent a precedent furnished thereby, and in some cases the uniformity of precedence in regard to one class over another has in such cases become estab- lished. This applies, for instance, to the places of the Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber, Law Officers of the Crown and Masters and Six Clerks in Chancery, who have no definite or fixed place in the tables of precedency regulating the general orders of society, though in reference to State ceremonials they have certain places assigned in the order of procession in right of their offices, which, however, give them no general rank. Upon such occasions, never- theless, the legal rank and precedence which they hold in the Courts of Law is observed, and so far establishes among themselves, and in respect to their several classes, their precedency " (Sir Charles Young, Order of Precedence, &c., pp. 59-61). PRECEDENCE 273 the scale of general precedence for men. If, indeed, it includes the queen's maids of honour and the wives of the companions of the knightly orders, there certainly does not seems to be any good reason why it should omit the mistress of the robes and the ladies of the bedchamber, or the ladies of the royal order of Victoria and Albert and the imperial order of the Crown of India. But these are trifling matters in themselves, and concern only a minute fraction of the community. The scale of general precedence for men is now in substantially the same condition as that in which it has been for between two and three centuries, and the political, to say nothing of the social, arrangements to which it was framed to apply have in the interval undergone an almost complete transformation. The consequence is that a good deal of it has come down to us in the shape of a survival, and has ceased to be of any practical use for the purpose it was originally designed to effect. While it comprises several official and personal dignities which are virtually obsolete and extin- guished, it entirely omits the great majority of the members of Government in its existing form, and whole sections of society on a less exalted level, to whom it is universally felt that some rank and place at all events are both in public and in private justly due. And, when it does confess the presence of any of the sovereign's principal ministers, it commonly places them in positions which are out of all keeping with their actual eminence and importance. It ranks the lord president of the council and the lord privy seal before dukes, while it places the chan- cellor of the exchequer after the younger sons of earls and the eldest sons of barons, and the secretaries of state after the master of the horse and the vice-chamberlain of the household. The lord chancellor still has precedence as the first of the great officers of state, which was allotted to him not as what he is, the head of the judicature, but as what he once was, the prime minister of the sovereign; and the lord chief justice, who is next to him in regular judicial rank, as presiding over the common law courts, as he presides over the courts of equity, is placed after the chancellors of the exchequer and of the duchy of Lancaster, who still have the precedence which was allotted to them not as ministers, which they are, but as judges, which they are no longer. Neither the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, the viceroy of India, nor the governor-general of Canada has any rank or place at St James's, where, as well as at Westminster, the lord steward or the lord chamberlain of the household is a much greater and more splendid personage. Again, in the scale of general precedence there are no clergymen except bishops, no lawyers except judges, and no officers of either the army or the navy from field marshals and admirals of the fleet downwards. Nor, of course, are any colonial governors or lieutenant-governors entered on it. It contains no mention of under-secretaries of state, chairmen or commissioners of administrative boards, comptrollers or secretaries of government departments, lord- lieutenants or sheriffs of counties, deputy lieutenants or justices of the peace, members of the House of Commons or graduates of the universities. It is true that among some of these classes definite systems of subordination are established by either authority or usage, which are carefully observed and enforced in the particular areas and spheres to which they have reference. But we have seldom any means of determining the relative value of a given term in one series as compared with a given term in another series, or of connecting the different steps in the scales of local, professional or academical precedence with the different steps in the scale of general precedence, to which such scales of special precedence ought to be contributory and supplementary. We know, for example, that major-generals and rear-admirals are of equal rank, that with them are placed commissaries-general and inspectors-general of hospitals and fleets, that in India along with civilians of thirty-one years' standing they immediately follow the vice-chancellors of the Indian universities, and that in relation to the consular service they immediately precede agents-general and consuls-general. But there is nothing to aid us in determining whether in England they should be ranked with, before or after deans, king's counsel or doctors in divinity, who are as destitute as they are themselves of any recognized general precedence, and who, as matters now stand, would certainly have to give place to the younger sons of baronets and knights and the companions of the knightly orders. No foreigner has any legal precedence in Great Britain,1 but it is suggested that it being proper courtesy to accord to guests the precedence due to the rank they bear in their own countries, they should rank in society with and immediately before those of the relative rank in England. It should, how- ever, be remembered that the younger sons of counts and other nobles bear the title of count with the addition of the Christian name, and they should be ranked with younger sons of British earls, &c., whatever title they bear. The eldest son of a duke for example is sometimes called prince, but the place accorded to him by the above rule would be next after a British marquess. Some persons of authority consider, however, that a foreigner should be given precedence over every native whatever the rank may be. It has now become usual to recognize ecclesiastical rank derived from the pope, even when held by subjects of the king. Cardinals, therefore, rank by international usage above arch- bishops, as princes of the blood royal, and in Ireland, Roman Catholic and Protestant bishops rank as such by authority of the warrants there in force. An order respecting precedence was sent by the secretary of state for the colonies to the governor-general of Canada (July 24, 1868). Precedence in India is regulated by a Royal Warrant dated the 6th of May 1871, a copy of which is subjoined. VICTORIA, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith. To all to whom these presents shall come, greeting. Whereas it hath been represented unto Us that it is advisable to regulate the Rank and Precedence of persons holding appoint- ments in the East Indies. In order to fix the same, and prevent all disputes, We do hereby declare that it is Our will and pleasure that the following Table be observed with respect to the Rank and Precedence of the persons hereinafter named, viz. : — Governor-General and Viceroy of India. Governor of Madras. Governor of Bombay. President of the Council of the Governor- General. Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal. Lieutenant-Governor of North-West Provinces. Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjaub. Commander-in-Chief in India, when a Member of Council. Chief Justice of Bengal. Bishop of Calcutta, Metropolitan of India. Chief Justices of Madras, Bombay and North-western Provinces. Commanders-in-Chief in Madras and Bombay, when also Members of Council. Ordinary Members of the Council of the Governor- General. Bishops of Madras and Bombay. Ordinary Members of Council in Madras and Bombay. Commander-in-Chief in India, when not a Member of Council. Puisne Judges of the High Courts of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay and North-Western Provinces. Commanders-in-Chief, Madras and Bombay, when not Members of Council. Chief Commissioners and Resident at Hyderabad. Military Officers above rank of Major-General. Additional Members of the Council of the Governor- General when assembled to make laws, &c. Commodore command- ing Her Majesty's Naval Forces in India. Judge Advocate General of India. Secretaries to the Government of India. Additional Members of the Councils of the Governors of Madras and Bombay when assembled to make laws, &c. Members of the Legislative Council of the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal. Agents to the Governor-General in Rajpootana and Central India. Commissioner inSind. Judges of the Chief Court, Punjaub. Chief Secretaries to the Governments of Madras and Bombay. FIRST CLASS Civilians of 28 years' standing to rank with Major-Generals. Advocate General, Calcutta. Residents at Foreign Courts and Residents at Aden, the Persian Gulf and Bagdad. Recorders of Moulmein and Rangoon. Advocates-General, Madras and Bombay. Members of the Boards of Revenue, Bengal, Madras, North-West Provinces. Secretaries to Local Governments. Chief Engineer, 1st Class. Comptroller-General of Accounts in India. Directors- General, Post Office, Telegraphs and Irrigation. Judicial Com- missioners, Oude, Central Provinces, Mysore and Sind. Financial Commissioners in the Punjaub, Oude and Central Provinces. Arch- deacon of Calcutta. Secretary to Council of Governor-General for making Laws, &c. Officers Commanding Brigades. 1 This subject was considered by the House of Lords in February 1628, on the proposition of a committee that no foreign nobility has right of precedence within this realm before any peer of this kingdom. 274 PRECENTOR— PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES SECOND CLASS Civilians of 20 years' standing ranking with Colonels. Commissioners of Divisions. Directors of Public Instruction under Governments. Private Secretary to Viceroy. Military Secretary to Viceroy. Archdeacons of Madras and Bombay. Surveyor-General of India. Superintendent, Great Trigonometrical Survey. Sanitary Commissioner with Government of India. Superintendent of the Geological Survey in India. Inspector- General of Forests in India. ter;GGeenneerri,0f ^ j Under Local Governments. Standing Counsel to Government of India. Remembrancers of Legal Affairs, and Legal Advisers to the Government in the North- West Provinces and the Punjaub. Commissioners of Revenue Survey and Settlement. Chief Engineers, 2nd and 3rd Class, and Superintendents of Irrigation. THIRD CLASS Civilians of 12 years' standing ranking with Lieutenant-Colonels. Political Agents. Under-Secretaries to Government of India. Inspector-General of Education, Central Provinces, and Directors- General of Education, Oude, British Burmah, Berer and Mysore. Officers, 1st Grade, Education Department. Officers, 1st Grade, Financial Department. Private Secretaries to Governors. Military Secretaries to Governors. First Judges of Presidency Courts of Small Causes. Chief Magistrates of Presidency Towns. Adminis- trator-General, Calcutta. Administrators-General, Madras and Bombay. Inspectors-General of Jails. 1 Sanitary Commissioners. f-Under Local Governments. Conservators of Forests. J Superintending Engineers, 1st Class. Deputy Directors of Post Office and Telegraphs and Directors of Traffic and Construction. Postmasters-General. Senior Chaplains. Officers, 1st Grade, Geological Survey. Officers, 2nd Grade, Education Department. Officers, 2nd Grade, Financial Department. Superintendents, 1st Grade, Telegraph Department. FOURTH CLASS Civilians of 8 years' standing ranking with Majors. Assistant Political Agents. Officers, 2nd Grade, Geological Survey. Officers, 3rd Grade, Education Department. Officers, 3rd Grade, Financial Department. Superintendents, 2nd Grade, Telegraph Department. Government Solicitors. FIFTH CLASS Civilians of 4 years' standing ranking with Captains. Junior Chaplains. Officers, 4th Grade, Education Department. SIXTH CLASS Civilians of less than 4 years' standing to rank with Subalterns. Note I.— Commissioners of Divisions within their own Divisions, and Residents and Political Agents within the limits of their respec- tive charges, to take precedence immediately before Civilians of the ist Class. Note 2. — Collectors and Magistrates of Districts, and Deputy Commissioners of Districts, and the Chief Officer of each Presidency Municipality, to take precedence within their respective charges before the 3rd Class and Lieutenant-Colonels in the Army. Sheriffs to rank within their charges immediately after Lieu- tenant-Colonels in the Army. All Officers not mentioned in the above table, whose rank is regulated by comparison with rank in the Army, to have the same rank with reference to Civil Servants as is enjoyed by Military Officers of equal grades. All other persons who may not be mentioned in this table to take rank according to general usage, which is to be explained and determined by the Governor-General in Council in case any question shall arise. Nothing in the foregoing rules to disturb the existing practice relating to precedence at Native Courts, or on occasions of inter- course with Natives, and the Governor-General in Council to be empowered to make rules for such occasions in case any dispute shall arise. AH ladies to take place according to the rank herein assigned to their respective husbands, with the exception of wives of Peers, and of ladies having precedence in England, independently of their husbands, and who are not in rank below the daughters of Barons; such ladies to take place according to their several ranks, with reference to such precedence in England, immediately after the wives of Members of Council at the Presidencies in India. Given at Our Court at Windsor, this sixth day of May, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy-one, and in the thirty-fourth year of our Reign. By Her Majesty's Command. (Signed) ARGYLL. (F. DR.; W. A. L.) PRECENTOR (Late Lat. praecenlor, from praecinere, to sing before, lead in singing), the title of the principal director of the singing or musical portions of the service in a cathedral or cathedral church. In the English Church in cathedrals of the " Old Foundation " the precentor is a member of the cathedral chapter and officially ranks next to the dean. His musical duties are usually performed by the " succentor," one of the vicars choral. In cathedrals of the " New Foundation " the " precentor " is not a member of the chapter, but is one of the minor canons. PRECEPT (Lat. praeceptum, a rule, from praecipere, literally to take beforehand, to give rules, instructions or orders), a com- mand or rule, especially one with regard to conduct or action, a moral rule or injunction, a maxim. Apart from this general use, the word was used, in law, of many orders in writing issuing from a court or other legal authority; it is now chiefly used of an order demanding the payment of money under a rate by poor law or other local authorities (see RATE). The Latin form praecipe, i.e. enjoin, command, is used of the note of instructions delivered by a plaintiff or his solicitor to be filed by the officer of the court, giving the names of the plaintiff and defendant, the nature of the writ, &c. For the obsolete writ of praecipe quod reddat see WRIT. PRECEPTOR, a teacher or instructor, the classical meaning of the Latin praeceptor, from praecipere, literally to take in advance, hence to give rules or " precepts," advise, teach. As an educational term in English the word is familiar through the College of Preceptors, a chartered society chiefly composed of private teachers; it was incorporated in 1849 and was one of the first professional bodies to institute regular courses of pedagogic lectures and to award after examination the titles of licentiate and associate to teachers. It also holds examinations for pupils. In post-classical Latin praeceptor meant a commander, praecipere, to order, enjoin, and the term was adopted by the Knights Templars for the heads of the provincial communities of knights established on their estates. These communities and the estates themselves were known as " preceptories," and answered to the " commanderies " of the Hospitallers. PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, in astronomy, the term assigned to the progressive motion of the equinox, because it takes place in a direction from east towards west, opposite to that in which planets move, and in which longitudes are measured. The equinox being defined as the point of intersec- tion of the equator and ecliptic, its motion arises from the fact that both of these great circles are in continuous though slow motion. The motion of the ecliptic is due to the action of the planets on the earth, which produces a slow progressive change in the position of the plane of the earth's orbit, and therefore of the ecliptic. This motion takes place round a diameter of the celestial sphere as an axis or nodal line, which intersects the sphere in two points, which are at present in longitudes about 173° and 353°. The direction of the motion around this axis is such that from the limits 353° through o° to 173°, which includes the vernal equinox, the motion is towards the south, while, in the remainder of the circle, it is towards the north. At the present time the rate of the motion is 46.7" per century. In consequence of the smallness of the angle, 7°, which the axis of motion makes with the line of the equinoxes, its effect on the precession is quite small, now amounting to only 0.14" per annum. Owing to its cause this small part of the precession is called " planetary." The motion of the equator is due to the combined action of the sun and moon on the equatorial protuberance of the earth (see ASTRONOMY). Owing to its cause this largest part of the precession is called " luni-solar." Its fundamental law is that the mean celestial pole at each instant (see NUTATION) moves at right angles to the circle joining it to the pole of the ecliptic as that instant. Hence if the pole of the ecliptic were fixed, the celestial pole would revolve around it in a circle at a constant distance equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic. Owing, however, to the slow change in the position of the pole of the ecliptic, the motion is only approximately in a circle, and the obliquity PRECINCT— PREDESTINATION 275 varies slowly from century to century. At the present time the rate of motion measured on a great circle is about 20* per year; that is to say both the pole and the plane of the equator move through this angle annually. But when measured around the pole of the ecliptic as a centre the motion is about 2-5 times this or, at present, 50-37* annually. This is the present amount of the luni-solar precession which, if it remained constant, would carry the pole completely round in a period of 25,730 years. But the exact period varies slightly, owing to the motion of the pole of the ecliptic. The combined effect of the luni-solar and planetary precession or the total motion of the equinox is called the general precession. Its annual amount during our time is 50-2564+0-02220* T, T being the time reckoned from 1900 in centuries. PRECINCT (from Lat. praecingere, to encircle, enclose, sur- round, prae and cingere, to gird), an enclosure, a space within the boundaries, marked by walls or fences or by an imaginary line, of a building or group of buildings, especially used of such a space belonging to a cathedral or other religious building. The word is frequently used, indefinitely, of the neighbourhood or environs of a place or building. In the United States of America it is applied to various minor territorial divisions or districts, for electoral or judicial purposes. In some of the states they correspond to the " township " as the principal subdivision of the " county." PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium) , costly or of high value, particularly used in political economy of those metals which are " valuable enough to be used as a standard of value and abundant enough for coinage" (The Century Dictionary). The term is thus practically confined to gold and silver. Platinum in theory may be included as it was used for coinage in Russia in 1828; the fluctuations in the value of the metal caused its discontinu- ance in 1845 (see GOLD, SILVER and MONEY). " Precious stones " include those gems which are valued for ornament and jewelry. " Strictly speaking the only precious stones are the diamond, ruby, sapphire and emerald, though the term is often extended to the opal, notwithstanding its lack of hardness, and to the pearl . . . strictly an animal product," G. F. Kunz, Gems and Precious Stones of North America (1890) (see GEM, and LAPIDARY AND GEM-CUTTING). A particular use of " precious " as meaning fastidious, over-refined, is taken from the French precieux, familiar in the appellation of Les Precieuses, given to the social and literary circle of ladies which centred round the H6tel de Rambouillet in the i7th century (see RAMBOUILLET; CATHERINE DE VIVONNE, MARQUISE DE). PRECONIZATION (Late Lat. praeconizalio, from praeconizare, to proclaim, Lat. praeco, a public crier), a public proclamation or announcement. In this sense it is practically obsolete; but the word is still technically used of the solemn proclamation of new bishops, and of the sees to which they are appointed, made by the pope in the consistory of cardinals (see BISHOP). In the English ecclesiastical courts " praeconize " is also still used in the sense of " to summon by name. " PREDELLA, the Italian word for a footstool or kneeling- stool, hence applied to the step or platform on which an altar rests, and to a shelf raised above the altar at the back, a super- altar or gradino. The face both of the step and shelf are fre- quently decorated with sculpture or painting, and the term " predella " is frequently given to the sculpture or painting so used, and, further, to any painting that is a pendant to a larger work. PREDESTINATION (from Late Lat. praedestinare, to deter- mine beforehand; from the root sta, as in stare, stand), a theologi- cal term used in three senses: (i) God's unchangeable decision from eternity of all that is to be; (2) God's destination of men to everlasting happiness or misery; (3) God's appointment unto life or " election " (the appointment unto death being called " reprobation," and the term " foreordination " being preferred to " predestination " in regard to it). In the first sense the conception is similar to that of fate; this assumes a moral character as nemesis, or the inevitable penalty of transgression. Sophocles represents man's life as woven with a " shuttle of adamant " (Antigone, 622-624). Stoicism formulated a doctrine of providence or necessity. Epicurus denies a divine superin- tendence of human affairs. A powerful influence in Scandinavian religion was exercised by the belief in " the nornir, or Fates, usually thought of as three sisters." In Brahminic thought Karma, the consequences of action, necessitates rebirth in a lower or higher mode of existence, according to guilt or merit. With some modifications this conception is taken over by Buddhism. The Chinese too, the order of heaven, which should be the order for earth as well, may also be compared. Accord- ing to Josephus (Antiq. xviii. i, 3, 4; xiii. 5, 9) the Sadducees denied fate altogether, and placed good and evil wholly in man's choice; the Pharisees, while recognizing man's freedom, laid emphasis on fate; the Essenes insisted on an absolute fate. This statement is exposed to the suspicion of attempting to assimilate the Jewish sects to the Greek schools. In Islam the orthodox theology teaches an absolute predestination, and yet some teachers hold men responsible for the moral character of their acts. The freethinking school of the Mo'tazilites insisted that the righteousness of God in rewarding or punishing men for their actions could be vindicated only by the recognition of human freedom. The question of the relation of divine and human will has been the subject of two controversies in the Christian church, the Augustinian-Pelagian and the Calvinistic-Arminian. Pelagius maintained the free-will of man, and held that man's conduct, character, destiny are in his own hand. Grace, by enlightening, forgiving sin and strengthening his moral powers, helps man to fulfil this purpose. While grace is meant for all, men make them- selves worthy of it by striving after virtue. This doctrine as minimizing grace was repugnant to Augustine. He regarded mankind as sinful, guilty, ruined, incapable of any good. God alone can save. His grace is effectual and irresistible. As what God has done He has eternally willed to do, grace involves pre- destination. God has from eternity chosen those whom He wills to save (" election "), and consequently He has also passed over those whom He leaves to perish (" praeterition "). As all deserve damnation, there is no injustice in leaving them to their deserts. The " reprobation " of the wicked is not the cause of their sin; God's foreknowledge does not make the sin necessary; how repro- bation and foreknowledge are related is not made plain. The doctrine of Augustine was revived in the 9th century by Gottschalk, who taught that God's passing over the lost meant their predestination to punishment. Hincmar of Reims perse- cuted him for not distinguishing the two positions. This dispute would have little interest now, had not Hincmar appealed to John Scotus Erigena, who attempted to solve the theological problem by philosophical conceptions. He denied that foreknowledge or predestination as temporal relations could be properly predicated of God as eternal ; he described sin and its consequences as negations, neither caused by nor known to God ; he maintained that as evil is only a stage in the development of good, there will ultimately be a universal return to God. Thus the doctrine of reprobation was emptied of meaning. This defence of orthodoxy was con- demned as heretical. The controversy was kept up during the scholastic period. Thomas Aquinas followed Augustine. Duns Scotus leaned toward Semi-Pelagianism, which rejected the doctrine of predestination, and maintained a co-operation of freedom and §race. While Aquinas affirmed the positions of Augustine, he educed them from his Aristotelian conception of God as " first mover, itself unmoved." His original contribution to the subject was his theory of divine concurrence. He distinguishes secondary causes as natural and necessary, and as voluntary and contingent; though both are set in motion by God, yet as the natural remain natural, so do the voluntary remain voluntary. But this is clearly only a verbal solution. At the Reformation the Augustinian position was accepted by both Luther and Calvin. Melanchthon modified his earlier view in the direction of synergism, the theory of a co-operation of divine grace and human freedom. The later Lutheran doctrine is " that man, unable as he is to will any good thing, can yet use the means of grace, and that these means of grace, carrying in themselves a divine power, produce a saving effect on all who do not voluntarily oppose their influence. Baptism, e.g. confers grace, which if not resisted is saving. And God, foreseeing who will and who will not, resist the grace offered, predestinates to life all who are foreseen as believers." Calvin's view is the same as Augustine's. He held the sublapsarian view that the fall was decreed, but not the supralapsarian view that it " was decreed as a means towards carrying out a previous decree to save some and leave others to perish." The latter view was held by Beza and other Calvinists, and, it is said, repelled Arminius from 276 PREDICABLES— PRE-EXISTENCE, DOCTRINE OF Calvinism, and led him to formulate the doctrine that as repentance and faith are the divinely decreed conditions of eternal life, God has determined to give that life to all whom He foresees as fulfilling these conditions. According to Calvinism God's election unto salvation is absolute, determined by His own inscrutable will ; according to Arminianism it is conditional, dependent on man's use of grace. The Synod of Dort (1618-1619) which affirmed the sublapsarian without excluding the supralapsarian form of Calvin- ism, condemned the views of Arminius and his followers, who were known as Remonstrants from the remonstrance " which in four articles repudiates supralapsarianism and infralapsarianism (which regarded the Fall as foreseen, but not decreed), and the doctrines of irresistibility of grace, and of the impossibility of the elect finally falling away from it, and boldly asserts the universality of grace. In the Church of Rome the Dominicans favoured Augustinianism, the Jesuits Semi-Pelagianism ; the work of Molina on the agreement of free-will with the gifts of grace provoked a controversy, which the pope silenced without deciding; but which broke out again a generation later when Jansen tried to revive the decaying Augus- tinianism. The church of England has passed through several dis- putes regarding the question whether the Thirty-Nine Articles are Calvinistic or not; while there is some ambiguity in the language, it seems to favour Calvinism. At the Evangelical Revival the old questions came up, as Wesley favoured Arminianism and George Whitefield Calvinism. In Scotland Calvinism was repudi- ated by James Morison, the founder of the Evangelical Union, who declared the three universalities, God's love for all, Christ's death for all, the Holy Spirit's working for all. While retained in the creeds of several denominations, in the public teaching of the churches the doctrine of predestination has lost its place and power. While the doctrine of election magnified God's grace, and so encouraged humility in man, it minimized man's freedom, and so produced either an over-confi- dence hi those who believed themselves elect, or despair in those who could not reach the assurance. Now it is recognized that God's sovereignty must be conceived as consistent with man's liberty. While God fulfils His all-embracing purpose, that fulfilment leaves room for the exercise of individual freedom; the freedom God has bestowed on man He can so restrain and direct as to overrule even its abuse for His own gracious ends. That God desires that all should be saved, and that the salvation of each depends on his own choice — these are the general con- victions of modern theology. The problem now is the reconcili- ation of human freedom with divine foreknowledge. Martineau accepts Dugald Stewart's solution. " There is no absurdity in supposing that the deity may, for wise purposes, have chosen to open a source of contingency in the voluntary actions of his creatures, to which no prescience can possibly extend." Others hold the problem to be insoluble, and not needing to be solved. (A. E. G.*) PREDICABLES (Lat. praedicabills, that which may be- stated or affirmed ) , in scholastic logic, a term applied to a classification of the possible relations in which a predicate may stand to its subject. The list given by the schoolmen and generally adopted by modern logicians is based on the original fivefold classification given by Aristotle (Topics, a iv. 101 b. 17-25): definition (&pos), genus (yevos), differentia (<5ta(/>opa) , property (iStov), accident (trvfifitfiriKos).1 The scholastic classification, obtained from Boetius's Latin version of Porphyry's Eisagoge, modified Aristotle's by substituting species (eKos) for definition. Both classifications are of universals, concepts or general terms, proper names of course being excluded. There is, however, a radical difference between the two systems. The standpoint of the Aristotelian classification is the predication of one uni- versal concerning another. The Porphyrian, by introducing species, deals with the predication of universals concerning individuals (for species is necessarily predicated of the indi- vidual), and thus created difficulties from which the Aristotelian is free (see below). The Aristotelian classification may be briefly explained: (i) The Definition of anything is the statement of its essence (Arist. rl> rl fy tlvai), i.e. that which makes it what it is: e.g. "a triangle is a three-sided rectilineal figure." (2) Genus is that part of the essence which is also predicable of other things different from them in kind. A triangle is a rectilineal figure; i.e. in fixing the genus of a thing, we subsume it under a higher universal, of which 1 Strictly Aristotle's classification is into four as &iaopa. really belongs to yivot. it is a species. (3) Differentia is that part of the essence which distinguishes one species from another. As compared with quadri- laterals, hexagons, &c., all of which are rectilineal figures, a triangle is " differentiated " as having three sides. (4) A Property is an attribute which is common to all the members of a class, but is not part of its essence (i.e. need not be given in its definition). The fact that the interior angles of all triangles are equal to two right angles is not part of the definition, but is universally true. (5) An Accident is an attribute which may or may not belong to a subject. The colour of the human hair is an accident, for it belongs in no way to the essence of humanity. This classification, though it is of high value in the clearing up of our conceptions of the essential contrasted with the accidental, the relation of genus, differentia and definition and so forth, is of more significance in connexion with abstract sciences, especially mathematics, than for the physical sciences. It is superior on the whole to the Porphyrian scheme, which has grave defects. As has been said it classifies universals as predicates of individuals and thus involves the difficulties which gave rise to the controversy between realism and nominalism (q.v.). How are we to distinguish species from genus ? Napoleon was a Frenchman, a man, an animal. In the second place how do we distinguish property and accident? Many so-called accidents are predicable necessarily of any particular persons. This difficulty gave rise to the distinction of separable and inseparable accidents, which is one of considerable difficulty. See the modern logic textbooks. PREDICAMENT, now used only in the sense of a dangerous or unpleasant position or situation. It meant properly that which is " predicated " or affirmed (Lat. praedicare) of anything, in logic, one of the ten Aristotelian categories (see CATEGORY), and so any definite state or condition. The use of " predica- ment " in the sense of " bad predicament," without the limiting adjective, is paralleled by " plight," for " bad plight," " success " for " good success." PREDICATION (from Lat. praedicare, to state, assert), in logic, the term which denotes the joining of a predicate to a subject in a judgment or proposition. The statement " all men are mortal " is to predicate mortality of all men. In other words a judgment is made up of a subject and a predicate joined by a copula. Since the true unit of thought is the judgment, since ah1 concepts or universals exist only in continuous thinking (judging), the theory of predication is a fundamental part of logic. The true relation of subject and predicate has not been deter- mined with unanimity, various logicians emphasizing different aspects of the process (see LOGIC). The logical use of " predi- cate " is to be distinguished from the grammatical, which includes the verb, whether it be the verb " to be " in its various forms, or another verb. The simple grammatical sentence " he strokes the dog " the first word is the subject, while "strokes the dog " is the predicate, including verb and object. In logic every proposition is reducible to the form " A is B," " B " being the predicate. Thus the logical form of "he strokes the dog " would be " he is stroking the dog " or some other periphrasis which liberates and determines the logical predicate. The true significance of the logical copula is difficult. It cannot be described simply as a third (i.e. separate part) of the judgment, because until two terms are enjoined by it they are not subject and predicate. Much discussion has raged round the question whether the use of the verb " to be " as the copula implies that existence is predicated by the subject. It may be taken as generally agreed that this is not the case (see further LOGIC, and the textbooks). PRE-EXISTENCE, DOCTRINE OF, in theology, the doctrine that Jesus Christ had a human soul which existed before the creation of the world — the first and most perfect of created things — and subsisted, prior to His human birth, in union with the Second Person of the Godhead. It was this human soul which suffered the pain and sorrow described in the Gospels. The chief exposition of this doctrine is that of Dr Watts (Works, v. 274, &c.); it has received little support. In a wider form the doctrine has been applied to men in general — namely, that in the beginning of Creation God created the souls of all men, which were subsequently as a punishment for ill-doing incarnated in physical bodies till discipline should render them fit for spiritual existence. Supporters of this doctrine, the Pre-existants or Pre-existiani, are found as early as the and century, among PREFACE— PREL 277 them being Justin Martyr and Origen (?.».), and the idea not only belongs to metempsychosis and mysticism generally, but is widely prevalent in Oriental thought. It was condemned by the Council of Constantinople in 540, but has frequently reappeared in modern thought (cf. Wordsworth's Intimations of Immortality) being in fact the natural correlative of a belief in immortality. PREFACE (Med. Lat. prejatia, for classical praefatio, praefari, to speak beforehand), an introduction to a book, also any preliminary or introductory statement. In liturgical use the term is applied to that portion of the Eucharistic service which immediately precedes the canon or central portion; the preface, which begins at the words Vere dignum, " It is very meet, right, &c.," is ushered in, in all liturgies, with the Sursum Corda, " Lift up your hearts," and ends with the Satxtus, " Holy, Holy, Holy, &c." In the Western liturgies proper prefaces are appointed for particular occasions (see LITURGY). PREFECT (prefet), in France, the title of a high official. The prefects of the department were created by a law of the z8th Pluviose in the year VIII. (Feb. 17, 1800). They were intended to be the chief organs of internal administration, and have, in fact, discharged this function, especially under the First and Second Empire, surviving, though with diminished importance, under the other forms of government which modern France has seen. In comparison with other French officials, they are well paid (the salary nowadays ranges from 39,000 to 18,000 francs according to the class). In the administration of the ancien regime the term " prefect " was not employed; practically the only case in which it occurs was in the organization of the establishment of institutions opened by the religious orders, in which there was generally a " prefect of the studies " (prefet des etudes). In the year VIII., in the discussion of the law of the 28th Pluviose, no reason was stated for the choice of this term. But like the " Tribunes " and " Consuls " of the constitution of the year VIII., it was taken from the Roman institutions which were then so fashion- able (see PRAEFECT); it may also be recalled that Voltaire had used the term " prefecture " in speaking of the authority of Louis XIV. over the free towns of Alsace. The prefect has to a certain extent a double character and two series of functions. Firstly he is the general representative of the government, whose duty it is to ensure execution of the govern- ment's decisions, the exercise of the law, and the regular working of all branches of the public service in the department. In so far the r61e of the prefect is essentially political ; he guarantees the direct and legal action of the government in his department. He has the supervision of all the state services in his department, which pro- cures the necessary uniformity in the working of the services, each of which is specialized within a narrow sphere. He serves as a local source of information to the government, and transmits to it complaints or representations from those under his adminis- tration. In the name of the state he exercises a certain adminis- trative control over the local authorities, such as the conseil general, the mayors and the municipal councils. This control, though considerably restricted by the law of the loth of August 1871, on the consols generaux, and that of the 5th of April 1884, on municipal organization, still holds good in some important respects. The prefect can still annul certain decisions of the conseil general. He can suspend for a month a municipal council, mayor or deputy-mayor; certain decisions of the municipal councils require his approval; and he may annul such of their regulations as are extra vtres. He can annul or suspend the maire's decrees and he has also considerable control over public institutions, charit- able and otherwise. He may make regulations (reglements) both on special points, in virtue of various laws, and for the general administration of the police. When the prefects were created in the year VIII. the intendants of provinces of the ancien regime were taken as a model, and there is a great resemblance between their respective functions. The prefect, however, is no more than an intendant in miniature, being only at the head of a department, whereas the intendant was over a generalite, which was a much larger district. In the same way the sous-prefets correspond to the subdelegues of the intendants, with the difference that they are actual officials sub- ordinate to the prefects, while the subdelegues were merely the representatives with whom the intendants provided themselves, and to whom they gave powers. Secondly, the prefect is not only the general representative of the government, but the representative of the department in the management of its local interests. But his unfettered powers in this respect have been reduced under the third Republic. This has chiefly been the effect of the law of the loth of August 1871, which has led to decentralization, by increasing the powers of the conseils generaux. The law created a departmental committee (commission departementale) , elected by the conseil general which, in the interval of the sessions of the latter, takes part in matters concerning the administration of the departmental interests, either in_ virtue of the law, or by a delegation of powers from the conseil general. The sous-prefels, having very limited powers of deciding ques- tions, serve above all as intermediaries between the prefect and the persons under his administration. This function was most useful in the year VIII., when communications were difficult, even within a department, but nowadays it only leads to complications. As a matter of fact their chief service to the administration lies in keeping up good relations with the maires of the communes in their arrondissement, and thus acquiring a certain amount of influence over them. The National Assembly, which passed the law of the loth of August 1871, had also decided to suppress the sous-prefets, but M. Thiers, who was then president of the Republic, persuaded them to reconsider this decision. Since then the Chamber of Deputies has on several occasions taken advantage of the budget to attempt the suppression of the sous-prefets by refusing to vote the amount necessary for the payment of their salaries. But the government has always opposed this unconstitutional measure, holding that the suppression could only be effected by an organic law, and that it would necessarily involve a remodelling of the administrative organization. So far their view has prevailed in the Chambers. (J. p. £.) PREHNITE, a mineral consisting of calcium hydrogen ortho- silicate, H2Ca2Al2(SiO4)j. It crystallizes in the hemimorphic class of the orthorhombic system, but the hemimorphic character is usually obscured by twinning. Crystals are generally platy in habit, but they rarely occur singly and distinctly shaped; almost invariably they are closely aggregated together to form barrel-shaped or globular groups with a crystalline surface. This form, together with the pale oil-green colour, gives the mineral a very characteristic appearance. It is translucent and has a vitreous lustre. The hardness is rather over 6 and the spec. grav. 2-80-2-95. Crystals are pyro-electric. Prehnite is sometimes classed with the zeolites, since it occurs under the same condi- tions as these minerals and often in association with them: the small amount of water (4-4%) is, however, expelled only at a red heat and is therefore not water of crystallization. Prehnite occurs as a mineral of secondary origin in the amygda- loidal cavities of basic igneous rocks, such as basalt and diabase, and less often, in veins in granite and gneiss. Fine specimens are found with zeolites in the volcanic rocks of several places in the south of Scotland, e.g. Old Kilpatrick in Dumbartonshire, Bishopton in Renfrewshire, Campsie Hills in Stirlingshire and in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh; also at Paterson and Bergen Hill in New Jersey, and with native copper in the trap-rocks of the Lake Superior region. In the French (at Le Bourg d'Oisans) and Tyrolese Alps it occurs with axinite, epidote, felspar, &c., lining crevices in gneiss. Large masses have been found at Cradock in Cape Colony, from which locality it was brought in the i8th century by Colonel Prehn, the governor of the colony; hence the names " Cape chrysolite " and prehnite (of A. G. Werner, 1789). Prehnite is sometimes cut and polished for small ornaments; it then somewhat resembles chrysoprase in appearance. PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium), literally judgment or decision beforehand, which in classical usage meant a precedent, a preceding judgment, also a special form of judicial examination precedent to a trial, especially in matters relating to status. The transferred sense, of injury or damage inflicted by decisions or judgments disregarding interests affected, does not appear till post-classical times in Latin. This last use of damage appears in English in relation to legal matters, especially in the phrase " without prejudice," i.e. without detriment to rights or claims. When two parties are negotiating for the settlement of a dispute, statements or admissions made by or on behalf of either, with a stipulation, expressed or implied, that the statements are made " without prejudice " to the party's claims in the dispute, cannot be put in evidence in litigation to settle the dispute (see EVIDENCE). The general meaning of the word is that of opinion, Favourable or hostile, based on prepossessions, and therefore biassed or unreasonable. PREL, KARL, FREIHERR VON (1830-1899), German philo- sopher, was born at Landshut on the 3rd of April 1839. After studying at the university of Munich he served in the Bavarian* 278 PRELATE— PRELLER, L. army from 1859 to 1872, when he retired with the rank of captain. He then gave himself up to philosophical work, especially in connexion with the phenomena of hypnotism and occultism from the modern psychological standpoint. He attempted to deduce the existence of spirit, apart from, and yet entering from time to time into connexion with, the phenomena of the senses, by an examination of the relation between the ego of thought and the age of sensible experience as understood by Kant. In 1868 he received the degree of doctor from the university of Tubingen in recognition of a treatise on the psychology of Dreams (Oneirokritikon. Der Traum vom Standpunkt des transcendentalen Idealismus). Subsequently, he published numerous works on various psycho- logical and scientific subjects, of which the more important are: Der gesunde Menschenverstand vor den Problemen der Wissen- schaft (1872); Der Kampf urns Dasein am Himmel (1874), repub- lished in 1882 under the title Entwickelungsgeschichle des Weltalls; Die Planetenbewohner und die Nebularhypothese (1880); Die Philo- sophic der Mystik (1885); Justinus Kerner und die Seherin von Prevorst (1886); Die monistische Seelenlehre (1888); Die Mystik der alien Griechen (1888); Kants mystische Weltanschauung (1889); Studien aus dent Gebiete der Geheimwissenschaften (1890); Der Spiritismus (1893); Die Entdeckung der Seele durch die Geheim- wissenschaften (1894-1895). In Der Kampf urns Dasein am Himmel von Prel endeavoured to apply the Darwinian doctrine of organic evolution not only to the sphere of consciousness but also even more widely as the philosophical principle of the world. He was one of a large number of German thinkers who during the latter half of the i gth century endeavoured to treat the mind as a mechanism. He died on the 4th of August 1899. See EVOLUTION; in Philosophy. PRELATE (Lat. praelatus, set above, from praefero, prefer), an ecclesiastical dignitary of high rank. In the early middle ages the title prelate was applied to secular persons in high positions and thence it passed to persons having ecclesiastical authority. The De prelatis of Valerian is concerned with secular princes, and even as late as the I4th century the title was occasionally applied to secular magistrates. In medieval ecclesiastical usage the term might be applied to almost any person having ecclesiastical authority; it was very commonly given to the more dignified clergy of a cathedral church, but often also to ordinary priests charged with the cure of souls and, in the early days of monasticism, to monastic superiors, even to superiors of convents of women. The term occurs very frequently in the Rule of St Benedict and other early monastic rules. In more modern usage in the Roman Catholic Church prelates, properly so-called, are those who have jurisdiction in foro externo, but a liberal interpretation has given the title a more general significance. Prelacy is defined by the canonists as " pre-eminence with jurisdiction " (praeeminentia cum juris- dictione), and the idea supposes an episcopal or quasi-episcopal jurisdiction. But gradually the title was extended to ecclesias- tical persons having a prominent office even without jurisdiction, and later still it has come to be applied to ecclesiastical persons marked by some special honour though without any definite office or jurisdiction. We may therefore distinguish " true " from " titular " prelates. The true prelacy is composed of the persons who constitute the ecclesiastical hierarchy; jurisdiction is inherent in their office and gives pre-eminence, as with patriarchs, arch- bishops and bishops. A good example of the dependence of prelacy on jurisdiction is found in those religious orders, such as the Dominicans, where authority is strictly elective and tem- porary. Thus a Dominican prior ranks ipso facto as a prelate during his three years of office, but, if not re-elected, loses this dignity with his jurisdiction. The true, no less than the titular, prelates have their various ranks, differing as regards title, precedence, clothing and other insignia. The distinguishing colour of a prelate's clothing is violet; the form, like the greater or less use of violet, depends on the rank of the prelate. Four classes may be distinguished: (1) Great prelates, e.g. cardinals, archbishops and bishops. (2) Exempt prelates (praelati nullius dioeceseos, praelati nullius), i.e. abbots and religious superiors, who are withdrawn from the ordinary diocesan jurisdiction and themselves possess episcopal jurisdiction (jurisdictio quasi episcopalis). (3) Roman prelates, (a) active and (b) honorary. The title is applied to numerous ecclesiastics attached by some dignity, active or honorary, to the Roman court (see CURIA ROMANA). In the list of these prelates are protonotaries apostolic, domestic prelates, private chamberlains, parlicipanti and supernumerary. Of these last there are two kinds, honorary and honorary extra urbem. Only protonotaries and domestic prelates are for life; the others lose their dignity at the death of the pope who appointed them. A special class of Roman prelatures exist at Rome, endowed as a kind of ecclesiastical majority to which those members of certain families who are destined for the clerical life naturally succeed. In the reformed churches the title was retained in England, Sweden, Denmark and Germany. The cathedral chapter of Brandenburg consists of two prelates, the dean and the senior, besides eight other members. The chapter of Merseburg con- tains five prelates, viz. the dean, senior, provost, custos and scholasticus. In Baden the general synod is presided over by the prelate (prelaf), i.e. the principal " superintendent." In the Church of England the term prelate has been since the Reformation applied only to archbishops and bishops. The word " prelacy," meaning no more originally than the office and dignity of a prelate, came to be applied in Presbyterian Scotland and Puritan England — especially during the I7th century — to the episcopal form of church government, being used in a derogatory sense. See Du Cange, Glossarium mediae el infimae latinitatis (new ed., by L. Favre, Niort, 1883); Paul Hinschius, Kirchenrecht (Berlin, 1869) ; F. H. Vering, professor of law at Prague, Lehrbuch des katho- lischen, orientalischen und protestantischen Kirchenrechts (1893). (E. O'N.) PRELLER, FRIEDRICH (1804-1878), German landscape- painter, was born at Eisenach on the 25th of April 1804. After studying drawing at Weimar, he went in 1821, on Goethe's advice, to Dresden, where in 1824 he was invited to accompany the grand duke of Weimar to Belgium. He became a pupil in the academy at Antwerp. From 1827 to 1831 he studied in Italy, and in 1831 received an appointment in the Weimar school of art. In 1834-1836 he executed in tempera six pictures on subjects taken from the Odyssey in the " Roman House " at Leipzig, in 1836-1837 the landscapes with scenes from Oberon in the Wieland room in the grand-ducal palace at Weimar, and in 1836-1848 six frescoes on Thuringian subjects commissioned by the grand duchess. In 1840 he visited Norway and produced a number of easel works, some of which are preserved at Weimar. In 1859 he revisited Italy, and on his return in 1861 he completed for the grand-ducal museum the frescoes illustrative of the Odyssey, which are held to constitute his chief claim to fame. Preller, who was also a successful etcher, died at Weimar on the 23rd of April 1878. PRELLER, LUDWIG (1809-1861), German philologist and antiquarian, was born at Hamburg on the isth of September 1809. After having studied at Leipzig, Berlin and Gottingen, in 1838 he was appointed to the professorship of philology at Dorpat, which, however, he resigned in 1843. He afterwards spent some time in Italy, but settled in Jena in 1844, where he became professor in 1846. In the same year he removed as head librarian to Weimar, where he died on the 2ist of June 1861. His chief works are: Demeter u. Persephone (1837); Griechische Mythologie (1854-1855; 4th ed., by C. Robert, 1887 seq.); and Romische Mythologie (1858; 3rd ed. by H. Jordan, 1881-1883). He also co-operated with H. Ritter in the preparation of the most useful Historia philosophiae graecae el romanae ex fontium locis contexla (1838; ed. E. Wellmann, 1898). He contributed extensively to Ersch and Gruber's Attgemeine Encyklopadie and Pauly's Realencyklopddie der classischen Altertumswissenschafl. A complete list of his works will be found in Ausgewahlte Aufsalze aus dem Gebiete der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft (ed. R. Kohler, 1864). See G. T. Stichling, Ludwig Preller. Eine Gedachtnissrede (Weimar, 1863); C. Bursian, Geschichte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland (1883). PREMIUM— PRERAU 279 PREMIUM (Lat. praemium, profit, reward, prae+emere, to buy), in general, a reward or prize; a consideration. In the law of insurance, the sum of money or consideration (either annual or in a lump sum) which the insured pays the insurers in order to gain a certain amount in the event of some specific loss happening is termed a premium. The word is applied to the fee paid in consideration of being taught a trade or profession. It is also used in the sense of " bonus," as something beyond or additional, as in the phrases, " premium bonus system," " premium system," where a bonus or sum is given in addition to wages in proportion to the value of the work done. On the stock exchange, when a security has not yet been fully paid up, it is customary to quote its price at par, or so much premium or discount. Par represents the amount actually paid up on it, while if it is above the level it is said to be at a premium of so much, or if below at a discount. PREMONITION (from Lat. Prae, before, monere, to advise or warn), an impression relating to a future event. Strictly the word should mean a warning proceeding from an external source. Its modern extension to all forms of impression sup- posed to convey information as to the future is justified on the assumption that such intimations commonly originate in the subliminal consciousness of the percipient and are thence trans- ferred to the ordinary consciousness. In modern times the best attested premonitions are those relating to events about to occur in the subject's own organism. It was observed by the animal magnetists at the beginning of the ipth century in France and Germany, that certain of their subjects, when in the " magnetic " trance, could foretell accurately the course of their diseases, the date of the occurrence of a crisis and the length of time needed to effect a cure. Similar observations were subsequently recorded in Great Britain and in America (see, for instance, the case of Anna Winsor, 1860-1863, reported by Dr Ira Barrows). The power of prediction possessed by the subject in such cases may be explained in two ways: (i) As due to an abnormal power of perception possessed by certain persons, when in the hypnotic trance, of the working of their own pathological processes; or (2) more probably, as the result of self-suggestion; the organism is " set " to explode at a given date in a crisis, or to develop the fore-ordained symptoms. Apart from these cases there are two types of alleged pre- monitions, (i) The future event may be foreshadowed by a symbol. Amongst the best known of these symbolic impressions are banshees, corpse lights, phantom funeral processions, ominous animals or sounds and symbolic dreams (e.g. of teeth falling out). Of all such cases it is enough to say that it is impossible for the serious inquirer to establish any causal con- nexion between the omen and the event which it is presumed to foreshadow. (2) There are many instances, recorded by educated witnesses, of dreams, visions, warning voices, &c., giving precise information as to coming events. In some of these cases, where the dream, &c., has been put on record before its " fulfilment " is known, chance is sufficient to explain the coin- cidence, as in the recorded cases of dreams foretelling the winner of the Derby or the death of a crowned head. In cases where such an explanation is precluded by the nature of the details foreshadowed, the evidence is found to be defective, generally from the absence of contemporary documents. The persistent belief on the part of the narrators in the genuineness of their previsions indicates that in some cases there may be a halluci- nation of memory, analogous to the well known feeling of " false recognition." Prof. Josiah Royce has suggested for this supposed form of hallucination the term " pseudo-presentiment." BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See Puysdgur, Du Magnetisme animal (1807); Alexandre Bertrand, Traile du somnambulisme (1823); Mrs H. Sidgwick, Proceedings S.P.R., vol. v.; F. W. H. Myers, Proceed- ings S.P.R., vol. xi.; F. W. H. Myers, Human Personality (1903); F. Podmore, Studies in Psychical Research (1897); Proceedings American Society for Psychical Research (1889, Report on Phantasms and Presentiments); Annales des sciences psychiques (Jan.-Feb., 1889, Article on Premonitions by G. B. Ermacora). (F. P.) PREMONSTRATENSIANS, also called Norbertines, and in England White Canons, from the colour of the habit: an order of Augustinian Canons founded in 1120 by St Norbert, after- wards archbishop of Magdeburg. He had made various efforts to introduce a strict form of canonical life in various communities of canons in Germany; in 1120 he was working in the diocese of Laon, and there in a desert place, called Pr6montr6, in Aisne, he and thirteen companions established a monastery to be the cradle of a new order. They were canons regular and followed the so-called Rule of St Augustine (see AUGUSTINIANS) , but with supplementary statutes that made the life one of great austerity. St Norbert was a friend of St Bernard of Clairvaux — and he was largely influenced by the Cistercian ideals as to both the manner of life and the government of his order. But as the Premonstra- tensians were not monks but canons regular, their work was preaching and the exercise of the pastoral office, and they served a large number of parishes incorporated in their monasteries. The order was founded in 1120; in 1126, when it received papal approbation, there were nine houses; and others were established in quick succession throughout western Europe, so that at the middle of the I4th century there are said to have been over 1300 monasteries of men and 400 of women. The Premonstra- tensians played a predominant part in the conversion of the Wends and the Christianizing and civilizing of the territories about the Elbe and the Oder. In time mitigations and relaxa- tions crept in, and these gave rise to reforms and semi-indepen- dent congregations within the order. The Premonstratensians came into England (c. 1143) first at Newhouse in Lincoln, and before the dissolution under Henry VIII. there were 35 houses. At the beginning of the igth century the order had been almost exterminated, only eight houses surviving, all in the Austrian dominions. There are now some 20 monasteries and 1000 canons, who serve numerous parishes; and there are two or three small houses in England. The strength of the order now lies in Belgium, where at Tongerloo is a great Premonstratensian abbey that still maintains a semblance of its medieval state. Helyot, Histoire des ordres rthgieux (1714), ii. chs. 23-26; Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), ii. § 56; articles in Wetzer u. Welte Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.) and Herzog Realencyklopddie (3rd ed.). The best special study is F. Winter, Die Prdmonstratenser des 12. Jahrh. und ihre Bedeutung fur das nordostliche Deutschland (186$). (E. C. B.) PREMYSL, the reputed ancestor of the line of dukes and kings which ruled in Bohemia from 873 or earlier until the murder of Wenceslaus III. in 1306, and which was known as the Pfemy- slide dynasty. According to legend Pfemysl was a peasant of Staditz who attracted the notice of Libussa, daughter of a certain Krok, who ruled over a large part of Bohemia, and is said to have been descended from Samo. Pfemysl married Libussa, the traditional foundress of Prague, and during the 8th century became prince of the Bohemian Cechs. His family became extinct when Wenceslaus III. died, but through females the title to Bohemia passed from the Pfemyslides to the house of Luxemburg and later to the house of Habsburg. See F. Palacky, Geschichte von Bohmen, Bd. I. (Prague, 1844). PRENZLAU, or PRF.XZLOW, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg. It lies on the lower Ucker See, 30 m. W. by S. of Stettin by rail. Pop. (1005), 20,929. The Gothic church of St Mary (Evangelical), dating from 1340, is one of the finest churches in the district, and the remains of the town gates, walls and towers are also interesting. The industries include wool- spinning, iron-founding, brewing and sugar-refining. Tobacco is grown in the neighbourhood, and cigars are manufactured in the town. Prenzlau is first mentioned in a document of the close of the 1 2th century, and received its municipal charter in 1233. As the capital of the old Uckermark it was a frequent object of dispute between Pomerania and Brandenburg until incorporated with the latter about 1480. At Prenzlau Prince Hohenlobe, with his corps of 12,000 men, surrendered to Murat on the retreat after the battle of Jena in October 1806. See I. Ziegler, Prenzlau, die ehemalige Hauptstadt der Uckermark (Prenzlau, 1886). PRERAU (Czech, Pferov), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 56 m. E.N.E. of Brilnn by rail. Pop. (1000), 16,738, chiefly 280 PREROGATIVE Czech. It is one of the oldest towns in Moravia, and possesses a Gothic town-hall and an old castle, once occupied by Matthias Corvinus. It has an important cloth industry, and manufactures of sugar, ropes, machinery and agricultural implements. Prerau was at one time the chief seat of the Moravian Brethren. PREROGATIVE, in law, an exclusive privilege of the Crown. The word, originally an adjective, is derived from the centuria praerogativa, or century which voted first on a proposed law (rogatio) in the Roman comitia centuriata. In English law, Blackstone says, " by the word prerogative we are to understand the character and power which the sovereign hath over and above all other persons, in right of his regal dignity; and which, though part of the common law of the country, is out of its ordinary course. This is expressed in its very name, for it signifies, in its etymology, something that is required or demanded before, or in preference to, all others " (Stephen's Comm. vol. ii. bk. iv. pt. i. ch. vi.). The prerogative is sometimes called jura regalia or regalia, the regalia being either majora, the regal dignity and power, or minora, the revenue of the Crown. The theory of English law as to the prerogative of the king seems to be not quite consistent. On the one hand, he is a perfect and irresponsible being, holding his office by divine right ; George V., " by the Grace of God of Great Britain and Ireland King,"1 is still the heading of every writ. On the other hand, his powers are defined and limited by law. This is laid down as early as the I3th century (Bracton, sb). A consequence of this position is that the prerogative may be confined or extended by the supreme legislative authority, and that the courts have jurisdiction to decide whether or not any alleged right falls within the prerogative. The prerogative of the Crown, still of great extent, has been gradually limited by a long series of enact- ments, the most worthy of notice being Magna carlo,, Confir- matio cartarum, t'rerogativa regis, the Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act, the Bill of Rights and the Act of Settlement. The most important of the obsolete prerogatives which have been at one time claimed and exercised are the following: (T) the right to impose a tax upon the subject without the consent of parlia- ment. (2) The right to dispense with the obligation of statutes, by the insertion in a grant of the clause non obstante slatuto (see DISPENSATION). (3) The right of purveyance and pre-emption — that is, of buying up provisions at a valuation without the consent of the owner — and the right of impressing carriages and horses (see PURVEYANCE). (4) The authority to erect tribunals not proceeding according to the ordinary course of justice was declared illegal by 16 Car. I. c. 10 (the act dissolving the Star Chamber, the court of the marches of Wales, and the court of the president and council of the north). (5) The revenue from first-fruits and tenths (see ANNATES). (6) The right of corody — that is, of sending one of the royal chaplains to be maintained by a bishop until the bishop promotes him to a benefice — has become obsolete by disuse. (7) The right by forfeiture to the property of a convict upon his conviction for treason or felony was abolished by the Felony Act 1870. (8) The immunity of the Crown from payment of costs has been taken away in almost all cases. (9) The right to alienate crown lands by grant at pleasure was taken away by i Anne c. 8. In very few cases has the prerogative been extended by statute; the Regulation of the Forces Act was an example of such extension. By that act the jurisdiction of lords-lieutenant of counties over the auxiliary forces was revested in the Crown. The prerogative may be exercised in person or by delegation. The prerogative of conferring honours is generally (though not necessarily) exercised by the king in person, as in the case of investment with knighthood and military or civil decorations. The delegation of the prerogative often takes place by commis- sion, issued with or without a joint address from both houses of parliament. Parts of the prerogative — generally in the nature of profit, and so in derogation of the revenue of the Crown — may be 1 There is no difference in the prerogative as exercised by a king or a queen regnant, so that the word " king " in its constitutional sense includes queen. That the queen regnant has the same rights as a king was declared by i Mary sess. 3, c. i. conferred upon subjects by grant in letters patent, which will be presumed after enjoyment by the subject for a certain time. What in the king is a prerogative becomes a franchise in the subject, e.g. chases, warrens, wrecks, treasure-trove, courts-leet. The existing prerogatives may be divided, with Blackstone, into such as are direct and such as are by way of exception ; or perhaps better, with Chief Baron Comyns, into those affecting external relations and those affecting internal relations. Under the first class would fall the power of making war and concluding peace. As incidents to this power the king has the right of sending and receiving ambassadors, of concluding treaties, and of granting passports, safe-conducts, letters of marque and reprisals. These rights may be limited by international agreement ; thus the Declara- tion of Paris, 1856, abolished privateering as far as the assenting nations (of whom Great Britain was one) were concerned. The prerogatives affecting internal relations may be conveni- ently, if not scientifically, classified as personal, political, judicial, ecclesiastical and fiscal. Personal. — In order that there may always be an existing head of the -state the king is regarded as a corporation. He cannot die; there can only be a demise of the Crown — that is, a transfer of the royal authority to a different person. On the same principle the king cannot be under age, though in cases where the king has been of tender years a protector or regent has usually been appointed for administrative purposes. The king is personally irresponsible for crime or tort, it being an ancient common law maxim that the king can do no wrong, and that any injury suffered by a subject at the hands of the king is to be attributed to the mistake of his advisers. A curious consequence of this irresponsibility is that the king is apparently the only person in the realm who cannot under any circumstances arrest a suspected felon, for no action for false imprisonment would lie against him, and in the event of the arrest of an innocent person there would be a wrong without a remedy. He cannot be guilty of laches, or negligence. The maxim of the common law is " Nullum tempus occurrit regi." This is still the law in criminal matters. With a very few exceptions, such as prosecutions for treason and offences against the customs, no lapse of time will in England (though it is otherwise in Scotland) bar the right of the Crown to prosecute. The king is exempt from taxation on the ground that, as the revenue of the realm is his prerogative, it is useless for him to tax himself. But lands purchased by the privy purse are liable to taxation (39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 88, s. 6). He is also exempt from tolls (which can only exist as a franchise granted by him), and from the poor-rate, as he is not mentioned in the Poor Law Acts. His person cannot be arrested or his goods distrained or taken in execution. The privilege of exemption from taxation applies to his palaces and to the public buildings of the state. No kind of judicial process can be executed in a palace as long as it continues to be a royal residence. The privilege does not attach to palaces which the king has ceased to use as a dwelling, such as Hampton Court. The king has also several personal privileges of minor importance, such as the title of " majesty," the right to a royal salute, to the use of the royal standard and of special liveries, &c. Political. — The king is the supreme executive and co-ordinate legislative authority. As such authority he has the attribute of sovereignty2 or pre-eminence, and the right to the allegiance of his subjects. All land is mediately or immediately held of him. Land derelict suddenly by the sea, land newly discovered by sub- jects and islands arising in the sea are his. As paramount authority in parliament he can dissolve or prorogue it at pleasure, but cannot prolong it beyond seven years. In theory parliament only exists at his will, for it is summoned by his writ, and the vote for a member of parliament is only a franchise, not a right existing independently of his grant. He can refuse his assent to a bill passed by the houses of parliament. This right has, however, not been exercised since 1707, when Queen Anne refused the royal assent to a Scottish Militia Bill. The king has power to issue proclamations and (with the assent of the privy council) orders in council, in some cases as part of the ancient prerogative, in others under the provisions of an act of parliament. Proclamations are only binding so far as they are founded upon and enforce the laws of the realm. They cannot alter the common law or create a new offence. The king is the fountain of honour; as such he has the valuable power of granting peerages at will, so far as he is not restrained by any act of parliament, and so far as he keeps within certain constitu- tional limits, e.g. he cannot insert a shifting clause in a patent of peerage. He also confers all other titles of honour, whether heredi- tary or not, and grants precedence and armorial bearings. The great officers of state are appointed by the king. The only restric- tion upon the creation of offices is that he cannot create new offices with new fees attached to them, or annex new fees to old offices, for this would be to impose a tax upon the subject without an act 2 The word " sovereign " is frequently applied to the king in legal works. It should be borne in mind at the same time that the king is not a sovereign in the strict sense in which the term is used by Austin. PREROGATIVE COURTS— PRESBYTER 281 of parliament. The king, as head of the state, is in supreme com in.inil of the army and navy for the defence of the realm. This right, contested by the Long Parliament, was finally declared by 13 Car. II. c. 6 to be in the king alone. The right of command carries with it as an incident the right to build forts and defences, to impress seamen in case of necessity, and to prohibit the im- portation of munitions of war (39 & 40 Viet. c. 36, s. 43), also the right to the soil of the foreshore and of estuaries of rivers, and the jurisdiction over territorial waters. Other rights which fall under the political branch of the prerogative may be called the commercial rights, including the coining of money, the regulating of weights and measures, the establishing of markets and fairs, ana the erecting of Ijcacons. lighthouses and sea-marks. As parens patriot he is ex officio guardian of infants, idiots and lunatics. It is scarcely necessary to point out that all these prerogatives (except the conferring of honours and such prerogatives as are purely personal) are exercised through responsible ministers, practically in these il.iys members ol the party to which the majority of the House of Commons belongs. Thus the jurisdiction over infants, &c., is exercised in England by the lord chancellor, and over beacons, &c , liv the Trinity House, under the general superintendence of the lioaril of Trade. Judicial. — The king is the fountain of justice, and the supreme conservator of the peace of the realm. As supreme judge the king has the appointment of all judicial officers (other than those in certain local courts), who act as his deputies. He may constitute legal courts for the administration of tnc general law of the land, but he cannot erect tribunals not proceeding according to the known and established law of the realm, such as the Star Chamber <>r the commissions of martial law forbidden by the Petition of Right. Nor can he add to the jurisdiction of courts; thus he cannot give a spiritual court temporal powers. The king was in theory supposed to be present in court. Actions in the king's bench were until modern times said to be coram rege ipso, andthe king could not be non-suited, for a non-suit implied the non-appearance of the plaintiff in court. The king enforces judgment by means of the sheriff, who represents the executive authority. As supreme conservator of the peace, the king, through the lord-lieutenant in counties, and through the lord chancellor in cities and boroughs, appoints justices of the peace. In the same capacity he is the prosecutor of crimes. All indictments still conclude with the words "against the peace of our lord the king, his crown and dignity." As it is the king's peace that is broken by the com- mission of a crime, the king has, as the offended party, the power of remission. The king cannot be sued by ordinary action. He may sue by ordinary action, but he has the advantage of being able to use prerogative process (see below). He has the right of inter- vention in all litigation where his rights are concerned, or in the interests of public justice, as where collusion is alleged between the decree nisi and the decree absolute in divorce. Crown debts have priority in administration and bankruptcy. Ecclesiastical, — The king is recognized as " supreme governor " of the Church by 26 Hen. V II I . c. I , and I Eliz. c. I . By this preroga- tive he convenes and dissolves convocation and nominates to vacant bishoprics and other ecclesiastical preferments. The dean and chapter of a cathedral cannot proceed to the electipn of a bishop without the king's permission to elect (see CONGE D'EuRE). When any benefice is vacant by the promotion of the incumbent to a bishopric other than a colonial bishopric the king has the patronage pro hoc vice. The king cannot create new ecclesiastical jurisdiction in England or in colonies other than crown colonies. Where a new bishopric is created it is under the powers of an act of parliament. Fiscal. — The theory of the constitution is that the king, being entrusted with the defence of the realm and the administration of justice, must have sufficient means given him for the purpose. The bulk of the revenue of the Norman and Plantagenet kings was derived from crown lands and feudal dues. At the present day the rents of crown lands form a very small part of the revenue, and the feudal dues do not exist except in the pecuniarily unimportant cases of escheat, royal fish, wrecks, treasure trove, waifs and strays, &c. Of the revenue a comparatively small part (the civil list) is paid to the king in person, the rest (the consolidated fund) is applied to public purposes. Prerogative Process. — This is the name given to certain methods of procedure which the Crown alone has the right of using; such are inquest of office (an inquiry by jury concerning the right of the Crown to land or goods), extent (a mode of execution), scire facias (for the resumption of a grant), and information (by which pro- ceedings are commenced in the name of the attorney-general for a public wrong or for injury to crown property). Prerogative Writs. — Certain writs are called " prerogative writs," as distinguished from writs of right, because it is within the pre- rogative to issue or reissue them (see WRIT). Besides the authorities cited, see Allen, Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of the Royal Prerogative in England; Chitty, The Prerogative of the Crown; Staunforde, Exposition of the King's Prerogative; Comyns, Digest, art. " Praerogative " ; Broom, Constitutional Law; and the works of W. Bagehot, S. Low, A. V. Dicey and Sir W. Anson, on the Constitution. PREROGATIVE COURTS, the name given to the English provincial courts of Canterbury and York, as far as regarded their jurisdiction over the estates of deceased persons. They had jurisdiction to grant probate or administration where the diocesan courts could not entertain the case owing to the de- ceased having died possessed of goods above the value of £5 (bona notabilia) in each of two or more dioceses. The jurisdiction of the prerogative courts was transferred to the Court of Probate in 1857 by the Probate Court Act, and is now vested in the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of Justice by the Judicature Act 1875. In the state of New Jersey, United States, the court having jurisdiction over probate matters is called the Prerogative Court. PRESBYTER (Gr. irptff/S&Ttpos, elder, the comparative of ?rp«o-j3i*, an old man), the title borne from very early times by certain officers or ministers of the Christian Church intermediate between " bishops " and " deacons." The specialized use of the word as implying not only age, but consequently wisdom and authority, is analogous to that of " senate " (from senior), of "gerousia" (from ytpuv), and of "elder." It is the original form of priest (q.v.). The word is not found in pre-Christian writings except in the Septuagint, though as Deissmann has shown it is found on the Papyri as an official title for the village magistrates of Egypt and the members of the ytpovaia, or senate, of many towns in Asia Minor. The office is, however, closely analogous to, and perhaps founded on, a similar office in the Jewish synagogue organization among the officials of which were the zekenim, or elders, sometimes identified with the archi- synagogues. In the New Testament the Greek word is used both for the ancient Jewish official and for the Christian elder. On Jewish tombstones of the Hellenistic period the title is frequently found, sometimes applied to women. The head official of the English Jews prior to their expulsion bore the title of Presbyter judaeorum; opinions differ as to whether this-officer was eccles- iastical or had merely the secular duty of supervising the exchequer of the Jews (see further The Jewish Encyclopedia. 1905, x. 190, 191). The history of presbyteral government as opposed to episcopacy and pure Congregationalism is not known in detail. After the Reformation, however, it was adopted by Calvin and his followers, who created that system which has ever since been known as Presbyterianism (q.v.). There are many theories as to the origin of the office of presbyter in the Christian Church, (i) Some connect it with the appointment of the seven recorded in Acts vi. This is the view taken by Boehmer,1 Ritschl1 and Lindsay.1 It is urged that the traditional view which regards the seven as deacons is untenable because the term " deacon " is never used in the narra- tive, and there is no reference to the office in the Acts. On the other hand the officials of the Jerusalem church are always called " elders " and when they are first introduced (Acts xi. 30) appear to be discharging the functions for which " the seven " were specially set apart. (2) The view adopted by the majority of English scholars is, while refusing to accept the connexion between the presbyters and the seven, to regard the office as distinctly primitive and say that it was taken over by the earliest Christian community at Jerusalem from the Jewish synagogue.4 (3) Harnack and a few other modern scholars ' maintain that the office of presbyter did not come into existence till the 2nd century. During the last quarter of the 1st century, a three-fold organization is found in the Church : (a) a spiritual organization composed of " apostles, prophets and teachers who had been awakened by the spirit and by the spirit endowed "; (6) an administrative organization, " For the care of the poor, for worship, for correspondence, the congregation needed controlling officials. These were the bishop and the deacons, the former for higher, the latter for inferior services " ; (c) a patri- archal organization based upon the natural deference of the younger to the older members of the Church. The senior members of the community, by virtue of their age and experience, watched over the conduct and guided the action of the younger and less experi- enced portion of the Church, though they held no official position and were not appointed for any particular work like the bishops and deacons. In the 2nd century the patriarchal element in the organization was merged in the administrative, and the presbyter.-. 1 Dtss. jur. eccl. p. 373. * Entstfhung der altkalholischen Kirche. 2nd ed. p. 355. ' The Church and the Ministry, p. 116; cf. also Brown, Apos- tolical Succession, p. 144. 4 Lightfoot, Ep. to the Philippians, p. 192. ' E.g. Sohm, Kirchenrecht, 92; Weizsacker, Apostolic Age (Eng. trans, ii. 330); Allen, Christian Institutions, p. 38; A. C. McGiffert, Apostolic Age, p. 663 (1897). 282 PRESBYTER became a definite order in the ministry. The time at which the change occurred cannot be definitely fixed. " In some congrega- tions," as Harnack says, " it may have been long before the elders were chosen, in others this may have come very soon; in some the sphere of the competency of the presbyters and patrons may have been quite indefinite and in others more precise." Harnack's theory is based upon the following arguments: (a) The silence of the genuine Epistles of St Paul and the Epistle to the Hebrews. In I Cor. xii. 28 Paul says that God has given to the Church apostles, prophets, teachers, miracles, gifts of healing, helps, governments; but of presbyters he has not a word to say. Even from passages where he is speaking of the jurisdiction of the congregation, as for example in I Cor. v., vi., the presbyters are absent, while in Phil. i. I it is the bishops and deacons that he mentions. (6) The documents in which presbyters are mentioned in an official sense, viz. the Epistle of James, the first Epistle of Peter, the Acts of the Apostles and the Pastoral Epistles belong to a later age and reflect the customs of their own day rather than those of the primitive Church, (c) Even Clement of Rome does not say that the apostles had appointed presbyters in the congregation, he speaks only of bishops and deacons. For this reason the statement in Acts xiv. 23 is to be looked upon with suspicion. These arguments, however, are not absolutely decisive. It is true that presbyters are not mentioned in the genuine Epistles of St Paul, but there are hints that similar officers existed in some of the churches founded by the apostle. There is a reference in I Thess. v. 12 to " those who rule over you " (irpo'iaT&nevoi), and the same word occurs in Rom. xii. 8.1 The term " governments " (Kvflfpv/iatis) in I Cor. xiv. 28 obviously refers to men who discharged the same functions as presbyters. If too, as seems most probable, bishops and pres- byters were practically identical, there is of course a specific refer- ence to them in Phil. i. I. The " leaders " who are mentioned three times in Hebrews xiii. were also probably " presbyters " under another name. Harnack's second argument depends for its validity upon certain conclusions with regard to the date of James and I Peter, which are not universally accepted. Few English scholars, for instance, would accept as late a date as 120- 140 for James, and i Peter may be as early as 65, as Harnack himself admits, though he prefers a date in the reign of Domitian. If this possibility in regard to I Peter is granted, it is fatal to the theory, because at the time when the epistle was written official presbyters were so well established that abuse and degeneration had already begun to creep in and some of the elders were already guilty of " lording it over their heritage " and making a profit out of their office (i Pet. v. 1-4). With regard to the testimony of Acts, the only question, since Harnack admits the Lucan author- ship,2 is whether Luke is describing the organization of the Church as it existed at the time of the events recorded or reflecting the arrangements which prevailed at the time when the book was written. It is difficult to see now Luke can have been wrong with regard to the " Ephesian elders " who came to meet Paul at Miletus since he was present on the occasion (xx. 15-17). The only mistake that seems possible is that he may have conferred a later title upon the emissaries of the Church of Ephesus. This is not likely, but, at all events, it would only prove that the office under another name existed at Ephesus, for otherwise Luke could not possibly have put into the mouth of Paul the address which follows. Neither is there prima facie ground for objecting to the statements with regard to the presbyters of Jerusalem. If the Church at Jerusalem had any officials, it is highly probable that those officials bore the name and took over the functions of the elders of the synagogue. The statement in Acts xiv. 23, that Paul and Barnabas appointed elders in the churches of South Galatia, is more open to objection perhaps, owing to the silence of the Epistle to the Galatians. With regard to the evidence of the Epistle of Clement, Harnack seems to be incorrect in his conclusions. Scholars of such opposite schools of thought as Schmiedel3 and Lindsay* maintain that the epistle contains the most explicit references to presbyters of the official type. The crucial passage (xliv. 4-6) seems to bear out their contention. " It will be no light sin for us if we thrust out of the oversight (kiriaKoirri) those who have offered the gifts unblameably and holily. Blessed are those presbyters who have gone before . . . for they have no fear lest any one should remove them from their appointed place " (into TOV Ubpviiivov rbvov). There is an equally specific reference in liv. 2: " Only let the flock of Christ keep peace with its duly-appointed presbyters" (nera TWC KaBiorankvuv The conclusions which we seem to reach are as follows: (i) In the earliest stage (between 30 and 60) there is no uniform organization 1 Hort translates irpoitrT&ncvoi " those who care for you," but I Tim. iii. 12 and v. 17 seem to be against this. In Justin Martyr, Apol. i. 67, Trpotarw evidently refers to " the president of the church," and in a recently discovered papyrus which Ramsay dates 303 a certain bishop is described as XaoO Trpoiaraufvov, Studies in Roman Provinces, pp. 125-126. 1 Lukas der Arzt (1006), cap. I. ' Ency. Bib. p. 3134 sqq. 4 The Church and the Ministry, p. 160. Cf. also Loening, Die Gcmeindeverfassung des Urchrislentums, p. 58. in the Christian Church. Presbyters are found in Jerusalem from primitive times. In the Pauline churches the name is not found except at Ephesus and possibly in south Galatia, though there are traces of the office, at any rate in germ, under different titles in other churches. (2) In the second stage (between 60 and 100) there is an increasing tendency towards uniformity. The office is found definitely mentioned in connexion with the churches of Asia Minor (i Pet. i. i), Corinth (Epistle of Clement) and Crete (Titus). The officials were called by two names, " elders " and " bishops," the former denoting the office, the latter the function (exercising the oversight). The substantial identity of the two titles cannot be doubted in the light of such passages as Acts xx. 17, 28.; l Pet. v. i, 2; i Tim. iii. 1-7, v. 17-19 and Titus i. 5-7. There is far less controversy with regard to the later history of the presbyters. The third stage of the development of the office is marked by the rise of the single episcopus as the head of the individual church (see BISHOP; EPISCOPACY). The first trace of this is to be found in the Epistles of Ignatius which prove that by the year 115 " the three orders " as they were afterwards called — bishop, presbyters and deacons — already existed, not indeed universally, but in a large proportion of the churches. The presbyters occupied an intermediate position between the bishop and the deacons. They constituted " the council of the bishop." It was some time before the threefold ministry became universal. The Didache knows nothing of the presbyters; bishops and deacons are mentioned, but there is no reference to the second order. The Shepherd of Hernias knows nothing of the single bishop; the churches are under the control of a body of presbyter-bishops. Before the close of the 2nd century however the three orders were established almost everywhere. The sources of the Apostolic Canons (which date between 140-180) lay down the rule that even the smallest community of Christians, though it contain only twelve mem- bers, must have its bishop and its presbyters. The original equality of bishops and presbyters was still however theoreti- cally maintained. The Canons of Hippolytus which belong to the end of the 2nd century distinctly lay it down that " at the ordination of a presbyter everything is to be done as in the case of a bishop, save that he does not seat himself upon the throne. The same prayer shall also be said as for a bishop, the name of the bishop only being left out. The presbyter shall in all things be equal with the bishop, save in the matter of pre- siding and ordaining, for the power to ordain is not given him." The presbyters formed the governing body of the church. It was their duty to maintain order, exercise discipline, and superintend the affairs of the Church. At the beginning of the 3rd century, if we are to believe Tertullian, they had no spiritual authority of their own, at any rate as far as the sacra- ments are concerned. The right to baptize and celebrate the communion was delegated to them by the bishop.6 In the fourth stage we find the presbyters, like the bishops, becoming endowed with special sacerdotal powers and functions. Up to the end of the 2nd century the universal priesthood of all believers was the accepted doctrine of the Church. It was not till the middle of the 3rd century that the priesthood was restricted to the clergy. Cyprian is largely responsible for the change, though traces of it are found during the previous half century. Cyprian bestows the highest sacerdotal terms upon the bishops of course, but his references to the priestly character of the office of presbyter are also most definite.6 Henceforth pres- byters are recognized as the secundum sacerdotium in the Church. With the rise of the diocesan bishops the position of the presbyters became more important. The charge of the indi- vidual church was entrusted to them and gradually they took the place of the local bishops of earlier days, so that in the 5th and 6th centuries an organization was reached which approximated in general outline to the system which prevails in the Anglican Church to-day. See Hatch, Organization of the Early Christian Churches (2nd ed., 1882), and Harnack's " excursus " in the German edition of this 6 Tertull. De bapt, 17 : " Baptismi dandi habet jus summus sacerdos qui est episcopus ; dehinc presbyteri .... non tamen sine episcopi auctoritate." 6 Cf. Ep. 58 : "Presbyteri cumepiscoposacerdotalihonore conjunct!." PRESBYTERIANISM 283 work (1883); Harnack, Die Lehre der zwolf A pastel (1884); Loening, Die Gemeindeverfassung des Urchristentums (1889); Sohni, Kirchen- recht (1892); an article by Loofs, in Studien una Kritiken, for 1890 (pp. 619-658); Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry in the Early Centuries (1902); Schmiedel, article " Ministry," in Ene. Bib. (H. T. A.) PRESBYTERIANISM, a highly organized form of church government in which presbyters or elders occupy a prominent place. As one of the three principal systems of ecclesiastical polity known to the Christian Church, Presbyterianism occupies an intermediate position between episcopacy' and Congrega- tionalism. A brief comparison with these will indicate its salient features. In episcopacy the supreme authority is a diocesan bishop; in Congregationalism it is the members of the congregation assembled in church meeting; in Presbyterianism it is a church council composed of representative presbyters. In episcopacy the control of church affairs is almost entirely withdrawn from the people; in Congregationalism it is almost entirely exercised by the people; in Presbyterianism it rests with a council composed of duly appointed office-bearers chosen by the people. The ecclesiastical unit in episcopacy is a diocese, comprising many churches and ruled by a prelate; in Congrega- tionalism it is a single church, self-governed and entirely inde- pendent of all others; in Presbyterianism it is a presbytery or council composed of ministers and elders representing all the churches within a specified district. It may be said broadly, therefore, that in episcopacy the government is monarchical; in Congregationalism, democratic; and in Presbyterianism, aristocratic or representative. I. — THE SYSTEM DESCRIBED As compared with the Church of England (Episcopal) in which there are three orders of clergy — bishops, priests and deacons, One Order l^e Presbyterian Church -recognizes but one spiritual order, viz. presbyters. These are ecclesiastically of equal rank, though differentiated, according to their duties, as ministers who preach and administer the sacraments, and as elders who are associated with the ministers in the oversight of the people. There are deacons in Presbyterianism inferior in rank to presbyters, their duties being regarded as non-spiritual. The membership of a Presbyterian Church consists of all who are enrolled as communicants, together with their children. Member- Others who worship regularly without becoming ship. communicants are called adherents. Only com- municants exercise the rights of membership. They elect the minister and other office-bearers. But, in contrast with Con- gregationalism, when they elect and " call " a minister their action has to be sustained by the presbytery, which judges of his fitness for that particular sphere, of the measure of the congregation's unanimity, and of the adequacy of financial support. When satisfied, the presbytery proceeds with the ordination and induction. The ordination and induction of ministers is always the act of a presbytery. The ordination and induction of elders in some branches of the Church is the act of the kirk-session; in others it is the act of the presbytery. The kirk-session is the first of a series of councils or church courts which are an essential feature of Presbyterianism. It „. consists of the ministers and ruling elders. The minister * ', is ex officio president or moderator. Without his presence or the presence of his duly-appointed deputy the meeting would not be in order nor its proceedings valid. The moderator has not a deliberative, but only a casting vote. (This is true of the moderator in all the church courts.) Neither the session nor the congregation has jurisdiction over the minister. He holds his office advitam aut culpam; he cannot demit it or be deprived of it without consent of the presbytery. In this way his inde- pendence among the people to whom he ministers is to a large extent secured. The kirk-session has oversight of the congregation in regard to such matters as the hours of public worship, the arrange- ments for administration of the sacraments, the admission of new members and the exercise of church discipline. New members are either catechumens or members transferred from other churches. The former are received after special instruction and profession of faith; the latter on presenting a certificate of church membership from the church which they have left. Though the admission of new members is, strictly speaking, the act of the session, this duty usually devolves upon the minister, who reports his procedure to the session for approval and confirmation. Matters about which there is any doubt or difficulty, or division of opinion in the session, may be carried for settlement to the next higher court, the presbytery. The presbytery consists of all the ministers and a selection of the ruling elders from the congregations within a prescribed area. The presbytery chooses its moderator periodically from _.. among its ministerial members. His duty is to see that business is transacted according to Presbyterian principle and procedure. The moderator has no special power or supremacy over his brethren, but is honoured and obeyed as primus inter pares. The work of the presbytery is episcopal. It has oversight of all the congregations within its bounds; hears refer- ences from kirk-sessions or appeals from individual members; sanctions the formation of new congregations; superintends the education of students for the ministry; stimulates and guides pastoral and evangelistic work; and exercises discipline over all within its bounds, including the ministers. Three members, two of whom must be ministers, form a quorum ; a smalt number com- pared with the important business they may have to transact, but the right of appeal to a higher court is perhaps sufficient safe- guard against abuse. Presbytery meetings arc either ordinary or occasional. The former are. held at prearranged intervals. Occasional meetings are either in hunc effectum or pro re nata. The presbytery fixes the former for specific business; the latter i> summoned by the moderator, either on his own initiative or on the requisition ot two or more members of presbytery, for the transac- tion of business which has suddenly emerged. The first question considered at a pro re nata meeting is the action of the moderator in calling the meeting. If this is approved the meeting proceeds; if not, the meeting is dissolved. Appeals and complaints may be taken from the presbytery to the synod. The synod is a provincial council which consists of the ministers and representative elders from all the congregations within a specified number of presbyteries, in the same way as _. „ the presbytery is representative of a specified number of congregations. Though higher in rank and larger than most presbyteries it is practically of less importance, not being, like the presbytery, a court of first instance, nor yet, like the general assembly, a court of final appeal. The synod at its first meeting chooses a minister as its moderator whose duties, though somewhat more restricted, are similar to those of presbyterial moderators. The synod hears appeals and references from presbyteries; and by its discussions and decisions business of various kinds, if not settled, is ripened for consideration and final settlement by the general assembly, the supreme court of the Church. The general assembly is representative of the whole Church, either, as in the Irish General Assembly, by a minister and elder sent direct to it from every congregation, or, as in the Scottish General Assemblies, by a proportion of dele- gates, ministers and elders from every presbytery. Asseta6W- The general assembly annually at its first meeting chooses one of its ministerial members as moderator. He takes precedence, primus inter pares, of all the members, and is recognized as the official head of the Church during his term of office. His position is one of great honour and influence, but he remains a simple presbyter, without any special rule or jurisdiction. The general assembly reviews all the work of the Church; settles con- troversies; makes administrative laws; directs and stimulates missionary and other spiritual work; appoints professors of theology ; admits to the ministry applicants from other churches; hears and decides complaints, references and appeals which have come up through the inferior courts; and takes cognizance of all matters connected with the Church's interests or with the general welfare of the people. As a judicatory it is the final court of appeal; and by it alone can the graver censures of church discipline be reviewed and removed. The general assembly meets once a year at the time and place agreed upon and appointed by its predecessor. By means of this series of concihar courts the unity of the Church is secured and made manifest; the combined, simultaneous effort of the whole is made possible; and disputes, instead of being fought out where they arise, are carried for settle- ment to a larger and higher judicatory, free from local feeling and prejudice. As access to the church courts is the right of all, and involves but slight expense, the liberty of even the humblest member of the Church is safeguarded, and local oppression or injustice is rendered difficult. The weak point in the system is that episcopal superintendence being exercised in every case by a plurality of individuals there is no one, moderator or senior member, whose special duty it is to take initial action when the unpleasant work of judicial investigation or ecclesiastical discipline becomes necessary. This has led in some quarters to a desire that the moderator should be clothed with greater responsibility and have his period of office prolonged; should be made, in fact, more of a bishop in the Anglican sense of the word. Though the jus dirinum of presbytery is not now insisted upon as in some former times, Presbyterians claim that it is the church polity set forth in the New Testament. The case is usually stated somewhat as follows. With the sanction and under the 284 PRESBYTERIANISM guidance of the Apostles, officers called elders and deacons were appointed in every newly-formed church.1 They were elected by New the people, and ordained or set apart for their sacred Testament work by the Apostles.2 The elders were appointed to Authority, teach and rule;3 the deacons to minister to the poor.4 There were elders in the church at Jerusalem,6 and in the church at Ephesus;' Paul and Barnabas appointed elders in the cities of Lycaoma and Pisidia;7 Paul left Titus in Crete to appoint elders in every city;8 the elders amongst the strangers scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia re- ceived a special exhortation by Peter.9 These elders were rulers, and the only rulers in the New Testament Church. Just as in the synagogue there was a plurality of rulers called elders, so there was in every Christian church a plurality of elders. The elders were different from the deacons, but there is no indication that any one elder was of higher rank than the others. The elder was not an officer inferior and subordinate to the bishop. The elder was a bishop. The two titles are applied to the same persons. See Acts xx. 17, 28; " he sent and called for the elders of the church. . . . Take heed to all the flock over which the Holy Ghost hath made you bishops." See also Titus i. 5, 6: " ordain elders . . . for a bishop must be blameless." This is now admitted by modern expositors.10 The elders were chosen by the people. This is not expressly stated in the New Testament but is regarded as a necessary inference. When an apostle was about to be chosen as successor to Judas, the people were invited to take part in the election;11 and when deacons were about to be appointed the Apostles asked the people to make the choice.12 It is inferred that elders were similarly chosen. It is worthy of notice that there is no account at all of the first appointment of elders as there is of deacons. Probably the recognition and appointment of elders was simply the transfer from the synagogue to the Church of a usage which was regarded as essential among Jews; and the Gentile churches naturally followed the example of the Jewish Christians.13 The elders thus chosen by the people and inducted to their office by the Apostles acted as a church court. Only thus could a plurality of rulers of equal rank act in an efficient and orderly way. They would discharge their pastoral duties as individuals, but when a solemn ecclesiastical act, like ordination, was performed, it would be done, as in the case of Timothy, by " the laying on of the hands of the presbytery " ; u and when an authoritative decision had to be reached, as in regard to circumcision, a synod or court was called together for the purpose.16 The action of Paul and Barnabas at Antioch l* seems to accord with Presbyterian rather than Congregational polity. The latter would have required that the question should have been settled by the church at Antioch instead of being referred to Jerusalem. And the decision of the council at Jerusalem was evidently more than advisory; it was authoritative and meant to be binding on all the churches." The principle of ministerial parity which is ^fundamental in Presbyterian- ism is founded not merely on apostolic example but on the words of Christ Himself: "Ye know that the princes of the Gentiles exercise dominion over them, and they that are great exercise authority upon them. But it shall not be so among you." 18 From the foregoing outline it will be seen that Presbyterianism may be said to consist in the government of the Church by ., representative assemblies composed of the two Alternative , e . . . Definitions. classes of presbyters, ministers and elders, and so arranged as to manifest and realize the visible unity of the whole Church. Or it may be described as denying (i) that the apostolic office is perpetual and should still exist in the Christian Church; (2) that all church power should be vested in the clergy; (3) that each congregation should be independent of all the rest; and as asserting (i) that the people ought to have a substantial part in the government of the Church; (2) that presbyters, i.e. elders or bishops, are the highest permanent officers in the Church and are of equal rank; (3) that an outward and visible Church is one in the sense that a smaller part is controlled by a larger and all the parts by the whole.19 Though Presbyterians are unanimous in adopting the general system of church polity as here outlined, and in claiming New I Phil. i. i. • Acts xx. 17. "- Acts vi. 2-6. ' Acts xiv. 23. 3 i Tim. v. 17; Titus i. 9. 8 Titus i. 5. 4 Acts vi. 1,2. 9 i Peter v. I. 6 Acts xi. 29, xv. 2, 4, 6, xvi. 4. 10 See Bishop Lightfoot's exhaustive essay in his volume on the Epistle to the Philippians. II Acts i. 15-26. 16 Acts xv. 6-20. 12 Acts vi. 2-6. 16 Acts xv. 2. 13 Acts xiv. 23. " Acts xvi. 4. 14 I Timothy iv. 14. 18 Matt.xx.25,26;Lukexxii.25,26. 19 Proceedings of Seventh General Council of the Alliance of Re- formed Churches holding the Presbyterian System (Washington, 1899). Testament authority for it, there are certain differences of view in regard to details which may be noticed. There is no doubt that considerable indefiniteness in regard to the precise status and rank of the ruling elder is com- monly prevalent. When ministers and elders are associated in the membership of a church court their equality is admitted; no such idea as voting by orders is ever entertained. Yet even in a church court inequality, generally speaking, is visible to the extent that an elder is not usually eligible for the moderator's chair. In some other respects also a certain disparity is apparent between a minister and his elders. Practi- cally the minister is regarded as of higher standing. The duty of teaching and of administering the sacraments and of always presiding in church courts being strictly reserved to him invests his office with a dignity and influence greater than that of the elder. It was inevitable, therefore, that this question as to the exact status of the ruling elder should claim attention in the discussions of the Pan-Presbyterian Alliance. At its meeting in Belfast in 1884 a report was submitted by a " committee on the eldership " which had been previously appointed. Accord- ing to this committee there are prevalent three distinct theories in regard to the office and function of ruling elders: — I. That while the New Testament recognizes but one order of presbyters there are in this order two degrees or classes, known as teaching elders and ruling elders. In teaching, in _,. . dispensing the sacraments, in presiding over public //"2 ,tf "' worship, and in the private functions by which hevjjj * ministers to the comfort, the instruction and the improve- ment of the people committed to his care, a pastor acts within his parish (or congregation) according to his own discretion; and for the discharge of all the duties of the pastoral office he is accountable only to the presbytery from whom he received the charge of the parish (or congregation). But in everything which concerns what is called discipline — the exercise of that jurisdiction over the people with which the office-bearers of the church are conceived to be invested, he is assisted by lay-elders. They are laymen in that they have no right to teach or to dispense the sacraments, and on this account they fill an office in the Presbyterian Church inferior in rank and power to that of the pastors. Their peculiar business is expressed by the term " ruling elders." M II. A second theory is contended for by Principal Campbell in his treatise on the eldership, and by others also, that there is no warrant in Scripture for the eldership as it exists in the Presby- terian Church; that the ruling elder is not, and is not designed to be, a counterpart of the New Testament elder; in other words, that he is not a presbyter, but only a layman chosen to represent the laity in the church courts and permitted to assist in the govern- ment of the church. III. A third theory, advanced by Professor Witherow and others, is that the modern elder is intended to be, and should be, recog- nized as a copy of the scriptural presbyter. Those who take this view hold that " in everything except training and the conse- quences of training the elder is the very same as the minister," and they base their opinion on the fact that the terms " overseer " or " bishop," " presbyter " and " elder," are used interchangeably throughout the New Testament. It is consistent with this view to argue the absolute parity of ministers and elders, conceding to all presbyters " equal right to teach, to rule, to administer the sacra- ments, to take part in the ordination of ministers, and to preside in church courts." The practice of the Presbyterian churches of the present day is in accord with the first-named theory. Where attempts are made to reduce the third theory to practice the result is not satisfactory. Nor is the first-named theory less in harmony with Scripture teaching than the third. In the initial stages of the Apostolic Church it was no doubt sufficient to have a plurality of presbyters with abso- lutely similar duties and powers. At first, indeed, this may have been the only possible course. But apparently it soon became desirable and perhaps necessary to specialize the work of teaching by setting apart for that duty one presbyter who should withdraw from secular occupation and devote his whole time to the work of the ministry. There seems to be evidence of this in the later writings of the New Testament.21 It is now held by all Presbyterian churches that one presbyter in every congregation should have specially committed to him the work 20 Hill's View of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland, pp. 37, 38. 21 I Tim. iv. 15, v. 17; Col. iv. 17. PRESBYTERIANISM 285 of teaching, administering the sacraments, visiting the flock pastorally, and taking oversight, with his fellow elders, of all the interests of the church. To share with the minister such general oversight is not regarded by intelligent and influential laymen as an incongruous or unworthy office; but to identify the duties of the eldership, even in theory, with those of the minister is a sure way of deterring from accepting office many whose counsel and influence in the eldership would be in- valuable.1 Another subject upon which there is a difference of opinion in the Presbyterian churches is the question of Church Establish- ments. The view, originally held by all Presbyterian churches in Great Britain and on the Continent, that union with and support by the civil government are not only lawful but also desirable, is now held only by a minority, and is practically exemplified among English-speaking Presbyterians only in the Church of Scotland (see SCOTLAND, CHURCH or). The law- fulness of Church Establishments with due qualifications is perhaps generally recognized in theory, but there is a growing tendency to regard connexion with the state as inexpedient, if not actually contrary to sound Presbyterian principle. That this tendency exists cannot be doubted, and there is reason to fear that its influence, by identifying Presbyterianism with dissent in England and Scotland, is unfavourable to the general tone and character of the Presbyterian Church. Those who favour state connexion and those who oppose it agree in claiming spiritual independence as a fundamental principle of Presbyterianism. That principle is '" equally opposed to Erastianism and to Papacy, to the civil power dominating the Church, and to the ecclesiastical power dominating the state. All Presby- terians admit the supremacy of the state in things secular, and they claim supremacy for the Church in things spiritual. Those who favour a Church Establishment hold that Church and state should each be supreme in its own sphere, and that on these terms a union between them is not only lawful but is the highest exemplification of Christian statesmanship. So long as these two spheres are at all points clearly distinct, and so long as there is a desire on the part of each to recognize the supremacy of the other, there is little danger of friction or collision. But when spiritual and secular interests come into unfriendly contact and entanglement; when controversy in regard to them becomes inevitable; from which sphere, the spiritual or the civil, is the final decision to come? Before the Reformation the Church would have had the last word; since that event the right and the duty of the civil power have been generally recognized. The origin of Presbyterianism is a question of historical interest. By some it is said to have begun at the Reformation; by some it is traced back to the days of Israel in Egypt;2 by most, however, it is regarded as of later Jewish origin, and as having come into existence in its present form simultaneously with the formation of the Christian Church. The last is Bishop Lightfoot's view. He connects the Christian ministry, not with the worship of the Temple, in which were priests and sacrificial ritual, but with that of the synagogue, which was a local institution providing spiritual edification by the reading and exposition of Scripture.3 The first Christians were regarded, even by themselves, as a Jewish sect. They were spoken of as " the way."4 They took with them, into the new communities which they formed, the Jewish polity or rule and oversight by elders. The appointment of these would be regarded as a matter of course, and would not seem to call for any special notice in such a narrative as the Acts of the Apostles. But Presbyterianism was associated in the 2nd century with a kind of episcopacy. This episcopacy was at first rather con- gregational than diocesan; but the tendency of its growth was undoubtedly towards the latter. Hence for proof that their 1 Report of Proceedings, Third General Council of the Alliance of Reformed Churches, &c. (1884), pp. 373 seq. and App. p. 131. 1 Exodus iii. 16; iv. 29. . ' St Luke iv. 16 seq. 4 Acts ix. 2. Origin. church polity is apostolic Presbyterians are accustomed to appeal to the New Testament and to the time when the apostles were still living; and for proof of the apostolicity of prelacy Episcopalians appeal rather to the ^ Church fathers and to a time when the last of the Apostles had just passed away.' It is generally admitted that dis- tinct traces of Presbyterian polity are to be found in unexpected quarters (e.g. Ireland, lona, the Culdees, &c.) from the early centuries of church history and throughout the medieval ages down to the Reformation of the :6th century. Only in a very modified sense, therefore, can it be correctly said to date from the Reformation. At the Reformation the Bible was for the great mass of both priests and people a new discovery. The study of it shed floods of light upon all church questions. The leaders of the _.. Reformation searched the New Testament not only for „ f doctrinal truth but also to ascertain the polity of the primitive Church. This was specially true of the Reformers in Switzerland, France, Scotland, Holland and in some parts of Germany. Luther gave little attention to New Testament polity, though he believed in and clung passionately to the universal priesthood of all true Christians, and rejected the idea of a sacer- dotal caste. He had no dream or vision of the Church's spiritual independence and prerogative. He was content that ecclesiastical supremacy should be with the civil power, and he believed that the work of the Reformation would in that way be best preserved and furthered. In no sense can his " consistorial " system of church government be regarded as Presbyterian. It was different with the Reformers outside Germany. While Luther studied the Scriptures in search of true doctrine and Christian life and was indifferent to forms of church polity, they studied the New Testament not only in 5*5"* search of primitive church doctrine but also of primitive ° , church polity. One is struck by the unanimity with v~t which, working individually and often in lands far apart, they reached the same conclusions. They did not get their ideas of church polity from one another, but drew it directly from the New Testament. For example, John Row, one of the five commis- sioners appointed by the Scottish Privy Council to draw up what is now known as the First Book of Discipline, distinctly says that " they took not their example from any kirk in the world ; no, not from Geneva "; but they drew their plan from the sacred Scrip- tures.* This was true of them all. They were unanimous in rejecting the episcopacy of the Church of Rome, the sanctity of celibacy, the sacerdotal character of the ministry, the confessional, the propitiatory nature of the mass. They were unanimous in adopting the idea of a church in which all the members were priests under the Lord Jesus, the One High Priest and Ruler; the officers of which were not mediators between men and God, but preachers of One Mediator, Christ Jesus; not lords over God's heritage, but ensamples to the flock and ministers to render service. They were unanimous in regarding ministerial service as mainly pastoral; preaching, administering the sacraments and visiting from house to house; and, further, in perceiving that Christian ministers must be also spiritual rulers, not in virtue of any magical influence transmitted from the Apostles, but in virtue of their election by the Church and of their appointment in the name of the Lord Jesus. When the conclusions thus reached by many independent investi- gators were at length reduced to a system by Calvin, in his famous Institutio, it became the definite ideal of church government for all the Reformed, in contradistinction to the Lutheran, churches. Yet we do not find that the leaders of the Reformed Church succeeded in establishing at once a fully-developed Presbyterian polity. Powerful influences hindered them from realiz- ing their ideal. We notice two. In the first place, the 7JJ"? people generally dreaded the recurrence of ecclesiastical tyranny. So dreadful had been the yoke of Rome, which they had shaken off, that they feared to submit to anything similar even under Protestant auspices. When their ministers, moved by an intense desire to keep the Church pure by means of the exercise of scriptural discipline, claimed special spiritual rule over the people, it was not wonderful that the latter should have been reluctant to submit to a new spiritual despotism. So strong was this feeling in some places that it was contended that the discipline of ex- communication, if exercised at all, should be exercised only by the secular power. A second powerful influence was of a different kind, viz. municipal jealousy of church power. The municipal authority in those times claimed the right to exercise a censorship over the citizens' private life. Any attempt on the part of the Church to exercise discipline was resented as an intrusion. It has been a common mistake to think of Calvin and contemporary Reformers 1 See Lightfoot's Essay in Commentary on the Epistle to the PhiJippians. 1 Knox, Winran, Spotswood and Douglas — all of them John — were the other commissioners. 286 PRESBYTERIANISM as introducing a discipline of stern repression which made the in- nocent gaieties of life impossible, and produced a dull uniformity of straitlaced manners and hypocritical morals. The discipline was there before the Reformers. There were civil laws which regulated clothing, food and social festivity. Hence friction, at times, between the Reformers and civic authorities friendly to the Reformation; not as to whether there should be "discipline" (that was never doubted) but as to whether it should be ecclesi- astical or municipal. Even, therefore, where people desired the Reformation there were powerful influences opposed to the setting up of church government and to the exercise of church discipline after the manner of the apostolic Church ; and one ceases to wonder at the absence of complete Presbyterianism in the countries which were forward to embrace and adopt the Reformation. Indeed the more favourable the secular authorities were to the Reformation the less need was there to discriminate between civil and ecclesi- astical power, and to define strictly how the latter should be exer- cised. We look in vain, therefore, for much more than the germs and principles of Presbyterianism in the churches of the first Reformers. Its evolution and the thorough application of its principles to actual church life came later, not in Saxony or Switzer- land, but in France and Scotland; and through Scotland it has passed to all English-speaking lands. The doctrines of Presbyterianism are those generally known as evangelical and Calvinistic. The supreme standard of belief is the Word of God in the original languages. °°gy- 'pjjg subordinate standards have been numerous, though marked by striking agreement -in the main body of Christian doctrine which they set forth. Much has been done of late years to make these subordinate standards of reformed doctrine more generally known. The following list is fairly complete: — Switzerland. — First Helvetic Confession (1536). Geneva Con- fession (1536). Geneva Catechism (1545). England. — Forty-two Articles (1553). Thirty-eight Articles (1563). Thirty-nine Articles (1571). Lambeth Articles (1595). Irish Articles (1615). Westminster Confession (1644-1647). Larger and Shorter Catechisms (1647). France. — Confessio gallicana (1559). Scotland. — Scottish' Confession (1560). Westminster Confession (1647). Larger and Shorter Catechisms (1647). Netherlands. — Frisian Confession (1528). Confessio belgica (1561). Netherlands Confession (1566). Hungary. — Hungarian Confession (1562). Bohemia. — Bohemian Confession (1609). The form of worship associated with Presbyterianism has been marked by extreme simplicity. It consists of reading of Holy Scripture, psalmody, non-liturgical prayer and preaching. There is nothing in the standards Worship. Of the Presbyterian Church against liturgical worship. In some of the early books of order a few forms of prayer were given, but their use was not compulsory. On the whole, the preponderating preference has always been in favour of so-called extemporaneous, or free prayer; and the Westminster Directory of Public Worship has to a large extent stereotyped the form and order of the service in most Presbyterian churches. Within certain broad outlines much, perhaps too much, is left to the choice of individual congregations. It used to be customary among Presbyterians to stand during public prayer, and to remain seated during the acts of praise, but this peculiarity is no longer maintained. The psalms rendered into metre were formerly the only vehicle of the Church's public praise, but hymns are now also used in most Presbyterian churches.1 Organs used to be regarded as contrary to New Testament example, but their use is now all but universal. The public praise used to be led by an individual called the " precentor," who occupied a box in front of, and a little lower than, the pulpit. Choirs of male and female voices now lead the church praise. Presbyterianism has two sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper. Baptism is administered both to infants and adults by c . pouring or sprinkling, but the mode is considered "•immaterial. The Lord's Supper, as generally ob- served throughout the various Presbyterian churches, is a close 1 Principal Rous's version is the best known and most widely used. It is an English work. Somewhat reluctantly it was ac- cepted by Scottish Presbyterianism as a substitute for an older version with a greater variety of metre and music. " Old Hundred " and " Old I24th " mean the looth and I24th Psalms in that old book. imitation of the New Testament practice ; and where it is not marred by undue prolixity commends itself to most Christian people as a solemn and impressive service. The old plan of coining out and taking one's place at the communion table in the body of the church is unhappily seen no more; communicants now receive the sacred elements seated in their pews. The dispensing of this rite is strictly reserved to an ordained minister, who is assisted by elders in handing the bread and the cup to the people. The administra- tion of private communion to the sick and dying is extremely rare in Presbyterian churches, but there is less objection to it than formerly, and in some churches it is even encouraged. Presbyterian discipline is now entirely confined to exclusion from membership or from office. Though it is the duty of a minister to warn against irreverent or profane participation in „. . . the Lord's Supper, he himself has no right to exclude any one from communion; that can only be done as the act of himself and the elders duly assembled in session. A code of in- structions for the guidance of church courts when engaged in cases of discipline is in general use, and bears witness to the extreme care taken not only to have things done decently and in order, but also to prevent hasty, impulsive and illogical procedure in the investigation of charges of heresy or immorality. Cases of dis- cipline are now comparatively rare, and, when they do occur, are not characterized by the bigoted severity which prevailed in former times and was rightly denounced as unchristian. The extent to which the Presbyterian form of church govern- ment prevails throughout the world has been made more manifest in recent years by the formation of a " General Council of the Alliance of Reformed Churches statistics. holding the Presbyterian System." At a representa- tive conference in London in 1875 the constitution of the council was agreed upon. The first council met in Edinburgh in 1877. Since then it has met in Philadelphia, Belfast, London, Toronto, Glasgow, Washington and Liverpool. Churches which are organized on Presbyterian principles and hold doctrines in harmony with the reformed confessions are eligible for admis- sion to the alliance. The object is not to form one great Presbyterian organization, but to promote unity and fellowship among the numerous branches of Presbyterianism throughout the world. On the roll of the general council held at Washington in 1899 there were sixty-four churches. The statistics of these and of sixteen others not formally in the alliance were 29,476 congregations, 26,251 ministers, 126,607 elders and 4,852,096 communicants. Of these eighty churches, twelve were in the United Kingdom, twenty on the conti- nent of Europe, sixteen in North America, three in South America, ten in Asia, nine in Africa, six in Australia, two in New Zealand, one in Jamaica and one in Melanesia. The desire for union which led to the formation of the alliance has, since 1875, borne remarkable fruit. In England in 1876 two churches united to form the Presbyterian Church of England; in the Netherlands two churches be- came one in 1892; in South Africa a union of the different branches of the Presbyterian Church took place in 1897; in Scotland the Free Church and the United Presbyterian became one in 1900 under the designation of the United Free Church; in Australia and Tasmania six churches united in 1901 to form the Presbyterian Church of Australia; and a few months later the two churches in New Zealand which represented respectively the North and South Islands united to form the Presbyterian Church of New Zealand. " In no portion of the empire," it has been said, " does the British flag now fly over a divided Presbyterianism, except in the British Isles themselves." II. — HISTORY IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES From this general outline of Presbyterianism we now turn to consider its evolution and history in some of the countries with which it is or has been specially associated. We omit, however, one of the most important, viz. Scotland, as the history is fully covered under the separate headings of SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF, and allied articles. Switzerland. The Swiss, owing to their peculiar geographical position and to certain political circumstances, early manifested indepen- dence in ecclesiastical matters, and became accustomed to the PRESBYTERIANISM 287 management of their church affairs. The work of Zwingli as a Reformer, important and thorough though it was, did not con- cern itself mainly with church polity. Ecclesiastical affairs were, as a matter of course, wholly under the management of the cantonal and municipal authorities, and Zwingli was content that it should be so. The work of Farel, previous to his coming to Geneva, was almost entirely evangelistic, and his first work in Geneva was of a similar character. It was the town council which made arrangements for religious disputations, and pro- vided for the housing and maintenance of the preachers. When Calvin Calvin, at Farel's invitation, settled in Geneva (1536) the work of reformation became more constructive. " The need of the hour was organization and familiar instruction, and Calvin set himself to work at once." The first reforms he wished to see introduced concerned the Lord's Supper, church praise, religious instruction of youth and the regulation of marriage. In connexion with the first he desired that the discipline de I' excommunication should be exercised. His plan was partly Presbyterian and partly consistorial. Owing to certain circumstances in its past history, Geneva was notoriously immoral. " The rule of dissolute bishops, and the example of a turbulent and immoral clergy, had poisoned the morals of the city. Even the nuns of Geneva were notorious for their conduct."1 Calvin suggested that men of known worth should be appointed in different quarters of the city to report to the ministers those persons in their district who lived in open sin; that the ministers should then warn such persons not to come to the communion; and that, if their warnings were unheeded, discipline should be enforced. It was on this subject of keeping pure the Lord's Table that the controversy arose between the ministers and the town councillors which ended in the banish- ment of Calvin, Farel and Conrad from Geneva. In 1538 the ministers took upon themselves to refuse to administer the Lord's Supper in Geneva because the city, as represented by its council, declined to submit to church discipline. The storm then broke out, and the ministers were banished (i538). It may be convenient at this point to consider Calvin's ideal church polity, as set forth in his famous Christianae religionis inslitutio, the first edition of which was published in 1536. Briefly it was as follows: — A separate ministry is an ordinance of God (Inst. iv. 3, i. 3). Ministers duly called and ordained may alone preach and ad- minister the sacraments (iv. 3, 10). A legitimate ministry is one appointed with the consent and approbation of the people under the presidency of other pastors by whom the final act of ordination (with laying on of hands) shall be performed (iv. 3, 15). Governors or persons of advanced years selected from the people and associated with the ministers in admonishing and exercising discipline (iv. 3, 8). This discipline is all-important, and is the special business of the governors. His system, while preserving the democratic theory by recognizing the congregation as holding the church power, was in practice strictly aristocratic inasmuch as the congregation is never allowed any direct use of power, which is invested in the whole body of elders. His great object was discipline. With regard to the relations between the Church and the civil power, Calvin was opposed to the Zwinglian theory whereby all ecclesiastical power was handed over to the state. Calvin's refusal to administer the sacrament, for which he was banished from Geneva, is important as a matter of ecclesiastical history, because it is the essence of the whole system which he subsequently introduced. It rests on the prin- ciples that the Church has the right to exclude those who are un- worthy, and that she is in no way subject to the civil power in spiritual matters. During the three years of his banishment Calvin was at Strassburg, where he had been carrying out his ideas. His recall was greatly to his honour. The town nad become a prey to anarchy. One party threatened to return to Romanism; another threatened to sacrifice the independence of Geneva and submit to Berne. It was felt to be a political necessity that he should return, and in 1541, somewhat reluctantly, he returned on his own terms. These were the recognition of the Church's spiritual inde- pendence, the division of the town into parishes, and the appoint- ment (by the municipal authority) of a consistory or council of ciders in each parish for the exercise of discipline. These terms were embodied in the famous Ordonnanccs ecclesi- asliques de I'eglise de Geneve (1541). The four orders mentioned 1 Lindsay, Hist, of the Reform, ii. 90. in the Instilutio are recognized : pastors, doctors, elders and deacons. The pastors were to preach, administer the sacraments, and in conjunction with the elders to exercise discipline. In their totality they form the venerable compagnie. A newly-made pastor was to be settled in a fixed charge by the magistrate with the consent of the congregation, after having been approved as to knowledge and manner of life by the pastors already in office. By them he was to be ordained, after vowing to be true in office, faithful to the church system, obedient to the laws and to the civil govern- ment, and ready to exercise discipline without fear or favour. The doctors were to teach the faithful in sound learning, to guard purity of doctrine, and to be amenable to discipline. The elders (Anciens, commis, ou deputez par la seigneurie ou consistoire) were regarded as the essential part of the system. They were the bond of union between Church and state. Their business was to supervise daily life, to warn the disorderly, and to give notice to the consistory of cases requiring discipline. To form the. consistory all the ciders with the ministers were to meet every Sunday under the presidency of one of the syndics or magistrates. This court could award censures up to exclusion from the sacrament. Manifestly the arrangement was a compromise. The state retained control of the ecclesiastical organization, and Calvin secured his much-needed system of discipline. Fourteen years of friction and struggle followed, and if there came after them a period of comparative triumph and repose for the great reformer it must still be remembered that he was never able to have his ideal ecclesiastical organization fully realized in the city of his adoption. The early Presbyterianism of Switzerland was defective in the following respects: (i) It started from a wrong definition of the Church, which, instead of being conceived as an organized community of believers in the Lord Jesus Christ, was made to depend upon the preaching of the gospel and the administration of the sacraments. As these implied a duly appointed minister, the existence of the Church was made to depend upon an organized ministry rather than an organized membership. It calls to mind the Romish formula: "t/W episcopus ibi ecclesia." (2) It did not maintain the scriptural right of the people to choose their minister and other office-bearers. (3) Its independence of civil control was very imperfect. (4) And it did not by means of church courts provide for the manifestation of the Church's unity and for the concentration of the Church's influence. " Calvin," says Principal Lindsay, " did three things for Geneva all of which went far beyond its walls. He gave its Church a trained ministry, its homes an educated people who could give a reason for their faith, and the whole city an heroic soul which enabled the little town to stand forth as the citadel and city of refuge for the oppressed Protestants of Europe." * France. It is pathetic and yet inspiring to study the development of Presbyterianism in France; pathetic because it was in a time of fierce persecution that the French Protestants organized themselves into churches, and inspiring, because it showed the power which scriptural organization gave them to withstand incessant, unrelenting hostility. It would be difficult to exag- gerate the influence of Calvin upon French Protest- antism. His Christiana* religionis instilutio became a standard round which his countrymen rallied in the work and battle of the Reformation. Though under thirty years of age, he became all over Europe, and in an exceptional degree in France, the leader, organizer and consolidator of the Reformation. The work which the young Frenchman did for his countrymen was immense.3 The year 1555 may be taken as the date when French Protestant- ism began to be organized. A few churches had been organized earlier, at Meaux in 1546 and at Nimes in 1547, but their members had been dispersed by persecution. ™ Prior to 1555 the Protestants of France had been for™'""0' the most part solitary Bible students or little companies meeting together for worship without any organization. But in that year the following incident was the beginning of a great movement. A small company had been accustomed to meet in the lodging of the sieur de la Ferrifere in Paris near the Pr£-aux- Clercs. At one of the meetings the father of a newly-born child explained that he could not go outside France to seek a pure baptism and that his conscience would not permit his child to be baptized according to the rites of the Romish Church. After prayer the company constituted themselves into a church: chose jean le Macon to be their minister, and others of their number to be elders and deacons. It seemed as if all France had been waiting for this event as a signal, for organized churches began to spring up every- 1 Hist, of the Reform, ii. 31. » Ibid. ii. 158. 288 PRESBYTERIANISM where immediately afterwards. Within two years Meaux, Poitiers, Angers, les Ties de Saintonge, Agen, Bourges, Issoudun, Aubigny, Blois, Tours, Lyon, Orleans and Rouen were organized. Thirty- six more were completely organized by 1560.' According to Beza there were about this time 2150 organized churches. A few years later Cardinal St Croix reckoned that the Huguenots were one half of the population. One hundred and twenty-seven pastors had been sent to France from Geneva before 1567. In 1558 a further stage in the development of Presbyterian church polity was reached. Some doctrinal differences having pjrst arisen in the church at Poitiers, Antoine de Chandieu, ._, minister at Paris, went to compose them, and, as the t/enerai . e e tr . Synod result ot a conference, a synod was convened to meet in Paris the following year (1559). It was the first general synod of the French Protestant Church, and consisted of representatives from, some say sixty-six, others, twelve churches. It adopted a confession of faith and a book of order or discipline. The confession consisted of forty articles. It was based on a short confession drafted by Calvin in 1557, and may still be regarded, though once or twice revised, as the confession of the French Protestant Church. The book of order, Discipline ecclesiastique des eglises reformees de France, regulated the organization and pro- cedure of the churches. It contains this fundamental statement of Presbyterian parity, " Aucune eglise ne pourra pretendre primaute ni domination sur 1'autre; ni pareillement, les ministres d'une eglise les uns sur les autres; ni les anciens ou diacres, les uns sur les autres." The various church courts, familiar to us now as Presbyterian, are explained. The consistoire or session consisted of the minister, elders and deacons (the latter without a vote), and was over the congregation. The collogue or presbytery was composed of representative ministers and elders (anciens) from a group of congregations. Next in order was the provincial synod which consisted of a minister and an elder or deacon from each church in the province. Over all was the general or national synod. Some of the arrangements are worthy of notice. When a church was first formed the office bearers were elected by the people, but there the power of the congregation ceased. Future vacancies in the eldership were filled up by the office-bearers. The eldership was not for life, but there was always a tendency to make it so. When the ministry of a church became vacant the choice of a successor rested with the collogue or with the provincial synod. The people, however, might object, and if their objection was considered valid redress was given. Later the synod of Nimes (1572) decreed that no minister might be imposed upon an unwilling people. Deacons, in addition to having charge of the poor and sick, might catechize, and occasionally offer public prayer or read a written sermon. The president or moderator of each church court was primus inter pares. The remarkable feature of French church polity was its aristocratic nature, which it owed to the system of co-optation ; and the exclusion of the congregation from direct and frequent interference in spiritual matters prevented many evils which result from too much intermeddling on the part of the laity. Up to 1565 the national synod consisted of a minister with one or two elders or deacons from every church; after that date, to avoid overcrowding, its numbers were restricted to representatives from each provincial synod. On questions of discipline elders and deacons might vote; on doctrinal questions only as many of these as there were ministers. It is interesting to see how in a country whose civil rule was becoming gradually more absolutist, this ' Church under the cross' framed for itself a government which reconciled, more thoroughly perhaps than has ever been done since, the two principles of popular rights and supreme control. Its constitution has spread to Holland, Scotland (Ireland, England), and to the great American (and Colonial) churches. Their ecclesiastical polity came much more from Paris than from Geneva."2 To trace the history of Presbyterianism in France for the next thirty years would be to write the history of France itself during that period. We should have to tell of the great and rapid increase of the Church; of its powerful influence among the nobles and the bourgeoisie; of its direful persecutions; of itsSt Bartholomew massacre with 70,000 victims; of its regrettable though perhaps inevitable entanglements in politics and war; and finally of its attaining not only tolerance but also honourable recognition and protection when Henry IV. in 1598 signed the famous edict of Nantes. This secured complete liberty of conscience everywhere within the realm and the free right of public worship in all places in which it existed during the years 1596 and 1597, or where it had been granted by the edict of Poitiers (1577) interpreted by the convention of Nerac (1578) and the treaty of Fleix (1580) — in all some two hundred towns; in two places in every bailliage and senechaussee; in the castles of Protestant seigneurs hauls justiciers (some three thousand); and in the houses of lesser nobles, pro- vided the audience did not consist of more than thirty persons over and above relations of the family. Protestants were granted full civil rights and protection, and were permitted to hold their ecclesiastical assemblies — consistories, colloquies and synods, 'Lindsay, Hist, of the Reform, ii. 166. * Ibid. ii. 169. national and provincial. Under the protection of the edict the Huguenot Church of France flourished. Theological colleges were established at Sedan, Montauban and Saumur, and French theo- logy became a counterpoise to the narrow Reformed scholastic of Switzerland and Holland.3 The history of the Church from the passing of the edict of Nantes till its revocation in 1685 cannot be given here. That event was the climax of a long series of horrors. Under the persecution, a large number were killed, and between four and five millions of Pro- testants left the country. Early in the l8th century Antoine Court made marvellous efforts to restore Presbyterianism. In momentary peril of death for fifteen years, he restored in the Vivarais and the Cevennes Presbyterian church polity in all its integrity. In 1715 he assembled his first colloque. Synods were held in 1718, 1723, 1726 and 1727; and in a remote spot in Bas Languedoc in 1744 a national synod assembled — the first since 1660 — which consisted of representatives from every province formerly Protestant. From 1760 owing to the gradual spread of the sceptical spirit and the teaching of Voltaire more tolerant views prevailed. In 1787 the Edict of Tolerance was published. In 1789 all citizens were made equal before the law, and the position of Presbyterianism improved till 1791. In 1801 and 1802 Napoleon took into his own hands the independence of both Catholic and Protestant Churches, the national synod was abolished, and all active religious propaganda was rigorously forbidden. In 1848 an assembly representative of the eglises consistoriales met at Paris. When it refused to discuss points of doctrine a secession took place under the name of the Union des eglises evangeliques de France. This society held a synod at which a confession of faith and a book of order were drawn up. Meanwhile the national Protestant Church set itself to the work of reconstruction on the basis of universal suffrage, with restrictions, but no result was arrived at. In 1852 a change took place in its constitution. The eglises consistoriales were abolished, and in each parish a presbyterial council was appointed, the minister being president, with four to seven elders chosen by the people. In the large towns there were consistories composed of all the ministers and of delegates from the various parishes. Over all was the central provincial council consisting of the two senior ministers and fifteen members nominated by the state in the first instance. In 1858 there were 617 pastors and the Union des eglises evangeliques numbered 27 churches. The Netherlands. From the geographical position of the Netherlands, Pres- byterianism there took its tone from France. In 1562 the Confessio belgica was publicly acknowledged, and in 1563 the church order was arranged. In 1574 the first provincial synod of Holland and Zealand was held, but William of Orange would not allow any action to be taken independently of the state. The Reformed churches had established themselves in independence of the state when that state was Catholic; when the government became Protestant the Church had protection and at the same time became dependent. It was a state church. By the union of Utrecht the communes and provinces had each the regulation of its own religion; hence constant conflict. In most cases it was insisted on as necessary that church discipline should remain with the civil authority. In 1576 William, with the support of Holland, Zeeland and their allies, put forth forty articles, by which doctors, elders and deacons were recognized, and church discipline given to the elders, subject to appeal to the magistrate and by which the Church was placed in absolute dependence on the state. These articles, however, never came into operation; and the decisions of the synod of Dort in 1 578, which made the Church independent were equally fruitless. In 1581 the Middelburg Synod divided the Church, created provincial synods and presbyteries, but could not shake off the civil power in connexion with the choice of church officers. Thus, although the congregations were Presbyterian, the civil government retained overwhelming influence. The Leiden magistrates said in 1581: " If we accept everything determined upon in the synod, we shall end by being vassals of the synod. We will not open to churchmen a door for a new mastership over government and subjects, wife and child." From 1618 a modified Presbyterian polity predom- inated. As a rule elders held office for only two years. The " kerk-raad " (kirk-session) met weekly, the magistrate being a member ex officio. The colloque consisted of one minister and one elder from each congregation. At the annual provincial synod, held by consent of the states, two ministers and one 3 Ibid. ii. 222, 223. PRESBYTERIANISM 289 elder attended from each colloque. Every congregation was visited by ministers appointed by . the provincial synod. In 1795, of course, everything was upset, and it was not until after the restoration of the Netherland States that a new organization was formed in 1816. Its main features were strictly Presby- terian, but the minister was greatly superior to the elder, and the state had wide powers especially in the nomination of higher officers. In 1851 the system now in force was adopted. The congregation chooses all the officers, and these form a church council. England. Presbyterian principles and ideas were entertained by many of the leading ecclesiastics in England during the reign of Edward VI. Even the archbishop of Canterbury favoured a modification of episcopacy, and an approach to Presbyterian polity and dicipline; but attention was mainly directed to the settlement of doctrine and worship. Cranmer wrote that bishops and priests were not different but the same in the beginning of Christ's religion. Thirteen bishops subscribed this proposition: that in the New Testament there is no mention made of any distinctions or degrees in orders but only deacons and priests or bishops. Cranmer held that the consecration of a bishop was an unnecessary rite, and not required by Scripture; that election and appointment to office were sufficient. The bishop of St Davids was of the same opinion. Latimer and Hooper maintained that Bishops and presbyters were identical; and Pilkington, bishop of Durham, and Bishop Jewel were of the same mind. The latter, about the time of Elizabeth's succession, expressed his hope that the bishops would become pastors, labourers and watchmen; and that the great riches of bishoprics would be diminished and reduced to mediocrity; that, being delivered from courtly and regal pomp, the bishops might take care of the flock of Christ. During the reign of Edward, the title of superintendent was often adopted instead of bishop, and it will be recollected that John Knox was an honoured worker in England with the title of superintendent during this reign. As an indication of sympathy with Presbyterianism, it may be noted that Cranmer favoured a proposal for the formation of a council of presbyters in each diocese, and for provincial synods. During 1567 and 1568 the persecutions in France and Holland drove thousands of Protestants, mostly Presbyterians, to England. In 1570 Presbyterian views found a distinguished exponent in Dr Thomas Cartwright at Cambridge; and the temper of parliament was shown by the act of 1571, for the reform of disorders in the Church, in which] while all mention of doctrine is omitted, the doctrinal articles alone being sanctioned, ordination without a bishop is implicitly recognized. In 1572 a formal manifesto was published, entitled an Admonition to Parliament, the leading ideas in which were: parity of ministers, appointment of elders and deacons; election of ministers by the congre- gation; objection to prescribed prayer and antiphonal chant- ing; preaching, the chief duty of a minister; and the power of the magistrates to root out superstition and idolatry. On Presbytery tne .29tn °* November 1572 the authors of the " Ad- of Wands- mon'tion " set up at Wandsworth what has been worth called the first presbytery in England. They adopted a purely Presbyterian system which was published as the Orders of Wandsworth. Similar associations or presbyteries were formed in London and in the midland and eastern counties; but the privy council was hostile. Only in Jersey and Guernsey, whither large numbers of Huguenots had fled after the St Bartholo- mew massacre, was Presbyterianism fully permitted. Cartwright and Edmund Snape were ministers there; and from 1576 to 1625 a completely appointed Presbyterian Church existed, under the rule of synods, and authorized by the governor. The action of the Commons in 1584, stimulated by the opposition of the Lords, showed that the principles of Presbyterianism were strongly held. Bills were introduced to reduce the position of a bishop to well-nigh that of primus inter pares; to place the power of veto in the con- gregation; to abolish the canon law and to establish a presbytery in every parish. These proposals were rendered abortive by the unflinching use of the queen's prerogative. In 1640 Henderson, Baillie, Blair and Gillespie came to London as commissioners from the General Assembly in Scotland, in response to a request from ministers in London who desired to see the Church of England more closely modelled after the Reformed type. They were able men, whose preaching drew great crowds, and increased the desire for the establishment of XXII. IO Presbyterianism. In 1642 the Long Parliament abolished Episcopacy (the act to come into force on the 5th of November Th w 1643); and summoned an assembly of divines to meet ", . at Westminster in June 1643 to advise parliament A M as to the new form of Church government. The West- minster Assembly, through its Confession, Directory and Catechisms, has become so associated with the Presbyterian Church that it is difficult to realize that it was not a church court at all, much less a creation of Presbyterianism. It was a council created by parliament to give advice in church matters at a great crisis in the nation's history; but its acts, though from the high character and great learning of its members worthy of deepest respect, did not per se bind parliament or indeed any- one. It was, in a very real sense, representative of the whole country, as two members were chosen 'by parliament from each county. The number summoned was 151, viz. ten lords, twenty members of the House of Commons, and one hundred and twenty- one ministers. The ministers were mostly Puritans; by their ordination, &c., Episcopalian; and for the most part strongly impressed with the desirability of nearer agreement with the Church of Scotland, and other branches of the Reformed Church on the Continent. About one-half of the members attended regularly. Those who were out-and-out Episcopalians did not attend at all. Apart from these, there were three well-defined parties: (i) those with Presbyterian ideas and sympathies, a great majority; (2) Erastians, ably represented and led by Selden, Lightfoot and Cole- man; (3) Independents, ten or eleven in number, led by Philip Nye, and assured of Cromwell's support. Then there were the Scot- tish commissioners who, though without votes, took a leading part in the proceedings. Judged by the objects for which it was summoned the Westminster Assembly was a failure, a remarkable failure. Episcopacy, Erastianism and Independency, though of little account in the assembly, were to bulk largely in England's future; while the church polity which the assembly favoured and recommended was to be almost unknown. Judged in other ways, however, the influence of the assembly's labours has been very great. The Confession of Faith and the Larger and Shorter Cate- chisms are recognized and venerated standards in all the lands where British Presbyterianism, with its sturdy characteristics, has taken root. And the Directory of Public Worship has shaped and coloured, perhaps too thoroughly, the ritual and atmosphere of every group of Protestant Anglo-Saxon worshippers throughout the world, except Episcopalians. In June 1646 the ordinance establishing presbyteries was ratified by both houses of parliament, and a few days afterwards it was ordered to be put into execution. Twelve presbyteries were erected in London; Shropshire and Lancashire were organized; and Bolton was so vigorous in the cause as to gain the name of the Gene /a of Lancashire. But the system never took root. Not only were there well-known adverse influences, but the soil seems to have been uncongenial. As compared with Scotland, English Presbyterianism had more of the lay element. In every classis or presbytery there were two elders to each minister. The Synod of London met half-yearly from 1647 till 1655. Synods also were held in the north. But during the Common- wealth Independency gained ground. Then with the " ""' Restoration came Episcopacy, and the persecution of all who were not Episcopalians; and the ciream and vision of a truly Reformed English Church practically passed away. After the Revolution and during the reign of William and Mary the hatred of the Church of England to the Presbyterians and other dissenters had been obliged to lie dormant, rjecaaeace With the accession of Anne, however, began an attempt apparently to make up for lost time From the beginning of the i8th century the greater number of the Presbyterian congregations became practically independent in polity and Unitarian in doctrine. Indigenous Presbyterianism became almost unknown. The Presbyterianism now visible in England is of Scottish origin and Scottish type, and beyond the fact of embracing a few congregations which date from, or before, the Act of Uniformity and the Five Mile Act, has little in common with the Presbyterianism which was •for a brief period by law established. In 1876 the union of the Presbyterian Church in England with the English congregations of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland gathered all English Presbyterians (with (jaloala some exceptions) into one church, " The Presbyterian I876 Church of England." " What kept these bodies apart was their separate historic origin and development, but especially the alienation caused by the ' Voluntary Controversy ' which had its roots in the difficult problems of civil law in its relation to religion, and the stumbling-block of the civil magistrate's authority in relation to the Christian conscience." l Since the union the growth of the Church has been considerable. Presbyterianism is compara- tively strong in three districts of England, namely Northumbenand, Lancashire and London. Elsewhere it is either weak or non- existent. Even where it is comparatively strong it is largely exotic. The membership is mainly Scottish, and the ministers 1 Drysdale, History of the Presbyterians in England, p. 625. 5 290 PRESBYTERIANISM have been imported principally from Scotland. To English people, therefore, the Presbyterian is still the " Scotch Church," and they are as a whole slow to connect themselves with it. Efforts have been made to counteract this feeling by making the Church more distinctly English. The danger in this direction is that when Presbyterianism has been modified far enough to suit the English taste it may be found less acceptable to its more stalwart sup- porters from beyond the Tweed. Following the lead of the Inde- pendents, who set up Mansfield College at Oxford, the Presby- terian Church has founded Westminster College at Cambridge as a substitute for its Theological Hall in London. It was opened in 1899 with the view of securing a home-bred ministry more conversant with English academic life and thought. In common with the general Presbyterianism of the British Isles, the Presbyterian Church of England has in recent years been readjusting its relation to the Westminster Confession of Faith. Without setting aside the Cqnfession as the church's standard, twenty-four " Articles of the Faith " have been adopted. In these no change, it is alleged, has been made in regard to the substance of the Westminster doctrine, but there is an alteration of emphasis and proportion. There are in England fourteen congregations in connexion with the Church of Scotland, six of them in London and the remainder in Berwick, Northumberland, Carlisle and Lancashire. Many Unitarians in England still call themselves Presbyterians. This, except historically, is a misnomer, for, though descended from the old English Presbyterians, they retain nothing of their distinctive doctrine of polity — nothing of Presbyterianism, indeed, but the name. Ireland. Presbyterianism in Ireland, in modern times at least, dates from the plantation of Ulster in the reign of James I. The infusion of a considerable Scottish element into the population necessitated the formation of a congenial church. The immi- grants from England took with them, in like manner, their attachment to the Episcopal Church. But these two sections of Protestantism, in their common exile and in presence of the preponderating Roman Catholicism of the country, seemed at first inclined to draw closer together than had been thought possible in Great Britain. A confession of faith, drawn up by Archbishop Usher at the convocation of 1615, implicitly ad- mitted the validity of Presbyterian ordination, and denied the distinction between bishop and presbyter. Within the Episcopal Church and supported by its endowments, Robert Blair, John Livingstone and other ministers maintained a Scottish Presbyterian communion. From 1625 to 1638 the history of Irish Presbyterians is one of bare existence. Their ministers, silenced by Wentworth, after an ineffectual attempt to reach New England, fled to Scotland, and there took a leading part in the great movement of 1638. After the Irish rebellion of 1641 the Protestant interest for a time was ruined. A majority of the Ulster Protestants were Presbyterians, and in a great religious revival which took place the ministers of the Scottish regiments stationed in Ireland took a leading part. Kirk-sessions were formed in four regiments, and the first regular presbytery was held at Carrickfergus on the loth of June l642> attended by five ministers and by ruling - - elders from the regimental sessions. This presbytery supplied ministers to as many congregations as possible; and for the remainder ministers were sent from Scotland. By the end of 1643 the Ulster Church was fairly established. Notwithstanding intervening reverses there were by 1647 nearly thirty ordained ministers in fixed charges in Ulster besides the chaplains of the Scottish regiments. At the Restoration, in which they heartily co-operated-, there were in Ulster seventy ministers in fixed charges, with nearly eighty parishes or congregations containing one hundred thousand. persons. There were five presbyteries holding monthly meetings and annual visitations of all the congregations within their bounds, and coming together in general synod four times a year. Entire conformity with the Scottish Church was maintained, and strict discipline was enforced by pastoral visitations, kirk-sessions and presbyteries. After the Restoration the determination of the government to put down Presbyterianism was speedily felt in Ireland. In 1661 the lords justices forbade all unlawful assemblies,' and in these they included meetings of presbytery as exercising ecclesiastical jurisdiction not warranted by the law. Bishop Jeremy Taylor was forward in this work of persecution. The ministers refused to take the Oath of Supremacy without the qualification suggested by Usher. Their parishes were declared vacant, and episcopal clergy appointed to them. The ejected ministers were forbidden to preach or administer the sacraments. In Ulster sixty-one ministers were ejected. Of seventy only seven conformed. Under Ormonde, in 1665, ministers were again permitted to revive Presbyterian worship and discipline, and for several years the Church prospered not only in Ulster but also in the south and west. In 1672 she received a yearly grant from Charles II. of £600 (regium donum), and under William III. the amount was considerably increased. It was continued till 1869. In 1679 the rising in Scotland which ended in the battle of Both- well Bridge brought trouble on the Irish Presbyterians in spite of their loyal addresses disowning it.. It was not, however, till 1682 that they again lost the privilege of public ministry, and suffered severe oppression. They were opposed to James II., though they had benefited by his Declaration of Indulgence, and they were the first to congratulate the Prince of Orange on his arrival in England. The heroic defence of Londonderry owed much to them, as they were a majority of the population, and some of their ministers rendered conspicuous service. There were then in Ireland about a hundred congregations, seventy-five with settled ministers, under five presbyteries. Their preponderance in Ulster and their consciousness of their great service to England led them first of all to hope that Presbyterianism might be substituted for Episcopacy in Ulster, and afterwards, that it might be placed on an equal footing with the latter. During the i8th century Irish Presbyterianism became infected with Arianism. Under the leadership of Dr Henry Cooke, a minister of rare ability and eloquence, the evangelical party triumphed in the church courts, and the Unitarians seceded and became a separate denomination. In 1840 the Synod of Ulster and the Secession Synod united to form the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland. The Presbyterian Church in Ireland is the most conservative of the great Presbyterian churches in the United Kingdom. Her attitude is one of sturdy adherence to the old paths of evangelical doctrine and Presbyterian polity. She has been a zealous supporter of Irish national education, which is theoretically " united secular and separate religious instruction." The Church Act of 1869 which disestablished and disendowed the Irish Episcopal Church took away the Presbyterian regium donum. The ministers with all but absolute unanimity decided to commute their life-interest and form therewith a great fund for the support of the Church. The commutation fund thus formed is a permanent memorial of a generous and disinterested act on the part of her ministry. It amounted in 1902 to £588,028. The interest accruing from it is added to the yearly sustentation contributions, and forms a central fund for ministerial support. Since the state endowment ceased the average income of ministers from their congregations has considerably increased. The Irish Presbyterian Church has set an example to all her sister churches by her forwardness to care for the poor. Her " Presbyterian Orphan Society " undertakes the support of every poor orphan child throughout the Church. No Presbyterian orphan child now needs to seek workhouse relief. The orphans are boarded in the homes of respectable poor people, who thus also benefit by the society. A scheme of pensions for her aged poor has been instituted. Three small communities of Presbyterians maintain a separate autonomy in Ireland, viz. the Reformed Presbyterian Church, with thirty-six; the Eastern Reformed, with six ; and the Secession Church, with ten congregations. Wales. The Presbyterian Church of Wales, commonly known as the " Calvinistic Methodist," had its origin in the great evangelical revival of the i8th century. Its polity has been of gradual growth, and still retains some features peculiar to itself. In 1811 its preachers were first presbytcrially ordained and author- ized to administer the sacraments. In 1823 a Confession of Faith was adopted. In 1864 the two associations or synods of North and South Wales were united in a general assembly. Great attention is given to the education of the ministry, a considerable number of whom, in recent years, have taken arts degrees at Oxford and Cambridge. As far as the difference in language will permit, there is cordial fellowship and co-operation with the Presbyterian Church of England. The appetite of the Welsh people for sermons is enormous, and the preachers are characterized by an exceptionally high order of pulpit power. (W. Y.) United States. Presbyterianism in the United States is a reproduction and further development of Presbyterianism in Europe. The history of the American Presbyterian churches, excluding the two "Reformed" Churches (see REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES for the German body, and REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA for the Dutch body), may be divided into three periods. PRESBYTERIANISM 291 I. The Colonial Period. — The earliest Presbyterian emigration isted of French Hugm-nots under the auspices of Admiral Coligny, led to 1'ort Koynl, South Carolina, by Jean Ribaut in 1562, and to Florida (near the present St Augustine) by Rend de :i 1564, and by Ribaut in 1565. The former enter- prise w.ii soon abandoned, and the colonists of the latter were ! by the Spaniards. Under Pierre de Guast, sieur de Moiits, Huguenots settled in Nova Scotia in 1604 but did not remain after 1607. Huguenot churches were formed on Staten Island, New York, in 1665; in New York City in 1683; at Charleston, South •Una, in 1686; at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1687; at New KiK-helle, New York, in 1688; and at other places. The Charleston church alone of these early churches maintains its independence my American denomination. IWi Puritans emigrated under the auspices of the Virginia Company to the Bermudas in 1612; and in 1617 a Presbyterian ( 'liun-h, governed by ministers and four elders, was established there by Lewis Hughes, who used the liturgy of the isles of Guernsey Jersey. Beginning with 1620, New England was colonized by English Presbyterians of the two types which developed from the dix-ussions of the Westminster Assembly (1643-1648) into • >. icrianism and Congregationalism. The Plymouth colony nither of the Congregational type, and the Massachusetts Bay colony rather of the Presbyterian. These types co-operated as in Old England in the county associations; and a mixed system produced, called by Henry M. Dexter "a Congregationalized l're-l>\ -teri.inism ora Presbyterianized Congregationalism." Presby- trrianism was stronger in Connecticut than in Massachusetts. Thence it crossed into the Dutch settlements on the Hudson and the Delaware, and mingled with other elements in Virginia, Mary- land and the Carolinas. Nine of these Puritan Presbyterian churches, were established on Long Island between 1640 and 1670 — one at Southampton and one at Southold (originally of the Congre- •nal type) in 1640, one at Hempstead about 1644, one at Jamaica tn 1662, and churches at Newtown and Setauket in the next half century; and three Puritan Presbyterian churches were established in Westchester county, New York, between 1677 and 1685. In New York City, Francis Doughty preached to Puritan Presbyterians in 1643; in 1650 he was succeeded by Richard Denton (1586-1662). Doughty preached in Virginia and Maryland in 1650-1659, and was the father of British Presbyterianism in the Middle Colonies. His work in Virginia and Maryland was carried on twenty-five years later by Francis Makemie (d. 1708). Irish Presbyterianism was carried to America by an unknown Irish minister in 1668. Its foremost representative was Francis Makemie, already mentioned, who, in 1683, as an ordained minister of the presbytery of Laggan, was invited to minister to the Mary- land and Virginia Presbyterians. In 1684 he acted as pastor of an Irish church at Elizabeth River, Virginia; in 1699 received permission from the colonial authorities to preach at Pocomoke and Onancock on the eastern shore of Virginia, and about 1700 .iized a church at Snow Hill in Worcester county, Maryland; in 1 704 he returned to America from a trip to Great Britain in which he had interested the Presbyterians of London, Dublin and Glasgow in the American churches, and brought back with him two ordained missionaries, John Hampton (d. c. 1721) and George McNish (1660-1723); in 1707 was imprisoned in New York City for preaching without licence, but was acquitted in 1708. To the banks of the Delaware the clergy of New England sent missionaries: Benjamin Woodbridge went to Philadelphia in 1698 and was followed almost immediately by Jedediah Andrews (1674- 174^6), who was ordained in 1701, ana under whom the first Presby- terian church in Philadelphia was organized; in 1698 John Wilson (d. 1712) became pastor of a Presbyterian Church at New Castle, Delaware; Samuel Davis (d. 1725) seems to have preached as early as 1692 at Lewes, Delaware, and Nathaniel Taylor (d. 1710) was another of the New England missionaries along the Delaware river and bay. About 1695 Thomas Bridge, with Presbyterians from Fairfield county, Connecticut, settled at Cohansey, in West Jersey. These New England ministers in the Delaware valley, with Francis Makemie as moderator, organized in 1706 the first American presbytery, the presbytery of Philadelphia. In 1716 this presbytery became a synod by dividing itself into four " sub- ordinate meetings or presbyteries," after the Irish model. The synod increased the number of its churches by a large accession, from New York and from New Jersey, where there had been large Presbyterian settlements. The synod seems to have remained without a constitution and without subscription until 1729, when it adopted the Westminster standards. In 1732 the presbytery of " Dunagall " (Donegal) was established in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania. Two parties had developed with the growth of the Church. The stricter party urged the adoption of the Westminster standards and conformity thereto; the broader party were unwilling to sacrifice their liberty. The former followed the model of the Church of Scotland; the liberal party sympathized with the London and Dublin Presbyterians. The two parties united under the act ot 1729, which adopted the Westminster symbols "-as being, in all the essential and necessary articles, good forms of sound words and systems of Christian doctrine." This adopting act allowed scruples as to " articles not essential and necessary in doctrine, worship or government " — the presbytery being judge in the case and not the subscriber. In 1730-1732 the stricter party in the presbyteries of New Castle and Donegal insisted on full subscrip- tion, and in 1736, in a minority synod, interpreted the adopting act according to their own views. The liberals put themsclvts on guard against the plotting of the other side. Friction was increased by a contest between Gilbert Tennent and his friends, who favoured Whitefield and his revival measures, and Robert Cross (1689-1766), pastor at Jamaica in 1723-1758, and his friends. The Tennents erected the Log College (on the Neshaminy, about 20 m. north of Philadelphia) to educate candidates for the ministry ; and the synod in 1738 passed an act,, aimed at the Log College, providing that all students not educated in the colleges of New- England or Great Britain should be examined by a committee of synod, thus depriving the presbyteries of the right of determining in the case. The presbytery of New Brunswick declined to yield (i739)- The Cross party charged the Tennents with heresy and disorder; the Tennents charged their opponents with ungodliness and tyranny. When the synod met in 1741 the moderate men remained away; and thus the synod broke in two. The New York presbytery declined at first to unite with either party, worked jn vain for reconciliation, and finally joined with the Tennents in establishing the synod of New York (1745) which was called the New Side, in contradistinction to the synod of Philadelphia, the Old Side. During the separation the New Side established the college of New Jersey at Elizabethtown (now Elizabeth) in 1747, and the Log College of the Tennents was merged into it. It was removed to Princeton in 1755, funds for its aid being received from England, Ireland and Scotland. The Old Side adopted the academy at New London, Chester county, Pennsylvania, which had been organ- ized by Francis Alison in 1741, as their own; but the New London school broke up when Alison became a professor in the Philadelphia Academy (afterwards the university of Pennsylvania). During the separation the synod of Philadelphia decreased from twenty- six to twenty-two ministers, but the synod of New York grew from twenty to seventy-two ministers, and the New Side reaped all the fruits of the Great Awakening under Whitefield and his successors. Different views on subscription and discipline, and the arbitrary act of excision were the barriers to union, but these were removed; in 1758 the adopting act was re-established in its original breadth, the " Synod of New York and Philadelphia " was formed, and the reunion was signalized by the formation of the presbytery of Han- over in Virginia. Under John Witherspoon the college of New Jersey was the favoured school of the reunited church. The union was not perfect; the presbytery of Donegal was for three years in revolt against the synod; and in 1762 a second presbytery of Philadelphia was formed; but the strength of the synod increased rapidly and at the outbreak of the War of Independence it had ii presbyteries and 132 ministers. Presbyterianism had an independent development in the Carolinas, whither there was a considerable Scotch migration in 1684-1687. William Dunlop (c. 1650-1700) ministered to them until 1688, when he became principal of the university of Glasgow. At Charleston a mixed congregation of Scotch Presbyterians and English Puritans was organized in 1690. What is now Dorchester county, South Carolina, was settled in 1695 by members of a church established in Dorchester, Massachusetts. In 1710 there were five churches in the Carolinas; in 1722-1723 they formed the presbytery of James Island, which (after 1727) went through the same struggle as the synod of Philadelphia in reference to subscription ; and in 1731 the parties separated into subscribers and non-subscribers. From New England, as has been seen, Puritan settlers estab- lished Presbyterian churches (or churches which immediately became Presbyterian) in Long Island, on New Jersey, and in South Carolina; but the Puritans who remained in New England usually established Congregational churches. But there were exceptions: Irish Presbyterians from Ulster formed a church at Londonderry', New Hampshire, which, about 1729, grew into a presbytery; the Boston presbytery, organized in 1745, became in 1774 the synod of New England with three presbyteries and sixteen ministers; and there were two independent presbyteries, that of " the East- ward " organized at Boothbay, Maine, in 1771, and that of Grafton, in New Hampshire, founded- by Elcazar Wheelock and other ministers interested in Dartmouth College. The Presbyterians from the Scotch Established Church combined with the American Presbyterian Church, but the separating churches of Scotland organized independent bodies. The Reformed Presby- terian Church (Covenanters) sent John Cuthbertson in 1751 ; he was joined in 1773 by Matthew Lino: and Alexander Dobbin from the Reformed Presbytery of Ireland, and they organized in March 1774 the Reformed Presbytery of America. The Anti-Burgher Synod sent Alexander Gellatly and Andrew Arnot in 1752, and two years later they organized the Associate Presbytery of Pennsyl- vania; they were joined in 1757 by the Scotch Church in New York City, which had split off because of objections to the growing use of Watts's Psalms; they had grown to two presbyteries and thirteen 292 PRESBYTERIANISM ministers in 1776. The Burgher Synod in 1764 sent Thomas Clarke of Ballybay, Ireland, who settled at Salem, Washington county, New York, and in 1776 sent David Telfair, of Monteith, Scotland, who preached in Philadelphia; they united with the Associate Presbytery of Pennsylvania; in 1771 the Scotch Synod ordered the presbytery to annul its union with the Burghers, and although Dr Clarke of Salem remained in the Associate Presbytery, the Burgher ministers who immigrated later joined the Associate Reformed Church. In 1769-1774 there was a futile attempt to secure the union of the Associate Presbytery with the main American Church. 2. From the War of Independence to the CM War. — During the War of Independence the Presbyterian churches suffered severely. Ministers and people with few exceptions — the most notable being the Scotch Highlanders who had settled in the valley of the Mohawk in New York and on Cape Fear river in North Carolina — sided with the patriot or Whig party: John Witherspoon was the only clergyman in the Continental Congress of 1776, and was otherwise a prominent leader; John Murray of the Presbytery of the Eastward was an eloquent leader in New England; and in the South the Scotch-Irish were the back- bone of the American partisan forces, two of whose leaders, Daniel Morgan and Andrew Pickens, were Presbyterian elders. At the close of the War the Presbyterian bodies began at once to reconstruct themselves. In 1782 the presbyteries of the Associate and Reformed churches united, forming the Associate and Reformed Synod of North Am erica; but as there were a few dissenters in both bodies the older Associate and Reformed Presbyteries remained as separate units — the Associate Presby- tery continued to exist under the same name until 1801, when it became the Associate Synod of North America; in 1818 it ceased to be subordinate to the Scotch General Synod. The Associate Reformed Synod added in 1794 a fourth presbytery, that of Londonderry, containing most of the New England churches, but in 1801 " disclaimed " this presbytery because it did not take a sufficiently strict view of the question of psalm- singing. The Reformed Presbytery of North America was reconstituted by two ministers from Ireland in 1798; it became a synod of three presbyteries in 1809 and a general synod in 1823; in the first decade of the century the presbytery required all members to free their slaves. The synod of New York and Philadelphia, which in 1781 had organized the presbytery of Redstone, the first of western Pennsylvania, in 1788 resolved itself into a General Assembly, which first met in Philadelphia in 1789, and after revising the chapters on Church and state, adopted the Westminster symbols as to their constitution, " as containing the system of doctrine taught in the Holy Scrip- tures," and they made them unalterable without the consent of two-thirds of the presbyteries and the General Assembly. In 1801 a " plan of union " proposed by the General Association (Congregational) of Connecticut was accepted by the General Assembly, and the work of home missions in the western section of the country was prosecuted jointly. The result was mixed churches in western New York and the new states west of the Alleghany Mountains, which grew into presbyteries and synods having peculiar features midway between Presbyterianism and Congregationalism. The general strictness of the church in its requirements for ministerial education occasioned it great loss in this period when the territory beyond the Appalachians was being settled so largely by Scotch-Irish and Presbyterians. The revivals in Kentucky brought about differences which resulted in the high-handed ex- clusion of the revivalists. These formed themselves into the presbytery of Cumberland, on the 4th of February 1810, which grew in three years into a synod of three presbyteries and became the " Cumberland Presbyterian Church." In 1813 they revised the Westminster Confession and excluded, as they claimed, fatalism and infant damnation. If they had appealed to the General Assembly they might have received justice, or possibly the separation might have been on a larger scale. In 1822, under the influence of John Mitchell Mason (1770-1829), the Associate Reformed Synod com- bined with the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, but the majority was too slender to make the union thorough. The greater part of the ministers decided to remain separate, and accordingly organized three independent synods — New York, Scioto and the Carolinas. In 1858 the associate synods of the north and west united with the Associate Synod as the United Presbyterian Church. In 1833 the Reformed Presbyterian Church divided into New Lights and Old Lights in a dispute as to the propriety of Covenanters exercising the rights of citizenship under the constitution of the United States. A great and widespread revival marked the opening years of the century, resulting in marvellous increase of zeal and numbers. New measures were adopted, doctrines were adapted to the times, and ancient disputes were revived between the conservative and progressive forces. Theological seminaries had been organized : the Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church at Princeton, N.J., founded in 5812 by the General Assembly; the Auburn Theological Seminary at Auburn, N.Y., founded in 1819 by the synod of Geneva, and afterwards associated with the New School; a school at Hampden Sidney, Virginia, founded by the synod of Virginia in 1824, named Union Theological Seminary in Virginia after 1826, supported after 1828 by the synods of Virginia and North Carolina, and in 1898 removed to Richmond, Va. ; the Western Theological Seminary, founded at Allegheny (Pittsburg), Pa., in 1827 by the General Assembly; the Presbyterian Theological Seminary at Columbia, South Carolina, founded in 1828 by the synod of South Carolina ; Lane Theological Seminary, founded indepen- dently in 1829 by the New School at Cincinnati, Ohio; and Union Theological Seminary, founded in 1836 by independent action of New School men, in New York City. Differences in doctrine as well as polity and discipline became more and more prominent. The doctrinal differences came to a head in the trials of George Duffield (1832), Lyman Beecher (1835) and Albert Barnes (1836) which, however, resulted in the acquittal of the accused, but which increased friction and ill feeling. The differences developed were chiefly between general atonement and atonement for the elect only and between mediate imputation and immediate imputation. The agitation with reference to African slavery threw the bulk of the Southern Presbyterians on the Old Side, which was further strengthened by the accession of the Associate Reformed. The ancient differences between Old and New Side were revived, and once more it was urged that there should be (i) strict subscription, (2) exclusion of the Congregationalized churches, and strict Presby- terian polity and discipline, and (3) the condemnation and exclusion of the new divinity and the maintenance of scholastic orthodoxy. In 1834 a convention of the Old Side was held in Philadelphia, and the " Act and Testimony " was adopted charging doctrinal unsoundness and neglect of discipline upon the New Side, and urging that these should be excluded from the Church. The moderate men on both sides opposed this action and strove for peace or an amicable separation, but in vain. In 1837 the Old Side obtained the majority in the Genera} Assembly for the second time only in seven years; they seized their opportunity and abrogated the " Plan of Union of 1801 with the Connecticut Congregationalists," cut off the synod of Western Reserve and then the synods of Utica, Geneva and Genesee, without a trial, and dissolved the third presbytery of Philadelphia without providing for the standing of its ministers. The New Side men met in convention at Auburn, N.Y., in August 1837, and adopted measures for resisting the wrong, but in the General Assembly of 1838 the moderator refused to re- cognize their commissioners. On an appeal to the assembly the moderator's decision was reversed, a new moderator was chosen, and the assembly adjourned to another place of meeting. The Old Side remained after the adjournment and organized them- selves, claiming the historic succession. Having the moderator and clerks from the assembly of 1837, they retained the books and papers. Thus two General Assemblies were organized, the Old and the New School. An appeal was made to the civil courts, which decided (1839) in favour of the New School; but this decision was overruled and a new trial ordered. It was deemed best, however, to cease litigation and to leave matters as they were. Several years of confusion followed. In 1840 we have the first safe basis for comparison of strength. Ministers. Churches. Communicants. Old School . . New School . 1308 1234 1898 1375 126,583 102,060 The " sides " remained separate throughout the remainder of this period. The North was especially agitated by the slavery ques- tion.1 In 1847 the synod of the Free Presbyterian Church was formed by the anti-slavery secession of the presbytery of Ripley, O. (New School), and a part of the presbytery of Mahpning, Pa., (Old School) ; this synod, then numbering five presbyteries with 43 ministers, joined the New School Assembly during the Civil War. In 1850 the New School Assembly declared slave-holding, unless excusable for some special reason, a cause for discipline; in 1853 it asked the Southern presbyteries to report what action they had taken to put themselves in accord with the resolution of 1850; 1 The separation of the southern part of the Associate Reformed Church from the northern in 1821, and the establishment of the Associate Reformed Synod of the South had not been due to slavery, but was for convenience in administration. PRESBYTERIANISM 293 in 1858, 6 synods, 21 presbyteries and about 15,000 communi- cants withdrew and organized the United Synod. Just before the outbreak of the Civil \Var in 1861 these churches numbered: — Sjno.l- Presby- teries. Ministers. Churches. Communicant*. Old School . New School. United Synod Cumberland 1'rusbyterian 33 22 4 23 I?' 104 '5 96 2656 1523 "3 890 353' 1482 197 1189 292,927 (1860) 134.933 ('860) 10,205 ('85**) 82,008 (1859) 3. Since the beginning of the Civil War. — The Southern presby- teries of the Old School Assembly withdrew in 1861, and dele- gates from ten southern synods (47 presbyteries) met in Augusta, Georgia, in December, and organized as the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America, which included 700 ministers, 1000 churches and 75,000 com- municants. Its strength was increased by the addition: in 1863 of the small Independent Presbyterian Church of South Carolina; in 1865 of the United Synod (New School), which at that time had 120 ministers, 190 churches, and 12,000 com- municants; in 1867 of the presbytery of Patapsco; in 1869 of the synod of Kentucky; and in 1874 of the synod of Missouri. At the close of the Civil War this Southern Church adopted the name of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States. In 1867 there was an unsuccessful attempt to combine all the Presbyterian bodies of the North. In 1869 the Old and New Schools in the North combined on the basis of the common standards; to commemorate the union a memorial fund was raised which amounted in 1871 to $7,607,492. Between 1870 and 1881 three presbyteries of the Reformed Presbyterian General Synod (New School) joined the northern General Assembly. In 1906 the greater part of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (then having 195,770 members) united with the northern General Assembly. Although the differ- ences between the Old School and the New School were much less in 1869 than in 1837 — during the separation the New School was conservative, the Old School liberal, in tendency — there were serious dissensions in the northern church after the union. The first of these was due to the adoption by certain teachers in theological seminaries of the methods and results of the " higher criticism," and two famous heresy cases followed. Charles Augustus Briggs, tried for heresy for his inaugural address in 1891 as professor of biblical theology at Union Seminary (in which he attacked the inerrancy of the Bible, held the composite character of the Hexa- tcuch and of the Book of Isaiah ana taught that sanctification is not complete at death), was acquitted by the presbytery of New York, but was declared guilty and was suspended from its ministry by the General Assembly of 1893. Henry Preserved Smith, pro- fessor of Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis in Lane Seminary, for a pamphlet published in 1891 denying the inerrancy but affirm- ing the inspiration of the Scriptures, was suspended in 1892 by the presbytery of Cincinnati, and was unsuccessful in his appeal to the synod and to the General Assembly. Dr Briggs remained a member of the Union Seminary faculty but left the Presbyterian Church to enter the Protestant Episcopal. Dr Smith resigned his chair at Lane Seminary, and entered the Congregational ministry. In 1892-1893 there was an open break between the General Assembly and Union Seminary, which repudiated the agreement of i87ol between the seminaries and the assembly; the assembly disclaimed responsibility for the Seminary's teachings and withheld financial aid from its students. In 1896 McCormick Theological Seminary (which in 1858 as New Albany Theological Seminary had come under the control of the assembly) and Auburn Seminary refused to make the changes desired by the General Assembly; a satisfactory arrangement with McCormick was made. Lane and Auburn remained practically independent. But although the conservative party was successful in inducing successive general assemblies to lay repeatedly stronger stress on the verbal inerrancy of Holy Scripture and to make beliel in such inerrancy a requisite of teachers in theological seminaries and of candidates for the ministry, there was in other matters an increas- ing liberal tendency. In 1902 the General Assembly adopted a Brief Statement of the Reformed Faith, not as a legal standard but as an interpretation of the confession ; it repudiated the doctrine of infant damnation, insisted on the consistency of predestination with God's universal love, and incorporated new chapters on the Holy Spirit, the love of God, and missions. The Assembly of 1906 authorized (but did not make mandatory) the use of a book of common worship; the question of a liturgy had been opened in 1 This agreement, proposed to the General Assembly in 1870 by the directors of Princeton and of Union, gave the Assembly a veto on the election and removal of professors. 1855 by C. W. Baird's Eutaxia; in 1864 Charles W. Shields (1825- 1904), who afterwards entered the Protestant Episcopal Church, republished and urged the adoption of the Book of Common Prayer as amended by the Westminster Divines in the royal commission of 1661 ; and Henry Van Dyke was prominent in the latter stage of the movement for a liturgy. The northern General Assembly and the Cumberland Church, which united with it in 1006, are the only Presbyterian bodies in America that have done anything tangible for Christian union in the last fifty years: the. southern Assembly is much more conservative than the northern — in 1866 it suspended James Woodrow (1828-1007), professor of natural science in connexion with revealed religion, for holding evolutionary views, and it declared that Adam's body was " directly fashioned by Almighty God, without any natural animal parentage of any kind, out of matter previously created out of nothing"; and in 1897 it ordered that women were not to speak in pro- miscuous meetings — and its attitude toward the negro, insisting in separate church organizations for blacks and whites, makes union with the northern bodies difficult; the United Presbyterian Church in North America in 1890 refused to join the union of Presbyterian and Reformed missions in India, and its opposition to instrumental music and to the use of any songs but the psalms of the Old Testament, although this is decreasing in strength, are bars to union; the synod of the Reformed Presby- terian Church of North America in 1888 refused to unite with the United Presbyterian Church because the latter did not object to the secular character of the constitution of the United States; and with the general synod of the Reformed Presby- terian Church the synod could not unite in 1800 because the general synod allowed and the synod did not allow its members to " incorporate " themselves with the political system of the United States. A loose union, calle'd the " Federal Council of the Reformed Churches in America," was formed in 1894 by the churches mentioned (excepting the Southern Assembly) and the Dutch and German Reformed churches. More or less closely connected with the Northern Church are the theological seminaries at Princeton, Auburn, Pittsburg (formerly Allegheny— the Western Seminary), Cincinnati (Lane), New York (Union) and Chicago (McCormick), already named, and San Fran- cisco Seminary (1871) since 1892 at San Anselmo, Cal., a theo- logical seminary (1891) at Omaha, Nebraska, a German theological seminary (1869) at Bloomfield, New Jersey, the German Presby- terian Theological School of the North-west (1852) at Dubuque, Iowa, and the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Kentucky, which is under the control and supervision of the northern and southern churches. Seminaries of the Southern Church are the Union Theological Seminary at Richmond, Virginia, and the Columbia Theological Seminary at Columbia, South Carolina, already mentioned, the Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1902) at Austin, Texas, the theological department in the South- western Presbyterian University at Clarksville, Tennessee, and, for negroes, Stillman Institute (1877), at Tuscaloosa, Alabama. The United Presbyterian Church has two seminaries, one at Xenia, Ohio, and one at Allegheny (Pittsburg). Of the Covenanter bodies the synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church has a theological seminary in Allegheny (Pittsburg), established in 1856, and the general synod in 1887 organized a college at Cedarville, Ohio. The Associate Reformed Synod of the South has the Erskine Theo- logical Seminary (1837) in Due West, South Carolina. The foreign missionary work of the General Assembly had been earned on after 1812 through the (Congregational) American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (organized in 1810) until the separation of 1837, when the Old School Assembly established its own board of foreign missions; the New School continued to work through the American board; after the union of 1869 the separate board was perpetuated and the American board trans- ferred to it, with the contributions made to the American board by the New School churches, the missions in Africa (1833), in Syria (1822), and in Persia (1835). The Church now has, besides these missions, others in India (1834), Siam (1840), China (1846), Colombia (1856), Brazil (1859), Japan (1859), Laos (1867), Mexico (transferred in 1872 by the American and Foreign Christian Union), Chile (transferred in 1873 by the same Union; first established in 1845), Guatemala (1882), Korea (1884) and the Philippine Islands (1899). A board of home missions was organized in 1816; a board of educatio^ in 1819; a woman's board of foreign missions in 1869; a women s executive committee for home mission work (which takes particular interest in the work for the freedmen) in 1878; a board of publication in 1838 (after 1887 called the board of Publication and Sunday School Work) ; a board of aid for colleges 294 PRESBYTERY— PRESCOTT (1883); a board of church erection in 1844; a board of work for freedmen; and a board of ministerial relief; after the union of 1869 the Board of Home Missions was removed from Philadelphia to New York City. The Southern Church, unlike the Northern, is not working through " boards," but through executive committees, which were formerly more loosely organized, and which left to the presbyteries the more direct control of their activities, but which now differ little from the boards of the northern Church. It has: an executive com- mittee on foreign missions (first definitely organized bv the Assembly in 1877), which has missions in China (1867), Brazil (1869), Mexico (1874), Japan (1885), Congo Free State (1891), Korea (1896) and Cuba (1899); and executive committees of home missions (1865), of publication and sabbath school work, of minis- terial education and relief, of schools and colleges and of colored evangelization (formed in 1891). Permanent committees on the " sabbath and family religion," the " Bible cause " and " evangelistic work " report to the General Assembly annually. The .United Presbyterian Church has a board of foreign missions (reorganized in 1859) with missions in Egypt (1853), now a synod with four presbyteries (in 1909, 71 congregations, 70 ministers and 10,341 members), in the Punjab (1854), now a synod with four presbyteries (in 1909, 35 congregations, 51 ministers and 17,321 members), and in the Sudan (1901); and boards of home missions (reorganized, 1859), church extension (1859), publication (1859), education (1859), ministerial relief (1862), and missions to the freedmen (1863). Presbyterians of different churches in the United States in 1906 numbered 1,830,555; of this total 322,542 were in Penn- sylvania, where there were 248,335 members of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (the Northern Church), being more than one-fifth of its total membership; 56, 587 mem- bers of the United Presbyterian Church of North America, being more than two-fifths of its total membership; 2709 mem- bers of the Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America, three-tenths of its total membership; the entire membership of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States and Canada (440), 3150 members of the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church, nearly one-fourth of its total membership; and 2065 members of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in North America, general synod, about five-ninths of its total membership. The strength of the Church in Penn- sylvania is largely due to the Scotch-Irish settlements in that state. Philadelphia is the home of the boards of publication and of Sunday schools of the Northern Church; and in Allegheny (Pittsburg) are the principal theological seminary of the United Presbyterian body and its publishing house. In New York state there were 199,923 Presbyterians, of whom 186,278 were members of the Northern Church and 10,115 of the United Presbyterian Church of North America. In Ohio there were 138,768 Presby- terians, 114,772 being of the Northern and 18,336 of the United Presbyterian Church. The other states with a large Presbyterian population were Illinois (115, 602; 86,251 of the Northern Church; 17,208 of the Cumberland Church; 9555 of the United Presby- terian Church); New Jersey (79,912; 78,490 of the Northern Church); Tennessee (79,337; 42,464 being Cumberland Presby- terians, more than one-fifth of the total membership; 6640 of the Colored Cumberland Church, more than one-third of its membership; 21,390 of the Southern Church; and 6786 of the Northern Church); Missouri (71,599; 28,637 °f the Cumberland Church; 25,991 of the Northern Church; 14,713 of the Southern Church); Texas (62,090; 31,598 of the Cumberland Church; 23,934 of the Southern Church; 4118 of the Northern Church; and 2091 of the Colored Cumberland Church); Iowa (60,081; 48,326 of the Northern Church; 8890 of the United Presbyterian Church); and North Carolina (55, 837; 41,322 of the Southern and 10,696 of the Northern Church). The Northern Church had a total membership of 1,179,566. The Southern Church had a total membership of 266,345. The Cumberland Presbyterian Church had (in 1906, when it became a part of the Northern Church) 195,770 members. The Colored Cumberland Church had a membership of 18,066. The United Presbyterian Church of North America had a total membership of 130,342. The Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church had a total membership of 13,280. The Associate Reformed Synod of the South had a membership of 13,201. The Synod of the Reformed Presby- terian Church in North America had in 1906 a membership of 9122. The "Reformed Presbyterian Church in North America, General Synod," had a membership of 3620. The Associate Presbyterian Church, or Associated Synod of North America had a membership of 786. The Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States and Canada had a membership in the United States of 440. On American Presbyterianism, see Charles Hodge, Constitutional History of the Presbyterian Church in the United Slates of America, 1706-1788 (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1839-1840); Records of the Presby- terian Church in the United States of America from 1706 to 1788 (ibid., 1841); Richard Webster, History of the Presbyterian Church in America (ibid., 1858); E. H. Gillett, History of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (2nd ed., ibid., 1873); C. A. Briggs, American Presbyterianism (New York, 1885). There is a good bibliography on pp. xi-xxxi of R. E. Thompson's History of the Presbyterian Churches in the United States (ibid., 1895), vol. vi. of the American Church History Series; in the same series in vol. xi. are sketches of " The United Presbyterians," by J. B. Scouller, " The Cumberland Presbyterians," by R. N. Foster, and " The Southern Presbyterians," by Thomas C. Johnson. Other works on the separate churches are: E. B. Crisman, Origin and Doctrines of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (St Louis, 1877) and W. M. Glasgow, History of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in America (Baltimore, 1888). PRESBYTERY, in architecture, that portion of the choir of a church in which the high altar is placed, and which is generally raised by a few steps above the rest of the church. It is reserved for the priests, and in that respect differs from the choir, the stalls in which are occasionally occupied by the laity. In Westminster Abbey the space east of the transept is the presbytery, and the same arrangement is found in Canterbury Cathedral. In San Clemente at Rome the presbytery is enclosed with a marble balustrade or screen. For the use of the word in Church government see PRESBYTER and PRESBYTERIANISM. PRESCOT, a market town and urban district in the Ormskirk parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 8 m. E. of Liverpool by the London & North Western railway. Pop. (1901), 7855. It is of considerable antiquity, and received a grant for a market and fair in the 7th year of Edward III. A church existed in the i3th century. The present church of St Mary is in various styles, with a lofty tower and spire and carved timber roof. The chief industry is the making of watches, and the town has long been celebrated for the production of watch movements and tools. The industry was first introduced in 1730 by John Miller from Yorkshire. There is also a manufacture of electric cables. John Philip Kemble, the actor, was born at Prescot in 1757. To the north of the town is Knowsley Park, the demesne of the earls of Derby, with a mansion of various dates from the i5th century onward, containing a fine collection of pictures. Prescot was formerly of greater importance in relation to the now populous district of south-west Lan- cashire; it was also a postal centre, and it is curious to notice that such addresses as " Liverpool, near Prescot " were necessary. PRESCOTT, WILLIAM HICKLING (1796-1859), American historian, was born in Salem, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1796. His grandfather was Colonel William Prescott (1726- I79S)> who commanded at the battle of Bunker Hill; and his father was a well-known lawyer. He received his earlier educa- tion in his native city, until the removal of his family in 1808 to Boston. He entered Harvard College in the autumn of 1811, but almost at the outset his career was interrupted by an accident which affected the subsequent course of his life. A hard piece of bread, flung at random in the Commons Hall, struck his left eye and destroyed the sight. After graduating honourably in 1814 he entered his father's office as a student of law; but in January 1815 the uninjured eye showed dangerous symptoms of inflammation. When at last in the autumn he was in condition to travel, it was determined that he should pass the winter at St Michael's and in the spring obtain medical advice in Europe. His visit to the Azores, which was constantly broken by con- finement to a darkened room, is chiefly noteworthy from the fact that he there began the mental discipline which enabled him to compose and retain in memory long passages for subse- quent dictation; and, apart from the gain in culture, his journey PRESCOTT 295 to England, France, and Italy (April 1816 to July 1817) was scarcely satisfactory. The verdict of the physicians was that the injured eye was hopelessly paralysed, and that the preserva- tion of the sight of the other depended upon the maintenance of his general health. His further pursuit of the legal profession seemed to be out of the question, and on his return to Boston he remained quietly at home. On 4th May 1820 he was married to Miss Susan Amory. Prior to his marriage he had made a few experiments in composition, but he now finally decided to devote his life to literature. A review of Byron's Letters on Pope in 1821 constituted his first contribution to the North American Review, to which he continued for many years to send the results of his slighter researches. He next turned to French literature, and to the early English drama and ballad literature. Of the direction and quality of his thought at this time he has left indications in his papers on Essay-Writing (1822) and on French and English Tragedy (1823). In pursuance of his method of successive studies he began in 1823 the study of Italian literature, passing over German as demanding more labour than he could afford. In the following year he made his first acquaint- ance with the literature of Spain under the influence of his friend and biographer, Ticknor; and, while its attractiveness proved greater than he had at the outset anticipated, the com- parative novelty of the subject as a field for research served as an additional stimulus. In the meantime his aims had been gradually concentrating. History had always been a favourite study with him, and Mably's Observations sur rhistoire appears to have had considerable influence in determining him to the choice of some special period for historic research. The selection, however, was not finally made without prolonged hesitation. It was not till the ipth of January 1826 that he recorded in the private memoranda begun by him in 1820 his decision " to embrace the gift of the Spanish subject." The choice was certainly a bold one. He could only use the eye which remained to him for brief and intermittent periods, and as travelling affected his sight pre- judicially he could not anticipate any personal research amongst unpublished records and historic scenes. He was happy, how- ever, in the possession of ample means and admirable friends; and he sketched with no undue restriction or hesitancy the plan of the History of the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella — his first great work. Mr English, one of his secretaries, has furnished a picture of him at this period seated in a study lined on two sides with books and darkened by green screens and curtains of blue muslin, which required readjustment with almost every cloud that passed across the sky. His writing apparatus — a nocto- graph — lay before him, and he kept his ivory style in his hand to jot down notes as the reading progressed. In accordance with his general method these notes were in turn read over to him until he had completely mastered them, when they were worked up in his memory to their final shape. So proficient did he become that he was able to retain the equivalent of sixty pages of printed matter in his memory, turning and returning them as he walked or drove. The rate of progress was necessarily slow, apart from any liability to interruption by other undertakings and failures in bodily health. He still continued his yearly experimental contributions to the North American Review, elaborating them with a view as much to ultimate historical proficiency as to immediate literary effect, the essays on Scottish Song (1826), Novel-Writing (1827), Moliere (1828), and Irving's Granada (1829) belonging to this preparatory period. On the 6th of October 1829 he began the actual work of composition, which was continued without more serious interruptions than those occasioned by the essays on Asylums for the Blind (1830), Poetry and Romance of the Italians (1831), and English Literature of the iQth Century (1832), until the 2Sth of June 1836, when the concluding note was written. Another year, during which his essay on Cervantes appeared, was spent in the final revision of the H istory for the press. Its success upon its publication in Boston was immediate. Arrangements were speedily made for its publication in England, and there its success was not less marked. From the position of an obscure reviewer Prescott suddenly found himself elevated to the first rank of contemporary historians. After coquetting for a short time with the project of a life of Moliere he decided to follow in the track of his first work with a History of the Conquest of Mexico. Washington Irving, who had already made preparations to occupy the same field, generously withdrew in his favour. The work was completed in August 1843, the five years' labour having been broken by the composition of reviews of Lockh&rt's Life of Scott (1838), Kenyon's Poems (1839), Chateaubriand (1839), Bancroft's United States (1841), Mariotti's Italy (1842), and Madame Calderon's Life in Mexico (1843), and by the preparation of an abridgment of his Ferdinand and Isabella in anticipation of its threatened abridgment by another hand. On the 6th of December 1843 the Conquest of Mexico was published with a success propor- tionate to a wide reputation won by his previous work. The careful methods of work which he had adopted from the outset had borne admirable fruit. While the consultation of authorities had been no less thorough, his style had become more free and less self-conscious; and the epic qualities of the theme were such as to call forth in the highest degree his powers of picturesque narration. It was only a step from the conquest of Mexico to that of Peru, and scarcely three months elapsed before he began to break ground on the latter subject. In February 1845 he received the announcement of his election as corresponding member of the French Institute in place of the Spanish historian Navarrete, and also of the Royal Society of Berlin. The winter found him arranging for the publication in England of the selection from his articles and reviews which appeared in 1845, under the title of Critical and Historical Essays, and was issued almost contemporaneously at New York under the title of Biographical and Critical Miscellanies. The Conquest of Peru was completed in November 1846 and published in March following. His misgivings as to its reception were at once set at rest, and it was speedily issued in translations into French, Spanish, German and Dutch, in addition to the English editions of New York, London and Paris. He was now over fifty and his sight showed serious symptoms of enfeeblement. Although during the composition of the Ferdinand and Isabella it had been of very intermittent service to him, it had so far improved that he could read with a certain amount of regularity during the writing of the Conquest of Mexico, and also, though in a less degree, during the years devoted to the Conquest of Peru. Now, however, the use of his remaining eye had been reduced to an hour a day, divided into portions at wide intervals, and he was driven to the conclusion that whatever plans he made must be formed on the same calculations as those of a blind man. He had been for many years collecting materials for a history of Philip II., but he hesitated for some time to attempt a work of such magnitude, occupying himself in the meantime with the slighter labours of a memoir of John Pickering for the Massachusetts Historical Society and the revision of Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature. But in March 1848 he set himself with characteristic courage to the accomplishment of the larger project. He had been fortunate in obtaining the aid of Don Pascual de Gayangos, then professor of Arabic literature at Madrid, by whose offices he was enabled to obtain material not only from the public archives of Spain but from the muniment rooms of the great Spanish families. With an exceptional range of information thus afforded him, he wrote the opening of his history in July 1849; but, finding himself still unsettled in his work, he decided in the spring of the following year to carry out a long projected visit to England. The idea of writing memoirs was dismissed in favour of the more elaborate form, and in November 1855 the first two volumes of his uncom- pleted History of Philip II. were issued from the press, their sale eclipsing that of any of his earlier books. This was his last great undertaking; but as Robertson's Charles V., in the light of new sources of information, was inadequate to take its place as a link in the series, he republished it in an improved and extended form in December 1856. A slight attack of 296 PRESCRIPTION apoplexy on the 4th of February 1858 foretold the end, though he persevered with the preparation of the third volume of Philip II. for the press, and with the emendation and annotation of his Conquest of Mexico. On the morning of the 27th of January 1859 a second attack occurred, and he died in the afternoon of the same day in his sixty-third year. As an historian Prescott stands in the direct line of literary descent from Robertson, whose influence is clearly discernible both in his method and style. But, while Robertson was in some measure the initiator of a movement, Prescott came to his task when the range of information was incomparably wider and when progress in sociologic theory had thrown innumerable convergent lights upon the progress of events. He worked, therefore, upon more assured ground ; his sifting of authorities was more thorough and his method less restricted. At the same time he cannot be classed as in the highest sense a philosophic historian. His power lies chiefly in the clear grasp of fact, in selection and synthesis, in the vivid narration of incident. For extended analysis he had small liking and faculty ; his critical insight is limited in range, and he confines himself almost wholly to the concrete elements of history. When he does venture upon more abstract criticism his standards are often commonplace and superficial, and the world scheme to which he relates events is less profound than the thought of his time altogether warranted. Moreover, the authorities on whom he relied have had to be corrected since in many points of detail in the light of later archaeological research. If these things, however, indicate Prescott's deficiencies from the point of view of ideal history, few historians have had in a higher degree that artistic feeling in the broad arrangement of materials which ensures popular interest. The course of his narrative is unperplexed by doubtful or insoluble problems. The painting is filled in with primary colours and with a free hand; and any sense of crudity which may be awakened by close inspection is compensated by the vigour and massive effectiveness of the whole. Prescott's works in 16 vols. were edited by J. F. Kirk in 1870-1874. His Life was written by George Ticknor (1864; revised 1875). There are later lives by R. Ogden (1904). and H. T. Peck (1905). PRESCRIPTION, in the broadest sense, the acquisition or extinction of rights by lapse of time. The term is derived from the praescriptio of Roman law, originally a matter of procedure, a clause inserted before the formula on behalf of either the plaintiff or, in early times, the defendant, limiting the question at issue. It was so called from its preceding the formula* One of the defendant's praescriptiones was longi temporis or longae possessions praescriptio (afterwards superseded by the exceptio), limiting the question to the fact of possession without interrup- tion by the defendant for a certain time. It seems to have been introduced by the praetor to meet cases affecting aliens or lands out of Italy where the usucapio of the civil law (the original means of curing a defect of title by lapse of time) could not apply. The time of acquisition by usucapio was fixed by the Twelve Tables at one year for movables and two years for immovables. Praescriptio thus constituted a kind of praetorian usucapio. In the time of Justinian usucapio and praescriptio (called also longi temporis possessio), as far as they affected the acquisition of ownership, differed only in name, usucapio being looked at from the point of view of property, praescriptio from the point of view of pleading. By the legislation of Justinian movables were acquired by three years' possession, immovables by ten years' possession where the parties had their domicile in the same province (inter praesentes), twenty years' possession where they were domiciled in different provinces (inter absentes). Servitudes could not be acquired by usucapio proper, but were said to be acquired by quasi usucapio, probably in the same time as sufficed to give a title to immovables. There was also a longissimi temporis possessio of thirty years, applicable to both movables and immovables, and requiring nothing but bona fides on the part of the possessor. Where the right sought to be estab- lished was claimed against the Church, a still longer period of forty years (at one time a hundred) was necessary. Immemorial prescription was required in a few cases of a public character, as roads.2 Praescriptio was also the term applied to lapse of time as barring actions upon contracts or torts under various provisions corresponding to the English Statutes of Limitation. The prescription of Roman law (and of modern systems based upon it) is thus both acquisitive and extinctive. It looks either 1 " Praescriptiones autem appellatas esse ab eo quod ante formula praescribuntur " (Gaius iv. § 132). 2 " Viae vicinales, quarum memoria non extat " (Dig. xhn. 7, 3). to the length of time during which the defendant has been in possession, or to the length of time during which the plaintiff has been out of possession. In English law the latter kind of prescription is called limitation. The tendency of law is to substitute a definite for an indefinite period of prescription. In English law prescription is used in a comparatively narrow sense. It is acquisitive only, and is very limited in its application. A title by prescription can be made only to incorporeal hereditaments — that is, in legal language, hereditaments that are or have been appendant or appurtenant to corporeal hereditaments — and to certain exemptions and privileges.3 The rights claimable by pre- scription for the most part consist of rights in alieno solo. The most important are advowsons, tithes, commons, ways, watercourses, lights, offices, dignities, franchises, pensions, annuities and rents. Land or movables cannot be claimed by prescription. The founda- tion of prescription is the presumption of law that a person found in undisturbed enjoyment of a right did not come into possession by an unlawful act (see Williams, Rights of Common, 3). In the English courts this presumption was, perhaps still is, based upon the fiction of a lost grant, viz. that there had been a grant of the hereditament by a person capable of granting it to a person capable of taking it, and that the grant had been lost. The jury were instructed to find the loss of a once existing grant in whose existence no one really believed. The enjoyment of the right must have been from a time whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary. The period of legal memory was after a time necessarily fixed for purposes of convenience at a certain date. The date adopted varied at first with the time during which the demandant • in a writ of right must have proved seisin in himself or his ancestors. After one or two previous enactments the date was finally fixed by the Statute of Westminster the First (3 Edw. I. c. 39) at the reign of Richard I., which was interpreted to mean the first year of the reign of Richard I. (1189). The inconvenience of this remote date, as time went on, led to the gradual growth of a rule of evidence that proof of enjoyment for twenty years was prima facie evidence of enjoyment from time immemorial. But evidence of the beginning of the enjoyment at however remote a date, if subsequent to I Richard I., was sufficient to destroy the claim. This is still the law with respect to claims not falling within the Prescription Act, mostly rights in gross — that is, where there is no dominant or servient tenement, e.g. a right to a pew or to a several fishery in gross. The twenty years' rule was of comparatively late introduction; it does not seem to have been known in the time of Elizabeth, and was perhaps introduced in analogy to the Statute of Limitations, 21 Jac. I. c. 16. With respect to claims of profits a prendre and easements a change was made by the Prescription Act 1832 (extended to Ireland by an act of 1858, but not to Scotland). By that act claims to rights of common and other profits d. prendre are not to be defeated after thirty years' enjoyment by any person claiming right thereto without interruption for thirty years by showing only the commencement of the right, and after sixty years' enjoyment the right is absolute and indefeasible unless had by consent or agreement by deed or writing (§ i). In claims of rights of way or other easements the periods are twenty years and forty years respectively (§ 2). The before-mentioned periods are to be deemed those next before suits, and nothing is to be deemed to be an interruption unless acquiesced in for one year (§ 4). In pleading, the enjoyment as of right may be alleged during the period mentioned in the act, and without claiming in the name or right of the owner of the fee (§5). No presumption is to be made in favour of a right exercised for a less period (§ 6). The time during which a person otherwise capable of resisting a claim is an infant, idiot, non compos mentis, feme covert, or tenant for life, or during which an action or suit has been pending until abated by the death of a party, is to be excluded in the com- putation of the periods unless where the right or claim is declared to be absolute and indefeasible (§ 7). An act to define the period of prescription for a modus decimandi, or an exemption from tithes by composition, was passed the same year. The Prescription Act is only supplemented to the common law, so that a claim may be based upon the act or, in the alternative, upon the common law. Nor does the act alter the conditions necessary at common law for a good claim by prescription. The claim under the statute must be one which may be lawfully made at common law. The principal rules upon the subject are these, (i) The title is founded upon actual usage. The amount of actual usage and the evidence necessary to prove it vary according to the kind of claim. (2) The enjoyment must (except in the case of light) be as of right — that is to say, peace- able, openly used, and not by licence. (3) The prescription must be certain and reasonable. Inhabitants cannot, however, claim by prescription, as they are an uncertain and fluctuating body, unless under a grant from the Crown, which constitutes them a corporation for the purposes of the grant. (4) The prescription must be alleged in a que estate or in a man and his ancestors. Prescription in a 3 Prescription seems at one time to have borne a wider meaning. A claim by prescription to land is mentioned in 32 Hen. VIII. c. 2. And it seems that tenants in common may still make title to land by prescription (Littleton's Tenures, § 310). PRESENT 297 gue estate lies at common law by reason of continuous and immemorial enjoyment by the claimant, a person seised in fee, and all those whose estate he had (toux ceux que estate U ad). The Prescription Act fixes a definite period and does away with the necessity which existed at common law of prescribing in the name of the person seised in fee. Prescription in a man and his ancestors is not of ordinary occurrence in practice. Corporations, however, occasionally claim by a prescription analogous to this, viz. in the corporation and its predecessors. Such claims by either a person or a corporation are not within the Prescription Act, which applies only where there are dominant and servient tenements. By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 2 (1540) no person can make any prescription by the seisin or possession of his ancestor unless such seisen or possession had been within threescore years next before such prescription made. (5) A pre- scription cannot lie for a thing which cannot be granted, as it rests upon the presumption of a lost grant. Thus a lord of a manor cannot prescribe to raise a tax or toll upon strangers, for such a claim could never have been good by any grant. Prescription and Custom. — Prescription must be carefully dis- tinguished from custom. Prescription, as has been said, is either in a que estate or in a man and his ancestors — that is to say, it is a personal claim; custom is purely local — that is to say, it is a usage obtaining the force of law within a particular district. In the time of Littleton the difference between prescription and custom was not fully recognized (see Littleton's Tenures, § 170), but the law as it exists at present had become established by the time of Sir Edward Coke. A custom must be certain, reasonable and exercised as of right. Like prescription at common law, it must have existed from time immemorial. On this ground a custom to erect stalls at statute sessions for hiring servants was held to be bad, because such sessions were introduced by the Statute of Labourers, 23 Edw. III. st. i (Simpson \. Wells, L.R., 7 Q.B., 214). Some rights may be claimed by custom which cannot be claimed by prescription, e.g. a right of inhabitants to dance on a village green, for such a right is not connected with the enjoyment of land. On the other hand, profits a prendre can be claimed by prescription but not by custom, unless in two or three exceptional cases, such as rights of copy- holders to common in the lord's demesne, or to dig sand within their tenements, rights to estovers in royal forests, and rights of tin- bounders in Cornwall. United States. — The Law of the United States (except in Louisiana) is based upon that of England, but the period of enjoyment necessary to found a title by prescription varies in the different states. An easement or profit a prendre is acquired by twenty years' enjoyment in most states, following the English common law rule. In Louisiana the period varies according to the subject from three to thirty years, and property other than incorporeal hereditaments may be claimed by prescription as in Roman law (see Kent's Comm. iii. 4^2). International Law uses the term " prescription " in its wider or Roman sense. " The general consent of mankind has established the principle that long and uninterrupted possession by one nation excludes the claim of every other" (Wheaton, Int. Law, § 165). Historic instances of rights which were at one time claimed and exercised by prescription as against other nations are the sovereignty of Venice over the Adriatic and of Great Britain over the Narrow Seas, and the right to the Sound dues long exacted by Denmark. But such claims were rejected by the highest authorities on inter- national law (e.g. Grotius), on the ground that they were defective both in Justus titulus and in de facto possession. There is no special period fixed, as in municipal law, for the acquirement of international rights by lapse of time. In private international law prescription is treated as part of the lex fori or law of procedure. (J. W.) Scotland. — In the law of Scotland " prescription " is a term of wider meaning than in England, being used as including both pre- scription and limitation of English law. In its most general sense it may be described as the effect which the law attaches to the lapse of time, and it involves the idea of possession held by one person adverse to the rights of another. Though having its basis in the common law, its operation was early denned by statute, and it is now in all respects statutory. Prescription in Scots law may be regarded (i) as a mode of acquiring rights — the positive prescrip- tion ; (2) as a mode of extinguishing rights— -the negative prescription ; (3) as a mode of limiting rights of action — the shorter prescriptions. It must, however, be observed with reference to this division that the distinction between (i) and (2) is rather an accidental (due to a loose interpretation of the language of the act of 1617, c. 12) than a logically accurate one. It is, moreover, strictly confined to heritable rights, having no application in the case of movable property. But, though the distinction has been complained of by the highest authority as tending to create embarrassment in the law (see opinion of Lord Chancellor St Leonards in Dougall v. Dundee Harbour Trustees, 1852, 24 Jurist, 385), it is now too well settled to be departed from. i. Positive Prescription. — The positive prescription was introduced by the act of 1617, c. 12. After setting forth in the preamble the inconvenience resulting from the loss of titles and tne danger of forgery after the means of improbation are lost by the lapse of time, it enacts that whatever heritages the lieges, their predecessors or authors have possessed by themselves or others in their names peaceably, in virtue of infeftments for the space of forty years, continually and together, from the date of their said infeftments, and without any lawful interruption during the said space, they shall not be disturbed therein, provided they produce a written title on which their possession has proceeded. Such written title must be either a charter and sasine preceding the forty years, or, when no charter is extant, instruments of sasine proceeding upon retours or precepts of dare constat. Though the statute in its literal construc- tion only applied to such heritable subjects as had been conveyed by charter and sasine, it was at an early date interpreted so as to include other heritable rights, as servitudes, tacks, public rights of way, &c., where no charter could be supposed to exist. The act of 1617 was so well framed that it continued to regulate the pre- scription of land rights till 1874. By the Conveyancing Act of that year (37 & 38 Viet. c. 94, § 34) the period of prescription was shortened from forty years to twenty. It was provided that posses- sions for twenty years upon " an ex facie valid irredeemable title recorded in the appropriate register of sasines " should in future give the same right as forty years' possessions upon charter and sasine under the earlier law. The act of 1874 does not, however, apply to all the cases which fell under the act of 1617. Thus it has been decided that twenty years' possession on a charter of adjudica- tion followed by sasine and a declarator of expiry of the legal is insufficient to give an unchallengeable right, an adjudication not being an " ex facie irredeemable title " (Hinton v. Connel's Trustees, 1883, 10 Rettie's Reports, p. mo). It is further specially provided by the act of 1874 that the twenty years' prescription is not to apply to servitudes, rights of way, and public rights generally. The following rules apply to the positive prescription, (a) The possession which is required for it must be peaceable, continuous (" continually and together," as the act of 1617 has it), and uninterrupted, (b) The prescription runs de momenta in momentum, (c) The person against whom the prescription runs must be major and sut juris — a rule which, as regards minority, was specially provided for by the act of 1617, and aj regards other cases of incapacity by the application of the principles of the common law. Under the Conveyancing Act, however, it is provided that in all cases where the twenty years' prescription applies, the lapse of thirty years is to exclude any plea on the ground of minority or want of capacity. 2. Negative Prescription. — This prescription was introduced by the act of 1469, c. 28, and substantially re-enacted by the act of 1474, c. 55. At first restricted to personal claims of debt, it was gradually extended in practice and ultimately made applicable to heritable bonds and other heritable rights by the above-mentioned act of 1617. By the act of 1469 it is declared that the person having interest in an obligation must follow the same within the space of forty years and take document thereupon, otherwise it shall be prescribed. The negative prescription accordingly extinguishes in toto the right to demand performance of an obligation after forty years, the years being reckoned from the day on which fulfilment of the obligation can be first demanded. The lapse of this period of time creates a conclusive presumption — one incapable of being redargued — that the debt or obligation has been paid or fulfilled. But it must be kept in view that the negative prescription does not per se — without the operation of the positive — establish a right to heritable property (Erskine, Inst. b. iii. tit. 7, § 8). As regards the character of the prescription, it is requisite, in the same way as in the case of the positive, that the years shall have run continuously and without interruption, i.e. without any act done on the part of the creditor which indicates his intention to keep alive the right Such inter- ruption may, for instance, take place by the payment of interest on the debt, or citation of the debtor in an action for the debt, or by a claim being lodged in the debtor's sequestration. In the same way as in the positive, the currency of the negative prescription is suspended by the debtor being minor or non valens agere. 3. Shorter Prescriptions. — There are certain short prescriptions recognized by Scots law — corresponding to the limitations of English law — which operate not as extinguishing rights but as excluding the ordinary means of proving them. The following require to be noticed, (a) Vicennial prescription protecting a person who has been served as heir for twenty years against action by any other person claiming to be heir, (b) Decennial prescription requiring all actions by minors against their tutors and curators, and vice versa, to be prosecuted within ten years from the expiration of the guardianship. (c) Septennial prescription providing that no person bind himself, under certain exceptions, for and with another, conjunctly and severally, in any bond or contract for sums of money shall be bound for more than seven years after the date of the obligation. There are also other shorter prescriptions limiting rights of action in different matters as the sexennial, quinquennial and triennial. PRESENT, an adjective, adverb and substantive meaning that which is at hand or before one in place or in time. Also another substantive meaning a gift, and a verb meaning to bring into the presence of, to offer, to deliver. The verb is pronounced prestnt; the others present. The first group is due to the Latin pratsens, the present participle of praeesse, to be before one or at hand; from this participle was formed the verb praesentare, to bring before one, exhibit, show. The sense of " gift " is due to 298 PRESENT ATIONISM— PRESS the O. Fr. phrase metlre en prisent a quelqu'un, to bring something into the presence of a person, to offer, give. The legal formal phrase" these presents " iscommon, especially in the form " know all men by these presents," as an opening to a deed, more particu- larly to a deed-poll which cannot be referred to as an " indenture." The phrase " these present words, documents, writings," &c. is an adaptation of a similar phrase in O.Fr. ces presentes (sc. ettres). As ecclesiastical terms " to present " or " presentation " are used of the " presenting " or nomination by the patron to the bishop of the person chosen by him to fill a vacant benefice. When the bishop is patron he. does not "present," but " collates." " Presentiment," foreboding, the feeling of something impending, must be distinguished in ety- mology; it is derived from the Lat. praesentire, to perceive beforehand. PRESENT ATIONISM (from Lat. prae-esse, praesens, present), a philosophical term used in various senses deriving from the general sense of the term " presentation." According to G. F. Stout (cf. Manual of Psychology, i. 57), presentations are " what- ever constituents or our total experience at any moment directly determine the nature of the object as it is perceived or thought of at that moment." In Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy, vol. ii., a presentation is " an object in the special form under which it is cognized at any given moment of perceptual or ideational process." This, the widest definition of the term, due largely to Professor James Ward, thus includes both perceptual and ideational processes. The term has, indeed, been narrowed so as to include ideation, the correlative " representation " being utilized for ideal presentation, but in general the wider use is preferred. When the mind is cognizing an object, the object " presents " itself to the senses or to thought in one of a number of different forms (e.g. a picture is a work of art, a saleable commodity, a representation of a house, &c.). Pre- sentation is thus essentially a cognitive process. Hence the most important use of the term " presentationism," which is defined by Ward, in Mind, N.S. (1893), ii. 58, as " a doctrine the gist of which is that all the elements of psychical life are primarily and ultimately cognitive elements." This use takes precedence of two others: (i) that of Hamilton, for presentative as opposed to representative theories of knowledge, and (2) that of some later writers who took it as equivalent to phenomenon (q.v.). Ward traces the doctrine in his sense to Hume, to whom the mind is a " kind of theatre " in which perceptions appear and vanish continually (see Green and Grose edition of the Treatise, i. 534). The main problem is as to whether psychic activity is " presented " or not. Ward holds that it is not presented or presentable save indirectly. For the problems connected with Presentation and Presenta- tionism see especially the article PSYCHOLOGY and authorities there quoted. PRESIDENCY, an administrative unit of the Indian empire. The word is derived from the title of president or chief of the council of a principal factory under the early East India Company — a title which lasted until governors were appointed under act of parliament in 1784. It thence came to be applied to the three original provinces of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. It is now restricted to Madras and Bombay, in distinction to the lieu- tenant-governorships. In Anglo-Indian usage, " presidency " was also applied to the capital city as opposed to the country beyond, termed the " mofussil "; and this usage lingers in such phrases as " presidency town," " presidency magistrate," and " presidency college." PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post- Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside), a style or title of various connotation, but always conveying the sense of one who presides. In classical Latin the title praeses, or president, was given to all governors of provinces, but was confined in the time of Diocletian to the procurators who, as lieutenants of the emperor, governed the smaller provinces. In this sense it survived in the middle ages. Du Cange gives instances from the capitularies of Charlemagne of the style praeses provinciae as applied to the count; and later examples of praeses, or praesidens, as used of royal seneschals and other officials having jurisdiction under the Crown. In England the word survived late in this sense of royal lieutenant. Thus, John Cowell, in his Interpreter of Words (1607) defines " President " as " used in Common Law for the King's lieutenant in any province or function; as President of Wales, of York, of Berwick. President of the King's Council." In some of the British North American colonies (New Hamp- shire, Pennsylvania, South Carolina) there was a president of the council, usually elected by the council; and when Pennsyl- vania and New Hampshire became states, one member of the Executive Council was called president. The chief (and single) executive head in Delaware, South Carolina and New Hamp- shire (1784-1792) was called president. During the revolutionary struggle in America from 1774 onwards, the presiding officer of the Continental Congress was styled " President " and when the present constitution of the United States was framed in 1787 (in effect 1789) the title of President was transferred to the head of the Federal government. " President " thus became the accepted style for the elected chief of a modern republic, the example of the United States being followed by the South American republics, by France in 1849, and by Switzerland. In the simple sense of " one who presides " the word " president " preserved its meaning alongside the technical use implying royal delegation. . In this sense the New English Dictionary quotes its use by Chaucer (Troylus, iv. 185) in 1374. In ecclesiastical terminology praesidens was sometimes used for the head of cathedral chapters, instead of dean or provost; and it was sometimes the title given to the principal visitor of monasteries, notably in the reformed congre- gation of Cluny (Du Cange). In the United Kingdom the heads of many colleges are styled "president," the title being of consider- able antiquity in the case of one college at Cambridge (Queens', founded in 1448) and four at Oxford (St John's, Magdalen, Corpus Christi, Trinity). At five Cambridge colleges (Pembroke, Gonville and Caius, St Catherine's, St John's, Magdalene) the title " president" is borne by the second in authority, being the equivalent of " vice- master." In the United States " president " is the usual style of the head of a college and also of a university wherever this has developed out of a single college. " President ' is also the style of persons elected to preside over the meetings of learned, scientific, literary and artistic academies and societies, e.g. the president of the Royal Academy (P.R.A.) in London; the title of the president of the Royal Society (P.R.S.) dates from its foundation in 1660. In the United States the style " president " is also given to the person who presides over the proceedings of financial, commercial and industrial corporations (banks, railways, &c.), in Great Britain usually styled " chairman," but in the case of the Bank of England and certain other banks "governor." In Great Britain the title " president " is also borne by certain ministers of the Crown and certain judges, and preserves some of the ancient connotation of a royal lieutenancy explained above. Thus the style of " president " applied to the heads of the board of agriculture, local government board, board of education, board of trade, &c., which are all committees of the privy council, is derived from that of the lord president of the council, the representative of the king. The presidents of the court of session in Scotland, and of the probate and divorce division, &c. in England, also bear this style ultimately as representatives of the Crown. In France, besides the president of the republic, there are presi- dents of the senate and of the chamber of deputies. In Germany the word Prdsident is used in most of the English senses of " president," e.g. of a corporation, society, assembly or political body. As a judicial title President is confined to the head of any one of the corporations (Kollegien) on the basis of which the judicial system of the empire is organized (Landgericht, Oberlandesgericht, Reichs- gericht), and must be distinguished from that of Vorsitzender (literally also praesidens), i.e. the judge (who may or may not be the Prdsident) selected to preside over a division of the court appointed to try particular cases. In Prussia Prdsident also retains its old sense of " governor," Oberprasident being the title of the chief of the administration of a province, Prdsident that of the head of a government district (Regierungsbezirk). The consistories of the established Protestant Church are also presided over by a Prdsident, who is a royal official. PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press), a word which appears in English in the i3th and I4th centuries with three particular 1 The style "president " was in every case exchanged for that of " governor " within a few years of the proclamation of the inde- pendence of the United States. The title " president " is no longer used for any governor under the British Crown, but relics of past usage survive in the " presidencies " of Madras and Bombay. PRESSBURG— PRESS LAWS 299 meanings, viz. (i) crowd or throng, often used of the melte in a battle, (2) a shelved cupboard for books or clothes, and (3) an apparatus for exerting pressufe on various substances, and for various purposes. The first meaning is still current, though usually it has a literary air; a specific use is the nautical one of " press of sail," i.e. as much sail as the wind will allow; cf. the similar use of " crowd." The second use has given way to other words, but is still the technical term in use in libraries, where the books bear " press-marks " specifying the case or shelf where they may be found. As a term for a machine or apparatus for exerting pressure, there are innumerable examples, usually with a qualifying word giving the purpose for which the pressure is applied, either for attaining compression into a small space, or a required shape, or for extracting juices or liquids, or the methods adopted for exerting the pressure. The printing-press has given rise to obvious transferred uses of the word " press ": thus it is applied to an establishment for printing, e.g. the Clarendon Press, at Oxford, or the Pitt Press, at Cambridge, to a printing-house and to the staff which conduct the business, to the issue of printed matter and especially to its daily or periodical issue, hence newspapers and periodicals generally. According to the New English Dictionary this use originated in phrases such as " the liberty of the press," " to write for the press," &c. The earliest quotation given is from the first number of the Dublin Press, 1797. For the history of the liberty or freedom of the press see PRESS LAWS; also NEWSPAPERS and PERIODICALS. For the punishment of " pressing " see PEINE FORTE ET DURE. It is now recognized that " press " in " press gang," " to press," i.e. to force or compulsorily enlist men for naval or military service, is a word distinct from the above. It stands for the earlier " prest," and is ultimately due to French prcler, to lend (see IMPRESSMENT). PRESSBURG (Hung. Pozsony, Lat. Posonium), a town of Hungary, capital of the county of the same name, 133 m. N.\V. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 61,537, about half of whom are Germans. Pressburg is picturesquely situated on the left bank of the Danube, at the base of the outlying spurs of the Little Carpathians, in a position of strategical importance near the Porto. Hungarica. Pressburg was the capital of Hungary from 1541 until 1784, while the Hungarian parliament held its sittings here till 1848. One of the most conspicuous buildings of the town is the royal palace, situated on the Schloss- berg, a plateau 270 ft. above the Danube, which was destroyed by lire in 1811 and has since been in ruins. Other noteworthy buildings are the cathedral, a Gothic edifice of the I3th century, restored in 1861-1880, in which many of the Hungarian kings were crowned; the town hall, also a 13th-century building, several times restored, and containing an interesting museum; the Franciscan church, dating from 1272; and the law-courts, erected in 1783, where the sittings of parliament were held from 1802 to 1848. The Grassalkowitch palace is now the residence of an archduke, and there is an archiepiscopal palace. Educa- tional establishments include an academy of jurisprudence, a military academy, a Roman Catholic and a Protestant seminary, a training school for female teachers, and several secondary and technical schools. A large business is carried on in wooden furniture, tobacco and cigars, paper, ribbons, leather wares, chemicals, liqueurs, confectionery and biscuits. There is, besides, a dynamite factory, which produces over 2,000,000 Ib of explosives annually, a large cloth factory and several flour- mills. Trade in grain and wine is active. Besides the extensive traffic on the Danube, the town is also an important railway junction. The first railway line in Hungary was that from Pressburg to Tyrnau through the valley of the Waag. The town has many points of interest in its environs. About twenty-five minutes by steamer down the Danube, the exten- sive ruins of the castle of Theben (Hung. Diveny), the former gate of Hungary, are situated at the point where the March, which forms the boundary between Austria and Hungary, falls into the Danube. Opposite on the left, bank is Hainburg, the gateway of Hungary from the Austrian side. Eastward and southward of Pressburg stretches a long and fertile plain, known as the Upper or Little Hungarian plain. It has an area of 2825 sq. m., of which two-thirds lay on the right bank of the Danube, and the whole is bounded by the rivers Neutra and Raab. In the extreme south-west of this plain is situated the lake of Ferto-Tava (Ger. Neusiedler See), which has an area of about 100 sq. m., but it is of varying size, and sometimes dries up in part. Eastward it is united with the extensive marsh called the Hansag, through which it is in communication with the river Raab and with the Danube. In the Roman period it was known as Peiso or Pelso. In several places of the dry bed traces of prehistoric lake-dwellings have been discovered. In conjunction with the regulation of the river Raab, and the drainage of the Hansag marsh, plans for the drainage of the lake have been proposed. Little is known of the early history of Pressburg, which was founded about 1000. It was soon strongly fortified, though it was captured by the king of Bohemia, Ottakar II., in 1271. It received many privileges from the Hungarian kings, especi- ally from the emperoj Sigismund, and its strategic situation made it an important fortress. Sigismund held Imperial diets in the town. After the battle of Mohacs in 1526 and the capture of Buda by the Turks, Pressburg became the capital of Hungary. Here in 1608 the Austrian and Hungarian malcontents concluded a treaty with the archduke Matthias, afterwards emperor, against their lawful sovereign, the emperor Rudolf II. In 1619 the town was taken by Bethlen Gabor, but it was recovered by the Imperialists in 1621. In 1687 it was the scene of the session of the estates of Hungary during which the Hungarians renounced their right of choosing their own king and accepted the hereditary succession of the Habsburgs. Here also was held the diet of 1741 when the members swore to assist their sovereign, Maria Theresa, against Frederick the Great. In 1784 Buda took the place of Pressburg as the capital of Hungary, but the latter town continued to be the seat of the parliament until 1848. On the 26th of December 1805 peace was signed here between Napoleon and the emperor Francis I., and in 1809 the town was bombarded by the French. See J. Kiraly, Geschichte des Donau- Mautk- und Urfahr-Rechts der Freistadt Pressburg (Pressburg, 1890); T. Ortvay, Geschichte der Stadt Pressburg (Pressburg, 1892), and Pressburgs Strassen und Platze (Pressburg, 1905). PRESSENSE, EDMOND DEHAULT DE (1824-1891), French Protestant divine, was born at Paris on the 7th of January 1824. He studied at Lausanne under Alexander Vinet, and at Halle and Berlin under F. A. G. Tholuck and J. A. W. Neandef, and in 1847 became pastor in the Evangelical Free Church at the chapel of Taitbout in Paris. He was a powerful preacher and a good political speaker; from 1871 he was a member of the National Assembly, and from 1883 a senator. In 1890 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. Pressense laboured for the revival of biblical studies. He contended that the Evangelical Church ought to be independent of the power of the state. He died on the 8th of_April 1891. He founded in 1854 the Revue chretienne, and in 1866 the Bulletin theologique. His works include: Histoire des trois premier* siecles de I'eglise chretienne (6 vols. 1856-1877; new ed. 1887-1889), L'£glise el la revolution franfaise (1864 ; 3rd ed., 1889), Jesus-Christ, son temps, so. vie, son csuvre (against E. Renan, 1866; 7th ed. 1884), Les Origines, le problbme de la connaissance; le probllme cosmohgique (1883; 2nd ed. 1887). See T. Roussel, Notice sur la vie et les oeuvres de Pressense (1894). PRESS GANG, the popular name for the companies of officers and men who were commissioned to execute the warrants for the impressment of seamen in Great Britain (see IMPRESSMENT). These bodies consisted of a captain, one or more lieutenants, and a band of trustworthy men. They were sent to seaports, or occasionally to inland towns where sailors were likely to be met when going from one coast to another. A " rendezvous " was opened, volunteers were enlisted, deserters arrested, and such " able bodied persons " as were liable to be pressed for service in the fleet were seized, and sent to the guard ships (q.v.). PRESS LAWS, the laws concerning the licensing of books and the liberty of expression in all products of the printing-press. 300 PRESS LAWS especially newspapers. The liberty of the press has always been regarded by modern political writers as of supreme import- ance. " Give me liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all other liberties," says Milton in the Areopagitica. At the present day the liberty of the press in English-speaking countries is a matter of merely historical importance. But this liberty was a plant of slow growth. Before the invention of printing the Church assumed the right to control the expression of all opinion distasteful to her. When the printing-press was invented German printers established themselves at various important centres of western Europe, where already numbers of copyists were employed in multiplying manuscripts. In 1473 Louis XI. granted letters patent (giving the right of printing and selling books) to " Uldaric Quering " (Ulrich Gering), who three years earlier had set up a press in the Sorbonne (the theological faculty of the university at Paris), and before long Paris had more than fifty presses at work. The Church and universities soon found the output of. books beyond their control. In 1496 Pope Alexander VI. began to be restive, and in 1 501 he issued a bull against unlicensed printing, which introduced the principle of censorship.1 Between 1524 and 1548 the Imperial Diet in Germany drew up various stringent regulations; and in 1535 Francis I., in France, prohibited by edict, under penalty of death, the printing of books. This was too severe, however, and shortly afterwards the Sorbonne was given the right of deciding, a system which lasted to the Revolution. In England the authority of parliament was invoked to aid the ecclesiastical authority. There is an ordinance as early as 1382, 5 Ric. II. st. 2, c. 5 (not assented to by the Commons, but appearing upon the parliament roll), directed against unlicensed preachers. After the invention of printing the ecclesiastical censorship was still asserted, but only as collateral with the censorial rights of the Crown, claimed by virtue of its general prerogative. After the Reformation the greater part of the rights of censorship passed to the Crown, which at the same time assumed the power of granting by letters patent the right of printing or selling books as a monopoly. The grant, if made to the author himself, was an equivalent of copyright; if made to a person other than the author, it seems to have always been subject to the author's copyright as it existed at common law. Censorship was either restrictive or corrective, i.e. it interfered to restrict or prevent publication, or it enforced penalties after publication. Repression of free discussion was regarded as so necessary a part of government that Sir Thomas More in his Utopia makes it punishable with death for a private individual to criticize the conduct of the ruling power. Under Mary print- ing was confined to members of the Stationers' Company, founded by royal charter in 1556. Under Elizabeth the Star Chamber assumed the right to confine printing to London, Oxford and Cambridge, to limit the number of printers and presses, to prohibit all publications issued without proper licence, and to enter houses to search for unlicensed presses and publications (Order of 1585, Strype's Whitgift, app. 94). The search for unlicensed presses or publications was entrusted to an officer called the " messenger of the press." In 1637 was issued an order of the Star Chamber forbidding the importa- tion of books printed abroad to the scandal of religion or the 1 The principle of the censorship is still uncompromisingly main- tained by the Roman Catholic Church; and this, though in general binding only in foro conscientiae, has necessarily had considerable importance in states which recognize the papacy as an independent power relations with which are established by concordat. Thus in Italy, under the Sardinian constitution of 1848, Bibles, catechisms and liturgical words had to be licensed by the bishop. The principle of the censorship, consecrated anew in Pope Pius IX.'s Syllabus of 1864, was reaffirmed in the apostolic constitution Officiorum ef Leo XIII. and in 1907 in the encyclical Pascendi of Pius X. This last expresses " the highest esteem for this institution of censors " and orders censors to be appointed in all episcopal curias for the revision of books intended for publication, at the same time direct- ing that their names shall not be made known to the authors of the books condemned. (See also INDEX LIBRORUM PROHIBITORUM.) Church or the government, and the printing of any book not first lawfully licensed. Law books were to be licensed by one of the chief justices or the chief baron, books of history and state affairs by one of the secretaries of state, of heraldry by the earl marshal, of divinity, philosophy, poetry and other subjects by the archbishop of Canterbury or the bishop of London, or the chancellors or vice-chancellors of the universities. There were to be only twenty master printers and four letter- founders. The punishment was at the discretion of the court (Rushworth, Historical Collections, voh iii. app. 306). The same principle of press restriction was carried out by the Long Parliament after the abolition of the Star Chamber, and it was an ordinance of that body issued in 1643 that called forth Milton's Areopagitica, a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing, itself an unlicensed book. The parliament appointed committees for printing, who appointed licensers, but the licens- ing was really left in a great measure to the wardens of the Stationers' Company. At the Restoration Sir John Birkenhead acted as licenser, appointed apparently under the general prerogative. It was, no doubt, too, under the general pre- rogative that Charles II., by a proclamation in 1660, called in and suppressed Milton's Defensio pro populo anglicano. Then followed the Licensing Act of 1662 (1.3 & 14 Car. II. c. 33), limited to two years. The provisions as to importation of books, the appointment of licensers, and the number of printers and founders were practically re-enactments of the similar pro- visions in the Star Chamber order of 1637. Printing presses were not to be set up without notice to the Stationers' Company. A king's messenger had power by warrant of the king or a secretary of state to enter and search for unlicensed presses and printing. Severe penalties by fine and imprisonment were denounced against offenders. The act was successively renewed up to 1679. Under the powers of the act Sir Roger L'Estrange was appointed licenser, and the effect of the supervision was that practically the newspaper press was reduced to the London Gazette. The objections made to lines 594-599 of the first book of Paradise Lost by the archbishop of Canterbury's chaplain, acting as Licenser, are well known. The act expired in 1679, and for the remainder of the reign of Charles II., as in the reign of George III., the restrictions on the press took the form of prosecutions for libel. In 1685 the Licensing Act was renewed for seven years (i Jac. II. c. 8, § 15). No mention of the liberty of the press was made in the Bill of Rights. On the expiration of the Licensing Act in 1692 it was continued till the end of the existing session of parliament (4 & 5 Will, and Mary, c. 24, § 14). In 1695 the Commons refused to renew it. The immediate effect of this was to lay authors open to the attacks of literary piracy, and in 1709 the first Copyright Act (8 Anne, c. 19) was enacted for their protection. The power of a secretary of state to issue a warrant, whether general or special, for the pu rpose of searching for and seizing the author of a libel or the libellous papers themselves — a power exercised by the Star Chamber and confirmed by the Licensing Act — was still asserted, and was not finally declared illegal until the case of Entick\. Carrington in 1765 (St. Tr. xix. 1030). In 1776 the House of Commons came to a resolution in accordance with this decision. The compulsory stamp duty on newspapers was abandoned in 1855 (18 Viet. c. 27), the duty on paper in 1861 (24 Viet. c. 20) , the optional duty on newspapers in 1870 (33 & 34 Viet. c. 38). From that time the English press may be said to date its complete freedom, which rests rather upon a constitutional than a legal foundation. It is not confirmed by any provision of the supreme legislative authority, as is the case in many countries. A declaration in favour of the liberty of the press is usually a prominent feature in the written constitutions of foreign states. The few existing restrictions on the liberty of the press are pre- sumed to be imposed for the public benefit. They are in some cases of great historical interest. The rights of private persons are in general sufficiently protected in one direction by the law of Libel (g.v.), in another by the law of Copyright (g.i>.), while the criminal law provides for the cases of press offences against morality, public justice, &c. Thus the courts have power to punish summarily as a contempt the publication of comments upon proceedings subjudice PRESS LAWS 301 or reflections upon the conduct of judicial officers. (See CONTEMPT OF COURT.) The last relic of the censorship before publication is to be found in the licensing of stage plays. By 6 & 7 Viet. c. 68 no new plays or additions to old plays can be acted for hire at any theatre in Great Britain until they have been submitted to the lord chamberlain, who may forbid any play or any part of a play. The penalty for acting a play before it has been allowed or after it has been disallowed is a sum not exceeding £50 for every offence and the forfeiture of the licence of the theatre in which the offence occurred. This jurisdiction is exercised by an official of the lord chamberlain's department called the " examiner of stage plays." The last relic of the monopoly of printing formerly granted to licensees of the Crown is found in the exclusive right of the king's printer and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge to print the Bible1 and the Book of Common Prayer, and of the king s printer to print acts of parliament and other state documents. The privileges of the universities are confirmed by 13 Eliz. c. 29. The rights of the king's printer are protected by severe penalties. A maximum term of seven years' penal servitude is incurred by any person who prints any act of parliament or other government document, falsely pur- porting to be printed by the king's printer or under the authority of His Majesty's stationery office (8 & 9 Viet. c. 113; 45 Viet. c. 9). The rights of the printers of the journals of either house of parliament are protected by 8 & 9 Viet. c. 1 13. The publication of parliamentary debates in any form by any other persons than the printers of the journals of the two houses is still in theory a breach of privilege, but in practice they have been fully reported since 1771. The other restrictions upon the press are to [a great extent those imposed for police purposes. By 32 & 33 Viet. c. 24 (confirming in part previous enactments applying to Great Britain) the printer of any paper or book for profit is required under penalties to print thereon his name and address or the name of a university press, and is to keep a copy of everything printed, with a few exceptions. Penalties must be sued for within three months, and no proceeding for penalties can be begun unless in the name of the attorney-general or solicitor- general of England or the lord advocate of Scotland. By the News- paper Libel and Registration Act 1 88 1 (44 & 45 Viet. c. 60), which applies to England and Ireland, but not to Scotland, newspaper proprietors are, except in the case of joint-stock companies, to be registered and to make annual returns of the title of the newspaper and the names of all the proprietors, with their occupations, places of business and places of residence. By the Corrupt Practices Prevention Acts 1883 and 1884 (46 & 47 Viet. c. 51, § 1 8, and 47 & 48 Viet. c. 70, § 14), the name and address of the printer must be printed on all bills, placards, &c., referring to a parliamentary or municipal election. By 6 & 7 Viet. c. 68, § 7, the name and place of abode of a manager of a theatre are to be printed on every play-bill announcing a representation at such theatre. Offences against decency by the press are provided for by 20 & 21 Viet. c. 83 ; 25 & 26 Viet. c. 101, § 251 (for Scotland), and 2 & 3 Viet. c. 47, § 54 (for the metropolis). The importation of obscene literature into the United Kingdom is forbidden by 39 & 40 Viet. c. 36, § 42. By the Larceny Act 1861, any person who prints or publishes an advertisement offering a reward for the return of stolen goods without questions asked is subject to a penalty (24 & 25 Viet. c. 96, § 102). This penalty cannot, however, be sued for without the sanction of the attorney- general or solicitor-general of England or Ireland (33 & 34 Viet. c. 65). The advertisement in the United Kingdom of foreign or illegal lotteries is prohibited by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 66, betting advertisements by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 119, § 7, and 37 Viet. c. 15. The right of an author or publisher to the full profits of his under- taking was at one time restricted by the Copyright Act of Anne (8 Anne, c. 19, § 4), by which the archbishop of Canterbury and other authorities were empowered to lower the price of a book upon com- plaint that the price was unreasonable. The only restriction of the kind now existing is the obligation of delivering (without request) to the British Museum a copy of any work published within the United Kingdom, and of delivering (on request) copies for the use of the university libraries at Oxford and Cambridge, the library of the faculty of advocates at Edinburgh, and the library of Trinity College, Dublin (5 & 6 Viet. c. 45, §§ 6-10). Scotland. — Printing became, as in England, a royal monopoly. The exclusive right of printing was granted by James IV. to Walter Chepman, who printed the first book in Scotland. The monopoly of printing acts of the Scottish parliament was granted by James V. to the printer chosen by the clerk register and specially licensed by the king (1540, c. 127). Printers are forbidden by 1551, c. 27, to print, whether in Latin or English, without licence from ordinaries deputed in that behalf by the Crown. No book treating of religion or of the kirk was to be "printed without a licence from the general assembly (1646, c. 164), or of the kingdom without a licence from one of the judges or the secretary (c. 165). The council were empowered to prohibit presses at their discretion by the order of the 30th of March 1655. The importation of " famous " books and libels in defence of the pope was prohibited by 1581, c. 1 06. Press 1 The monopoly of the king's printer does not extend to any translation other than the Authorized Version, and not to that if it be accompanied by new notes or marginal readings. offences were treated with the utmost severity. By 1585, c. I, the author of a libellous writing against the king was punishable with death. It is scarcely necessary to say that since the union the press of Scotland has enjoyed no less liberty than that of England. In the case of Bibles, Old and New Testaments, Psalm Books, the Book of Common Prayer, the Confession of Faith, and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms a licence for printing is still required. The licensing authority is the lord advocate, but all proposed publications are submitted for approval to the body officially known as " His Majesty's sole and only Master Printers in Scotland," consisting of the lord advocate, the solicitor-general, the moderator of the general assembly, and four other members. A licence is also required for printing acts of parliament; but a general licence granted in 1848 to a firm of printers in Edinburgh is still .operative, and their publica- tions are not submitted for approval. As its work is practically confined to Bibles and the other religious publications enumerated, the above-mentioned body commonly receives the name of the Bible Board. Ireland. — By the Prevention of Crime Act 1882 (45 & 46 Viet, c. 25), the lord-lieutenant was empowered to order the seizure of any newspaper appearing to contain matter inciting to the commis- sion of treason or of any act of violence or intimidation (§ 13). He may also by warrant direct the search for and seizure of any papers or documents suspected to be used or to be intended to be used for the purpose of or in connexion with any secret society existing for criminal purposes (§ 14). The British Dominions. — In the British colonies the press is as free as it is in England. Each colony has its special legislation on the subject for police and revenue purposes. Where there is a government printer, his monopoly is protected by the Documentary Evidence Act 1868 (31 & 32 Viet. c. 37), which imposes a maximum penalty of five years' penal servitude upon any person printing a copy of any proclamation, order, or regulation which falsely purports to have been printed by the government printer, or to be pnnted under the authority of the legislature of any British colony or possession. The act is, however, subject to any law made by the colonial legislature. India. — During the governor-generalship of Lord Lytton was passed the " Act for the better control of publications in Oriental languages," Act ix. of 1878. (l) By this act copies of newspapers published out of British India were liable to forfeiture and seizure by warrant throughout the whole of British India if the papers contained any words, signs or visible representations likely to excite disaffection to the government established by law in British India, or antipathy between any persons of different races, castes, religions or sects in British India. The governor-general might by notifica- tion in the Gazette of India, exclude newspapers, books, &c., from British India. (2) In places to which the act was extended by order of the governor-general in council a magistrate might require the printer and publisher of a newspaper to enter into a bond, with a deposit, not to publish a newspaper containing " any words, signs," &c. (as in I ), or to use or attempt to use it for the purpose of extortion or threat. The consequences of offending were forfeiture of the deposit, papers, press, &c. Books used for the illegal purposes above mentioned were subject to forfeiture, but no bond or deposit was required previous to publication of books, as in the case of news- papers. This act, which remained in force until 1910, was found, owing principally to the restriction of its operation to newspapers published in the vernacular, to be ineffective in coping with the spread of news sheets exciting disaffection amongst the natives towards the govern- ment of India. It was consequently repealed and replaced by an act of February 1910, which applies to all newspapers published after the act. The deposit requiring to be made is now obligatory on all new printing-presses, whether issuing a newspaper or not, and independently of the deposit on the newspaper. The requirement of a formal bond has been abolished. There are provisions for forfeiture of the deposit and confiscation of the press on repetition of the offence. The 1910 act gives po%wer to the authorities to open postal packets, other than letters, suspected of containing seditious matter, and requires the printer of a newspaper to deposit with the government two copies of each issue at the time of publication. It includes a long list of offences incitement to which is punishable under the act, and in giving power to stop a seditious newspaper after conviction, and in fixing responsibility on the actual printers of seditious matter, has considerably strengthened the power of the law. • Egypt. — The press is subject to a special law (The Press Law of 1881) and to certain articles of the penal code which define press offences and prescribe penalties (both fine and imprisonment) for them. Owing to the capitulations, which are in force in Egypt as part of the Ottoman Empire, the penal code cannot be applied to foreign subjects, and its application had not (up to 1910) been found sufficient to repress abuses. The probable result of strengthening the law would be that conductors of native papers desirous of indulging in violent language or sedition would engage a foreign subject as nominal proprietor or editor and thereby escape local jurisdiction. The Press Law of 1881 is a more powerful instrument than the penal code, inasmuch as there are decisions of the mixed 302 PRESS LAWS tribunals that that law is, in principle, applicable to foreigners. By this law registration of newspapers is obligatory, and the govern- ment has power of control, denned in art. 13 as follows: "In the interests of public order, of religion or of morality, every newspaper or periodical can be suspended or suppressed by order of the minister of the interior after two warnings, or, without previous warning, by a decision of the council of ministers. Each warning may be accompanied by a fine of from ££5 to £E2O." If a newspaper or periodical which has been suppressed continues to appear, the responsible parties can be fined, and the printing-press which issues the suppressed publication can be closed by order of the minister of the interior. The closure or seizure of the printing-press would, however, in the case of a foreigner require the co-operation of his consul. This law was from about 1900 allowed to fall into disuse. Owing to the excesses of the Arabic newspapers the law was revived in the early part of 1909, but was applied with great moderation. During the year two native papers were warned and one was suppressed. The tribunals remained alone competent to inflict any penalty (apart from suppression and seizure of the printing-press) more severe than a fine of £E2O, and in 1909 under the penal code the editor of one native paper was sentenced to a year's imprisonment and the editor of another to three months' imprisonment. (See Sir Eldon Gorst's reports on Egypt for 1908 and 1909, specially Egypt No. I, /pop, PP- 3-5-) The United States. — The first constitutions of Pennsylvania, Dela- ware, Maryland and North Carolina, enacted in 1776, are interesting as containing the earliest declarations of any legislative authority in favour of the liberty of the press. The same principle was after- wards adopted in the constitution of the United States. The acts of Congress dealing with the press are not numerous, as each state has for the most part its own legislation on the subject, dealing generally with, among other matters, the registration of newspapers, the monopoly of the state printer, and the right of giving the truth in evidence in defence to proceedings for libel. The act of the i8th of August 1856 forbids diplomatic or consular officers of the United States to correspond with any foreign newspaper in regard to the affairs of a foreign state. The act of the 3rd of March 1873 prohibits the printing and circulation of obscene literature. Legislation by Congress has provided that all printing (unless otherwise ordered by law) for the Senate and House of Representatives and the executive and judicial departments, shall be done by the govern- ment printer. Austria-Hungary. — In the Austrian Empire, which from 180410 1867 embraced Hungary also, the press laws under Metternich's regime were extremely severe. By the penal code of 1808 all printing had to be licensed, under heavy penalties, and in 1810 two censors were appointed. In short, the press had no shadow of liberty. During the revolution of 1848-1849 the principle of the freedom of the press was established, but the censorship was restored in 1852 and not abolished until 1863. The actual press laws of Austria are based on the press law of the 1 7th of December 1862 as modified by later supplementary enactments. In principle the freedom of the press was secured by art. 13 of the constitution of the 2 1st of December 1867. In practice, however, it was still restricted by the obligation on newspaper proprietors to deposit " caution money " (Kautions- zwang) with the authorities, and the retention of the government stamp on newspapers. The caution money was abolished by a press law of the gth of July 1894, and the stamp by that of the 27th of December 1899. The police, however, still have the right, either on their own initiative or under the instructions of the public prosecutor (Staatsanwalt) , " provisionally " to confiscate printed matter which in their opinion offends against the terms of the press law or is contrary to the public interest. The public prosecutor has, within eight days, to justify this action in court, either by proceeding against those responsible for the publication, or by proving the published matter is offensive and ought to be suppressed. This latter " objective " procedure (objektives Verfahren) is peculiar to Austria and obviously places vast powers of control in the hands of the authorities. In 1902 the government introduced a bill greatly modifying these and other provisions of the press law in a liberal sense, but the bill was postponed to more urgent matters. In Hungary the liberty of the press was secured by art. 1 8 of the constitution of 1848, which was restored in 1867. Under this the censorship was abolished; but, in addition to provision for the cases of libel, incitement to violence and crime, &c., the law also provided penalties for certain political press offences (§§ 6-8), i.e. attacks on the king or members of his family, incitements to (a) the dissolution of the territorial unity of the state or of the dynastic link with Austria; (b) the forcible alteration of the constitution; (c) disobedience to lawful authorities; (d) commission of crime. Press offences are tried by special jury courts. Under the Criminal Code of 1878 (§§ 170-174) further offences were made subject to penalty, including " direct incitement of one class of the popu- lation, one nationality or religious denomination to hatred of another," instigation against the constitution and parliament, and glorification of any one who has suffered punishment for such offences. " Direct incitement " (§ 172), was subsequently inter- preted by the curia to mean " any spoken or written word . . . which is capable of producing in another hatred against a nationality, &c." The result of these provisions has been that liberty of the press has existed in practice only for the Magyars, constant prosecutions having been directed against the editors and proprietors of publica- tions giving voice to the grievances of the other Hungarian races, conviction being all but inevitable owing to the special juries (due to the high property qualification) being almost exclusively composed of members of the dominant race. In Transylvania, where the old stringent Austrian press law of 1852 is still in force, the public prosecutor has discretionary powers to confiscate obnoxious literature, powers freely used against the Rumanian press. (See R. W. Seton Watson, Racial Problems in Hungary, London, 1908, pp. 293 sqq.) Belgium. — It was the prosecution of political writers by the Dutch government that directly led to the independence of Belgium in 1830. By the Belgian constitution of the 7th of February 1831, art. 1 8, it is declared that the press is free, that censorship shall never again be established, that sureties cannot be exacted from writers, editors or printers, and that when the author is known and domiciled in Belgium the printer or bookseller cannot be prosecuted. By art. 98 press offences are to be tried by jury. The penal law of the press is contained in the decree of the 2Oth of July 1831, made perpetual in 1833. By this law it is made an offence, apart from the penal code, (l) to incite to the commission of a crime by placards or printed writings in a public meeting; (2) to attack the obligatory force of the laws, or to incite to disobedience of them ; (3) to attack the constitutional authority or inviolability of the king, the con- stitutional authority of the dynasty, or the authority and rights of the chambers. Every copy of a journal must bear the name of the printer and the indication of his domicile in Belgium. Proceed- ings for offences against the law must be taken in some cases within three months, in others within a year. Denmark. — Press offences were at one time punished with great severity. By the code of Christian V. (1683) libel was punished with infamy and hard labour for life: and, if against a magistrate, with death. Censorship was abolished and the press declared free by art. 86 of the constitution granted' by Frederick VII. on the 5th of Tune 1849 and confirmed by Christian IX. in 1866. Art. 81 forbids the search for or seizure of printed matter in a dwelling-house, unless after judicial proceedings. France. — The government began early to impose stringent restric- tions upon printing. An edict of Henry II. in 1559 made it punish- able with death to print without authority. The university of Paris originally claimed the right of licensing new theological works, a jurisdiction vested in the Crown by an ordinance of 1566. Offences against religion were severely punished by the secular authorities. Thus the parliament of Toulouse sent Vanini to the stake in 1619 for the crime of publishing a heretical work. A few years later, in 1626, Cardinal Richelieu declared it a capital offence to publish a work against religion or the state. In 1723 appeared a regulation forbidding any but licensed booksellers to deal in books. Many later regulations were directed against unlicensed presses, the employment of more than a certain number of workmen, &c. At the Revolution all these restrictions were abolished, and the Assembly declared it to be the right of every citizen to print and publish his opinions. This new liberty quickly needed a check, which was attempted as early as 1791, but no effectual restraint was imposed until the law of the 5th of February 1810 established a direction of the press. The charter of Louis XVIII. in 1814 gave liberty to the press in express terms, but restrictions soon followed. In 1819 a system of sureties (cautionnements} replaced the censorship. The Revolu- tion of 1830 was caused by, inter alia, one of the ordinances of St Cloud (July 25, 1830) for suspension of the liberty of the press. Restrictions on the liberty were removed for the time in 1830 and 1852, only to be succeeded as usual by the press laws of 1835 and 1852. During the Second Empire government prosecutions for libel were used as a powerful engine against the press. The proceedings against Montalembert in 1858 are a well-known instance. Between 1858 and 1866 many newspapers were suppressed by proclamation. With the republic liberty of the press was completely re-established. A decree of the 27th of October 1870 submitted press offences to trial by jury.1 The law of the 29th of July 1881, by which the French press is now regulated, begins by asserting the liberty of the press and of bookselling. The principal limitations of this liberty are the prohibition to publish criminal proceedings before hearing in public, or lists of subscriptions for indemnifying an accused person, and the power of forbidding the entrance of foreign newspapers under certain circumstances. The order of responsibility for printed matter is (l) the manager or editor, (2) the author, (3) the printer, (4) the vender or distributor. The printer and the vender, however, can only be punished for acts not falling within their proper functions. Proceedings for breaches of the law must be taken within three months. As to taxation, the decree of the 5th of September 1870 abolished the stamp duty upon newspapers, but it is still imposed 1 See Dalloz, Jurisprudence generale, s.v. " Presse " ; ibid. Titles alphabeliques (1845-1877), s.v. " Presse." PRESS LAWS 303 upon public notices (affiches) other than those of public authorities. None but the notices of public authorities may be printed on white paper. Germany. — Censorship was introduced by the diet of Spires in 1529. From that time till 1848 there were numerous restrictions on the liberty of the press. One of the most important was a resolution of the diet of the German confederation, passed on the aoth of September 1819 as a sequel to the Carlsbad decrees (j.t>.), by which ni-w snipers were subject to licence and police supervision in each state. Liberty dates, as in Austria and Italy, from 1848. Soon after that year, however, it became necessary to establish press laws in most of the German states, as in Bavaria in 1850, Prussia and I ;. K li-n in 1 85 1 . Since the establishment of the new empire censorship lisuppeared. By art. 74 of the constitution of the empire (1871) every one attacking the empire or its officers through the press is liable to punishment in his own state. By art. 4 the laws relating i» the press are under imperial and not local control. The press law of the 7th of May 1874 is therefore in force throughout the whole empire. At its beginning it affirms the liberty of the press. Its mam provisions are these: The name and address of the printer must appear on all printed matter. Newspapers and periodicals must in addition bear the name of some one person, domiciled in the empire, as responsible editor, and a copy of every number must be deposited with the police authorities of the district in which it is published. Foreign periodicals may be excluded by proclamation of the Imperial chancellor for two years, if twice within the year they have been guilty of certain offences against the penal code. Criminal proceedings are not to be reported while still subjudice. The order of responsibility for offences is the same as in France. Proceedings must be taken within six months. In certain cases printed matter may be seized without the order of a court. This may take place where (i) the publication does not bear the name of printer or editor, (2) military secrets are revealed in time of war, (3) justice would be defeated by the publication not being immedi- ately seized. A judicial tribunal is to decide at once upon the legality of the seizure. The press law is not to affect regulations made in time of war or internal disturbance. A temporary law passed in 1878 gave the police large powers in the case of socialistic publica- tions. Only offences involving heavy penalties are tried by jury. The proposal of the Reichstag that all press offences should be so tried was rejected by the governments, except as regards those states (Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, Baden, Oldenburg) where this principle was already in force. Greece. — Under King Otto censorship was exercised up to 1844. By the constitution of the i8th of March 1844 every one may publish his thoughts by means of the press, observing the laws of the state. The press is free, and censorship (\o-yoKpiala) is not permitted. Responsible editors, publishers and printers of news- papers are not required to deposit money on the ground of surety. Publishers of newspapers must be Greek citizens (art. 10). The legislature may exclude reporters from its sittings in certain cases (art. 48). Press offences are to be tried by jury, except when they deal only with private life (art. 93). Holland. — The press has been free since the existence of the present kingdom of the Netherlands, which dates from 1815. Liberty of the press is expressly secured by art. 8 of the constitu- tion of 1848. By art. 286 of the penal code seditious books and newspapers may be seized. By art. 283 of the same code and by a royal decree of the 25th of January 1814 the name of the printer must appear upon newspapers. Press offences are not tried by jury- Italy. — By art. 27 of the political code of Sardinia, granted by Charles Albert on the 4th of March 1848, and still in force, the press is free, but abuses of the liberty are restrained by law. The present press law of Italy is contained in the law of the 26th of March 1848, as altered by later enactments. Everything printed in typographical characters, or by lithography or any similar means, must indicate the place and the date of printing and the name of the printer. A copy of everything printed must be deposited with certain officials and at certain libraries. Before the publication of any newspaper or periodical, notice of the intended publication must be given at the office of the secretary of state for internal affairs. The notice must contain (i) a declaration of the legal qualification of the person intending to publish, whether as pro- prietor or editor, (2) the nature of the publication, and (3) the name and residence of the responsible editor. Every newspaper is bound to insert gratuitously a contradiction or explanation of any charge made against a person in its columns. For contravention of these and other regulations there is a statutory penalty not exceeding 1000 lire (£40). The publication of a newspaper may be suspended until the payment of a fine. The publication of parliamentary debates is permitted. Press offences are tried by a jury of twelve. By a law of the nth of May 1877 it is forbidden to publish any indication of the way in which individual judges or jurors voted in their deliberations. Norway. — The liberty of the press is secured by art. loo of the constitution of 1814. No one can be punished for any writing unless he, or some one by his instigation, offend against the state, law, religion or decency, or make infamous accusations against .any one. Criticism of the government is expressly permitted. Ottoman Empire. — By art. 12 of the constitution of the 23rd of December 1876 the press was recognized as free, subject to the limits imposed by law. The constitution was, however, " sus- pended," and a rigorous censorship was enforced, under the direction of Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid II., until the revolution of 1908. Portugal. — It is stated by Braga and others that a free press existed up to the establishment of the Inquisition, and that Gil Vicente (d. 1536) was the last writer who dared to express his thoughts freely. At a later period Bocage was imprisoned for writings displeasing to the authorities. Boards of censorship under the names ofthe " Real mesa censoria," or the " Mesa do desembargo do paco," assumed to license publications. Liberty of the press was, however, finally secured, and censorship limited, by art. 7 of the constitution granted by John VI. in 1821. By art. 8 a special tribunal was constituted in both Portugal and Brazil to protect the liberty of printing. The censorship was con- fined to that exercised by the bishops over theological or dogmatic works. The debates in the legislature and proceedings in the courts of justice are not generally reported. Rumania. — By the constitution of the 3oth of June 1866, art. 5, Rumanians enjoy liberty of the press. By art. 24 the constitution guarantees to all the liberty of communicating ana publishing ideas through the press, every one being liable for abuse in cases deter- mined by the penal code. Press offences are to be tried by jury. Censorship is abolished, and is never to be re-established. No previous authorization is necessary for the publication of newspapers. No sureties are to be demanded from journalists, writers, editors or printers. The press is not to be subjected to regulation of ad- vertisements. No newspaper or publication is to be suspended or suppressed. Every author is responsible for his writings; in default of the author, the manager or editor is responsible. Every news- paper must have a responsible manager in the possession of civil and political rights. Russia. — The position of the Russian press generally was, previously to the revolution of 1905, regulated by a law of the 6th of April 1865. The effect of that law was to exempt from preventive censorship (if published in St Petersburg or Moscow) all newspapers, periodicals and original works and translatjons not exceeding a certain number of pages, and (wherever published) all government publications, matter printed by academies, universities and scientific bodies, and maps, plans, and charts. Everything printed and published that did not fall within any of these categories had, before issue to the public, to be submitted for the approval of government censors stationed in different parts of the empire. The minister of the interior had power to dispense with the preventive censorship in the case of provincial newspapers and periodicals. In St Peters- burg and Moscow the periodical press was subject to corrective censorship for infringement of the numerous restrictive regulations contained in the code, and supplemented at times by secret instruc- tions from the minister of the interior to editors and publishers. Apart from the code, the sustained display of a spirit hostile to the government rendered the publisher of a periodical liable to punish- ment. The penalties established by the law of 1865 for offences against the press regulations consisted in the infliction of a series of warnings published in the Official Gazette. A first warning merely enjoined more care for the future; a second was followed by suspension for a certain period, sometimes by a prohibition to insert advertisements; a third by suppression, and perhaps prosecution of the offending conductor. By Imperial ukaz of the 2nd of June 1872 the jurisdiction of the judicial tribunals over press offences was practically transferred to the minister of the interior, except in the case of violation of private rights, as by libel. The law of 1865 was modified in 1874 by a regulation to the effect that all publications appearing at longer intervals than one week should be submitted to the central board of censors. This applied to all periodicals that had been formerly published without preventive censorship. By a ukaz issued in 1881 a committee of four members was entrusted with the decision of all matters relating to the press submitted to it by the minister of the interior. The strictest supervision was exercised over the foreign press, periodical and otherwise. None but a few privileged individuals, such as members of the royal family, foreign diplomatists, and editors of newspapers in the capital, might receive foreign publications free of censorship. The censorship consisted in blackening out, and sometimes in the excision, of whole columns and sheets of publications that might be deemed pernicious. Only such periodicals as were placed on a list approved by the board of censors were allowed to be received througn the post office by non- privileged persons. Telegraphic messages to newspapers were subject to strict censorship. The Russian telegraphic press agency is under official management. Full liberty of the press was guaranteed by the Imperial ukaz of the I7th of October 1905, and though no special legislation followed the censorship was for a time de facto abolished. With the progress of the reaction, however, the old conditions were to a certain extent re-established. In St Petersburg, for instance, the newspapers were in 1909 again under the absolute jurisdiction of chief of police and were forbidden to -publish any reference to members of the Imperial family or to the affairs of Poland (except official notices). In iox>8 as many as 73 newspapers and periodicals were suppressed, of which 28 were in St Petersburg alone. PRESTEIGN— PRESTER JOHN 3°4 Spain. — There was probably no country where restrictions on the liberty of the press were at one time more stringent than in Spain. From the first use of printing up to 1521 censorship was exercised by the Crown; after that date the Inquisition began to assume the right, and continued to do so up to its suppression in 1808. In 1558 Philip II. denounced the pnalty of death against even the possessor of a book upon the Index expurgatorius of the Inquisition. Some of the greatest names in Spanish literature were sufferers: Castillejo, Mendoza, Mariana and Quevedo incurred the displeasure of the Inquisition; Luis Ponce de Leon was imprisoned for his translation of the Song of Solomon. The last Index appeared in 1790.' In 1812 the constitution promulgated by the regency in the name of Ferdinand VII. provided by art. 371 that all Spaniards should have liberty to write, print and publish their political ideas without any necessity for licence, examination or approbation pre- vious to publication, subject to the restrictions imposed by law. Art. 13 of the constitution of the 3Oth of June 1876, promul- gated on the accession of Alphonso XII., practically re-enacts this provision. Sweden. — The press law of the i6th of July 1812 is one of the fundamental laws of Sweden. It is an expansion of art. 86 of the constitution of the 6th of June 1809. Liberty of the press is declared to be the privilege of every Swede, subject to prosecution for libellous writing. Privileges of individuals as to publication are abolished. The title and place of publication of every newspaper or periodical must be registered, and every publication must bear the name of the printer and the place of printing. Press offences are tried by a jury of nine, chosen respectively by the prosecutor, the prisoner, and the court. The verdict of two-thirds of the jury is final. Switzerland. — Liberty of the press is secured by art. 45 of the constitution of 1848, re-enacted by art. 55 of the constitution of the 29th of May 1874. Each canton has its own laws for the repres- sion of abuse of the liberty, subject to the approbation of the federal council. The confederation can impose penalties on libels directed against itself or its officers. PRESTEIGN, a market town, urban district, and assize and county town of Radnorshire, Wales, situated on the Lug amidst beautiful scenery. Pop. (1901), 1245. Presteign is the terminus of a branch of the Great Western railway running north from Titley Junction in Herefordshire. The old-fashioned town contains the fine parish church of St Andrew, dating chiefly from the isth century, and an interesting old inn, the " Radnor- shire Arms," once the residence of the Bradshaw family in the 1 7th century. To the west rises the Warden, a wooded hill laid out as a public park. Presteign is the most easterly spot on the Welsh border, a circumstance that is noted in the Cymric expression to mark the extreme breadth of the Principality — o Tyddewi i LLanandras (" from St Davids to Presteign "). Although the Welsh name of Llanandras is said to denote a foundation by St Andras ap Rhun ap Brychan in the sth century, the place seems to have been an obscure hamlet in the lordship of Moelynaidd until the I4th century, when Bishop David Martyn of St Davids (1290-1328) conferred valuable market privileges upon this his native place, which on doubtful authority is said to derive its English name from this priest. In 1542 Presteign was named as the meeting place of the county sessions for Radnorshire in conjunction with New Radnor, and it has ever since ranked as the county town. Although an ancient borough by prescription, Presteign was not included in the Radnor parliamentary district until the iQth century, and of this privilege it was deprived by the Redistribution Act of 1885. PRESTER JOHN, a fabulous medieval Christian monarch of Asia. The history of Prester John no doubt originally gathered round some nucleus of fact, though what that was is extremely difficult to determine. But the name and the figure which it suggested occupied so prominent a place in the mind of Europe for two or three centuries that a real history could hardly have a stronger claim to exposition. Before Prester John appears upon the scene we find the way prepared for his appearance by a kindred fable, which entwined itself with the legends about him. This is the story of the appearance at Rome (1122), in the pontificate of Calixtus II., of a certain Oriental ecclesiastic, whom one account styles " John, the patriarch of the Indians," and another " an archbishop of India." This ecclesiastic related wonderful stories of the shrine of St Thomas in India, and of the miracles wrought there by the body of the apostle, including 1 See Ticknor, Hist, of Span. Lit. i. 422 seq., iii. 366 the distribution of the sacramental wafer by his hand. We cannot regard the appearance at Rome of the personage who related these marvels in presence of the pope as a mere popular fiction: it rests on two authorities apparently independent (one of them a letter from Odo of Reims, abbot of St Remy from 1118 to 1151), for their discrepancies show that one was not copied from the other, though in the principal facts they agree. Nearly a quarter of a century later Prester John appears upon the scene, in the character of a Christian conqueror and potentate who combined the characters of priest and king, and ruled over vast dominions in the Far East. This idea was uni- versal in Europe from about the middle of the I2th century to the end of the i3th or beginning of the I4th. The Asiatic story then died away, but the name remained, and the royal presbyter was now assigned a locus in Ethiopia. Indeed, it is not improbable that from a very early date the title was assigned to the Abyssinian king, though for a time this identifi- cation was overshadowed by the prevalence of the Asiatic legend. At the bottom of the double allocation there was, no doubt, that confusion of Ethiopia with India which is as old as Virgil and perhaps older. The first mention of Prester John occurs in the chronicle of Otto, bishop of Freisingen. This writer states that when at • the papal court in 1 145 he met with the bishop of Gabala (Jibal in Syria), who related how "not many years before one John, king and priest (rex et sacerdos), who dwelt in the extreme Orient beyond Persia and Armenia, and was, with his people, a Christian but a Nestorian, had made war against the brother kings of the Persians and Medes, who were called Samiards (or Sanjards), and captured Ecbatana their capital. After this victory Presbyter John — for so he was wont to be styled — advanced to fight for the Church at Jerusalem; but when he arrived al the Tigris and found no means of transport for his army, he turned northward, as he had heard that the river in that quarter was frozen over in winter-time. After halting on its banks for some years in expectation of a frost he was obliged to return home. This personage was said to be of the ancient race of the Magi mentioned in the Gospel, to rule the same nations that they ruled, and to have such wealth that he used a sceptre of solid emerald. Whatever impression was made by this report, or by other rumours of the event on which it was founded, was far exceeded, about 1165, by the circulation of a letter purporting to be addressed by Prester John to the emperor Manuel. This letter, professing to come from " Presbyter Joannes, by the power and virtue of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ, Lord of Lords," claimed that he was the greatest monarch under heaven, as well as a devout Christian. The letter dealt at length with the wonders of his empire. It was his desire to visit the Holy Sepulchre with a great host, and to subdue the enemies of the Cross. Seventy-two kings, reigning over as many kingdoms, were his tributaries. His em- pire extended over the three Indies, including that Farther India, where lay the body of St Thomas, to the sun-rising, and back again down the slope to the ruins of Babylon and the tower of Babel. All the wild beasts and monstrous creatures commemo- rated in current legend were to be found in his dominions, as well as all the wild and eccentric races of men of whom strange stories were told, including those unclean nations whom Alex- ander Magnus walled up among the mountains of the north, and who were to come forth at the latter day — and so were the Amazons and the Bragmans. His dominions contained the monstrous ants that dug gold and the fish that gave the purple; they produced all manner of precious stones and all the famous aromatics. Within them was found the Fountain of Youth; the pebbles which give light, restore sight, and render the possessor invisible; the Sea of Sand was there, stored with fish of wondrous savour; and the River of Stones was there also; besides a subterranean stream whose sands were of gems. His territory produced the worm called " salamander," which lived in fire, and which wrought itself an incombustible envelope from which were manufactured robes for the presbyter, which were washed in flaming fire. When the king went forth to war thirteen PRESTER JOHN great crosses made of gold and jewels were carried in wagons before him as his standards, and each was followed by 10,000 knights and 100,000 footmen. There were no poor in his dominions, no thief or robber, no flatterer or miser, no 'dissen- sions, no b'es, and no vices. His palace was built after the plan of that which St Thomas erected for the Indian king Gondo- pharus. Of the splendour of this details are given. Before it was a marvellous mirror erected on a many-storeyed pedestal (described in detail); in this speculum he could discern every- thing that went on throughout his dominions, and detect conspiracies. He was waited on by 7 kings at a time, by 60 dukes and 365 counts; 12 archbishops sat on his right hand, and 20 bishops on his left, besides the patriarch of St Thomas's, theprotopope of the Sarmagantians (Samarkand?), and the archprotopope of Susa, where the royal residence was. There was another palace of still more wonderful character, built by the presbyter's father in obedience to a heavenly command, in the city of Bribric. Should it be asked why, with all this power and splendour, he calls himself merely " presbyter," this is because of his humility, and because it was not fitting for one whose sewer was a primate and king, whose butler an archbishop and king, whose chamberlain a bishop and king, whose master of the horse an archimandrite and king, whose chief cook an abbot and king, to be called by such titles as these. How great was the popularity and diffusion of this letter may be judged in some degree from the fact that Zarncke in his treatise on Prester John gives a list of close on 100 MSS. of it. Of these there are 8 in the British Museum, 10 at Vienna, 13 in the great Paris library, 15 at Munich. There are also several renderings in old German verse. Many circumstances of the time tended to render such a letter accept- able. Christendom would welcome gladly the intelligence of a counterpoise arising so unexpectedly to the Mahommedan power; while the statements of the letter itself combined a reference to and corroboration of all the romantic figments con- cerning Asia which already fed the curiosity of Europe, which figured in the world-maps, and filled that fabulous history of Alexander which for nearly a thousand years supplanted the real history of the Macedonian throughout Europe and western Asia. The only other surviving document of the I2th century bearing on this subject is a letter of which MS. copies are preserved in the Cambridge and Paris libraries, and which is also embedded in the chronicles of several English annalists, including Benedict of Peter- borough, Roger Hovedon and Matthew Paris. It purports to have been indited from the Rialto at Venice by Pope Alexander III. on the 5th day before the calends of October (Sept. 27), data which fix the year as 1177. The pope addresses it, carissimo in Christo filio Johanni, illustro el magmfico indorum regi [Hovedon's copy here inserts sacerdoti sanctissimo}. He recites how he had heard of the monarch's Christian profession, diligence in good works and piety, by manifold narrators and common report, but also more particularly from his (the pope's) physician and confidant (medicus et familians nosier), Master Philip, who had received information from honourable persons of the monarch's kingdom, with whom he had intercourse in those (Eastern) parts. Philip had also reported the king's anxiety for instruction in Catholic discipline and for reconciliation with the apostolic see in regard to all discrepancies, and his desire to have a church in Rome and an altar at Jerusalem. The pope goes on to say that he found it too difficult, on account of the length and obstructions of the way, to send any one (of ecclesiastical position?) a latere, but he would despatch Philip to communicate instruction to him. And on accepting Philip's communications the king should send back honourable persons bearing letters sealed with his seal, in which his wishes should be fully set forth. " The more nobly and magnanimously thou conductest thyself, and the less thou vauntest of thy wealth and power, the more readily shall we regard thy wishes both as to the concession of a church in the city and of altars in the church of SS. Peter and Paul, and in the church of the Lord's Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and as to other reasonable requests." There is no express mention of the title " Prester John " in what seem the more genuine copies of this letter. But the address and the expression in the italicized passage just quoted (which evidently alludes to the vaunting epistle of 1165) hardly leave room for doubt that the pope supposed himself to be addressing the author of that letter. We do not know how far the imaginations about Prester John retained their vitality in 1221, forty-four years after the letter of Pope Alexander, for we know of no mention of Prester John in the interval. But in that year again a rumour came out of the East that a great Christian conqueror was taking the hated Moslems in 305 reverse and sweeping away their power. Prophecies current among the Christians in Syria of the destruction of Mahomet's sect after six centuries of duration added to the excitement attending these rumours. The name ascribed to the conqueror was David, and some called him the son or the grandson of Prester John of India. He whose conquests and slaughters now revived the legend was in [act no Christian or King David but the famous Jenghiz Khan. The delusion was dissipated slowly, and even after the great Tatar invasion and devastation of eastern Europe its effects still influenced the mind of Christendom and caused popes and kings to send missions to the Tatar hordes with a lingering feeling that their khans, if not already Christians, were at least always on the verge of conversion. Before proceeding further we must go back to the bishop of Gabala's story. M. d'Avezac first showed to whom the story must apply. The only conqueror whose career suits in time and approximates in circumstances is the founder of Kara-Khitai, which existed as a great empire in Central Asia during the latter two-thirds of the I3th century. This personage was a prince of the Khitai or Khitaian dynasty of Liao, which had reigned over northern China and the regions beyond the Wall during a great part of the loth and nth centuries, and from which came the name Khitai (Cathay), by which China was once known in Europe and still is known in Russia. On the overthrow of the dynasty about 1125 this prince, who is called by the Chinese Yeliu Tashi, and had gone through a complete Chinese education, escaped westward with a body of followers. Being .well received by the Uighurs and other tribes west of the desert, 'subjects of his family, he gathered an army and commenced a course of conquest which eventually extended over eastern and western Turkestan. He took the title of Gur Khan or Kor Khan, said to mean " universal " or " supreme " khan, and fixed at Balasaghun, north of the T'ian Shan range, the capital of his empire, which became known as that of Kara-Khitai (Black Cathay). In 1141 the assistance of this Khitaian prince was invoked by the shah of Kharezm against Sanjar, the Seljuk sovereign of Persia, who had expelled the shah from his kingdom and killed his son. The Gur Khan came with a vast army of Turks, Khitaians, and others, and defeated Sanjar near Samarkand (Sept. 1141) in a battle which the historian Ibn al-Athir calls the greatest defeat that Islam had ever undergone in those regions. Though the Gur Khan himself is not described as having extended his con- quests into Persia, the shah of Kharezm followed up the victory by invading Khorasan and plundering the cities and treasuries of Sanjar. In this event — the defeat of Sanjar, whose brother's son, Mas'ud, reigned over western Persia — occurring four years before the story of the Eastern conqueror was told at Rome to Bishop Otto, we seem to have the destruction of the Samiardi fratres or Sanjar brothers, which was the germ of the story of Prester John. There is no evidence of any profession of Christianity on the part of the Gur Khan, though the daughter of the last of his race is recorded to have been a Christian. The hosts of the Gur Khan are called by Moslem historians Al-Turk-al-Kuffar, the kafir or infidel Turks; and in later days the use of this term " kafir " led to mis- apprehensions, as when Vasco da Gama's people were led to take for Christians the Banyan traders on the African coast, and to describe as Christian sovereigns so many princes of the Farther East of whom they heard at Calicut. How the name John arose is one of the obscure points. Oppert supposes the title " Gur Khan " to have been confounded with Yukhanan or Johannes; and it is probable that even in the Levant the stories of John the patriarch of the Indies," repeated in the early part of this article, may have already mingled with the rumours from the East. The failure in the history of the Gur Khan to meet all points in the story of the bishop of Cabala led Professor Bruun of Odessa to bring forward another candidate for jdentity with the original Prester John, in the person of the Georgian prince John Orbelian, the " sbasalar," or generalissimo under several kings of Georgia in that age. He shows instances, in documents of the 15th century, of the association of Prester John with the Caucasus. In one at least of these the title is applied to the king of Abassia, i.e. of the Abhasians of Caucasus. Some confusion between Abash (Abyssinia) and Abhas seems to be possibly at the bottom of the imbroglio. An abstract of Professor Bruun's argument will be found in the 2nd edition of Sir H. Yule's Marco Polo, ii. 539-542. As regards any real foundation for the titje of " Presbyter we may observe that nothing worth mentioning has been alleged on behalf of any candidate. When the Mongol conquests threw Asia open to Frank travellers in the middle of the I3th century their minds were full of Prester John; they sought in vain for an adequate representative, nor was it in the nature of things that they should not find some repre- sentative. In fact they found several. Apparently no real tradition existed among the Eastern Christians of such a personage; the myth had taken shape from the clouds of rumour as they rolled westward from Asia. But the persistent demand produced a supply; and the honour of identification with Prester John, after hovering over one head and another, settled for a long time upon that of the king of the Nestorian tribe of Kerait, famous in the histories of Jenghiz under the name of Ung or Awang Khan. In Carpini's (1248) single mention of Prester John as the king 306 PRESTER JOHN of the Christians of India the Greater, who defeats the Tatars by an elaborate stratagem, Oppert recognizes Jalaluddin of Kharezm and his brief success over the Mongols in Afghanistan. In the Armenian prince Sempad's account (1248), on the other hand, this Christian king of India is aided by the Tatars to defeat and harass the Saracens, and becomes the vassal of the Mongols. In the nar- rative of William Rubruquis (1253), though distinct reference is made to the conquering Gur Khan under the name of Coir Cham of Caracatay, the title of " King John " is assigned to Kushluk, king of the Naimans, who had married the daughter of the last lineal representative of the gur khans.1 And from the remarks which Rubruquis makes in connexion with this King John, on the habit of the Nestorians to spin wonderful stories out of nothing, and of the great tales that went forth about King John, it is evident that the intelligent traveller supposed this king of the Naimans to be the original of the widely spread legend. He mentions, however, a brother of this John called Unc who ruled over the Crit and Merkit (or Kerait and Mekrit, two of the great tribes of Mongolia), whose history he associates with that of Jenghiz Khan. Unc Khan reappears in Marco Polo, who tells much about him as " a great prince, the same that we call Prester John, him in fact about whose great dominion all the world talks." This Unc was in fact the prince of the Kerait, called by the Chinese Tuli, and by the Persian historians of the Mongols Toghral, on whom the Kin emperor of north China had conferred the title of " wang " or king, whence his coming to be known as Awang or Ung Khan. He was long the ally of Jenghiz, but a breach occurred between them, and they were mortal enemies till the death of Ung Khan in 1203. In the narrative of Marco Polo " Unc Can," alias Prester John, is the liege lord of the Tatars, to whom they paid tribute until Jenghiz arose. And this is substantially the story repeated by other European writers of the end of the I3th century, such as Ricold of Monte- croce and the sieur de Joinville, as well as by one Asiatic, the famous Christian writer, Gregory Abulfaraj. We can find no Oriental corroboration of the claims of Ung Khan to supremacy over the Mongols. But that his power and dignity were consider- able appears from the term " Padshah," which is applied to him by the historian Rashiduddin. We find Prester John in one more phase before he vanishes from Asiatic history, real or mythical. Marco Polo in the latter part of the I3th century, and Friar John of Montecorvino, afterwards archbishop of Cambaluc, in the beginning of the I4th, speak of the descendants of Prester John as holding territory under the great khan in a locality which can be identified with the plain of Kuku- Khotan, north of the great bend of the Yellow river and about 280 m. north-west of Peking. The prince reigning in the time of these two writers was named King George, and was the " 6th in descent from Prester John," i.e. no doubt from Awang Khan. Friar Odoric, about 1326, visited the country still ruled by the prince whom he calls Prester John; "but," he says, "as regards him, not one-hundredth part is true that is told of him." With this mention Prester John ceases to have any pretension to histori- cal existence in Asia (for we need not turn aside to Mandeville's fabulous revival of old stories or to the barefaced fictions of his contemporary, John of Hese, which bring in the old tales of the miraculous body of St Thomas), and his connexion with that quarter of the world gradually died out of the memory of Europe.2 When next we begin to hear his name it is as an African, not as an Asiatic prince; and the personage so styled is in fact the Christian king of Abyssinia. Ludolf has asserted that this applica- tion was an invention of the Portuguese and arose only in the 15th century. But this is a mistake; for in fact the application had begun much earlier, and probably long before the name had ceased to be attached by writers on Asia to the descendants of the king of the Kerait. It is true that the Florentine Simone Sigoli, who visited Cairo in 1384, in his Viaggio al Monte Sinai still speaks of " Presto Giovanni " as a monarch dwelling in India; but it is the India which is conterminous with the dominions of the soldan of Egypt, and whose lord is master of the Nile, to close or open its discharge upon Egypt. Thirty years earlier (c. 1352) the Franciscan Giovanni de' Marignolli, apostolic legate in Asia, speaks in his Chronica of Ethiopia where the Negroes are, and which is called the land of Prester John.3 Going back still further, Friar Jordanus 1 It has been pointed out by Alexander Wylie that Kushluk was son of a powerful king of the Naimans, whose name Ta- Yang-Khan is precisely " Great King John " as nearly as that could be expressed in Chinese. 2 The stories of Khitai as a Christian empire, which led the Jesuits at the court of Akbar to despatch Benedict Goes in search of it (1601), did, however, suggest to Jerome Xavier, their chief, that the country in question " was the Cathay of Marco Polo, and its Christian king the representative of the famous Prester John " — a jumble of inaccuracy. * In_ a Spanish work of about the same date, by an anonymous Franciscan, we are told that the emperor called " Abdeselib, which means ' servant of the Cross,' is a protestor of Preste Juan, who is the patriarch of Nubia and Ethiopia, and is lord of many great lands, and many cities of Christians, though they be black as " Catalan!," who returned from the East before 1328, speaks of the emperor of the Ethiopians " quern vos vocatis Prestre Johan." But, indeed, we shall have strong probability on our side if we go back much further still, and say that, however vague may have been the ideas of Pope Alexander III. respecting the geographical position of the potentate whom he addressed from Venice in 1177, the only real person to whom the letter can have been sent was the king of Abyssinia. Let it be observed that the " honourable per- sons of the monarch's kingdom " whom the leech Philip had met with in the East must have been the representatives of some real power, and not of a phantom. It must have been a real king who professed to desire reconciliation with the Catholic Church and the assignation of a church at Rome and of an altar at Jerusalem. Moreover, we know that the Ethiopic Church did long possess a chapel and altar in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and, though we have been unable to find travellers' testimony to this older than about 1497, it is quite possible that the appropriation may have originated much earlier.4 We know from Marco Polo that about a century after the date of Pope Alexander's epistle a mission was sent by the king of Abyssinia to Jerusalem to make offerings on his part at the Church of the Sepulchre. It must be remembered that at the time of the pope's letter Jerusalem, which had been taken from the Moslem in 1099, was still in Christian possession. Abys- sinia had been going through a long period of vicissitude and dis- traction. In the loth century the royal line had been superseded by a dynasty of Falasha Jews, followed by other Christian families; but weakness and disorder continued till the restoration of the " House of Solomon " (c. 1268). Nothing is more likely than that the princes of the " Christian families " who had got possession of the throne of northern Abyssinia should have wished to strengthen themselves by a connexion with European Christendom, and to establish relations with Jerusalem, then in Christian hands. We do not know whether the leech Philip ever reached his destination, or whether a reply ever came back to the Lateran.6 Baronius, who takes the view for which we have been arguing, sup- poses it possible that the church in Rome possessed in his own time by the Abyssinians (St Stephen's in the Vatican) might have been granted on this occasion. But we may be sure that this was a modern concession during the attempts to master the Ethiopian Church early in the l6th century. Ludolf intimates that its occu- pancy had been taken from them in his own time after it had been held " for more than a century." In the legendary history of the Translation of the three Blessed Kings by John of Hildesheim (c. 1370), of which an account and extracts are given by Zarncke (Abhandl. li. 154 seq.), we have an evident jumble in the writer's mind between the Asiatic and the African location of Prester John; among other matters it is stated that Prester John and the Nubians dug a chapel out of the rock under Calvary in honour of the three kings: " et vocatur ilia capella in partibus illis capella Nubiyanorum ad reges in praesentem diem, sed Sarracini . . . ob invidiam obstruxerunt " (p. 158). From the I4th century onwards Prester John had found his seat in Abyssinia. It is there that Fra Mauro's great map (1459) presents a fine city with the rubric, " Qui il Preste Janni fa residentia principal." When, nearer the end of the century (1481-1495), King pitch, and brand themselves with the sign of the cross in token of their baptism " (Libra del conocimiento de todos reynos, &c., printed at Madrid, 1877). 4 Indeed, we can carry the date back half a century further by the evidence of a letter translated in Ludolf (Comment, p. 303). This is addressed from Shoa by the king Zara Jacob in the eighth year of his reign (1442) to the Abyssinian monks, dwellers at Jerusalem. The king desires them to light certain lamps in the Church of the Sepulchre, including " three in our chapel.' In the Pilgerfahrt des Ritters Arnold von Harff (1496^-1499: Cologne, 1860, p. 175), we find it stated that the Abyssinians had their chapel, &c., to the left of the Holy Sepulchre, between two pillars of the Temple, whilst the Armenian chapel was over theirs, reached by a stone staircase alongside of the Indians (or Abyssinians). This exactly corresponds with the plan and reference given in Sandys's Travels (1615), p. 162, which show the different chapels. The first on the south, t.e. the •left looking from the body of the church, is " No. 35.— The chappell of the Abisines, over which the chappell of the Armenians. A reference to Jerusalem, which we procured through the kindness of Mr Walter Besant, shows that the Abyssinians no longer have a chapel or privileges in the Church of the Sepulchre. Between the Armenians and the Copts they have been deprived of these, and even of the keys of their convent. The resentment of King Theodore at the loss of these privileges was one of the indirect causes which led to the war between him and England in 1867-68. 6 Matthew Paris gives a letter from Philip, prior of the Dominicans in Palestine, which reached the pope in 1237, and which speaks of a prelate from whom he had received several letters, "qui pracest omnibus quos Nestoriana haeresis ab ecclesia separavit (cujus praelatio per Indiam Majorem, et per regnum sacerdotis Johannis, et per regna magis proxima Orient! dilatatur)." We have little doubt that Abyssinia was the " regnum " here indicated, though it was a mistake to identify the Abyssinian Church with the Nestonans. PRESTIDIGITATION— PRESTON 307 John II. of Portugal was prosecuting inquiries regarding access to India his first object was to open communication with " Prester John of the Indies," who was understood to be a Christian potentate in Africa. And when Vasco da Gama went on his voyage from Mozambique northwards he began to hear of " Preste Joham " as reigning in the interior — or rather, probably, by the fight of his preconceptions of the existence of that personage in East Africa he thus interpreted what was told him. More than twenty years later, when the first book on Abyssinia was composed — that of Alvarez — the title designating the king of Abyssinia is " Prester John," or simply " the Preste. ' On the whole subject in its older aspects, see Ludolf's Historia Acihiopica and its Commentary, passim. The excellent remarks of M. d'Avezac, comprising a conspectus of almost the whole essence of the subject, are in the Recueil de voyages et de memoires pub- lished by the Societe de G6ographie, iv. 547-564 (Paris, 1839). Two German works of importance which have been used in this art irk- are the interesting and suggestive Der Presbyter Johannes in Sage und Geschichte, by Dr Gustav Oppert (2nd ed., Berlin, 1870), and, most important of all in its learned, careful and critical collec- tion and discussion of all the passages bearing on the subject, Der Priester Johannes, by Friedrich Zarncke of Leipzig (1876-1879). See also Sir H. Yule's Cathay and the "Way Thither, p. 173 scq., and in Marco Polo (and ed.), i. 229-233, ii. 539-543. (H. Y.) PRESTIDIGITATION (from Lat. praesto, ready, and digitus, finger), the art of conjuring by nimble-fingered dexterity, particularly as opposed to the use of mechanical devices (see CONJURING). The Latin praesligium, illusion, praesligiae tricks, and praestigiator, juggler (from prae, before, and stingere, to prick), cover the same meaning though differently derived. PRESTIGE, influence and authority exercised by reason of high reputation. It is one of the few words which have gained a meaning superior to that of original usage. The word in French, from which it has been borrowed by English, as in Latin praesligium or praestigiae, meant jugglers' tricks, deceit, imposture, and so is found in the i6th century. The Latin stands for praestrigium, from praestringere, to bind or fasten tight, hence to blindfold; others derive from praestinguere, to darken, obscure, deceive. The word was at first generally used as foreign and italicized; thus the New English Dictionary quotes Sir Walter Scott (Paul's Letters to his Kinsfolk, 1815) for the earliest example in English of the modern usage, " Napoleon needed the dazzling blaze of decisive victory to renew the charm or prestige . . . once attached to his name and fortunes." Other words derived from praestigium through the French retain the original meaning of juggling or conjuring (see PRESTIDIGITATION). PRESTON, JOHN (1587-1628), English Puritan divine, was born at Heyford in Northamptonshire and was educated at Queens' College, Cambridge (fellow 1609). He took orders, and on becoming dean of his college drew large crowds to hear his preaching. On the duke of Buckingham's advice he was appointed chaplain to Prince Charles in 1620; in 1622 he became preacher at Lincoln's Inn and master of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. After the accession of Charles I. he worked hard on behalf of the Puritan cause, but could accomplish little or nothing against Archbishop Laud. In theology he was a stanch Calvinist and his writings had considerable popularity. PRESTON, a municipal, county, and parliamentary borough and port, of Lancashire, England, on the river Kibble, 209 m. N.W. by N. from London by the London & North-Western railway, served also by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1891), 107,573; (1901), 112,989; at the beginning of the i oth century it was about 1 7 ,000. The nucleus of its site consists of a ridge rising sharply from the north bank of the river, while the surrounding country, especially to the west about the estuary, is flat. Among the numerous parish churches that of St John, built in Decorated style in 1855, occupies a site which has carried a church from early times. Among several Roman Catholic churches, that of St Walpurgis (1854) is a handsome building of Early Decorated character. Of public buildings the most noteworthy is the large town hall, with lofty tower and spire, in Early English style, built in 1867 from designs by Sir Gilbert Scott. The free public library and museum were established in 1879 by the trustees of E. R. Harris, a prominent citizen. A new building was opened in 1893. Here is placed Dr Shepherd's library founded in 1761, of nearly 9000 volumes, as well as a collection of pictures, &c., valued at £40,000, bequeathed by the late R. Newsham. The Harris Institute, endowed by the above-named trustees with £40,000, is established in a building of classical style erected in 1849, wherein are held science and art classes, and a chemical laboratory is maintained. For the grammar school, founded in 1550, a building in the Tudor style was erected in 1841 by private shareholders, but in 1860 they sold it to the corporation, who now have the management of the school. The blue-coat school, founded in 1701, was in 1817 amalgamated with the national schools. A Victoria Jubilee technicaj school was established under a grant from the Harris trustees in 1897. There is also a deaf and dumb school. Preston is well supplied with public recreation grounds, including Avenham Park, the Miller Park, with a statue of the 141)1 earl of Derby (d. 1869), the Moor Park, the Marsh, and the Deepdale grounds, with an observatory. Preston is one of the principal seats of the cotton manufacture in Lancashire. There are also iron and brass foundries, engineering works, cotton machinery works, and boiler works, and some shipbuilding is carried on. In 1826 Preston became a creek of Lancaster, in 1839 it was included in the new port of Fleetwood, and in 1843 it was created an independent port. The trade of the port was insignificant until the construction of spacious docks, in conjunction with the deepening of the river from the quays of Preston to its outfall in the Irish Sea, a distance of 16 m., was begun in 1884, and was carried out at a cost of over one million sterling. The main wet dock, opened in 1892, is 3240 ft. long and 600 ft. wide. The total quayage is over 8500 lineal feet. The channel of the river has been made straighter, and from docks to sea deepened, so that the dock is accessible for vessels of 17 ft. draught on ordinary spring tides. A canal connects Preston with Lancaster. The parliamentary borough, which returns two members, falls between the Blackpool and Darwen divisions of the county. The corporation consists of a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area of municipal borough, 3971 acres. Preston, otherwise Prestune, was near the minor Roman station at Walton-le-Dale and the great Roman road running from Warrington passed through it. It is mentioned in Domes- day Book as one of Earl Tostig's possessions which had fallen to Roger of Poictou, and on his defection it was forfeited to the Crown.1 Henry II. about the year 1179 granted the burgesses a charter by which he confirmed to them the privileges he had granted to Newcastle-under-Lyme, the chief of which were a free borough and a gild merchant. This is the first of fourteen royal charters which have been granted to Preston, the chief of which are as follows: John in 1199 confirmed to Preston -all the rights granted by Henry II. 's charter and also " their fair of eight days" from the Assumption (Aug. 15) and a three days' fair from the eve of Saints Simon and Jude (Oct. 28). Henry III. in 1217 confirmed the summer fair, but for five days only, and granted a weekly market on Wednesday. Edward III. (1328), Richard II. (1379). Henry IV. (1401), Henry V. (1414), Henry VI. (1425) and Philip and Mary (1557) confirmed the previous charters. The weekly market, though granted for Wednesday, was held as early as 1292 on Saturday. Elizabeth in 1566 granted the town its great charter which ratified and extended all previous grants, including the gild merchant,, the weekly market on Saturday and the two annual fairs, in August • for eight days and in October for seven days. Charles II. in 1662 and 1685 granted charters, by the latter of which an additional weekly market on Wednesday was conceded and a three days' fair beginning on the i6th of March. The most important industry used to be woollen weaving. Elizabeth's charter granted to the corporation all fees received from the sealing of cloth within the borough, and in 1571 the mayor reported that the cloths usually made near Preston were " narrow white kearses." Other early industries were glove-making and linen cloth. The first cotton-spinning mill was built in 1777 in Moor Lane, and in 1791 John Horrocks built the Yellow Factory. In 1835 there were forty factories, chiefly spinning, yielding 70,000 lb of cotton yarn weekly. A gild existed perhaps in Saxon times, but the grant of a gild merchant dates from Henry II. 's charter, about 1179. The first gild of which there was any record was celebrated in 1328, at which it was decided to hold a gild every twenty years. Up to 1542, however, they do not appear to have been very regularly celebrated, but 1 The Court leet was held twice a year up to 1835. 3o8 PRESTONPANS— PRESTWICH, SIR J. since that year they have been and still are held at intervals o twenty years. A special gild mayor is appointed on each occa sion. The first mention of a procession at the gild is in 1500 One of the most important items of business was the enrolling of freemen, and the gild rolls are records of the population. In 1397 the gild roll contained the names of over 200 in-burgesses and 100 foreign burgesses; in 1415 the number of in-burgesses was 188, which in 1459 had declined to 72. In 1582 there were over 500 in-burgesses and 340 out-burgesses. There is no evidence for, but rather against, the common statement that Preston was burnt or razed to the ground during the Scottish invasion of 1322. The town suffered severely from the Black Death in 1349-1350, when as many as 3000 persons are saic to have died, and again in the year November 1630 to November 1631, i loo died of pestilence. During the Civil War Preston sided with the king and became the headquarters of the Royalists in Lancashire. In February 1643 Sir John Seaton with a Parliamentary force marched from Manchester and successfully assaulted it. A strong Parliamentary garrison was established here and its fortifications repaired, but in March the earl ol Derby recaptured the tojvn. The Royalists did not garrison it, but after demolishing the greater part of the works left it un- fortified. After the battle of Marston Moor Prince Rupert marched through Preston in September 1644 and carried the mayor and bailiffs prisoners to Skipton Castle, where they were confined for twelve months. On the I7th of August 1648 the Royalist forces under the duke of Hamilton and General Langdale were defeated at Preston by Cromwell with a loss of 1000 killed and 4000 taken prisoners. During the Rebellion of 1715 the rebel forces entered Preston on the gth of November, and after proclaiming the Chevalier de St George king at the cross in the market-place, remained here for some days, during which the government forces advanced. The town was assaulted, and on the 1 4th of November General Forster surrendered his army of about 1400 men to the king's forces. In 1745 Prince Charles Edward marched through on the way south and north, but the town took no part in the rebellion. The borough returned two members from 1295 to 1331, then ceased to exercise the privilege on account of poverty till 1529, but since that date (except in 1653) it_ has always sent two representatives to parliament. The curious institution of the mock mayor and corporation of Walton, which was at its foundation in 1701 a Jacobite association, ceased after 1766 to be of any political significance and lapsed in 1800. There was probably a church here in Saxon times and it is believed to be one of the three churches in Amounderness mentioned hi Domesday Book. In 1094 it is named in a charter of Roger de Poictou. The early dedication was to St Wilfrid, but probably about 1531, when it was rebuilt, it was re-dedicated to St John. At the time of the Reformation, many, especially among the neighbouring gentry, clung to the old faith, and there is still a large Roman Catholic population. There were two monastic foundations here: a hospital dedicated to St Mary Magdalene, which stood on the Maudlands, and a Franciscan convent of Grey Friars situated to the west of Friargate. In the i8th century Preston had a high reputation as a centre of fashionable society, and earned the epithet still familiarly associated with it, " proud." See H. Fishwick, History of the Parish of Preston (1900). • PRESTONPANS, a police burgh and watering-place of Haddingtonshire, Scotland, on the Firth of Forth, 9^ m. E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. Pop. (1901), 2614. A mile to the east of the village is the site of the battle of the 2ist of September 1745, in which Prince Charles Edward and his highlanders gained a complete victory over the royal forces under Sir John Cope. Colonel James Gardiner was mortally wounded after an heroic stand, and an obelisk in the grounds of his house at Bankton, close to the battlefield, commemorates his valour, while the ballad of Adam Skirving (1719-1803), " Hey, Johnnie Cope!" has immortalized the rout of Cope. Until the beginning of the igth century, the salt trade was prosecuted with great success, the pans having been laid down as long ago as 1185, but the industry has declined. There are manu- factures of fire-bricks, tiles and pottery, besides brewing and soap- making. In the vicinity there is an extensive coal-field. Fisheries are still of importance, although the bed of Pandore oysters (an esteemed variety) has lost something of its former fertility. There are harbours at Morrison's Haven to the west and at Cockenzie and Port Seton to the north-east, which practically form one village, with a population of 1687. The cross of the barony of Preston dates from 1617. Schaw's Hospital Trust, at one time intended for the education and maintenance of the children of poor parents, has been modified, and the bequest is used to provide free education and bursaries, while the building has been leased by the trustees of Miss Mary Murray, who bequeathed £20,000 (afterwards increased to £30,000) for the training of poor children as domestic servants. PRESTWICH, SIR JOSEPH (1812-1896), English geologist, was born at Clapham, Surrey, on the i2th of March, 1812. He was educated in Paris, Reading and at University College, London, where under Dr D. Lardner and Edward Turner, he paid special attention to natural philosophy and chemistry, and gained some knowledge of mineralogy and geology. Circum- stances compelled him to enter into commercial life, and until he was sixty years of age he was busily engaged in the City as a wine merchant. He devoted all his leisure to geology. His business journeys enabled him to see and learn much of the general geology of England, Scotland and France, and this so effectively that at the time of his death he ranked as the most eminent of British geologists. As early as 1831 he commenced, during holiday visits, to make a study of the coal-field of Coal- brookdale in Shropshire, and the results of his observations were communicated to the Geological Society of London in 1834 and 1836, and embodied in a memoir published in 1838. His name is, however, especially known in connexion with his researches on the Eocene strata of the London and Hampshire Basins (1846-1857): he defined the Thanet Sands and the Woolwich and Reading Beds, and studied the sequence of deposits and of organic remains and the method of formation of these and the succeeding strata of London clay and Bagshot Beds. So highly appreciated were his essays on the subject that in 1849 he was awarded the Wollaston Medal by the Geological Society of London; and in 1853 he was elected F.R.S. In the course of his observations he was led to study questions of water supply and published in 1851 A Geological Inquiry respecting the Water-bearing Strata of the Country around London, a work that at once became a standard authority; and his extensive knowledge in that respect procured him a seat on the Royal Commission on Water Supply, appointed in 1866. From 1858 the question of the antiquity of man engaged his attention. On various occasions statements had been made as to the association of flint implements formed by man with the bones of extinct mammals which belonged to more remote periods than those generally assigned for the appearance of the human race on this earth, but the evidence adduced had usually been disregarded by geologists as not affording sufficient proof of :he point. Prestwich, together with Dr Hugh Falconer and Sir John Evans, saw the desirability of a closer examination of the facts, particularly in regard to the implements discovered by Boucher de Perthes in the gravels of the Somme valley; and their investigations in France and England yielded evidence which proved that man existed contemporaneously, with the Pleistocene mammalia (Phil. Trans. 1861 and 1864). In 1865 a Royal Medal was awarded to Prestwich by the Royal Society. In 1866 he was chosen one of the commissioners appointed to nquire into the several matters relating to coal in the United kingdom; and he subsequently contributed an important Report on the Quantities of Coal, wrought and unwrought, in the Coalfields of Somersetshire and part of Gloucestershire, and another Report on the Probabilities 0} finding Coal in the South of England 1871). His researches on the Crag Beds of Suffolk and Norfolk, his report on Brixham Cave, his papers on the Channel Tunnel and the Chesil Bank, among others published during the years 1868-1875, rnay be mentioned. In 1870 he married Grace Anne McCall (n6e Milne), niece of Dr H. Falconer, and author of the Harbour Bar and other works (see Essays Descriptive and Biographical, by Grace, Lady PRESTWICH— PRETORIUS 309 Prestwich; edited by L. E. Milne, 1901). Prestwich retired from business in 1872, and two years later he was invited to take the chair of geology at Oxford, vacant through the death of John Phillips. This post he occupied until 1887. During his professorship he wrote his great work entitled Geology: Chemical, Physical and Stratigraphical (vol. i., 1886; vol. ii., 1888). On leaving Oxford Prestwich spent his remaining years in his country house, Darent-Hulme, Shoreham, Kent, erected by him in 1869. There, although seventy-six years of age, he maintained marvellous activity in geological research, devoting his attention to the superficial deposits of the Darent valley, to the occurrence of palaeolithic flint implements in the valleys and of an earlier type since called eolithic, on the chalk plateau of Kent; he likewise dealt generally with the raised beaches and rubble-drift of the south of England and their relation to recent changes of level. His latest publications were Collected Papers on some Controverted Questions of Geology, and On Certain Phenomena belonging to the Close of the Last Geological Period and on their Bearing upon the Tradition of the Flood (1895). He was knighted in 1896, and died on the 23rd of June in the same year, at Shoreham in Kent. See Life and Letters of Sir Joseph Prestwich, edited by his wife (1899)- PRESTWICH, an urban district in the Prestwich parlia- mentary division of Lancashire, England, 5 m. N.N.W. of Man- chester on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901), 12,839. It possesses cotton manufactures, but consists chiefly of handsome mansions and villas inhabited by Manchester merchants. PRETORIA, the administrative capital of the Union of South Africa and of the province of the Transvaal, 46 m. by rail N. by E. of Johannesburg. Pop. (1904) 36,839, of whom 21,114 were whites. Pretoria is situated on the banken veld or northern slopes of the high veld, on both banks of the Aapies tributary of the Limpopo, and is 4470 ft. above the sea, being 1300 ft. lower than Johannesburg. Built in a hollow surrounded by hills, the aspect of the town with the river flowing through it and its broad streets lined with willows is picturesque. In summer the heat and moisture are excessive, and the Aapies (which is spanned by four bridges) is liable to floods. The town is regularly laid out in rectangular blocks of uniform width. The older part lies on the west side of the Aapies River and between it and a smaller stream known as the Spruit. In the centre of this part of Pretoria is Church Square, so named from the Dutch Reformed Church which stood in it, but was demolished in 1905. Government buildings on the south side of the square contain the chambers of the Provincial Council and other public offices. They were erected in 1892 and are a handsome block in Renaissance style, three-storied, with a cen- tral tower surmounted by a statue of Liberty. On the north side of the square are the law courts, on the west side the Post Office. The chief banking offices are also in the square. Running east and west from Church Square is Church Street, the chief business thoroughfare. A little east of Church Square this street opens on to Market Square, with commodious market buildings. The former Presidency, the residence of Paul Kruger, is at the western end of the street near the Spruit. Opposite it is the Dopper Church, in which Kruger used occasionally to preach. Other churches in the heart of the town include the Anglican cathe- dral, dedicated to St Alban, and the Presbyterian Church, both in Schoemans Street, the Roman Catholic Church in Koch Street with schools, convent buildings and extensive grounds, and the new Dutch Reformed Church in Vermeulen Street. In the north of the town is the National Museum and adjacent are the Zoological Gardens. Other public buildings are the government library, the University College and the opera house. East of the Aapies and on the slopes of the hills are the residential districts of Arcadia, Sunnyside and Muckleneuk. Bryntirion, a suburb on the northern slopes of the hills, contains the residences of the chief officials, including Government House. Here is Meinties Kop, with a broad natural shelf midway below the summit. This shelf was chosen in 1909 as the site of the public offices of the Union. The designs of Mr Herbert Baker were accepted for two large blocks of identical design connected by a semicircular colonnade (passing behind the narrow kloof which bisects the shelf). Besides other open spaces there is Burger's park, originally planned, during the first British occupation, as a botanical garden. It is beautifully wooded and through it runs the Spruit. A park and sports ground at the western end of the town contains the pedestal for a statue of President Kruger. The statue itself remained for years at Lourenco Marques and appears to have been lost. Adjoining this park on the north is the cemetery. Among those buried there are Kruger and many of the British who fell during the war of 1899-1902. Signal Hill, which rises 400 ft. above the plain, is ^yest of the park. The plateau at its foot was the site of the English laager during the war of 1880-81, and is now occupied by the central railway station and workshops. North of the cemetery is the prison, a building which replaces a notoriously insanitary gaol used during the republican regime. The water supply of Pretoria is drawn from the source of the Aapies River, where rise magnificent springs. The Fountains, as they are called, are 3 m. west of Pretoria. Some 3 m. north of the town is the Wonderboom, an enormous wild fig-tree, the only one of its kind in the district. At West Fort, 7 m. from the town, is a leper asylum; at Waterval, 15 m. north, the British prisoners captured by the Boers up to the fall of Pretoria were confined. Thirty miles east by north of Pretoria is the Premier Diamond mine. Brpnkhorst Spruit, where in December 1880 a detachment of British soldiers was ambushed by the Boers, lies about 30 m. east by south of the town. History. — Pretoria was founded in 1855, the ground on which it stands being purchased by the Boer government from Mar- thinus Pretorius. It was made the centre of a new district created at the same time, both town and district being named in honour of Andries Pretorius. By treaty between the South African Republic (then comprising the districts of Potchef- stroom, Rustenburg, Pretoria and Zoutpansberg) and the re- public of Lydenburg, concluded at Pretoria in 1860, the two republics were united and Pretoria chosen as the capital of the whole state, and in September of that year the Volksraad held its first meeting in the new capital. Until 1864, however, when the civil war in the Transvaal ended, Potchefstroom remained the virtual capital of the country. From that year the seat of government has always been at Pretoria. There in 1877 Sir Theophilus Shepstone proclaimed the annexation of the Trans- vaal to Great Britain. In December 1880 it was invested by the Boers, but held out until the conclusion of peace. In 1881 the convention restoring self-government to the Transvaal was signed at Pretoria. From that time until 1900 the dominating figure in the town was that of the president — Paul Kruger. As revenue flowed in from the gold-mines on the Rand many fine buildings were erected in the capital, which was placed in rail- way communication with Cape Town in 1893 and with Lourenco Marques and Durban in 1895. To Pretoria Dr Jameson and his troopers were brought prisoners (January 1896) after the fight at Doornkop (to be handed over in a few days to the British govern- ment), and thither also were brought the Reform Committee prisoners from Johannesburg. In May 1900 Kruger fled from the town, which on the sth of June surrendered without re- sistance to Lord Roberts, despite its formidable encircling forts, which however were never effectively armed. On the 3ist of May 1902 the articles of peace whereby the Boer leaders re- cognized British sovereignty were signed at Pretoria, and five years later there assembled in the capital the first parliament of the Transvaal as a self-governing state of the British Empire. On the establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910 Pretoria became its administrative capital, the seat of the legis- lature being however at Cape Town. The Transvaal parlia- ment was replaced by a Provincial Council (see TRANSVAAL: § History). The town is governed by a municipality, which since 1903 has acquired control of the sanitary service, water supply, electric lighting and tramways. In 1909 the proportional representation system was adopted for the election of tov/n councillors. PRETORIUS, the family name of two of the early leaders of the " Trek " Boers — Andries Wilhelmus Jacobus Pretorius and Marthinus Wessels Pretorius, father and son. i. ANDRIES PRETORIUS (1799-1853), a Dutch fanner of Graaff-Reinet, Cape Colony, and a descendant from one of the earliest Dutch settlers in South Africa, left his home in the Great 310 PRETORIUS Trek, and by way of what is now the Orange Free State crossed the t)rakensberg into Natal, where he arrived in November 1838, at a time when the emigrants there were without a re- cognized leader. Pretorius was at once chosen commandant- general and speedily collected a force to avenge the massacre of Piet Relief and his party, who had been treacherously killed by the Zulu king Dingaan the previous February. Pretorius's force was attacked on the i6th of December (" Dingaan's Day ") by over 10,000 Zulus, who were beaten off with a loss of 3000 men. In January 1840 Pretorius with a commando of 400 burghers helped Mpande in his revolt against his brother Dingaan and was the leader of the Natal Boers in their opposition to the British. In 1842 he besieged the small British garrison at Durban, but retreated to Maritzburg on the arrival of re- inforcements under Colonel (subsequently Sir) Josias Cloete and afterwards exerted his influence with the Boers in favour of coming to terms with the British. He remained in Natal as a British subject, and in 1847 was chosen by the Dutch farmers there to lay before the governor of Cape Colony the grievances under which they laboured owing to the constant immigration of natives, to whom locations were assigned to the detriment of Boer claims. Pretorius went to Grahams Town, where Sir Henry Pottinger (the governor) then was; but Sir Henry re- fused to see him or receive any communication from him. Pretorius returned to Natal determined to abandon his farm and once more trek beyond the British dominions. With a con- siderable following he was preparing to cross the Drakensb when Sir* Harry Smith, newly appointed governor of the Cape, reached the emigrants' camp on the Tugela (Jan. 1848). Sir Harry promised the farmers protection from the natives and persuaded many of the party to remain, but Pretorius departed, and on the proclamation of British sovereignty up to the Vaal fixed his residence in the Magalisberg, north of that river. He was chosen by the burghers living on both banks of the Vaal as their commandant- general. At the request of the Boers at Winburg Pretorius crossed the Vaal in July and led the anti- British party in their " war of freedom," occupying Bloem- fontein on the 2oth of the same month. In August he was de- feated at Boomplaats by Sir Harry Smith and thereupon re- treated north of the Vaal, where he became leader of one of the largest of the parties into which the trans- Vaal Boers were divided, and commandant-general of Potchefstroom and Rust- enburg, his principal rival being Commandant-General A. H. Potgieter. In 1851 he was asked by the Boer malcontents in the Orange River Sovereignty and by the Basuto chief Moshesh to come to their aid, and he announced his intention of crossing the Vaal to " restore order " in the Sovereignty. His object, however, was rathei to obtain from the British an acknowledg- ment of the independence of the Transvaal Boers. The British cabinet having decided on a policy of abandonment, the pro- posal of Pretorius was entertained. A reward of £2000 which had been offered for his apprehension after the Boomplaats fight, was withdrawn, Pretorius met the British commissioners at a farm near the Sand River, and with them concluded the convention (Jan. 17, 1852) by which the independence of the Transvaal Boers was recognized by Great Britain. Pretorius recrossed the Vaal and at Rustenburg on the i6th of March was reconciled to Potgieter, the followers of both leaders approving the convention, though the Potgieter party was not represented at the Sand River. In the same year Pretorius paid a visit to Durban with the object of opening up trade between Natal and the new republic He also in 1852 attempted to close the road tc the interior through Bechuanaland and sent a commando to the western border against Sechele. During this expedition David Livingstone's house at Kolobeng was looted. Pretorius died at his home at Magalisberg on the 23rd of July 1853. He is described by Theal as " the ablest leader and most perfect representative of the Emigrant Farmers." In 1855 a new dis- trict and a new town were formed out of the Potchefstroom and Rustenburg districts and named Pretoria in honour of the late commandant-general. 2. MARTHINIUS PRETORIUS (1819-1901), the eldest son of Andries, was appointed in August 1853 to succeed his father as commandant-general of Potchefstroom and Rustenburg, two of the districts into which the Transvaal was then divided. In 1854 he led his burghers against a chief named Makapan, who had murdered a party of twenty-three Boers, including ten women and children. The natives were blockaded in a great cave in the Zoutpansberg and about 3000 were starved to death or shot as they attempted to escape. Having thus chastised Makapan's clan, Pretorius turned his energies to the creation of a strong central government, and from 1856 onward his dominating idea appears to have been the formation of one Boer state to include the Orange River burghers. In December 1856 repre- sentatives of the districts of Potchefstroom, Rustenburg and Pretoria met and drew up a constitution and on the 6th of January the "South African Republic" was formally constituted, Pretorius having been elected president on the previous day. Though the Boers of the Lydenburg, Utrecht and Zoutpans- berg districts refused to acknowledge the new republic, Pretorius, with the active co-operation of Commandant Paul Kruger (after- wards President Kruger), endeavoured (1857) to bring about the union of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, and a commando crossed the Vaal to support Pretorius. The attempt at coercion failed, but in December 1859 the partisans of Pre- torius in the Free State secured his election as president-of that republic. Pretorius had just effected a reconciliation of the Lydenburg Boers with those of the other districts of the Trans- vaal, and hoping to complete his work of unification he accepted the presidency of the Free State, assuming office at Blocmfon- tein in February 1860. But the condition of anarchy into which the Transvaal fell shortly afterwards effectually weaned the Free State burghers from any thought of immediate amal- gamation with their northern neighbours. Pretorius however continued to intervene in the affairs of the Transvaal and at length (April 15, 1863) resigned his Free State presidency. Acting as mediator between the various Transvaal parties Pre- torius in January 1864 succeeded in putting an end to the civil strife and in May following once more became president of the South African Republic — now for the first time a united com- munity. Conciliation was a marked feature of his character and to Pretorius more than any other man was due the welding of the Transvaal Boers into one nation. Pretorius shared the ideas of his father and the Emigrant Farmers generally con- cerning the title of the state to indefinite expansion north, east and west. Although he had much difficulty in maintaining the authority of the republic over the natives within its recog- nized borders, yet in April 1868, on the report of gold discoveries at Tati, he issued a proclamation annexing to the Transvaal on the west the whole of Bechuanaland and on the east territory up to and including part of Delagoa Bay. As to Delagoa Bay Portugal at once protested and in 1869 its right to the bay was acknowledged by Pretorius, who in the same year was re-elected president. The right of the Boers to the whole of Bechuana- land was not pressed by Pretorius in the face of British op- position, but in 1870, when the discovery of diamonds along the lower Vaal had led to the establishment of many diggers' camps, an attempt was made to enforce the claims of the Transvaal to that district. Pretorius aroused the hostility of the diggers by granting an exclusive concession to one firm. Realizing his mistake, the concession was cancelled and in September 1870 he issued a proclamation notable as offering to the diggers very large powers of self-government. Pretorius went to the western frontier and in repeated conferences with the Bechuana chiefs attempted to get them to acknowledge the Boer contention and by joining the Transvaal to " save " their territory from the British. His diplomacy failed, and finally, without consulting his colleagues, he agreed to refer the question of the boundary to the arbitration of Mr R. W. Keate, then lieutenant-governor of Natal. The award, given on the i7th of October 1871, was against the Boer claims. Pretorius loyally accepted the decision, but it aroused a storm of indignation in the Transvaal. The Volksraad refused to ratify the award and Pretorius resigned the presidency (November 1871). PRETTY— PREVOST, A. F. From this time Pretorius took little further part in public affairs until after the first annexation of the state by Great Britain. In 1878 he acted as chairman of the committee of Boer leaders who were seeking the restoration of the independence of their country, and for his action in that capacity he was arrested in January 1880 by order of Sir Garnet Wolseley on a charge of treason. (See the BLUE BOOK [C. 2584] of 1880 for details of this charge.) He was admitted to bail and shortly afterwards urged by Wolseley to accept a seat on the executive council. This offer Pretorius declined, but he consented to tour the country with a proclamation by Wolseley counselling the Boers to submit, and promising them self-government. In December of the same year he was appointed, with Paul Kruger and P. Joubert, to carry on the government on the part of the insurgent Boers. He was one of the signatories to the Pretoria Conven- tion and continued to act as a member of the Triumvirate until the election of Kruger as president in May 1883. He then with- drew from public life; but lived to see the country re-annexed to Great Britain, dying at Potchefstroom on the igth of May IQOI. He is stated to have disapproved the later developments of Krugerism, and within four months of his death visited Louis Botha and Schalk Burger, on behalf of Lord Kitchener, with the object of bringing the war to an end. For the elder Pretorius see G. M. Theal, Compendium of the History and Geography of South Africa, 3rd ed. (London, 1878), and History of South Africa, vol. iv. [1834-1854] (London, 1893). For the younger Pretorius see vol. v. of the same series. PRETTY, a word usually applied in the sense of pleasing in appearance, without connoting those qualities which are described as beautiful or handsome. In Old English praettig meant tricky, cunning or wily, and is thus used to translate the Latin sagax, aslulus, callidus,\n a vocabulary of about 1000. Praelt meant a trick, and this word is seen in many forms in Dutch, cf . the1 words pretlig, sportive, part, trick. A connexion has been suggested with the Greek irpa.KTt.Kfa, wparrtiv, to do, make, through Latin practica, practice, performance; but the New English Dictionary rejects these, as also Celtic sources, as un- founded. From " cunning " to skilful, and thence to its use as a term of general appreciation as is so often used by Pepys, the development is easy. PREVARICATION, a divergence from the truth, equivoca- tion, quibbling, a want of plain-dealing or straightforwardness, especially a deliberate misrepresentation by evasive answers, often used as a less offensive synonym for a lie. The Latin praevaricatio was specifically applied to the conduct in an action at law in which an advocate (praevaricator) in collusion with his opponent put up a bad case of defence. Praevari- care meant literally to walk with the legs very wide apart, to straddle, hence to walk crookedly, to stray from the direct road, varicus, straddling, being derived from varus, bow-legged, a word which has been connected etymologically with German quer, transverse, across, and English "queer." PREVEZA, or PREVESA, a seaport of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet of lannina; at the entrance to the Gulf of Arta, an inlet of the Ionian Sea. Pop. (1905), 650x3, of whom about four-fifths are Christian Albanians or Greeks, and one- fifth Moslems. The town is surrounded by dense olive groves, and most of its houses stand in their own gardens. The har- bour is small, and closed to large vessels by a bar of sand; but it is a port of call for the Austrian Lloyd steamers, and annually accommodates about 1500 small vessels, the majority of which are engaged in the coasting trade. Preveza exports dairy produce, valonia, hides and wool, olives and olive oil. The yearly value of its trade varies from about £70,000 to £80,000. About 3 m. north are the ruins of Nicopolis (?.».). PRfiVOST, ANTOINE FRANCOIS (1697-1763), French author and novelist, was born at Hesdin, Artois, on the ist of April 1697. He first appears with the full name of Prevost d'Exiles in a letter to the booksellers of Amsterdam in 1731. His father, LieVin Prevost, was a lawyer, and several members of the family had embraced the ecclesiastical estate. PrSvost was educated at the Jesuit school of Hesdin, and in 1713 became a novice of the order in Paris, pursuing his studies at the same time at the college of La Fleche. At the end of 1716 he left the Jesuits to join the army, but he soon tired of life in barracks, and returned to Paris in 1719 with the idea, apparently, of resuming his novitiate. He is said to have travelled in Holland about this time; in any case he returned to the army, this time with a commission. Some of his biographers have assumed that he suffered some of the misfortunes assigned to his hero Des Grieux. However that may be, he joined in 1710-1720 the learned com- munity of the Benedictines of St Maur, with whom he found refuge, he himself says, after the unlucky termination of a love affair. He took the vows at Jumieges in 1721 after a year's novitiate, and received in 1726 priest's orders at St Germer de Flaix. He resided for seven years in various houses of the order, teaching, preaching and studying. In 1728 he was at the abbey of St Germain-des-Pres, Paris, where he was engaged on the Gallla Christiana, the learned work undertaken by the monks in continuation of the works of Denys de Sainte-Marthe, who had been a member of their order. His restless spirit made him seek from the Pope a transfer to the easier rule of Cluny; but without waiting for the brief, he left the abbey without leave (1728), and, learning that his superiors had obtained a lettre de cachet against him, fled to England. In London he acquired considerable knowledge of English history and literature, traceable throughout his writings. Before leaving the Benedictines PreVost had begun his most famous romance, Memcires et avantures d'un homme de qualite qui s'est retire du monde, the first four volumes of which were published in Paris in 1728, and two years later at Amsterdam. In 1729 he left England for Holland, where he began to publish (Utrecht, 1730) a romance, the material of which, at least, had been gathered in London — Le Philosophe anglais, ou Histoire de Monsieur Cleveland, fils naturel de Cromwell, ecrite par lui-mesme, et traduite de I'anglois (Paris 1731-17391 8 vols., but most of the existing sets are partly Paris and partly Utrecht). A spurious fifth volume (Utrecht, 1734) contained attacks on the Jesuits, and an English translation of the whole appeared in 1734. Meanwhile, during his residence at the Hague, he engaged on a translation of the Historic of De Thou, and, relying on the popularity of his first book, published at Amster- dam a Suite in three volumes, forming volumes v., vi., and vii. of the original Memoires et avantures dun homme de qualM. The seventh volume contained the famous Manon Lescaut, separately published in Paris in 1731 as Les Aventures du chevalier des Grieux et de Manon Lescaut, par Monsieur D.... The book was eagerly read, chiefly in pirated copies, as it was forbidden in France. In '733 he left the Hague for London in company with a lady whose character, as given by PreVost's enemies, was far from desirable. In London he edited a weekly gazette on the model of Addison's Spectator, Le Pour et centre, which he continued to produce, with short intervals, until 1740. In the autumn of 1734 Pr6vost was reconciled with the Bene- dictines, and, returning to France, was received in the Bene- dictine monastery of La Croix-Saint-Leufroy in the diocese of Evreux to pass through a new, though brief, novitiate. In 1735 he was dispensed from residence in a monastery by becoming almoner to the prince de Conti, and in 1754 obtained the priory of St Georges de Gesnes. He continued to pro- duce novels and translations from the English, and, with the exception of a brief exile (1741-1742) spent in Brussels and Frankfort, he resided for the most part at Chantilly until his death, which took place suddenly while he was walking in the neighbouring woods on the 23rd of December 1763. Hideous particulars have been added, but the cause of his death, the rupture of an aneurism, has been definitely established. Stories of crime and disaster were related of Pr6vost by his enemies, and diligently repeated, but they have proved to be as apocryphal as the details given of his death. Manon ^Lescaut, one of the greatest novels of the century, is very short; it is entirely free from improbable incident, it is penetrated by the truest and most cunningly managed feeling; and almost every one of its characters is a triumph of that analvtic portraiture which is the secret of the modern novel. The chevalier des Grieux, the hero, is probably the most perfect example of the carrying out of the sentiment " All for love and the world well lost " that exists in fiction, at least where the circumstances are those of ordinary and probable life. Tiberge, his friend, is hardly inferior in the difficult part of mentor and reasonable man. Lescaut, the heroine's brother, has vigorous touches as a bully and Bohemian; but the triumph of- the book is Manon herself. Animated by a real affection 312 for her lover, and false to him only because her love of splendour, comfort and luxury prevents her from welcoming privation with him or for him, though in effect she prefers him to all others, perfectly natural and even amiable in her degradation, and yet showing the moral of that degradation most vividly, Manon is one of the most remarkable heroines in all fiction. She had no literary ancestress; she seems to have sprung entirely from the imagination, or perhaps the sympathetic observation, of the wandering scholar who drew her. Only the Princesse de Cloves can challenge comparison with her before or near to her own date, and in Manon Lescaut the plot is much more complete and interesting, the sentiments less artificial, and the whole story nearer to actual life than in Madame de la Fayette's masterpiece. Prevost's other works include: Le Doyen de Killerine, histoire morale, composee sur les memoires d'une illustre famttle d' Ireland (Paris, 1735; 2nd part, the Hague, 1730, 3rd, 4th and 5th parts, 1740); Tout pour Vamour (1735)1 a translation of Dryden's tragedy; Histoire d'une Grecque moderne (Amsterdam [Paris] 2 vols., 1740); Histoire de Marguerite d'Anjou (Amsterdam [Paris] 2 vols., 1740); Memoires pour servir a I'histoire de Malte (Amsterdam, i74i);'Campagnes philosophiques, ou memoires . . . contenant I'histoire de la guerre d Irelande (Amsterdam, 1741); Histoire de Guillaume le Conquerant (Paris, 1742); Histoire generate des voyages (15 vols., Pans, 1746-1759), continued by other writers; translations from Samuel Richardson, Pamela (4 vols., 1742), Letlres anglaises ou Histoire de Miss Clarisse Harlowe (6 vols., London, 1741); Nouvelles lettres anglaises, ou Histoire du cltevalier Grandisson (Amsterdam, 3 vols., 1755); Memoires pour servir a I'histoire de la vertu (Cologne, 4 vols., 1762), from Mrs Sheridan's Memoires of Miss Sidney Bidulph ; Histoire de la maison de Stuart (3 vols., 1740) from Hume's History of England to 1688; Le Monde morale, ou Memoires pour servir a I'histoire du caur humain (2 vols., Geneva, 1760), &c. For the bibliography of Prevost's works, which presents many complications, and for documentary evidence of the facts of his life see H. Harrisse, L'Abbe Prenost (1896); also a thesis (1898) by V. Schroeder. PREVOST, CONSTANT (1787-1856), French geologist, was born in Paris on the 4th of June 1787, and was son of Louis Prevost, receiver of the rentes of that city. He was educated at the Central Schools, where, inspired by the lectures of G. Cuvier, Alexandre Brongniart and A. Dumeril, he determined to devote himself to natural science. He took his degree in Letters and Sciences in 1811, and for a time pursued the study of medicine and anatomy. Mainly through the influence of Brongniart he turned his attention to geology, and during the years 1816-1819 made a special study of the Vienna Basin where he pointed out for the first time the presence of Tertiary strata like those of the Paris Basin, but including a series of later date. His next work (1821) was an essay on the geology of parts of Normandy, with special reference to the Secondary strata, which he compared with those of England. From 1821- 1829 he was professor of geology at the Athenaeum at Paris, and he took a leading part with Ami Boue, G. P. Deshayes and Jules Desnoyers in the founding of the Geological Society of France (1830). In 1831 he became assistant professor and after- wards honorary professor of geology to the faculty of sciences. Having studied the volcanoes of Italy and Auvergne, he opposed the views of von Buch regarding craters of elevation, maintaining that the cones were due to the material succes- sively emipted. Like Lyell he advocated a study of the causes or forces now in action in order to illustrate the past. One of his more important memoirs was De la Chronologie des terrains et du synchronisme des formations (1845). He died in Paris on the 1 7th of August 1856. Memoir with portrait, by J. Gosselet, Ann. soc. geol. du nord, tome xxv. 1896. PROVOST, EUGENE MARCEL (1862- ), French novelist, was born in Paris on the ist of May 1862. He was educated at Jesuit schools in Bordeaux and Paris, entering the Ecole Polytechnique in 1882. He published a story in the Clairon as early as 1881, but for some years after the completion of his studies he applied his technical knowledge to the manu- facture of tobacco. He published in succession, Le Scorpion (1887), Chonchette (1888), Mademoiselle Jau/re (1889), Cousine Laura (1890), La Confession d'un amant (1891), Lettres defemmes (1892), L'Automne d'une femme (1893), and in 1894 he made a great sensation by an exaggerated and revolting study of the results of Parisian education and Parisian society on young PREVOST, C.— PRIAM girls, Les Demi-inerges, which was dramatized and produced with great success at the Gymnase on the 2ist of May 1895. Le Jardin secret appeared in 1897; and in 1900 Les Vierges fortes, and a study of the question of women's education and independence hi .two novels Frederique and Lea. L'Heureux menage (1901), Les Lettres a Franc.oise (1902), La Princesse d'Erminge (1904), and L'Accordeur aveugle (1905) are among his later novels. An amusing picture of modern German manners is given in his Monsieur el Madame Moloch (1906). He had a great success in 1904 with a four act play La Plusfaible, produced at the Comedie Francaise. In 1909 he was elected to the Academy. PREVOST, PIERRE (1751-1839), Swiss philosopher and physicist, son of a Protestant clergyman in Geneva, was born in that city on the 3rd of March 1751, and was educated for a clerical career. But he forsook it for law, and this too he quickly deserted to devote himself to education and to travelling. He became intimate with J. J. Rousseau, and, a little later, with Dugald Stewart, having previously distinguished himself as a translator of and commentator on Euripides. Frederick II. of Prussia secured him in 1780 as professor of philosophy, and made him member of the Akademie der Wissenschaften in Ber- lin. He there became acquainted with Lagrange, and was thus led to turn his attention to physical science. After some years spent on political economy and on the principles of the fine arts (in connexion with which he wrote, for the Berlin Memoirs, a remarkable dissertation, on poetry) he returned to Geneva and began his work on magnetism and on heat. Interrupted occasionally in his studies by political duties, in which he was often called to the front, he remained professor of philosophy at Geneva till he was called in 1810 to the chair of physics. He died at Geneva on the 8th of April 1839. Prevost published muchl on philology, philosophy, and political economy; but he will be remembered mainly for having published, with additions of his own, the Traite de physique of G. L. Le Sage, and for his enunciation of the law of exchange in radiation. His scientific publications included De I'Origine des forces magnetiques (1788), Recherches physico-mecaniques sur la chaleur (1792), and Essai sur le calbrique rayonnant (1809). PREVOST-PARADOL, LUCIEN ANATOLE (1820-1870), French man of letters, was born in Paris on the 8th of August 1829. He was educated at the College Bourbon and entered the Ecole Normale. In 1855 he was appointed professor of French literature at Aix. He held the post, however, barely a year, re- signing it to become a leader-writer on the Journal des debats. He also wrote in the Courrier du dimanche, and for a very short time in the Presse. His chief works are Essais de politique et de littfrature (three series, 1859-1866), and Essais sur les moralistes franfais (1864). He was, however, rather a journalist than a writer of books, and was one of the chief opponents of the empire on the side of moderate liberalism. He underwent the usual difficulties of a journalist under that regime, and was once im- prisoned. In 1865 he was elected an Academician. The ac- cession of Emile Ollivier to power was fatal to Prevost-Paradol, who apparently believed in the possibility of a liberal empire, and consequently accepted the appointment of envoy to the United States. This was the signal for the most unmeasured attacks on him from the republican party. He had scarcely installed himself in his post before the outbreak of war between France and Prussia occurred. He shot himself at Washington on the nth of July 1870, and died on the 2oth. PREY (O. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed — seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp), booty, spoil, plunder taken in war, by robbery, or other violent means; particularly the quarry, the animal killed for food by a carnivorous animal; a beast or bird of prey. A particular usage for that which is saved from any trial of strength or battle is familiar from the Bible (Jer. xxi. 9) " his life shall be unto him for a prey." PRIAM (Gr. Ilpiajuos), in Greek legend, the last king of Troy, son of Laomedon and brother of Tithonus. Little is known of him before the Trojan War, which broke out when he was ad- vanced in years. According to Homer (Iliad, iii. 184) in his PRIAPEIA— PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW youth he fought on the side of the Phrygians against the Ama- zons. He had fifty sons and fifty daughters, and possessed im- mense wealth. He appears only twice on the scene of action during the war — to make arrangements for the duel between Paris and Menelaus, and to beg the body of Hector for burial from Achilles, whom he visits in his tent by night. He was said to have been slain by Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, during the sack of Troy (Virgil, Aeneid, ii. 512). See under TROY, on the legends. PRIAPEIA, a collection of poems (about eighty in number) in various metres on the subject of Priapus. It was compiled from literary works and inscriptions on images of the god by an unknown editor, who composed the introductory epigram. From their style and versification it is evident that the poems belong to the best period of Latin literature. Some, however, may be interpolations of a later period. They will be found in F. Bucheler's Petronius (1904), L. Miiller's Catullus (1870), and E. Bahrens, Poetae latini minores, i. (1879). PRIAPULOIDEA, a small group of vermiform marine crea- tures; they have been usually placed in the neighbourhood of the Gephyrea, but their position is uncertain and it is doubtful if they are to be regarded as coelomate animals. They are cylindrical worm-like animals, with a median anterior mouth quite devoid of any armature or tentacles. The body is ringed, and often has circles of spines, which are continued into the slightly protrusible pharynx. The alimentary canal is straight, the anus terminal, though in Priapulus one or two hollow ventral diverticula of the body-wall stretch out behind it. The nervous system, composed of a ring and a ventral cord, retains its primitive connexion with the ectoderm. There are no specialized sense-organs or vascular or respiratory systems. There is a wide body-cavity, but as this has no connexion with the renal or reproductive organs it cannot be regarded as a coelom, but probably is a blood-space or haemo- coel. The Priapuloidea are dioecious, and their male and female organs, which are one with the excretory organs, consist of a pairof branching tufts, each of which opens to the exterior on one side of the anus. The tips of these tufts enclose a flame- cell similar to those found in Platyhel- minths, &c., and these probably function as excretory organs. As the animals become adult, diverticula arise on the tubes of these organs, which develop either spermatozoa or ova. These pass out through the ducts. Nothing is known of the development. There are three genera: (i.) Priapulus, with the species P. caudatus, Lam., of the Arctic and Antarctic and neighbouring cold seas, and P. bicaudatus, Dan., of the north Atlantic and Arctic seas; (ii.) Priapuloides australis, de Guerne, of the southern circumpolar waters; and (iii.) Halicryptus, with the species H. spinulosus, v. Sieb., of northern seas. They live in the mud, which they eat, in comparatively shallow waters up to 50 fathoms. AUTHORITIES. — Apel, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1885), vol xlii. ; Scharff , Quart. Journ. Mic. Set. (1885), vol. xxv. ; Ehlers, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1861), vol. xi.; Schauinsland, Zool. Am. (1886), vol. ix.; De Guerne, Mission scientifique du Cap Horn (1891), vol vi. ; Michael- sen, Jahrb. Hamburg-Aust. (1888), vol. vi. (A. E. S.) PRIAPUS, in Greek mythology, son of Dionysus (or Adonis or Hermes) and Aphrodite (or Chione) . He is unknown to Homer and Hesiod. The chief seat of his worship was the coast of the Hellespont, especially at Lampsacus, which claimed to be his birthplace. Thence his cult extended to Lydia, and by way of the islands of Lesbos and Thasos to the whole of Greece (es- pecially Argolis), whence it made its way to Italy, together with that of Aphrodite. Priapus is the personification of the fruit- Priapulus caudatus Lam. (Nat. size.) a, Mouth, surrounded by spines. fulness of nature. Sailors invoked him in distress and fishermen prayed to him for success. He gradually came to be regarded as the god of sensuality. His symbol was the phallus, an em- blem of productivity and a protection against the evil eye. The first fruits of the gardens and fields, goats, milk and honey, and occasionally asses, were offered to him. He was sometimes represented as an old man, with a long beard and large genitals, wearing a long Oriental robe and a turban or garland of vine- leaves, with fruit and bunches of grapes in his lap. Amongst the Romans, rough wooden images, after the manner of the hermae, with phallus stained with vermilion, were set up in gardens. His image was placed on tombs, as symbolizing the doctrine of regeneration and a future life, and his name occurs on sepulchral inscriptions. In his hand he carried a bill-hook or club, while a reed on his head, shaking backwards and forwards in the wind, acted as a scarecrow. PRIBILOF ISLANDS (often called the Fur Seal Islands, Russian equivalent, " Kotovi "), a group of four islands, part of Alaska, lying in Bering Sea in about 56° 50' N. and 170° W., about 200 m. N. of Unalaska and 203 m. S. of Cape Newenham, the nearest point on the mainland. The principal islands are St Paul (about 35 sq. m.; 13 m. long, from N.E. to S.W.; max- imum width about 6 m.; named from St Peter and St Paul's Day, on which it was discovered) and St George (about 27 sq.m.; 10 m. long, maximum width, 4 m.; probably named after Pri- bilof 's ship) about 30 m. S.E. ; Otter and Walrus islets, the former covering about 4 sq. m., and the latter merely a reef covering about 64 acres, are near St Paul. In 1907 the native popula- tion was 263 — 170 on St Paul and 93 on St George. Only agents of the United States or employes of the lessees are permitted as residents on the islands. The islands are hilly and vol- canic— Bogoslof, a crater on St Paul, is 600 ft. high — without harbours, and have a mean annual temperature of about 35-7° F., and a rainfall of about 35 in. There are only two seasons — rainy summers lasting from May to October, and dry winters from November to April. The flora is restricted to ferns, mosses and grasses, though there are some creeping willows and small shrubs. The largest seal rookery, containing about 80 % of the seals in the Pribilofs, is on St Paul. The seals found here are a distinct variety (Callorhinus alascanus) with much better fur than that of any other variety. Besides the fur seal there are blue and grey foxes (more on St George than on St Paul), and on St George Island and on the Walrus reef there are great bird rookeries — the breeding places of immense numbers of gulls, sea-parrots, auks, cormorants and arries (Lomvia arra). The islands were first sighted in 1 767 by Joan Synd, and were visited in 1786 by Gerasim Pribiloff, who discovered the fur seal rookeries for which they became famous. From Russia the islands passed with Alaska to the United States in 1867. From 1870 to 1890 the United States government leased the islands to the Alaska Commercial Company. In 1890-1910 the North American Commercial Company held the monopoly. But the industry shrank considerably owing to pelagic sealing. The season during which land hunting is allowed on the islands includes June, July, September and October. (See also SEAL andvBERiNG SEA ARBITRATION. f PRIBRAM, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 39 m. S.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1000), 13,576, together with the adjoining town- ship of Birkenberg, 19,119, almost exclusively Czech. It lies in a valley between the hills of Birkenberg and Heiliger Berg, and in its neighbourhood are the lead and silver mines which belong to the Austrian government and are worked in nine shafts, two of which, the Adalbert shaft (3637 ft.) and the Maria shaft, (3S7S ft-) are the deepest in the world. The mines have been worked for several centuries, but their actual prosperity dates from 1770, when the sinking of the Adalbert shaft began. They yield yearly an average of 80,000 Ib of silver and 1000 tons of lead. At the top of the Heiliger Berg (1889 ft.) is a church with a wonder-working image of the Virgin, which is the chief place of pilgrimage in Bohemia. PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818-1898), English mathematician and educationist, was born at Coin St Denis, Gloucestershire, 314 PRICE, BONAMY— PRICE, R. in 1818. He was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford, of which college (after taking a first class in mathematics in 1840 and gaining the university mathematical scholarship in 1842) he became fellow in 1844 and tutor and mathematical lecturer in 1845. He at once took a leading position in the mathematical teaching of the university, and published trea- tises on the Differential calculus (in 1848) and the Infinitesimal calculus (4 vols., 1852-1860), which for long were the recognized textbooks there. This latter work included the differential and integral calculus, the calculus of variations, the theory of attractions, and analytical mechanics. In 1853 he was ap- pointed Sedleian professor of natural philosophy, resigning it in June 1898. His chief public activity at Oxford was in con- nexion with the hebdomadal council, and with the Clarendon Press, of which he was for many years secretary. He was also a curator of the Bodleian Library, an honorary fellow of Queen's College, a governor of Winchester College and a visitor of Greenwich Observatory. In 1891 he was elected Master of Pembroke College, which dignity carried with it a canonry of Gloucester Cathedral. He died on the 29th of December 1898. See Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1899). PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888), English political economist, was born at St Peter Port, Guernsey, on the 22nd of May 1807. He entered at Worcester College, Oxford, in 1825, where he took a double first in 1829. From 1830 to 1850 he was an assistant master at Rugby school. He then lived for some years in London, being engaged in business and literary work, and was appointed to serve on various royal commissions. He married in 1864. In 1868 he was elected Drummond professor of politi- cal economy at Oxford, and was thrice re-elected to the post, which he held till his death. In 1883 he was elected an honorary fellow of his college. In addition to his professorial work, he was in much request as a popular lecturer on political economy. He died in London on the 8th of January 1888. His principal publications, exclusive of pamphlets, were: The Principles of Currency (1869), Currency and Banking (1876), Chapters on Practical Political Economy (1878). PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791), English moral and political philosopher, son of a dissenting minister, was born on the 23rd of February 1723, at Tynton, Glamorganshire. He was educated privately and at a dissenting academy in London, and became chaplain and companion to a Mr Streatfield at Stoke Newington. By the death of Mr Streatfield and of an uncle in 1756 his cir- cumstances were considerably improved, and in 1757 he married a Miss Sarah Blundell, originally of Belgrave in Leicestershire. In 1767 he published a volume of sermons, which gained him the acquaintance of Lord Shelburne, an event which had much influence in raising his reputation and determining the char- acter of his subsequent pursuits. It was, however, as a writer on financial and political questions that Price became widely known. In 1769, in a letter to Dr Franklin, he wrote some observations on the expectation of lives, the increase of mankind, and the population of London, which were published in the Philosophical Transactions of that year; in May 1770 he communicated to the Royal Society a paper on the proper method of calculating the values of contingent reversions. The publication of these papers is said to have exercised a beneficial influence in draw- ing attention to the inadequate calculations on which many insurance and benefit societies had recently been formed. In 1769 Price received the degree of D.D. from the university of Glasgow. In 1771 he published his Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the National Debt (ed. 1772 and 1774). This pamphlet excited considerable controversy, and is supposed to have influenced Pitt in re-establishing the sinking fund for the extinction of the national debt, which had been created by Walpole in 1716 and abolished in 1733. The means, however, which Price proposed for the extinction of the debt are described by Lord Overstone1 as " a sort of hocus-pocus machinery," sup- posed to work " without loss to any one," and consequently unsound. 1 Lord Overstone reprinted in 1857, for private circulation, Price's and other rare tracts on the national debt and the sinking fund. Price then turned his attention to the question of the American colonies. He had from the first been strongly opposed to the war, and in 1776 he published a pamphlet entitled Observations on Civil Liberty and the Justice and Policy of the War with America. Several thousand copies of this work were sold within a few days; a cheap edition was soon issued; the pamphlet was ex- tolled by one set of politicians and abused by another; amongst its critics were Dr Markham, archbishop of York, John Wesley, and Edmund Burke; and Price rapidly became one of the best- known men in England. He was presented with the freedom of the city of London, and it is said that his pamphlet had no in- considerable share in determining the Americans to declare their independence. A second pamphlet on the war with America, the debts of Great Britain, and kindred topics followed in the spring of 1777. His name thus became identified with the cause of American independence. He was the intimate friend of Franklin; he corresponded with Turgot; and in the winter of 1778 he was invited by Congress to go to America and assist in the financial administration of the states. This offer he refused from unwillingness to quit his own country and his family connexions. In 1781 he received the degree of D.D. from Yale College. One of Price's most intimate friends was Dr Priestley, in spite of the fact that they took the most opposite views on morals and metaphysics. In 1778 appeared a published correspon- dence between these two liberal theologians on the subjects of materialism and necessity, wherein Price maintains, in opposi- tion to Priestley, the free agency of man and the unity and immateriality of the human soul. Both Price and Priestley were what would now vaguely be called " Unitarians," though they occupied respectively the extreme right and the extreme left position of that school. Indeed, Price's opinions would seem to have been rather Arian than Socinian. The pamphlets on the American War made Price famous. He preached to crowded congregations, and, when Lord Shel- burne acceded to power, not only was he offered the post of private secretary to the premier, but it is said that one of the paragraphs in the king's speech was suggested by him and even inserted in his words. In 1786 Mrs Price died. There were no children by the marriage, his own health was failing, and the remainder of his life appears to have been clouded by solitude and dejection. The progress of the French Revolution alone cheered him. On the igth of April 1791 he died, worn out with suffering and disease. The philosophical importance of Price is entirely in the region of ethics. The Review of the Principal Questions in Morals (1757, 3rd ed. revised 1787) contains his whole theory. It Ethical is divided into ten chapters, the first of which, though Theory a small part of the whole, completes his demonstration of ethical theory. The remaining chapters investigate details of minor importance, and are especially interesting as showing his relation to Butler and Kant (ch. lii. and ch. vii.). The work is pro- fessedly a refutation of Hutcheson, but is rather constructive than polemical. The theory he propounds is closely allied to that of Cudworth, but is interesting mainly in comparison with the sub- sequent theories of Kant. I. Right and wrong belong to actions in themselves. By this he means, not that the ethical value of actions is independent of their motive and end (see ch. vi), but rather that it is unaffected by consequences, and that it is more or less invariable for intelligent beings. II. This ethical value is perceived by reason or under- standing (which, unlike Kant, he does not distinguish), which intui- tively recognizes fitness or congruity between actions, agents and total circumstances. Arguing that ethical judgment is an act of discrimination, he endeavours to invalidate the doctrine of the moral sense (see SHAFTESBURY and HUTCHESON). Yet, in denying the importance of the emotions in moral judgment, he is driven back to the admission that right actions must be " grateful " to us ; that, in fact, moral approbation includes both an act of the under- standing and an emotion of the heart. Still it remains true that reason alone, in its highest development, would be a sufficient guide. In this conclusion he is in close agreement with Kant; reason is the arbiter, and right is (i) not a matter of the emotions and (2) not relative to imperfect human nature. Price's main point of differ- ence with Cudworth is that while Cudworth regards the moral criterion as a vfnjfjLa or modification of the mind, existing in germ and developed by circumstances, Price regards it as acquired from the contemplation of actions, but acquired necessarily, immediately, intuitively. In his view of disinterested action (ch. iii.) he adds PRICE— PRIDEAUX nothing to Butler. III. Happiness he regards as the only end, conceivable by us,1 of divine Providence, but it is a happiness wholly depenclcnt upon rectitude. Virtue tends always to happi- ness, and in the end must produce it in its perfect form. Works. — Besides the above-mentioned, Price wrote an Essay on the Population of England (2nd ed., 1780); two Fast -day Sermons, published respectively in 1779 and 1781; and Observations on the importance of the American Revolution and the means of rendering it a benefit to the World (1784). A complete list of his works is given as an api>endix to Dr Priestley's Funeral Sermon. His views on the French Revolution are denounced by Burke in his Reflections on the Revolution in France. Notices of Price's ethical system occur in :intosh's Progress of Ethical Philosophy, Jouffroy's Introduction to l-'.tint v, \\ he -veil's History of Moral Philosophy in England; Bain's Menial and Moral Sciences. See also ETHICS, and T. Fowler's monograph on Shaftesbury and Hutcheson. For Price's life see memoir by his nephew, William Morgan. (J. M. M.) PRICE, the equivalent in money for which a commodity is sold or purchased, the value of anything expressed in terms of a medium of exchange (see VALUE and WEALTH). The word is a doublet of " praise," commendation, eulogy, Lat. laus, and " prize," a reward of victory, the ultimate source of which is the Lat. prctium; the Aryan root par-, to buy, is seen in Skr. pana, wages, reward, Gr. irnrpao-Ktiv, to sell, &c. The O. Fr. pris, mod. prix, was taken from a Late Latin form precium, and had the various meanings of the English, " price," " prize," and " praise "; it was adapted in English as pris or prise and was gradually differentiated in form for the different meanings; thus " praise " was developed from an earlier verbal form prcise or preyse in the isth century; the original meaning survives in " appraise," to set a value to anything, cf. the cur- rent meaning of " to prize," to value highly. " Prize," re- ward, does not appear as a separate form till the i6th century. In " prize-fight," a boxing contest for money, the idea of reward seems clear, but the word appears earlier than the form " prize " in this sense and means a contest or match, and may be a differ- ent word altogether; the New English Dictionary compares the Greek use of ad\ov, literally reward, hence contest. " Prize " in the sense of that which is captured in war, especially at sea, is a distinct word. It comes through the Fr. prise, early Romanic presa for prensa, from Lat. praehendere, to seize, capture. For the international law on the subject see PRIZE. PRICHARD, JAMES COWLES (1786-1848), English phy- sician and ethnologist, was born on the nth of February 1786 at Ross in Herefordshire. His parents were of the Society of Friends, and he was educated at home, especially in modern languages and general literature. He adopted medicine as a profession mainly because of the facilities it offered for anthro- pological investigations. He took his M.D. at Edinburgh, afterwards reading for a year at Trinity College, Cambridge, whence, joining the Church of England, he migrated to St John's College, Oxford, afterwards entering as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, Oxford, but taking no degree in either uni- versity. In 1810 he settled at Bristol as a physician, and in 1813 published his Researches into the Physical History of Man, in 2 vols., afterwards extended to 5 vols. The central principle of the book is the primitive unity of the human species, acted upon by causes which have since divided it into permanent varieties or races. The work is dedicated to Blumenbach, whose five races of man are adopted. But where Prichard excelled Blumenbach and ah1 his other predecessors was in his grasp of the principle that people should be studied by combining all available characters. One investigation begun in this work requires special mention, the bringing into view of the fact, neglected or contradicted by philologists, that the Celtic nations are allied by language with the Slavonian, German and Pelas- gian (Greek and Latin), thus forming a fourth European branch of the Asiatic stock (which would now be called Indo-European or Aryan). His special treatise containing Celtic compared with Sanskrit words appeared in 1831 under the title Eastern Origin of the Celtic nations. It is remarkable that the essay by Adolphe Pictet, De I'Affiniti des langues celtiques avec le Sanscrit, which was crowned by the French Academy and made its author's reputation, should have been published in 1837 in evident ignorance of the earlier and in some respects stricter inves- tigations of Prichard. In 1843 Prichard published his Natural History of Man, in which he reiterated his belief in the specific unity of man, point- ing out that " the same inward and mental nature is to be re- cognized in all the races." Prichard may fairly be honoured with the title of the founder of the English branch of the sciences of anthropology and ethnology. In 1811 he was appointed physician to St Peter's hospital, Bristol, and in 1814 to the Bristol infirmary. In 1822 he published Treatise on Diseases of the Nervous System (pt. i.), and in 1835 a Treatise on Insanity and other Disorders affecting the Mind, in which he advanced the theory of the existence of a distinct mental disease, " moral insanity." In 1842, following up this suggestion, he published On the dijferent forms of Insanity in relation to Jurisprudence designed for the use of Persons concerned in Legal Questions ' regarding Unsoundness of Mind. In 1845 he was made a com- missioner in lunacy, and removed to London. He died there three years later, on the 23rd of December, of rheumatic fever. At the time of his death he was president of the Ethnological Society and a fellow of the Royal Society. Among his less important works were : A Review of the Doctrine of a Vital Principle (1829); On the Treatment of Hemiplegia (1831); On the Extinction of some Varieties of the Human Race (1839); Analysis of Egyptian Mythology (1819). See Memoir by Dr Thomas Hodgkin (1798-1866) in the Journal of the Ethnological Society (Feb. 1849); Memoir read before the Bath and Bristol branch of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association (March 1849) by Dr J. A. Symonds (Journ. Eth. Soc., (1850) ; Prichard and Symonds in Special Relation to Mental Science, by Dr Hack Tuke (1891). PRICK POSTS, an old architectural name given sometimes to the queen posts of a roof, and sometimes to the filling in quarters in framing. (See POST and PANE.) PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658), parliamentarian general in the English Civil War, is stated to have been brought up by the parish of St Bride's, London. Subsequently he was a drayman and a brewer. At the beginning of the Civil War he served as a captain under the earl of Essex, and was gradually promoted to the rank of colonel. He distinguished himself at the battle of Preston, and with his regiment took part in the military occupation of London in December 1648, which was the first step towards bringing the king to trial. The second was the expulsion of the Presbyterian and Royalist elements In the House of Commons, for which Pride is chiefly remembered. This, resolved by the army council and ordered by the lord general, Fairfax, was carried out by Colonel Pride's regiment. Taking his stand at the entrance of the House of Commons with a written list in his hand, he caused the arrest or exclusion of the obnoxious members, who were pointed out to him. After about a hundred members had been thus dealt with (" Pride's Purge "), the mutilated House of Commons proceeded to bring the king to trial. Pride was one of the judges of the king and signed his death-warrant, appending to his signature a seal showing a coat of arms. He commanded an infantry brigade under Cromwell at Dunbar and Worcester. He took no con- spicuous part in Commonwealth politics, except in opposing the proposal to confer the kingly dignity on Cromwell. He was knighted by the Protector in 1656, and was also chosen a mem- ber of the new House of Lords. He died at Nonsuch House, an estate which he had bought in Surrey, on the 23rd of October 1658. After the Restoration his body was ordered to be dug up and suspended on the gallows at Tyburn along with those of Cromwell, Ireton and Bradshaw, though it is said that the execution of this sentence was evaded. Noble, Lives of the Regicides; Bate, Lives of the Prime Actors and Principal Contrivers of the Murder of Charles I. ; Carlyle, Cromwell's Letters and Speeches. PRIDEAUX, HUMPHREY (1648-1724), English divine and Oriental scholar, was born of good family at Place, in Cornwall, on the 3rd of May 1648, and received his early education at the grammar schools of Liskeard and Bodmin. In 1665 he was placed at Westminster under Busby, and in 1668 went on to 316 PRIE, MARQUISE DE— PRIEST Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degrees in the following order: B.A., 1672; M.A., 1675; B.D., 1682; and D.D., 1686. His account of the famous Arundel marbles just given to the university appeared in 1676. In 1679 he was appointed to the rectory of St Clement's, Oxford, and Hebrew lecturer at Christ Church, where he continued until February 1686, holding for the last three years the rectory of Bladon with Woodstock. In 1686 he exchanged for the benefice of Sahara in Norfolk. The sympathies of Prideaux inclined to Low Churchism in religion and to Whiggism in politics, and he took an active part in the controversies of the day, publishing the following pamph- lets: " The Validity of the Orders of the Church of England " (1688), " Letter to a Friend on the Present Convocation " (1690), " The Case of Clandestine Marriages stated " (1691). Prideaux was promoted to the archdeaconry of Suffolk in Decem- ber 1688, and to the deanery of Norwich (he had long been one of the canons) in June 1702. In 1694 he was obliged, through ill health, to resign the rectory of Saham, and after having held the vicarage of Trowse for fourteen years (1696-1710) he found himself incapacitated from further parochial duty. He died at Norwich on the ist of November 1724. Many of the dean's writings were of considerable value. His Life of Mahomet (1697) was really a polemical tract against the deists and has now no biographical value. Both it and his Directions to Churchwardens (1701) passed through several editions. Even greater success attended The Old and New Testament connected in the History of the Jews (1716), a work which not only displayed but stimulated research. Biographical details of his numerous publications and of his manuscripts are given in the Bibliotheca Cornubiensis, ii. 527—533, and iii. 1319. A volume of his letters to John Ellis, some time under-secretary of state, was edited by E. M. Thompson for the Camden Society in 1875; they contain a vivid picture of Oxford life after the Restoration. An anonymous life (probably by Thomas Birch) appeared in 1748; it was mainly compiled from information furnished by Prideaux's son Edmund. PRIE, JEANNE AGNES BERTHELOT DE PLENEUF, MARQUISE DE (1698-1727), French adventuress, was the daughter of a rich but unscrupulous father and an immoral mother. At the age of fifteen she was married to Louis, marquis de Prie, and went with him to the court of Savoy at Turin, where he was ambassador. She was twenty-one when she returned to France, and was soon the declared mistress of Louis Henri, due de Bourbon. During his ministry (1723-1725) she was in several respects the real ruler of France, her most notable triumph being the marriage of Louis XV. to Marie Leszczynska instead of to Mile de Vermandois. But when, in 1725, she sought to have Bourbon's rival Fleury exiled, her ascendancy came to an end. After Fleury's recall and the banishment of Bourbon to Chantilly Mme de Prie was exiled to Courbepine, where she committed suicide the next year. See M. H. Thirion, Madame de Prie (Paris, 1905). PRIE-DIEU, literally " pray God," strictly a prayer desk, primarily intended for private use, but often found in churches of the European continent. It is a small ornamental wooden desk furnished with a sloping shelf for books, and a cushioned kneeling piece. It appears not to have received its present name until the early part of the i7th century. At that period in France a small room or oratory was sometimes known by the same name. A similar form of chair, in domestic furniture, is called prie-dieu by analogy. PRIEGO DE CORDOBA, a town of southern Spain in the extreme S.E. of the province of Cordova, near the headwaters of the river Guadajoz, and on the northern slope of the Sierra de Priego. Pop. (1900), 16,902. The district abounds in cattle and mules and agricultural products, especially wine and oil. The local industries also include tanning and manufactures of esparto fabrics, rugs and cotton goods. The oldest church was built in the I3th century and subsequently restored; it has a fine chapel. There are ruins of an old castle — Priego having been a fortified city of the Moors which was captured by the Christians in 1226, lost again, and finally retaken in 1407. PRIENE (mod. Samsun kale), an ancient city of Ionia on the foot-hills of Mycale, about 6 m. N. of the Maeander. It was formerly on the sea coast, but now lies some miles inland. It is said to have been founded by lonians under Aegyptus, a son of Neleus. Sacked by Ardys of Lydia, it revived and attained great prosperity under its " sage," Bias, in the middle of the 6th century. Cyrus captured it in 545; but it was able to send twelve ships to join the Ionian revolt (500-494). Disputes with Samos, and the troubles after Alexander's death, brought Priene low, and Rome had to save it from the kings of Pergamum and Cappadocia in 155. Orophernes, the rebellious brother of the Cappadocian king, who had deposited a treasure there and recovered it by Roman intervention, restored the temple of Athena as a thankoffering. Under Roman and Byzantine dominion Priene had a prosperous history. It passed into Moslem hands late in the I3th century. The ruins, which lie on successive terraces, were the object of missions sent out by the English Society of Dilettanti in 1765 and 1868, and have been thoroughly laid open by Dr Th. Wiegand (1895-1899) for the Berlin Museum. The city, as rebuilt in the 4th and 3rd centuries, was laid out on a rectangular scheme. It faced south, its acropolis rising nearly 700 ft. behind it. The whole area was enclosed by a wall 7 ft. thick with towers at intervals and three principal gates. On the lower slopes of the acropolis was a shrine of Demeter. The town had six main streets, about 20 ft. wide, running east and west and fifteen streets about 10 ft. wide crossing at right angles, all being evenly spaced; and it was thus divided into about 80 insidae. Private houses were apportioned four to an insula. The systems of water-supply and drainage can easily be discerned. The houses present many analogies with the earliest Pompeian. In the western half of the city, on a high terrace north of the main street and approached by a fine stairway, was the temple of Athena Polias, a hexastyle peripterial Ionic structure built by Pythias, the architect of the Mausoleum. Under the basis of the statue of Athena were found in 1870 silver tetradrachms of Orophernes, and some jewelry, probably deposited at the time of the Cappadocian restoration. Fronting the main street is a series of halls, and on the other side is the fine market place. The municipal buildings, Roman gymnasium, and well preserved theatre lie to the north, but, like all the other public structures, in the centre of the plan. Temples of Isis and Asclepius have been laid bare. At the lowest point on the south, within the walls, was the large stadium, con- nected with a gymnasium of Hellenistic times. See Society of Dilettanti, Ionian Antiquities (1821), vol. ii.; Th. Wiegand and H. Schrader, Priene (1904) ; on inscriptions (360) see Hiller von Gartringen, Inschriften von Priene (Berlin, 1907), with collection of ancient references to the city. (D. G. H.) PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. prttre), the contracted form of " presbyter " (Trpecr/Sitrepos, " elder "; see PRESBYTER), a name of office in the early Christian Church, already mentioned in the New Testament. But in the English Bible the presbyters of the New Testament are called " elders," not " priests "; the latter name is reserved for ministers of pre-Christian religions, the Semitic °'Xp (kohanlm, sing, kohen) and D"'5? (kemarim), or the Greek Uptis. The reason of this will appear more clearly in the sequel; it is enough to observe at present that, before our English word was formed, the original idea of a presbyter had been overlaid with others derived from pre-Christian priest- hoods, so that it is from these and not from the etymological force of the word that we must start irt considering historically what a priest is. The theologians of the Greek and Latin churches expressly found the conception of a Christian priest- hood on the hierarchy of the Jewish temple, while the names by which the sacerdotal character is expressed — Uptvs, sacerdos —originally designated the ministers of sacred things in Greek and Roman heathenism, and then came to be used as transla- tions into Greek and Latin of the Hebrew kohen. Kohen, Upevs, sacerdos, are, in fact, fair translations of one another; they all denote a minister whose stated business was to perform, on behalf of the community, certain public ritual acts, particularly sacrifices, directed godwards. Such ministers or priests existed in all the great religions of ancient civilization. The term PRIEST " priest " is sometimes taken to include " sorcerer," but this use is open to criticism- and may produce confusion. The close inter-relation which existed in primitive society between magic, priesthood and kingship has been indicated by Frazer in his Early History of the Kingship. His remarks throw some light on the early character of priesthood as well as king- ship. " When once a special class of sorcerers has been segre- gated from the community and entrusted by it with the dis- charge of duties on which the public safety and welfare are believed to depend, these men gradually rise to wealth and power till their leaders blossom out into sacred kings." Ac- cording to Frazer's view, " as time goes on the fallacy of magic becomes more and more apparent and is slowly displaced by religion; in other words the magician gives way to the priest. Hence the king starting as a magician tends gradually to exchange the practice of magic for the functions of prayer and sacrifice." We are not concerned here with the debatable question whether magic preceded religion. Probably magic was always accompanied by some primitive form of animism whether the Melanesian mana or fetishism (see Dr Haddon's Magic and Fetishism, pp. 58-62, 64-90). The investigations which have been carried on in recent years by King, Tallquist and Zimmern, as well as by BrUnnow and Craig, on the magic and ritual of Babylonia and Assyria have been fruitful of results. The question, however, remains to be settled how far the officials and their functions, which in the much more highly developed civilization of Babylonia came' to be differentiated and specialized, can be strictly included under the functions of priesthood. The answer to this question will be in many cases negative or affirmative according to our strict adherence or the reverse to the definition of the priest set forth above as " a minister whose stated business it was to perform on behalf of the community certain ritual acts, in some cases sacrifices (or the recitation of prayers), directed Godwards." On the other hand the seer, diviner and prophet is a minister whose function it is to communicate God's will or word to man. This is not a distinction which governs Zimmern and other writers. Our chief source of information is Zimmern's Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Babylon: Religion, pp. 81-95, from which Lagrange in his £tudes sur les religions semitiques1 has chiefly derived his materials (ch. vi. p. 222 sqq.) respecting Babylonia and Assyria. Zimmern's results are summarized in K..A.T3. p. 589 sqq. Here we find magic and soothsaying closely intertwined with priestly functions as, we shall see, was the case in early Hebrew pre-«xilian days with the Kohen. It must be borne in mind that primitive humanity is not governed by logical distinctions. Among the Babylonians and Assyrians the baru (from baru to see, inspect) was a sooth- saying priest who was consulted whenever any important undertaking was proposed, and addressed his inquiries to Samas the sun god (or Adad) as bel biri or lord of the oracle (accompanied by the sacrifice of lambs). The signs were usually obtained from the inspection of the liver (according to Johns, that of the lamb that was sacrificed); or it took place through birds; hence the name in this case given to the baru of dagil is.s.ure " bird in- spector." Johns, however, is disposed to regard him as a distinct functionary. Sometimes divination took place through vessels filled with water and oil (see OMEN and DIVINATION). As contrasted with the barA or soothsaying priest, as he is called by Zimmern, we have the atipu, who was the priest- magician who dealt in conjurations (siptu), whereby diseases were removed, spells broken, or in expiations whereby sins were expiated. Tallquist's edition of the Maklu series of incantations and his explanations of the ritual, and also the publications by Zimmern of the Surpu series of tablets in his Beitrage have rendered us familiar with the functions of the aSipu. See article " Magic " in Hastings's Diet. Bible, where examples are given of incantations with magical by-play. Also compare Jastrow's Religion of Babylonia (1898), ch. xvi., " The Magical Texts," where a fuller treatment will be found. Now, as the conjura- tions were addressed to the deity, asipu, according to the definition given above, comes more reasonably under the category of priest. But the priest belongs to the realm of religion proper, which involves a relation of dependence on the superior power, whereas the aSipu belongs to the realm of magic, which is coercive and seeks " to constrain the hostile power to give way " (Lagrange). There was also a third kind of priest called the zammaru, whose function it was to sing hymns. In the earlier period of the Assyrian monarchy we find the king holding the office of pa-te-si or iiakku or (more definitely) the Sangu, i.e. priest of Asur, the patron-deity of Assyria. This high-priestly office towards the tutelary deity of the nation appears to have belonged to the king by virtue of his royal rank. In Babylonia under the last empire (except in the case of Nebuchadrezzar, who calls himself palesi flri, "exalted priest," K.I.B. iii. p. 60) no such high-priestly function attached to the king, for in Babylonia the priesthoods were endowed with great wealth and power, and even the king stood in awe of them (see Johns, Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts and Letters, p. 212 sqq). These powerfully-organized priesthoods, as well as the elaborate nature of their ritual and apparatus of worship, must have deeply and permanently impressed the exiled Jewish community. Thus arose the more developed system of Ezekiel's scheme (xl.-xlviii.) and of the Priestercodex and the high dignity which became attached to the person of the High Priest (reflected in the narrative of Uzziah's leprosy in 2 Chron. xxvi. 16-20). Other parallels to the sacer- dotal system of the Priestercodex may here be noted, (i) According to Zimmern the baru and the aSipu formed close gilds and the office passed from father to son. This is certainly true of the Sangulu or priesthood, which was connected with a special family attached to a particular temple and its worship. (2) Johns also points out the existence of the rab-barti, chief soothsayer, and the rab-maSmaSu or chief magician. (3) Bodily defects (as squinting, lack of teeth, maimed finger) was disquali- fications for priesthood (cf. Lev. xxi. 17 sqq.). (4) In the ritual tablets for the alipu published in Zimmern's BeitrSge, No. 26, col. iii. 19 sqq., we read " that the ma£ma$u (priest's magician) is to pass forth to the gateway, sacrifice a sheep in the palace portal, and to smear the threshold and posts of the palace gateway right and left with the blood of the lamb." We are reminded of Exod. xii. 7 (P). (5) The Babylonian term kuppuru (infin. Pael) is used of the magician-priest or asipu and means " wipe out." This confirms the view that the Hebrew kipper, which appears to be a late word (specially employed in Ezek, and P.), originally had the meaning which belongs to the Aramaic viz. " wipe off " and not " cover " as in Arabic. Zimmern thinks that the meaning " atone " " expiate," which belongs to the Pael form of the root k-p-r in both Aramaic and Arabic was borrowed from the Babylonian (cf. Driver's note in "Deuteronomy," Int. Commentary, p. 425 sqq, and especially his article " Propitiation " in Hastings's Diet. Bible). The Rev. C. H. W. Johns, to whom reference has already been made, demurs (in a communication to the writer) to the fusion of the priest and the magician, and to the custom of " calling every unknown official a priest or a eunuch." " If a Babylonian said Sangu he meant one thing, by iiiipu another, and by ramku another. I do not deny that the same man might unite all three functions in one person. Thus a Sangu had a definite share in the offerings, a maSmaiu a different share. It seems to me that the priests belonged to the old families who were descended from the original tribe or clan, &c., that founded the city, and they could not admit outsiders save by adoption into the family. If a new god had a temple set up he had a new set of priests, but this priesthood descended in its line, e.g. a Samas priest did not beget a man who became a priest of Nabti. Further ' priest ' implied a peculiar relation to the god. A soothsayer was a general practitioner in his art, not attached to any one god or temple. Anyone could be a ramku who actually poured out libations; that a priest usually did it was no exception to that rule. The priest was only a sort of specialist in the practice. The priest also offered prayer, interceded, &c. I cannot see that he taught. An oracle of the god came through him. If the modus operandi was akin to soothsaying it was only because that special form of soothsaying was peculiar to the particular cult of that god, and even this as a secondary development. I do not think that early priests received oracles save in dreams, &c. That magic early invaded religion is possible, but there are many traces of its being a foreign element. This is not usually pointed out." 3i8 PRIEST Among the ancient Egyptians the local god was the protector and lord of the district. Consequently it was the interest and duty of the inhabitants to maintain the cultus of the patron- deity of their city who dwelt in their midst. Moreover, in the earlier times we find the prince of the nome acting as the High Priest of the local god, but in course of time the state, repre- sented by the king, began to an ever-increasing degree to take oversight over the more important local cults. Thus we find that the Egyptian monarch was empowered to exercise priestly functions before all the gods. We constantly see him in the wall-paintings portrayed as a priest in the conventional attitudes before the images of the gods. In the chief sanctuaries the chief priests possessed special privileges, and it is probable that those in the immediate entourage of the king were elected to these positions. The highest nobility in the nome sought the honour of priesthood in the service of the local deity. One special class called kher heb were charged with reciting the divine formulae, which were popularly held to possess magical virtue. In the middle empire (Vllth to Xllth Dynasties) the lay element main- tains its position in religious cultus despite its complexity. But under the new empire (Dynasties XVIIIth and following) the pro- fessional priest had attained to ominous power. The temples possessed larger estates and became more wealthy. Priests increased in number and were divided into ranks, and we find them occupying state offices, just as in Babylonia the priest acts as judge or inspector of canals (Johns, Babyl. and Assyr. Laws, &c., p. 213). We now turn to the priesthood as we find it in ancient Greece and Italy. Homer knows special priests who preside over ritual acts in the temples to which they are attached; but his kings also do sacrifice on behalf of their people. The king, in fact, both in Greece and in Rome, was the acting head of the state religion, and when the regal power came to an end his sacred functions were not transferred to the ordinary priests, but either they were distributed among high officers of state, as archons and prytanes, or the title of " king "• was still preserved as that of a religious functionary, as in the case of the rex sacrorum at Rome and the archon basileus at Athens. In the domestic circle the union of priesthood and natural headship was never disturbed; the Roman paterfamilias sacrificed for the whole family. On the other hand, gentes and phratriae, which had no natural head, had special priests chosen from their members; for every circle of ancient society, from the family up to the state, was a religious as well as a civil unity, and had its own gods and sacred rites. The lines of religious and civil society were identical, and, so long as they remained so, no antagonism could arise between the spiritual and the temporal power. In point of fact, in Greece and Rome the priest never attained to any considerable independent importance; we cannot speak of priestly power and hardly even of a distinct priestly class. In Greece the priest, so far as he is an independent functionary and not one of the magistrates, is simply the elected or hereditary minister of a temple charged with " those things which are ordained to be done towards the gods " (see Aristotle, Pol. vi. 8), and remunerated from the revenues of the temple, or by the gifts of worshippers and sacrificial dues. The position was often lucrative and always honourable, and the priests were under the special protection of the gods they served. But their purely ritual functions gave them no means of estab- lishing a considerable influence on the minds of men, and the technical knowledge which they possessed as to the way in which the gods could be acceptably approached was neither so intricate nor so mysterious as to give the class a special importance. The funds of the temples were not in their control, but were treated as public moneys. Above all, where, as at Athens, the decision of questions of sacred law fell not to the priests but to the college of e£7j77jTa£, one great source of priestly power was wholly lacking. There remains, indeed, one other sacred function of great importance in the ancient world in which' the Greek priests had a share. As man approached the gods in sacrifice and prayers, so too the gods declared themselves to men by divers signs and tokens, which it was possible to read by the art of Divination (q.i>.). In many nations divination and priest- hood have always gone hand in hand; at Rome, for example, the augurs and the XV viri sacrorum, who interpreted the Sibylline books, were priestly colleges. In Greece, on the other hand, divination was not generally a priestly function, but it did belong to the priests of the Oracles (see ORACLE) . The great oracles, however, were of Panhellenic celebrity and did not serve each a particular state, and so in this direction also the risk of an independent priestly power within the state was avoided.1 In Rome, again, where the functions of the priesthood were politically much more weighty, where the technicalities of religion were more complicated, where priests interpreted the will of the gods, and where the pontiffs had a most important jurisdiction in sacred things, the state was much too strong to suffer these powers to escape from its own immediate control: the old mon- archy of the king in sacred things descended to th'e inheritors of his temporal power; the highest civil and religious functions met in the same persons (cf. Cic. De dom. i. i); and every priest was subject to the state exactly as the magistrates were, referring all weighty matters to state decision and then executing what the one supreme power decreed. And it is instructive to observe that when the plebeians extorted their full share of political power they also demanded and obtained admission to every priestly college of political importance, to those, namely, of the pontiffs, the augurs, and the XV viri sacrorum. The Romans, it need hardly be said, had no hereditary priests.2 We can only glance briefly at the ancient religions of India (Aryan). " In historical times the priesthood is rigidly confined to members of the Brahman caste, who are regarded as the repre- sentatives of God on earth. But there are indications that at an earlier date the Kshatriya or warrior caste often became priests. The power of the priesthood began with the delegation by the king of his sacrificial duties to a ' president ' (purohita). This power grew with the growing importance of the sacrifice and the complication of its ceremonial. In the post-Vedic period ' right ' or ' wrong ' simply means the exact performance or the neglect, whether intentional or unintentional — of all the details of a prescribed ritual, the centre of which was the sacri- fice. At this period the priestly caste gained its unbounded power over the minds of men " (Professor Rapson). For further details as to. the development of the priestly caste and wisdom in India the reader must refer to BRAHMINISM; here it is enough to observe that among a religious people a priesthood which forms a close and still more an hereditary corporation, and the assistance of which is indispensable in all religious acts, must rise to practical supremacy in society except under the strongest form of despotism, where the sovereign is head of the Church as well as of the state. Among the Zoroastrian Iranians, as among" the Indian Aryans, the aid of a priest to recite the sacrificial liturgy was necessary at every offering (Herod, i. 132), and the Iranian priests (athra- vans, later Magi) claimed, like the Brahmans, to be the highest order of society; but a variety of conditions were lacking to give them the full place of their Indian brethren. Zoroas- trianism is not a nature religion, but the result of a reform which never, under the old empire, thoroughly penetrated the masses; and the priesthood, as it was not based on family tradi- tion, did not form a strict hereditary caste. It was open to any one to obtain entrance into the priesthood, while on the other hand it was only as a priest that he could exercise sacerdotal functions, for these were strictly reserved to priests. Accord- ingly the clergy formed a compact hierarchy not inferior in influence to the clergy of the Christian middle ages, had great power in the state, and were often irksome even to the great king. 1 For the Greek priests, see, besides Schomann and other works on Greek antiquities, Newton, Essays on Art and Archaeology, p. 136 seq. (from epigraphic material). See also for Greek as well as Roman priest, art. " Sacerdos " (Sacerdotium) in Warre Cornish's Concise Diet, of Greek and Roman Antiquities. - On the Roman priests, see in general Marquardt, Romische Slaatsverwaltung, vol. in., and for the pontiffs in particular the art. " Sacerdos " in Warre Cornish's Concise Diet., also Pontifex. PRIEST But the best established hierarchy is not so powerful as a caste, and the monarchs had one strong hold on the clergy by retaining the patronage of great ecclesiastical places, and another in the fact that the Semitic provinces on the Tigris, where the capital lay, were mainly inhabited by men of other faith.1 The duties of the priests were not restricted to the services of the temple, but they also took part in the household cults. The ritual had a mechanical character and was by no means attractive. It is impossible to enter into the manifold details of the fire cultus which forms the main part of the worship in the Avesta. They belong to an earlier period than the Zoroas- trian, nor was this fire cultus restricted to the temples. Portable fire altars were carried about and the worship could be celebrated in any spot. It may be noted that in all the ceremonies in the religion of the Avesta, incantations, prayers and confessions play a very large part. The prevailing element in the incanta- tions consists in the exorcism of devils. In fact, the Persian religion throughout all its multitude of purifications, observances and expiations was a constant warfare against impurity, death and the devil. Amid all the ceremonialism of its priesthood there were also high ideals set forth in Zoroastrian religion of what a priest should be. Thus we read in Vendidad xviii., " Many there be, noble Zarathustra, who bear the mouth bandage, who have yet not girded their loins with the law. If such a one says ' I am an Athravan ' he lies, call him not Athravan, noble Zarathustra, said Ahura Mazda, but thou shouldst call him priest, noble Zarathustra, who sits awake the whole night through and yearns for holy wisdom that enables man to stand on death's bridge fearless and with happy heart, the wisdom whereby he attains the holy and glorious world of paradise." In this rapid glance at some of the chief priesthoods of anti- quity we have hitherto passed over the pure Semites, whose priesthoods call for closer examination because of the profound influence which one of them — that of the Jews — has exercised on Christianity, and so on the whole history of the modern world. But before we proceed to this it may be well to note one or two things that come out by comparison of the systems already before us. Priestly acts — that is, acts done by one and accepted by the gods on behalf of many — are common to all antique religions, and cannot be lacking where the primary subject of religion is not the individual but the natural com- munity. But the origin of a separate priestly class, distinct from the natural heads of the community, cannot be explained by any such broad general principle; in some cases, as in Greece, it is little more than a matter of convenience that part of the religious duties of the state should be confided to special ministers charged with the care of particular temples, while in others the inter- vention of a special priesthood is indispensable to the validity of every religious act, so that the priest ultimately becomes a mediator and the vehicle of all divine grace. This position, we see, can be reached by various paths : the priest may become indispensable through the growth of ritual observances and precautions too complicated for a layman to master, or he may lay claim to special nearness to the gods on the ground, it may be, of his race, or, it may be, of habitual practices of purity and asceticism which cannot be combined with the duties of ordinary life, as, for example, celibacy was required of priestesses of Vesta at Rome. But the highest developments of priestly influence are hardly separable from something of magical superstition, the opus operatum of the priest has the power of a sorcerer's spell. The strength of the priesthood in Chaldaea and in Egypt stands plainly in the closest connexion with the survival of a magical element in the state religion, and Rome, in like manner, is more priestly than Greece, because it is more superstitious. In most cases, however, where an ancient civilization shows us a strong priestly system we are unable to make out in any detail the steps by which that system was elaborated; the clearest case perhaps is the priesthood of the Jews, which is not less interesting from its origin and growth 1 Cf. especially Noldeke's Tabari, p. 450 seq. than from the influence exerted by the system long after the priests were dispersed and their sanctuary laid in ruins. Among the nomadic Semites, to whom the Hebrews belonged before they settled in Canaan, there has never been any developed priesthood. The acts of religion partake of the general simplicity of desert life; apart from the private worship ol household gods and the oblations and salutations offered at the graves of departed kinsmen, the ritual observances of the ancient Arabs were visits to the tribal sanctuary to salute the god with a gift of milk, first-fruits or the like, the sacrifice of firstlings and vows (see NAZARITE and PASSOVER), and an occasional pilgrimage to discharge a vow at the annual feast and fair of one of the more distant holy places (see MECCA). These acts required no priestly aid; each man slew his own victim and divided the sacrifice in his own circle ; the share of the god was the blood which was smeared upon or poured out beside stone (nojfr, ghabghab) set up as an altar or perhaps as a symbol of the deity. It does not appear that any portion of the sacrifice was burned on the altar, or that any part of the victim was the due of the sanctuary. We find therefore no trace of a sacrificial priesthood, but each temple had one or more doorkeepers (sddin, bajib), whose office was usually hereditary in a certain family and who had the charge of the temple and its treasures. The sacrifices and offerings were acknowledgments of divine bounty and means used to insure its continuance; the Arab was the " slave " of his god and paid him tribute, as slaves used to do to their masters, or subjects to their lords; and the free Bedouin, trained in the solitude of the desert to habits of absolute self-reliance, knew no master except his god, and acknowledged no other will before which his own should bend. The voice of the god might be uttered in omens which the skilled could read, or conveyed in the inspired rhymes of soothsayers, but frequently it was sought in the oracle of the sanctuary, where the sacred lot was administered for a fee by the sadin. The sanctuary thus became a seat of judgment, and here, too, compacts were sealed by oaths and sacrificial ceremonies. These institutions, though known to us only from sources belonging to an age when the old faith was falling to pieces, are certainly very ancient. The fundamental type of the Arabic sanctuary can be traced through all the Semitic lands, and so appears to be older than the Semitic dispersion ; even the technical terms are mainly the same, so that we may justly assume that the more developed ritual and priesthoods of the settled Semites sprang from a state of things not very remote from what we find among the heathen Arabs. Now among the Arabs, as we have seen, ritual service is the affair of the individual, or of a mass of individuals gathered in a great feast, but still doing worship each for himself and his own private circle; the only public aspect of religion is found in connexion with divina- tion and the oracle to which the affairs of the community are sub- mitted. In Greece and Rome the public sacrifices were the chief function of religion, and in them the priesthood represented the ancient kings. But in the desert there is no king and no sovereignty save that ofthe divine oracle, and therefore it is from the soothsayers or ministers of the oracle that a public ministry of religion can most naturally spring. With the beginning of a settled state the sanctuaries must rise in importance and all the functions of revela- tion will gather round them. A sacrificial priesthood will arise as the worship becomes more complex (especially as sacrifice in antiquity is a common preliminary to the consultation of an oracle), but the public ritual will still remain closely associate^ with oracle or divination, and the priest will still be, above all things, a revealer. That this was what actually happened may be inferred from the fact that the Canaanite and Phoenician name for a priest (kohen) is identical with the Arabic kahin, a " soothsayer." Soothsaying was no modern importation in Arabia; its characteristic form — a monotonous croon of short rhyming clauses — is the same as was practised by the Hebrew " wizards who peeped and muttered " in the days of Isaiah, and that this form was native in Arabia is clear from its having a technical name (saj'), which in Hebrew survives only in derivative words with modified sense.* The kahin, therefore, is not a degraded priest but such a soothsayer as is found in most primitive societies, and the Canaanite priests grew out of these early revealers. In point of fact some form of revelation or oracle appears to have existed in every great shrine of Canaan and Syria,3 and the importance of this element in the cultus may be measured from the fact that at Hierapolis it was the charge of the chief priest, just as in the Levitical legislation. But the use of " kahin for " priest " in the Canaanite area points to more than this: it is connected with the orgiastic character of Canaanite religion. The soothsayer differs from the priest of an oracle by giving his revelation under excitement and often in a frenzy allied to madness. In natural soothsaying this frenzy is the neces- sary physical accompaniment of an afflatus which, though it seems supernatural to a rude people, is really akin to poetic inspiration. 2 Mgshugga', 2 Kings ix. n, Jer. xxix. 26 — a term of contempt applied to prophets. (See HEBREW RELIGION.) 'For examples, see PALMYRA and PHILISTINES; see further, Lucian, De dea syria, 36, for Hierapolis; Zosimus i. 58, for Aphaca; Pliny, H. N. xxxvii. 58 (compared with Lucian, ui supra, and Movers, Phoenizier, i. 655), for the temple of Melkart at Tyre. 320 PRIEST But it is soon learned that a similar physical state can be pro- duced artificially, and at the Canaanite sanctuaries this was done on a large scale. We see from I Kings xviii., 2 Kings x., that great Baal temples had two classes of ministers, kohanlm and nebhlim, priests " and " prophets," and as the former bear a name which primarily denotes a soothsayer, so the latter are also a kind of priests who do sacrificial service with a wild ritual of their own. How deeply the orgiastic character was stamped on the priesthoods of north Semitic nature-worship is clear from Greek and Roman accounts, such as that of Appuleius (Metam. bk. viii.). The Hebrews, who made the language of Canaan their own, took also the Canaanite name for a priest. But the earliest forms of Hebrew priesthood are not Canaanite in character; the priest, as he appears in the older records of the time of the Judges, Eli at Shiloh, Jonathan in the private temple of Micah and at Dan, is much liker the sadin than the kahin.1 The whole structure of Hebrew society at the time of the conquest was almost precisely that of a federation of Arab tribes, and the religious ordinances are scarcely distinguishable from those of Arabia, save only that the great deliverance of the Exodus and the period when Moses, sitting in judgment at the sanctuary of Kadesh, had for a whole generation impressed the sovereignty of Jehovah on all the tribes, had created an idea of unity between the scattered settlements in Canaan such as the Arabs before Mahomet never had. But neither in civil nor in religious life was this ideal unity expressed in fixed institutions, the old individualism of the Semitic nomad still held its ground. Thus the firstlings, first-fruits and vows are still the free gift of the individual which no human authority exacts, and which every householder presents and consumes with his circle in a sacrificial feast without priestly aid. As in Arabia, the ordinary sanctuary is still a sacred stone ('tjyj = no^b) set up under the open heaven, and here the blood of the victim is poured out as an offering to God (see especially I Sam. xiv. 34, and cf. 2 Sam. xxiii. 1 6, 17). The priest has no place in this ritual; he is not the minister of an altar,2 but the guardian of a temple, such as was already found here and there in the land for the custody of sacred images and palladia or other consecrated things (the ark at Shiloh, I Sam. iii. 3; images in Micah's temple, Judges xvii. 5. ; Goliath's sword lying behind the " ephod " or plated image at Nob, I Sam. xxi. 9; no doubt also money, a sin the Canaanite temple at Shechem, Judges ix. 4). Such treasures required a guardian ; but, above all, wherever there was a temple there was an oracle, a kind of sacred lot, just as in Arabia (i Sam. xiv. 41, Sept.), which could only be drawn where there was an " ephod " and a priest (i Sam. xiv. 18, Sept., and xxiii. 6 seq.). The Hebrews had already possessed a tent-temple and oracle of this kind in the wilderness (Exod. xxxiii. 7 seq.), of which Moses was the priest and Joshua the aedituus, and ever since that time the judgment of God through the priest at the sanctuary had a greater weight than the word of a seer, and was the ultimate solution of every controversy and claim (i Sam. ii. 25; Exod. xxi. 6, xxii. 8, 9, where for " judge," " judges," of A.V. read " God " with R.V.). The temple at Shiloh, where the ark was preserved, was the lineal descendant of the Mosaic sanctuary — for it was not the place but the palladium and its oracle that were the essential thing — and its priests claimed kin with Moses himself. In the divided state of the nation, indeed, this sanctuary was hardly visited from beyond Mt Ephraim; and every man or tribe that cared to provide the necessary apparatus (ephod, teraphim, &c.) and hire a priest might have a temple and oracle of his own at which to consult Jehovah (Judges xvii., xviii.); but there was hardly another sanctuary of equal dignity. The priest of Shiloh is a much greater person than Micah's priest Jonathan; at the great 1 This appears even in the words used as synonyms for " priest " , ion io«7, which exactly corresponds to sadin and b&jib. That the name of tna was borrowed from the Canaanites appears certain, for that out of the multiplicity of words for soothsayers and the like common to Hebrew and Arabic (either formed from a common root or expressing exactly the same idea — 'jjrj!, 'arraf; Tjn, babir; njn, nxh, hazi; op'p, cf. istiksam) the two nations should have chosen the same one independently to mean a priest is, in view of the great difference in character between old Hebrew and Canaanite priesthoods, inconceivable. Besides pa Hebrew has the word TDD (pi. D-TDD), which, however, is not applied to priests of the national religion. This, in fact, is the old Aramaic word for a priest (with suffixed article, kumra). Its origin is obscure. In the Aramaic papyri discovered near Assouan (Syene) TOO is priest of the gods (Cowley and Sayce, Pap. E. line 15), presumably Khnum and Set; and in Sachau's Pap. I. line 5, K~ea definitely mean the priests of the god Hnflb. This coincides with the Hebrew use of the term as idolatrous priests, Hos. x. 5 ; Zeph. i. 4 ; 2 Kings xxiii. 5. 2 It is not clear from I Sam. ii. 15 whether even at Shiloh the priest had anything to do with sacrifice, whether those who burned the fat were the worshippers themselves or some subordinate ministers of the Temple. Certainly it was not the " priest " who did so, for he in this narrative is always in the singular. Hophni and Phinehas are not called priests, though they bore the ark and so were priests in the sense of Josh. iii. feasts he sits enthroned by the doorway, preserving decorum among the worshippers; he has certain legal dues, and, if he is disposed to exact more, no one ventures to resist (i Sam. ii. 12 seq., where the text needs a slight correction). The priestly position of the family survived the" fall of Shiloh and the capture of the ark, and it was members of this house who consulted Jehovah for the early kings until Solomon deposed Abiathar. Indeed, though priesthood was not yet tied to one family, so that Micah's son, or Eleazar of Kirjath-jearim (i Sam. vii. i), or David's sons (2 Sam. viii. 18) could all be priests, a Levite — that is, a man of Moses' tribe — was already preferred for the office elsewhere than at Shiloh (Judges xvii. 13), and such a priest naturally handed down his place to his posterity (Judges xviii. 30). Ultimately, indeed, as sanctuaries were multiplied and the priests all over the land came to form one well-marked class, " Levite " and legitimate priest became equivalent expressions, as is explained in the article LEVITES. But between the priesthood of Eli at Shiloh or of Jonathan at Dan and the priesthood of the Levites as described in Deut. xxxiii. 8 seq. there lies a period of the inner history of which we know almost nothing. It is plain that the various priestly colleges regarded themselves as one order, that they had common traditions of law and ritual which were traced back to Moses, and common interests which had not been vindicated without a struggle (Deut., ut supra). The kingship had not deprived them of their functions as fountains of divine judgment (cf. Deut. xvii. 8 seq.); on the contrary, the decisions of the sanctuary had grown up into a body of sacred law, which the priests administered according to a traditional precedent. According to Semitic ideas the declaration of law is quite a distinct function from the enforcing of it, and the royal executive came into no collision with the purely declaratory functions of the priests. The latter, on the contrary, must have grown in importance with the unification and progress of the nation, and in all probability the consolidation of the priesthood into one class went hand in hand with a consolidation of legal tradition. And this work must have been well done, for, though the general corruption of society at the beginning of the Assyrian period was nowhere more conspicuous than at the sanctuaries and among the priesthood, the invective of Hos. iv. equally with the eulogium of Deut. xxxiii. proves that the position which the later priests abused had been won by ancestors who earned the respect of the nation as worthy representatives of a divine Torah. The ritual functions of the priesthood still appear in Deut. xxxiii. as secondary to that of declaring the sentence of God, but they were no longer insignificant. With the prosperity of the nation, and especially through the absorption of the Canaanites and of their holy places, ritual had become much more elaborate, and in royal sanctuaries at least there were regular public offerings main- tained by the king and presented by the priests (cf. 2 Kings xvi. 15). Private sacrifices, too, could hardly be offered without some priestly aid now that ritual was more complex; the provision of Deut. xviii. as to the priestly dues is certainly ancient, and shows that besides the tribute of first-fruits and the like the priests had a fee in kind for each sacrifice, as we find to have been the case among the Phoenicians according to the sacrificial tablet of Marseilles. Their judicial functions also brought profit to the priests, fines being exacted for certain offences and paid to them (2 Kings xii. 16; Hos. iv. 8; Amos ii. 8). The greater priestly offices were therefore in every respect very important places, and the priests of the royal sanctuaries were among the grandees of the realm (2 Sam. viii. 18; 2 Kings x. II, xii. 2); minor offices in the sanctuaries were in the patronage of the great priests and were often miserable enough,* the petty priest depending largely on what " customers " he could find (2 Kings xii. 7 [8] ; Deut. xviii. 8). That at least the greater offices were hereditary — as in the case of the sons of Zadok, who succeeded to the royal priesthood in Jerusalem after the fall of Abiathar — was almost a matter of course as society was then con- stituted, but there is not the slightest trace of an hereditary hierarchy officiating by divine right, such as existed after the exile. The sons of Zadok, the priests -of the royal chapel, were the Icing's servants as absolutely as any other great officers of state; they owed their place to the fiat of King Solomon, and the royal will was supreme in all matters of cultus (2 Kings xii., xvi. 10 seq.) ; indeed the monarchs of Judah, like those of other nations, did sacrifice in perfon when they chose down to the time of the captivity (i Kings ix. 25; 2 Kings xvi. 12 seq.; Jer. xxx. 2l). And as the sons of Zadok had no divine right as against the kings, so too they had no claim to be more legitimate than the priests of the local sanctuaries, who also were reckoned to the tribe which in the 7th century B.C. was recognized as having been divinely set apart as Jehovah's ministers in the days of Moses (Deut. x. 8, xviii. i seq.). The steps which prepared the way for the post-exile hierarchy, the destruction of the northern sanctuaries and priesthoods by the Assyrians, the polemic of the spiritual prophets against the corrup- tions of popular worship, which issued in the reformation of Josian, the suppression of the provincial shrines of Judah and the transference of their ministers to Jerusalem, the successful resistance of the sons ' See i Sam. ii. 36, a passage written after the hereditary dignity of the sons of Zadok at Jerusalem was well established. PRIEST 321 of Zadok to the proposal to share the sanctuary on equal terms with these new-comers, and the theoretical justification of the degradation of the latter to the position of mere servants in the Temple supplied by Ezekiel soon after the captivity, need not here be dealt with. Further details respecting priestly offices and hereditary priesthoods and the relation of Aaronids to Zadokids will be found briefly discussed in Ency. Bib. vol. iii. cols. 3843-3845. Cf . Hastings's Diet. Bible, iv. 72-75 ; Camb, Bib. Essays (1909), pp. 100 seq., 112 seq. It is instructive to observe how differently the prophets of the 8th century speak of the judicial or " teaching " functions of the priests and of the ritual of the great sanctuaries. For the latter they have nothing but condemnation, but the former they acknow- ledge as part of the divine order of the state, while they complain that the priests have prostituted their office for lucre. In point of fact the one rested on old Hebrew tradition, the other had taken shape mainly under Canaanite influence, and in most of its features was little more than the crassest nature-worship. In this respect there was no distinction between the Temple of Zion and other shrines, or rather it was just in the greatest sanctuary with the most stately ritual that foreign influences had most play, as we see alike in the original institutions of Solomon and in the innovations of Ahaz (2 Kings xvi. 10 seq., xxiii. n seq.). The Canaanite influence on the later organization of the Temple is clearly seen in the association of Temple prophets with the Temple priests under the control of the chief priest, which is often referred to by Jeremiah ; even the viler ministers of sensual worship, the male and female prostitutes of the Phoenician temples, had found a place on Mt Zion and were only removed by Josiah's reformation.1 All this necessarily tended to make the ritual ministry of the priests more important than it had been in old times; but it was in the reign of Manasseh, when the sense of divine wrath lay heavy on the people, when the old ways of seeking Jehovah's favour had failed and new and more powerful means of atonement were eagerly sought for (Micah vi. 6 seq.; 2 Kings xxi. ; and cf. MOLOCH), that sacrificial functions reached their full importance. In the time of Josiah altar service and not the function of " teaching " has become the essential thing in priesthood (Deut. x. 8, xviii. 7) ; the latter, indeed, is not forgotten (Jer. ii. 8, xviii. 18), but by the time of Ezekiel it also has mainly to do with ritual, with the distinction between holy and profane, clean and unclean, with the statutory observances at festivals and the like (Ezek. xliv. 23 seq.). What the priestly Torah was at the time of the exile can be seen from the collection of laws in Lev. xvii.-xxvi., which includes many moral precepts, but regards them equally with ritual precepts from the point of view of the maintenance of national holiness. The holiness of Israel ^centres in the sanctuary, and round the sanctuary stand the priests, who alone can approach the most holy things without profanation, and who are the guardians of Israel's sanctity, partly by protecting the one meeting-place of God and man from profane contact, and partly as the mediators of the continual atoning rites by which breaches of holiness are expiated. The bases of priestly power under this system are the unity of the altar, its inaccessibility to laymen and to the inferior ministers of the sanctuary, and the specific atoning functions of the blood of priestly sacrifices. All these things were unknown in old Israel. So fundamental a change as lies between Hosea and the Priestly Code was only possible in the general dissolution of the old life of Israel produced by the Assyrians and by the prophets; and indeed the new order did not take shape as a system till the exile had made a great change in old institutions. It was meant also to give expression to the demands of the prophets for spiritual service and national holiness, but this it did not accomplish so successfully; the ideas of the prophets could not be realized under any ritual system, but only in a new dispensation (Jer. xxxi. 31 seq.), when priestly Torah and priestly atonement should be no longer required. Nevertheless, the concentration of all ritual at a single point, and the practical exclusion of laymen from active participation in it — for the old sacrificial feast had now shrunk into entire insignificance in compari- son with the stated priestly holocausts ana atoning rites1 — lent powerful assistance to the growth of a new and higher type of personal religion, the religion which found its social expression not in material acts of oblation, but in the language of the Psalms. In the best times of the old kingdom the priests had shared the place of the prophets as the religious leaders of the nation; under the second Temple they represented the unprogressive traditional side of religion, and the leaders of thought were the psalmists and the scribes, who spoke much more directly to the piety of the nation. But, on the other hand, the material influence of the priests was greater than it had ever been before; the Temple was the only visible centre of national life in the ages of servitude to foreign power, and the priests were the only great national functionaries, who drew to themselves all the sacred dues as a matter of right and even appropriated the tithes paid of old to the king. When the High Priest stood at the altar in all his princely state, when he poured 12 Kings xxiii. 7; cf. Deut. xxiii. 18, where "dogs" = the later Galli ; cf . Corp. insc. sent. i. 93 seq. 1 Cf. the impression which the ritual produced on the Greeks, Bernays's Theophrastus, pp. 85, in seq. XXII. II out the libation amidst the blare of trumpets, and the singers lifted up their voice and all the people fell prostrate in prayer till he descended and raised his hands in blessing, the slaves of the Greek or the Persian forgot for a moment their bondage and knew that the day of their redemption was near (Ecclus. 1.). The High Priest at such a moment seemed to embody all the glory of the nation, as the kings had done of old, and when the time came to strike a successful blow for freedom it was a priestly house that led the nation to the victory which united in one person the functions of High Priest and prince. From the foundation of the Hasmonean state to the time of Herod the history of the high-priesthood merges in the political history of the nation ; from Herod onward the priestly aristocracy of the Sadducees lost its chief hold over the nation and expired in vain controversy with the Pharisees. The influence of the Hebrew priesthood on the thought and organization of Christendom was the influence not of a living institution, for it hardly began till after the fall of the Temple, but of the theory embodied in the later parts of the Pentateuch. Two points in this theory were laid hold of — the doctrine of priestly mediation and the system of priestly hierarchy. The first forms the text of the principal argument in the Epistle to the Hebrews, in which the author easily demon- strates the inadequacy of the mediation and atoning rites of the Old Testament, and builds upon this demonstration the doctrine of the effectual high-priesthood of Christ, who, in his sacrifice of himself, truly " led His people to God," not leaving them outside as He entered the heavenly sanctuary, but taking them with Him into spiritual nearness to the throne of grace. This argument leaves no room for a special priesthood in the Christian Church, and in fact nothing of the kind is found in the oldest organization of the new communities of faith. The idea that presbyters and bishops are priests and the successors of the Old Testament priesthood first appears in full force in the writings of Cyprian, and here it is not the notion of priestly mediation but that of priestly power which is insisted on. Church office is a copy of the old hierarchy. Now among the Jews, as we have seen, the hierarchy proper has for its necessary condition the destruction of the state and the bondage of Israel to a foreign prince, so that spiritual power is the only basis left for a national aristocracy. The same conditions have produced similar spiritual aristocracies again and again in the East in more modern times, and even in antiquity more than one Oriental priesthood took a line of development similar to that which we have traced in Judaea. Thus the hereditary priests of ]£ozah (Koft) were the chief dignitaries in Idumaea at the time of the Jewish conquest of the country (Jos. Ant. xv. 7, 9), and the High Priest of Hierapolis wore the princely purple and crown like the High Priest of the Jews (De dea syria, 42). The kingly insignia of the High Priest of the sun at Emesa are described by Herodian (v. 3, 3), in connexion with the history of Elagabalus, whose elevation to the Roman purple was mainly due to the extraordinary local influence of his sacer- dotal place. Other examples of priestly princes are given by Strabo in speaking of Pessinus (p. 567) and Olbe (p. 672). As no such hierarchy existed in the West, it is plain that if the idea of Christian priesthood was influenced by living institu- tions as well as by the Old Testament that influence must be sought in the East (cf. Lightfoot, Philippians, p. 261). The further development of the notion of Christian priesthood was connected with the view that the Eucharist (q.v.) is a pro- pitiatory sacrifice which only a consecrated priest can perform. It is sufficient to remark here that the presentation of the sacrifice of the mass came to be viewed as the essential priestly office, so that the Christian presbyter really was a sacerdos in the antique sense. Protestants, in rejecting the sacrifice of the mass, deny also that there is a Christian priesthood " like the Levitical," and have either dropped the name of "priest" or use it in a quite emasculated sense. For further details as to the history and doctrine of priesthood in Christendom the reader is referred to the article, " Priest ertum: Priesterweihe in der Christlichen Kirche," in P.R.E., 3rd ed., Bd. xvi. p. 47 sqq. There is probably no nature religion among races above mere savagery which has not had a priesthood; but an examination of other examples would scarcely bring out any important 322 PRIESTLEY feature that has not been already illustrated. Among higher religions orthodox Islam has never had real priests, doing relig- ious acts on behalf of others, though it has, like Protestant churches, leaders of public devotion (imams) and an important class of privileged religious teachers ('ulema). But a distinction of grades of holiness gained by ascetic life has never been entirely foreign to the Eastern mind, and in the popular faith of Mahom- medan peoples something very like priesthood has crept in by this channel. For where holiness is associated with ascetic practices the masses can never attain to a perfect life, and naturally tend to lean on the professors of special sanctity as the mediators of their religious welfare. The best example, how- ever, of a full-blown priestly system with a monastic hierarchy grafted in this way on a religion originally not priestly is found in Tibetan Buddhism (see LAMAISM), and similar causes undoubt- edly had their share in the development of sacerdotalism in the Christian Church. The idea of priestly asceticism expressed in the celibacy of the clergy belongs also to certain types of heathen and especially Semitic priesthood, to those above all in which the priestly service is held to have a magical or theurgic quality. (W. R. S.; O. C. W.) PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH (1733-1804), English chemist and Nonconformist minister, was born on the i3th of March 1733 at Fieldhead, a hamlet near Birstal in the West Riding of York- shire. He was the eldest of a family of six. His father, Jonas Priestley, a woollen-cloth dresser of moderate means, was the son of a member of the Established Church, but both he and his wife, the only daughter of a farmer named Swift, were Non- conformists. Three years after the death of Mrs Priestley in 1739, Joseph's father's sister, Mrs Keighley, took him to live with her, and sent him at the age of twelve to a neighbouring grammar school. In his holidays he learned Hebrew from Mr Kirkby, a dissenting minister at Heckmondwike, who subse- quently took entire charge of his education. From the age of sixteen to nearly twenty his health was so unsatisfactory that he attended neither school nor college, but worked at Chaldee and Syriac, began to read Arabic, and mastered 'S Gravesande's Natural Philosophy, together with various textbooks of logic and metaphysics. An uncle having promised him a place in a counting-house at Lisbon, he also learned French, German and Italian to fit himself for the post. But his aunt was anxious for him to be a minister, as he himself desired, and therefore in 1752, when his health had improved, he went to Daventry to attend the Nonconformist academy formerly carried on by Dr P. Doddridge at Northampton. There he stayed three years, exchanging his early Calvinism for a system of " neces- sarianism " under the influence of D. Hartley's Observations on Man and A. Collins's Philosophical Enquiry concerning Human Liberty. In 1755 he was appointed to a small congregation at Needham Market, in Suffolk, where he was not very successful. In 1758 he obtained a more congenial congregation at Nant- wich, where he opened a school at which the elementary lessons were varied with experiments in natural philosophy. Three years later he removed to Warrington as classical tutor in a new academy, and there he attended lectures on chemistry by Dr Matthew Turner of Liverpool and pursued those studies in electricity which gained him the fellowship of the Royal Society in 1766 and supplied him with material for his History of Electricity. In 1762 he had married the daughter of Isaac Wilkinson, a Wrexham ironmaster. In 1767 he was appointed to the charge of Mill Hill Chapel at Leeds, where he again changed his religious opinions from a loose Arianism to definite Socinian- ism and wrote many political tracts hostile to the attitude of the government towards the American colonies. He also began his researches into " different kinds of airs," getting a plentiful supply of " fixed air " from a brewery next door to his house. By the end of 1771 his scientific reputation was such that he was suggested for the post of " astronomer " to Captain Cook's second expedition to the South Seas, but his unorthodox opinions were objectionable to certain members of the board of longitude and the appointment was not ratified. In 1772, the year in which he was chosen a foreign associate of the French Academy of Sciences, he accepted the position of librarian and literary companion to Lord Shelburne (afterwards ist Marquess of Landsdowne) at Calne, with a salary of £250 a year and a house. With that nobleman he travelled on the Continent; the month of October 1774 he spent in Paris, and meeting Lavoisier and his friends, gave them an account of the experiment by which on the previous ist of August he had prepared " dephlogisticated air" (oxygen). In 1780 he parted company with his patron, who allowed him an annuity of £150 for life, and settling at Birmingham was appointed junior minister of the New Meeting Society. There he continued his literary and scientific labours, enjoying congenial intercourse with such men as Matthew Boulton, James Keir, James Watt and Erasmus Darwin at the periodical dinners of the Lunar Society. On the i4th of July 1791 the Constitutional Society of Birmingham arranged a dinner to celebrate the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille. Priestley, according to his own account, " had little to do with it." But his predilections in favour of the revolutionists were notorious, and the mob seized the occasion to burn his chapel and sack his house at Fairhill. He and his family escaped, but his material possessions were destroyed and the labour of years annihilated. He retreated to London, where he felt safe, though he continued to be an object of " troublesome attention," and even the fellows of the Royal Society shunned him. But he received an invitation to become morning preacher at Gravel Pit Chapel, Hackney. This he accepted, and performed the duties of the charge till 1794, when he determined to follow his three sons, who had emigrated to America in the previous year. On the 7th of April he embarked with his wife at Gravesend and reached New York on the 4th of June. Finally settling at Northumberland, Pennsylvania, he lived there for nearly ten years, until on the 6th of February 1804, after clearly and audibly dictating a few changes he wished made in some of his writings, he quietly expired. Priestley was a most voluminous writer, and his works (excluding his scientific writings) as collected and edited by his friend J. T. Rutt in 1817—1832 fill 25 octavo volumes. (The first volume, con- taining his life and correspondence, was issued separately in two parts, 1831-1832.) His first appearance as an author was in 1761, when he published the Scripture Doctrine of Remission and the Rudiments of English Grammar. His chief theological and philo- sophical works were Institutes of Natural and Revealed Religion (3 vols., 1772-1774); History of the Corruption of Christianity (2 vols., 1782); General History of the Christian Church to the Fall of the Western Empire, vols. i. and ii. (1790), vols. iii.-and iv. (1802- 1803) ; Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit (1777), and various essays and letters on necessarianism. But his theological writings are forgotten, and he is chiefly remembered as a scientific investi- gator who contributed especially to the chemistry of gases. Yet judged by modern standards he had an inadequate conception of the meaning of ordered research. In reference to his preparation of oxygen he says, " It provides a striking illustration of a remark I have more than once made in my philosophical writings and which can hardly be too often repeated, viz. that more is owing to what we call chance — that is, philosophically speaking, to the observation of events arising from unknown causes — than to any proper design or preconceived theory In this business." If in this sentence he scarcely does justice to the powers of logical inference and inductive reasoning displayed in much of his work, it remains true that blind experiment — heating a substance, or treating it with some reagent, to see what would happen — was his characteristic method of inquiry. Thus by heating spirits of salt he obtained " marine acid air " (hydrochloric acid gas), and he was able to collect it because he happened to use mercury, instead of water, in his pneumatic trough. Then he treated oil of vitriol in the same way, but got nothing until by accident he dropped some mercury into the liquid, when " vitriolic acid air " (sulphur dioxide) was evolved. Again he heated fluorspar with oil of vitriol, as K. W. Scheele had done, and because he was employing a glass vessel he got " fluor acid air" (silicon fluoride). Heating spirits of hartshorn, he was able to collect " alkaline air " (gaseous ammonia), again because he was using mercury in his pneumatic trough; then, trying what would happen if he passed electric sparks through the gas, he decomposed it into nitrogen and hydrogen, and " having a notion " that mixed with hydrochloric acid gas it would produce a " neutral air," perhaps much the same as common air, he synthesized sal ammoniac. Dephlogisticated air (oxygen) he prepared in August 1774 by heating red oxide of mercury with a burning-glass, and he found that in it a candle burnt with a remarkably vigorous flame and mice lived well. He concluded that it was not common air, but the substance, " in much greater perfection," that rendered common air respirable PRIEUR, P.— PRIMAGE 323 and a supporter of combustion. Of the analogy between combustion and respiration — both true phlogistic processes in his view — he ha< convinced himself three years before, and his paper, " On Different Kinds of Air " (Phil. Trans., 1772) described experiments which •.huwed that growing plants are able to " restore air which has been vitiated, whether by being breathed or by having candles burnt in it. Priestley displayed much ingenuity in devising ap- paratus suited to his requirements and in carrying out and varying his experiments; it was in the interpretation of results that he was deficient. Had this not been the case he could scarcely have remained a firm believer in the phlogistic doctrine. At one time indeed, he found Lavoisier's views so specious that he was much inelined to accept them, but he overcame this wavering, and so l.ue as 1800 he wrote to the Rev. Theophilus Lindsey (1723-1808), " I have well considered all that my opponents have advanced and feel perfectly confident of the grouna I stand upon. . . . Though nearly alone I am under no apprehension of defeat." His chief books on chemistry were six volumes of Experiments and Observations on different Kinds of Air, published between 1774 ! 1786; Experiments on the Generation of Air from Water (1793); Experiments and Observations relating to the Analysis of Atmospheric Air, and Considerations on the Doctrine of Phlogiston established ana that of the Composition of Water refuted (1800). He also published (1767) a treatise on the History and Present State of Electricity, which embodies some original work, and (1772) a History of Discoveries relating to Vision, Light and Colours, which is a mere compilation. PRIEUR, PIERRE (c. i626-c. 1676), French enamel painter. He married Marie (1610-1677), sister of Jean Petitot, as her second husband. In 1669 he was in England, painting a miniature of Charles II. and another of Lady Castlemaine, both after Cooper, for the king of Denmark. In 1670 he was in Poland, painting for the Danish monarch a portrait of King Michael, and in the following year was in Denmark executing a remarkable series of portraits of the children of Frederick III. All these, with some beautiful enamel badges for the Order of the Elephant, are in the Danish royal collection. By Christian V. he is said to have been sent to Spain and Russia, where several examples of his work, dated 1676, are to be seen in the Hermitage. In the following year he died in Denmark. He was a Huguenot, and was said to possess secret colours in enamel, especially a blue, which were not known to his Petitot relations. His work in England is of great rarity, Lord Dartrey possessing the finest example, and there are two remarkable works in the Pierpont Morgan collection and one at Windsor Castle. Two in the Propert collection have been lost sight of. (G.C.W.) PRIEUR DE LA MARNE [PIERRE Louis PRIEUR] (1756- 1827), French politician, was born at Sommesous (Marne) on the ist of August 1756. He practised as a lawyer at Chalons- sur-Marne until 1789, when he was elected to the states-general. He became secretary to the Assembly, and the violence of his attacks on the ancicn regime won him the nickname of " Crieur de la Marne." In 1791 he became vice-president of the criminal tribunal of Paris. Re-elected to the Convention, he was sent to Normandy, where he directed bitter reprisals against the Federalists. He voted for the death of Louis XVI., and as a member of the committees of national defence and of public safety he was despatched in October 1793 to Brittany, where he established the Terror. In May 1794 he became president of the Convention. The counter-revolutionaries drove him into hiding from May 1795 until the amnesty proclaimed in the autumn of that year. He took no part in public affairs under the directory, the consulate or the empire, and in 1816 was banished as a regicide. He died in Brussels on the 3ist of May 1827. See Pierre Bliard, Le Conventional Prieur de la Marne en mission dans I'ouest 1793-1794 d'apres des documents inedits (1906). PRIEUR-DUVERNOIS, CLAUDE ANTOINE, COMTE (1763- 1832), French politician, was born at Auxonne on the 2nd of December 1763, and was commonly known as Prieur de la C6te d'Or, after his native department. As an officer of engineers he presented to the National Assembly in 1790 a Me moire on the standardization of weights and measures. In 1791 he was returned by the C6te d'Or to the Legislative Assembly, and in 1792 to the Convention. After the revolution of the loth of August 1792 he was sent on a mission to the army of the Rhine to announce the deposition of Louis XVI., for whose death he voted in the Convention. In 1 793 he was employed in breaking up the Federalist movement in Normandy, but he was arrested by the Federalist authorities of Caen, and only released in July 1793 after the defeat of their forces at Vernon. On the i4th of August 1793 he became a member of the committee of public safety, where he allied himself closely with Lazare Carnot in the organization of national defence, being especially charged with the provision of the munitions of war. Under the Direc • tory he sat in the Council of the Five Hundred, retiring after the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799). In 1808 he was created a count of the empire, and in 1811 he retired from the army with the grade of chef de brigade. He was one of the founders of the Ecole Polytechnique, and shared in the establishment of the Institute of France; the adoption of the metric system and the foundation of the bureau of longitude were also due to his efforts. Prieur died at Dijon on the nth of August 1832. See J. Gros, Le ComM de salut public (1893); and E. Charavay, Correspondence de Carnot, vol. i., which includes some documents drawn up by Prieur. PRIM, JUAN, MARQUIS DE LOS CASTILLEJOS, COUNT DE REUS (1814-1870), Spanish soldier and statesman, was the son of Lieut.-Colonel Pablo Prim, and was born at Reus in Catalonia on the izth of December 1814. He entered the free corps known as the volunteers of Isabella II. in 1834, and in the course of the Carlist War he rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel and had two orders of knighthood conferred upon him. After the pacification of 1839, as a progressist opposed to the dictatorship of Espartero, he was sent into exile. However, in 1843 he was elected deputy for Tarragona, and after defeating Espartero at Bruch he entered Madrid in triumph with Serrano. The regent Maria Christina promoted him major-general, and made him count of Reus. Narvaez, the prime minister, failed to understand what constitutional freedom meant, and Prim, on showing signs of opposition, was sentenced to six years' imprisonment in the Philippine Islands. The sentence was not carried out, and Prim remained an exile in England and France until the amnesty of 1847. He then returned to Spain, and was first employed as captain-general of Porto Rico and afterwards as military representative with the sultan during the Crimean War. In 1854 he was elected to the cortes, and gave his support to O'Donnell, who promoted him lieutenant-general in 1856. In the war with Morocco he did such good service at Los Castillejos or Marabout, Cabo Negro, Guad al Gelu and Campamento in 1860 that he was made marquis de los Castillejos and a jrandee of Spain. He commanded the Spanish army in Mexico when he refused to consent to the ambitious schemes of Napoleon [II. On his return to Spain he joined the opposition, heading pronunciamentos in Catalonia against Narvaez and O'Donnell. All his attempts failed until the death of Narvaez in April 1868, after which Queen Isabella fell more and more under the nfluence of the Jesuits, and became increasingly tyrannical, until at last even Serrano was exiled. In September 1868 Serrano and Prim returned, and Admiral Topete, commanding :he fleet, raised the standard of revolt at Cadiz (see SPAIN). In July 1869 Serrano was elected regent, and Prim became jresident of the council and was made a marshal. On the 1 6th of November 1870 Amadeo, duke of Aosta, was elected king of Spain, but Prim, on leaving the chamber of the cortes on he 28th of December, was shot by unknown assassins and died wo days later. The cortes took his children as wards of the country; three days afterwards King Amadeo I. swore in the >resence of the cornse to observe the new Spanish constitution. Two biographies of Prim down to 1860 were published in that rear by Gimenez y Guited and Gonzalez Llanos. See also L. Blairet, ^ Central Prim el la situation actuelle de I'Espagne (Paris, 1867); iuillaumot, Juan Prim el I'Espagne (Paris, 1870); and Prim, by H. Leonardon (in French, 1901), which contains a useful biblio- graphy. PRIMAGE (adopted from the Fr. primage, from prime, ecompense, Lat. praemium, reward), a commercial term 324 PRIMATE— PRIMATES signifying originally a small customary payment over and above the freight made to the master of the ship for his care and trouble. It is now generally included in the freight, as an additional percentage. It varies according to the usages of different ports and particular trades. PRIMATE (from Low Lat. primas = one who held the first place, primas partes). During the 4th and 5th centuries A.D. the title was applied to both secular and ecclesiastical officials. The Theodosian Code mentions primates of towns, districts and fortified places (Primates urbium, vicorum, castellorum) . The Pragmatic Sanction of Justinian also mentions primates govern- ing a district, primates regionis; and in this sense the title sur- vived, under Turkish rule, in Greece until the ipth century. An official called " primate of the palace " is mentioned in the laws of the Visigoths. Primas also seems to have been used loosely during the middle ages for " head " or " chief." Du Cange cites primas castri. The title, however, has been more generally used to denote a bishop with special privileges and powers. It was first employed almost synonymously with metropolitan to denote the chief bishop of a province having his see in the capital and certain rights of superintendence over the whole pro- vince. At the Council of Nicaea (A.D. 325) the metropolitan con- stitution was assumed as universal, and after this the terms " metropolitan," and " primate," to denote the chief bishop of a province, came into general use. The title of primate was used more generally in Africa, while elsewhere metropolitan was more generally employed. The primates in Africa differed from those elsewhere in that the title always belonged to the longest ordained bishop in a province, who had not necessarily his see in the capital, except in the case of the bishop of Carthage, who was head also of the other five African provinces. There were also three sorts of honorary primates: (i) primates aevo, the oldest bishop in a province next to the primate, on whom power de- volved when the primate was disabled or disqualified; (2) titular metropolitans, the bishops of certain cities which had the name and title of civil metropoles bestowed on them by some emperor; (3) the bishops of some mother-churches which were honoured by ancient custom but were subject to the ordinary metropolitan, e.g. the bishop of Jerusalem, who was subject to his metropolitan at Caesarea. At a later date " primate " became the official title of certain metropolitans who obtained from the pope a position of episcopal authority over several other metropolitans and who were, at the same time, appointed vicars of the Holy See. This was done in the case of the bishops of Aries and Thessalonica as early as the 5th century. Such primates were sometimes also called patriarchs, primates diocesearum (political, not episcopal dioceses), primates provinciae, summi primates, praesules omnium sacer- dotum in partibus suis. In this sense the Western primate was considered the equivalent of the Eastern patriarch. The archbishop of Reims received the title of primas inter primates. By the False Decretals an attempt was made to establish such a primacy as a permanent institution, but the attempt was not successful and the dignity of primate became more or less honorary. The overlapping of the title is illustrated by the case of England, where the archbishop of York still bears the title of primate of England and the archbishop of Canterbury that of primate of all England. A less general use of the title is its application in medieval usage to the head of a cathedral school or college (primas scholarum) and to the dignitaries of a cathedral church. The abbot of Fulda received from the pope the title of primas inter abbales. In the Episcopal Church of Scotland the senior bishop is styled the primas. Du Cangje, Glossarium; Hinschius, Kirchenrechl (Berlin, 1869); Moeller, History of the Christian Church, translated from the German by Andrew Rutherford, B.D. (London, 1902) ; Bingham, Origines ecdesiasticae (1840). PRIMATES (Lat. primus, first), the name given by Linnaeus to the highest order of mammals (see MAMMALIA), which was taken by him to include not only man, apes, monkeys and lemurs, but likewise bats. The latter group is now separated as a distinct order (see CHIROPTERA). It has also been proposed to remove from the Primates the lemurs, constituting the group Prosimiae, or Lemuroidea, to form an order by themselves; but general opinion is now against this view, and they are accord- ingly here regarded as representing a sub-order of Primates, all the other members of which are included in a second sub- ordinal group — the Anthropoidea, or Simiae. Support to the view that lemurs should be included in the order is afforded by the discovery in Madagascar of an extinct species (Neso- pithecus) presenting certain characters connecting it with monkeys on the one hand and with lemurs on the other. In this broader sense the Primates may briefly be defined as follows. All the members of the order are plantigrade mammals, normally with five fingers and five toes, which are generally armed with broad flattened nails, although these are rarely replaced on single digits, or on all the digits, by claws or claw-like nails. The dental formula is i.\, c.\, d. f (§), w.f (f); all the teeth in advance of the molars being normally preceded by milk-teeth. The molars are three-, four- or five-cusped, but the cusps may in some cases coalesce into transverse ridges. The thumb and great toe are, as a rule, opposable to the other digits. The clavicles (collar-bones) are complete; there is nearly always a free centrale bone in the wrist, or carpus, in which the scaphoid and lunar are likewise generally separate. The orbits (and the eyes) are directed more or less forwards, and generally surrounded by bone (fig. i), while the lower jaw has a vertical movement on the upper. With a few exceptions the stomach is simple; and a duodeno- jejunal flexure of the in- testine and a caecum are pi esent. The diet is gener- ally vegetable, but may be mixed, or, rarely Consisting of insects. The uterus may be either bicornuate or simple; and the placenta either discoidal and de- ciduate, or diffuse and non-deciduate, with a great development of the allan- tois. The clitoris may or may not be perforate; the penis is pendent; and the testes are extra-abdominal, situate either in a scrotum behind the penis or in a similarly situated fold of the integument. At most the teats are four in num- ber, but generally only two situated on the breast, FlG ,._Lateral and lower views Of although occasionally ab- the Skull of a Langur Monkey (Semno- dominal or even inguinal, pithecus), to show the forward direction As a rule only a single and complete closure of the orbits, ~A,,^^A ot o and the characters of the dentition of offspring is produced at a the Qld Wor,d Catarhini. birth, such offspring being always born in a completely helpless condition. With the exception of man, who has adapted himself to exist in all climates, the Primates are essentially a tropical and sub- tropical group, although some of the monkeys inhabit districts where the winter climate is severe. The great majority — in fact nearly all — of the members of the order are arboreal in their habits. In size there is great variation, the extremes in this respect being represented by man and the gorilla on the one side, and the marmosets and tarsiers, which are no larger than squirrels, on the other. As regards the proper meaning of the popular names "'monkey," " baboon " and " ape," it appears that these are in the main general terms which, with the exception of the second, PRIMATES 325 may be applied indifferently to all the members of the first sub-order. " Baboon " appears to be properly applicable to the dog-faced African species, and may therefore be conveniently restricted to the members of the genus Papio and their immediate relatives. " Ape," on the other hand, may be specially used for the tailless man-like representatives of the order; while the term " monkey " may be employed for all the rest, other than lemurs; monkeys being, however, divisible into sub-groups, such as macaques, langurs, guerezas, mangabeys, &c. This usage cannot, however, be universally employed, and the term " monkeys " may be employed for the entire group. Anthropoidea. — The Primates, as already mentioned, are divisible into two main groups, or sub-orders, of which the first includes man, apes, baboons and monkeys. For this group Professor Max Weber employs the name Simiae (in contradistinction to Prosimiae for the lemurs). Since, however, to take as the title for a group which im-luck's man himself the designation of creatures so much lower in the scale is likely to be repugnant, it seems preferable to employ the designation Anthropoidea for the higher division of the order. As the essential features distinguishing the Anthropoidea from the second sub-order may best be indicated under the heading of the latter, reference may at once be made to some of the more striking characters of the members of the former group. The proportions of the body as regards the relative lengths of the two pairs of limbs to one another and to that of the trunk vary con- siderably. Both pairs may be much elongated, as in Ateles and Hylobates, and either sub-equally, as in the first of these, or with the arms greatly in excess, as in the second. The legs may be excessively short, and the arms, at the same time, excessively long, as in the orang-utan. Both pairs may be short and sub-equal, as in many of the baboons (Papio). Only in Nyctipithecus and the Hapalidae does the excess in length of the lower limbs over the upper exceed or equal that which is found in man. The length of the tail presents some noteworthy points. It is found at its greatest absolute length, and also greatly developed relatively, being about twice the length of the trunk, in such monkeys as the Indian langurs; but its greatest relative length is attained in the spider- monkeys (Ateles), where it reaches three times the length of the trunk. The constancy of the degree of its development varies much in different groups. In the greater number of genera it is long in all the species, and in some (Simia, Anthropopithecus and Hylobates) it is absent in all. In others it may be long or short, or completely absent, as in macaques (Macacus). The form of the head presents great differences — it may be rounded, as in Ateles', produced vertically, as in Simia; drawn out posteriorly to an extreme degree, as in Chrysothrix; or anteriorly, as in the baboons. A production of the muzzle, necessitated by the presence of large teeth, exists in the chimpanzee (Anthropopithecus), but in the baboons, not only is this prolongation carried farther, but the terminal position of the nostrils gives a dog-like aspect to the face. The eyes may be small compared with the size of the head, as in the baboons; but they may, on the contrary, attain a relatively enormous size, as in Nyctipithecus. They are always forwardly directed, and never much more separated one from another^ than in man ; they may, however, be more closely approximated, as in the squirrel-monkeys (Chrysothrix) of South America. The ears are always well developed, and very generally have their postero-superior angle pointed. They may be large and small in the same genus, as in Anthropopithecus (chimpanzee and gorilla); but only in the gorilla do we find, even in a rudimentary condition, that soft depending portion of the human ear termed the " lobule." The nose has scarcely ever more than a slight prominence, and yet an enormous development is to be met with in the proboscis-monkey (Nasalis) ; while in the snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus) we find a sharply prominent, though smaller and extremely upturned nose. The hoolock gibbon also possesses a prominent but slightly aquiline nose. The terminal position of the nostrils in the baboons has already been mentioned. These apertures may be closely approximated, as in all the man-like apes (Simiidae and Hylobatidae) , or they may be separated one from the other by a broad septum, as in the Cebidae, its breadth, however, varying somewhat in different genera, as in Ateles and Eriodes, and Callithrix and Nyctipithecus. The lips are generally thin, but may be very extensile, as in the orang-utan. The hands are generally provided with thumbs, though these organs (as in the African guerezas, Colobus, and the American spider-monkeys, Ateles) may be represented only by small nailless tubercles. The thumb is more human in its proportions in the chimpanzee than in any other of the higher apes. As compared with the length of the hand, it is most man-like in the lowest American monkeys, such as Chrysothrix and Hapale. In spite of greater relative length it may, however, little merit the name of thumb, as it is but slightly opposable to the other digits in any of the American monkeys, and is not at all so in the Hapalidae. The " great toe " is never rudimentary and, except in man, in place of being the longest digit of the foot, is constantly the shortest. As compared with the entire length of the foot, it is most man-like in the chim- panzee and some gibbons, and smallest of all in the orang-utan, and next smallest in Hapale. Every digit is provided with a nail, except the great toe of the orang-utan and the rudimentary tubercle representing the thumb in Ateles and Colobus. The nail of the great toe is flat in every species, but the other nails are never so flat as are the nails of man. The lateral compression of the nails becomes more strongly marked in some Cebidae, e.g. Eriodes, but attains its extreme in the Hapalidae, where every nail, except that of the great toe, assumes the form of a long, curved and sharply pointed claw. With the single exception of man, the body is almost entirely clothed with copious hair, and never has the back naked. In the gibbons, the langurs, the macaques and the baboons, naked spaces (ischiatic callosities) are present on that part of the body which is the main support in the sitting posture. These naked spaces are subject to swelling at the season of sexual excitement. Such naked spaces are never found in any of the American monkeys. No ape or monkey has so exclusive and preponderating a development of hair on the head and face as exists in man. As to the head, long hair is found thereon in Hapale oedipus and in some of the langurs and guerezas, whilst certain macaques, like the Chinese bonnet- monkey (Macacus sinicusf, have the hair of the head long and radiat- ing in all directions from a central point on the crown. A beard is developed in the male orang-utan ; and the Diana monkey (Cercopi- thecus diana) has long hair on the cheeks and chin. The wanderoo (Macacus silenus) has the face encircled by a kind of mane of lone hairs ; and many of the marmosets have a long tuft of hairs on each side of the head. American monkeys exhibit some extremes respecting hair-development. Thus in some of the howlers (as in some of the guerezas of the Old World) the hair of the flanks is greatly elongated. Some also have an elongated beard, but the latter structure attains its maximum of development in thecouxio (Pithecia satanas). Some of the species of the American genus Pithecia have the hair of the body and tail very long, others have the head of the female furnished with elongated hair; while the allied Uacaria calva has the head bald. Long hair may be developed from the shoulders as in Papio hamadryas and Theropilhecus gelada. Very long hair is also developed on the back of the snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus) in winter. The direction of the hair may sometimes vary in nearly allied forms, the hairs on the arm and fore-arm respectively being often so directed that the tips converge towards the elbow. Such is the case in most of the higher apes, yet in Hylobates agilis all the hair of both these segments is directed towards the wrist. The hair presents generally no remarkable character as to its structure. It may, however, be silky, as in Hapale rosalia, or assume the character of wool, as in the woolly spider-monkeys (Eriodes) and Macacus tibetanus, which inhabits Tibet. FIG. 2. — Skeleton of Chacma Baboon (Papio porcarius), showing the great relative length of the facial part of the Skull. Great brilliance of colour is sometimes found in the naked patts of the body, particularly in the baboons and some of the other Cercopithecidae, and especially in the regions of the face and sexual organs. Among these latter rose, turquoise-blue, green, golden- yellow and vermilion appear, in various combinations, in one or other or both of these regions, and become especially brilliant at the period of sexual excitement. The skeleton, more especially in the higher forms, is in the main similar to that of man, so that only a brief notice is necessary. In the skull considerable variation in regard to the proportionate length of the face to that of the brain-case (cranial portion) exists in the two sexes, owing to the general development of large tusks in the males (other than in man, who is not now under consideration). Generally speaking, the elongation of the facial portion, as compared to the cranial, increases as we pass from the higher to the lower forms. The increase does not, however, occur regularly, being 326 PRIMATES greater in the orang-utan and chimpanzee than in some of the langurs (Semnppithecus, fig. l); the maximum development of this feature occurs in the dog-faced baboons (Papio, fig. 2). In American monkeys, with the exception of the howlers (Alouata, fig. 3), the facial part is relatively smaller than in Old World monkeys and FIG. 3. — Skull and Hyoid-bone of a Howler-Monkey (Alouata). In nature the hyoid-bone, which is bladder-like, is placed between the two branches of the lower jaw. apes; while in the squirrel-monkeys (Chrysothrix) it is even smaller than in man himself. In none of the Old World group does the forehead present that rounded and elevated contour characteristic of man, although the height of this region is great in the orang-utan (fig. 4). Curiously enough, American monkeys, especially those included in Pithecia, are the most man-like in this respect. The skull of the male gorilla is characterized by the great development of the crests for muscular attachment, one of these (superciliary) overhanging the orbits, a second (sagittal) traversing the middle line of the upper surface, while a third (lambdoid) forms an inverted V on the occiput, and affords attachment for the muscles of the neck. FIG. 4. — Skull of adult male Orang-utan (Simia satyrus). In the gorilla the orbits are much as in man, but in the orang-utan they are more rounded. They become very large in Hylobates, but attain an enormous size in the American Nyctipithecus. The extent to which each orbit opens into the adjacent temporal fossa, i.e. the size and shape of the sphenomaxillary fissure, varies con- siderably ; this is narrow and much elongated in the gorilla and the baboons, but short in the langurs and spider-monkeys. It is most closed in the howlers, where it sometimes all but disappears entirely. The mastoid process never attains the large relative size it has in man; but it is prominent in the baboons and larger macaques, as well as in the chimpanzee and gorilla, its development bear- ing relation to the size and weight of the head. As the mastoid diminishes, the under surface of the petrosal assumes a swollen or bladder-like condition. The plane of the foramen magnum, as compared with the basi- cranial axis, varies with the projection of the occiput; it generally forms a less open angle with that axis than in man, but in Chryso- thrix the angle is yet more open than in the human skull. The cheek, or zygomatic, arches bend outwards and upwards in the gorilja and some baboons, but decrease in relative as well as absolute size in the smaller forms— notably in Chrysothrix. No long slender styloid process is normally attached to the skull, though such may be the case in the baboons. An external bony auditory meatus (or tube) is present in Old World but 'absent in New World monkeys. In all apes and monkeys the premaxillae have a distinct- ness of development and a relative size not found in man; the sutures separating them from the maxillae remaining visible, except in the chimpanzee, after the adult dentition has been attained. The maxillae develop great swollen tuberosities in the baboons and the black ape of Celebes. The nasal bones are small, and generally flatter than in man; being in the orang-utan quite flat. They are convex in some langurs and all baboons ; but the proboscis- monkey has its nasals no more developed than those of other species. The nasals seem to attain their maximum of relative size in the howlers. The lower jaw, or mandible, is always in one piece in adults; and is most man-like in the siamang, which alone has a slight chin. On the other hand, in other gibbons the angle is produced downwards and backwards, as also in marmosets. Its FIG. 5. — Skeleton of South American Spider-Monkey (Ateles), to illustrate the length of the limbs and tail, and the slenderness of the former. maximum of relative size is attained in the howlers (fig. 3), where the broad ascending part serves to protect and shelter the enormously developed body of the hyoid. Air-cells may be developed, as in the gorilla, in the parts adjacent to the mastoid. Frontal sinuses are generally absent in the Old World group, being replaced by coarse cellular bone. In old age the sutures of the skull become obliterated, the one between the two nasals disappearing at an early age in Old World monkeys. In the spider-monkeys and howlers the tentorium, or membrane dividing the hemispheres of the brain from the cerebellum, becomes bony. The spinal column of apes and monkeys always lacks the S-like curvature of that of man, the nearest approach to this occurring in the baboons (fig. 2). The number of dorsal vertebrae varies from eleven in some species of Cercopithecus and Macacus to fourteen in certain gibbons or fifteen in the American night-apes (Nycti- bithecus). In the American Cebidae the number seldom falls below thirteen ; in the orang-utan it is twelve, as in man, but thirteen in the chimpanzee and gorilla. In most cases the dorsal and umbar regions are about equal in length, but the lumbar region is the shorter in the man-like group, and less than half the length of the dorsal in the gorilla. The lumbar spinous processes are vertical, or project backwards in the man-like apes, gibbons and spider-monkeys; in the others they project forwards, especially in Cebidae. The lumbar transverse processes project outwards, more or less at right angles to the axis of the spine, or else forwards. The sacrum attains its greatest absolute length in the gorilla, but s relatively longer than in man in all the man-like group. Hylobates las the relatively longest sacrum. The number of vertebrae ncluded in the sacrum varies more or less with age; with the excep- tion of the Simiidae and Hylobatidae, there are generally only two or three; but in Aides, Hylobates, and Uacaria there may be four; while in the Simiidae there are always five, and sometimes six. In post apes the sacrum and lumbar vertebrae lie in one slightly curved ine, the gorilla and champanzee presenting in this respect a great contrast to the human structure. In the orang-utan the sacro- vertebral angle is rather more marked; but in some baboons it is so much so as almost to rival that of man. PRIMATES 327 With the exception of the man-like apes and gibbons and the Barbary ape (Macacus inuus), the caudal vertebrae of monkeys exceed four in number; but the mandril, Papio (Maimon) maimon, has sometimes only five. The short-tailed macaques and uakaris have from about fifteen to seventeen, the shortness of the tail being occasioned rather by a diminution in the size of the component brae than by a decrease in number. In the other forms the number varies between twenty and thirty-three, the latter being the number attained in the spider-monkeys (fig. 5). The proportion borne by this region of the spine to the more anterior parts is greatest in the spider-monkeys of the genus Ateles, almost three to one; in the iithrr longest-tailed genera it is rarely so large as two to one. The (nt(t length of the tail is greatest in the langurs and guerezas, where also the individual caudal vertebrae attain their greatest length, namely two inches. The caudal vertebrae generally irttrease in length from the sacrum till about the seventh, eighth or ninth, which, with the tenth and eleventh, are the longest in most long- tuili-d forms. In Ateles the eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth vertebrae are the longest. In most members of the sub-order the breast-bone, or sternum, is narrow, and consists of a more or less enlarged upper portion, or manubrium, followed by a chain of sub-equal elongated bones from three to six in number. In man, man-like apes and gibbons there is, however, a broad sternum; or one consisting of a manubrium, followed by one bone only, as in Hylobates. In the orang-utan the breast-bone long remains made up of ossifications arranged in pairs, side by side, successively. The true ribs are seven in number on each side in the highest forms, but in Hylobates there are sometimes eight; in Ateles there are sometimes nine pairs; in Hapale the number varies from six to eight, and from seven to eight in the other genera. The " angles " of the ribs are never so marked as in man; most so in Hylobates. Pithecia is distinguished by the greater relative breadth of the ribs. In no ape or monkey is the thorax half as broad again as it is deep from back to breast. Nevertheless, in the Simiidae and Hylobatidae, its transverse diameter exceeds its depth by from about one-fourth to a little under one-third of the latter. In Ateles (and sometimes also in Alouata) the thorax is wiiler than deep, but in the rest it is deeper than wide. The greatest absolute length of the fore-limb occurs in the gorilla (fig. 6) and the orang-utan. The humerus never has a perforation (entepicondylar) on the inner side of its lower extremity. Except in the man-like apes, the ulna articu- lates with the wrist (carpus). The hand is capable of pronation and supination on the fore-arm; and except in man, the chimpanzee and the gorilla there is a centrale in the carpus. The phalanges are the same in number in apes and monkeys as in man, except that in Ateles and Colobus the thumb may have but one small nodular phalange or none. The phalanges are generally more curved than in man, and, except in the Hapalidae, the terminal ones are flattened from back to front. In the Hapalidae they are laterally compressed, curved, and pointed to support the claws characteristic of that family. The length of the thumb with its metacarpal bears a much greater proportion to that of the spine in Hylobates and Simia than in man. With the exception of Aides and Colobus, the shortest thumb, thus estimated, is found in Nyctipithecus and Chrysothrix. The hind-limb, measured from the summit of the femur to the tip of the longest digit, is absolutely greatest in the gorilla, and then in the orang-utan and the chimpanzee. If the foot be removed, the leg of the chimpanzee is longer than that FIG. 6. — Skeleton of the of the orang-utan. The ankle, or Gorilla (Anthropopithecus gor- tarsus, consists of the same seven bones as in man, and these bones are so arranged, or bound together by ligaments, as to form a trans- verse and an antero-posterior arch. In no ape or monkey, however, do the lower ends of the inner metatarsals form the anterior point of support of the antero-posterior arch, as in man. The calcaneum, except in the gorilla, is shorter compared with the spine than in man. The phalanges of the foot are the same in number as in man, except that the great toe of the orang-utan has often but one. They are very like their representatives in the hand, and are convex above, concave and flattened below. Only Ola), to exhibit the flattened sternum, the broad and shallow thorax, and the great length of the fore-limbs. in the Hapalidae are the terminal phalanges laterally compressed instead of flattened. The toes are never nearly so short relatively in apes and monkeys as in man; yet the proportion borne by the great toe, with its metatarsal, to the spine closely approximates in the gorilla to the proportion existing in man, and this proportion is exceeded in Hylobates and Ateles. Omitting all reference to the muscles, we find that in apes and monkeys the absolute size of the brain never approaches that of man; the cranial capacity being never less than 55 cub. in. in any normal human subject, while in the orang-utan and chimpanzee it is but 26 and 271 cub. in. respectively. The relative size of the brain varies inversely with the size of the whole body, as is the case in warm-blooded vertebrates generally. The hemispheres of the brain are almost always so much developed as to cover over the cerebellum, the only exceptions being the howlers and the siamang (Hylobates syndactylus). In the latter the cerebellum is slightly uncovered, but it is considerably so in the former. In Chrysothrix the posterior lobes are more largely developed relatively than in man. As in mammals generally, much convoluted hemispheres are correlated with a considerable absolute bulk of body. Thus in Hapale (and here only) we find the hemispheres quite smooth, the only groove being that which represents the Sylvian fissure. In Simia and Anlhropopilhecus, on the contrary, they are richly convoluted. A hippocampus minor is present in all apes and monkeys, and in some Cebidae is larger relatively than in man, and absolutely larger than the hippocampus major. Of all apes and monkeys the orang-utan has a brain most like that of man ; indeed it may be said to be like man's in all respects save that it is much inferior in size and weight, and that the hemispheres are more symmetrically convoluted and less complicated by minor foldings. The human brain, as known by European specimens, has been supposed to differ from that of apes and monkeys by the absence of the so-called simian fold (Affenspalte) on the posterior portion of the main hemispheres. On studying a large series of Egyptian and Sudani brains, Professor G. Elliot Smith finds, however, that this simian fold, or sulcus, can be distinctly recognized. " It is easy," he writes, " to select examples from the series of Egyptian and Sudanese brains in my possession, in which the pattern formed by the occipital sulci on the lateral surface of the hemisphere in individual anthropoid apes is so exactly reproduced that the identity of every sulcus is placed beyond reasonable doubt. . . . And if we take individual examples of gorilla-brains, it becomes still easier to match the occipital pattern of each of them to numerous human brains. ... It is easy to appreciate the difficulties which have beset investigators of European types of brain, and to understand the reasons for the common belief in the absence of the supposed distinctly simian sulci in the lateral aspect of the occipital region of the human brain." In no ape or monkey does the series of teeth form so perfect an arch as in man, the opposite series of cheek-teeth tending to become more parallel. None has the teeth placed in one uninterrupted series in each jaw, as is the case in the human species; but there is always a small gap between the upper canine and the adjacent incisor, and between the lower canine and the adjacent premolar. This condition is due to the excessive size of the canines, the inter- spaces giving passage to the tips of these teeth. This prolongation of the canines into tusk-like weapons of offence and defence (especially developed in the males) makes a great difference between the aspect of the dentition in apes and man. The number of the teeth is the same as in man in all Old World Primates. The New World Cebidae have an additional premolar on each side of each jaw, while the Hapalidae have a molar the less. The incisors are nearly vertical, save in Pithecia and its allies, where their tips project forward. The canines are considerably longer than the incisors, except in Hapale, where the lower incisors equal them in length. The premolars differ structurally from the molars much as in man, except that the first lower one may be modified in shape to give passage to the upper canine, as in the baboons. The grinding surface of the molars consists generally of two incomplete transverse ridges, the end of each ridge projecting more than the intermediate part, jndicating the position of the four original tubercles. In the man-like apes there is, however, in the upper molars a ridge running obliquely from the front inner tubercle, or cusp, outwards and backwards to the hind outer tubercle. In the Cercopithecidae this ridge is wanting, but it reappears in Ateles and Alouata amongst the Cebidae. In the Hapalidae the tubercles of the molars are more produced and sharp-pointed, in harmony with the insectivorous habits of the marmosets. The last lower molar may be reduced or much enlarged as compared with the others. Thus in Cercopithecus talapoin it has but three tubercles, while in the macaques and baboons it is very large, and has five well-developed cusps. The number of milk-teeth is as in man, except that American monkeys have an additional one. In general the canines are the last teeth to be cut of the permanent dentition, their cutting sometimes causing such constitutional disturbance as to produce convulsions and death. In the gibbons, however, the canines accompany, if they do not precede, the appearance of the hindmost molar, while in the orang-utan they at least sometimes make their appearance before the latter. The stomach is simple in all apes and monkeys except langurs, 328 PRIMATES guerezas, and their allies. It is especially human in shape in Hylobates, except that the pylorus is somewhat more elongated and distinct. It is of a rounded form in Pithecia, and in Hapale the cardiac orifice is exceptionally near the pylorus. In the langur group it is sacculated, especially at the cardiac end, being, in fact, very like a colon spirally coiled. The intestine is devoid of valvulae conniventes, but provided with a well-developed caecum, which is, however, short and conical in the baboons. Only in the man-like apes is there a vermiform appendix. The colon may be much longer relatively than in man, as in the man-like apes; it may be greatly sacculated, as in Hylobates; or devoid of sacculations, as in Cebus. The liver may be very like man's, especially in gibbons, the orang- utan, and the chimpanzee; but in the gorilla both the right and left lobes are cleft by a fissure almost as much as in the baboons. In the langur group the liver is much divided, and placed obliquely to accommodate the sacculated stomach. The lateral lobes in Hapale are much larger than the central lobe. The caudate lobe is very large in Cebidae, especially in A teles, and above all in Pithecia. There is always a gall-bladder. fThe larynx in many members of the sub-order is furnished with sac-like appendages, varying in different species as regards number, size and situation. They may be dilatations of the laryngeal ventricle (opening into the larynx below the false vocal chords), as in the man-like apes; or they may open above the false vocal chords so as to be extensions of the thyro-hyoid membrane, as in gibbons. There may be but a single median opening in the front part of that membrane at the base of the epiglottis, as in Cerco- pithecidae, or there may be a single median opening at the back of the trachea, just below the cricoid cartilage, as in spider-monkeys; and while there is in some instances only a single sac, in other instances, as in the howlers, there may be five. These may be enormous, meeting in the middle line in front, and extending down to the axillae, as in the gorilla and orang-utan. Finally a sac may occupy the cavity of the expanded body of the hyoid-bone, as in howlers (fig. 3). The hyoid has its basilar part generally somewhat more convex and enlarged than in man; but in howlers it becomes greatly enlarged and deeply excavated, so as to form a great bony bladder-like structure (fig. 3). The cornua of the hyoid are never entirely absent, but the anterior or lesser cornua may be so, as in the howlers. The anterior cornua never exceed the posterior cornua in length; but they may be (Cercopithecus) more developed relatively than in man, and may even be jointed, as in Lagothrix. The lungs are generally similar to those of man, although, as in gibbons, the right one may be four-lobed. In the man-like apes the great arteries are likewise of the human type; but in the Hylobatidae and Cercopithecidae the left carotid may arise from the innominate. The discoidal and deciduate placenta is generally two-lobed, although single in the howlers; in the marmosets it is unusually thick. American monkeys differ from their Old World (From a sketch by Wolf from life.) FIG. 7. — An Immature Chimpanzee (Anthropopithecus troglodytes). cousins in having two umbilical veins in place of a single one. In the Cercopithecidae gestation lasts about seven months, but in the marmosets is reduced to three. The young, which are generally carried on the breast, are suckled for about six months in most monkeys. Man-like Apes. — In common with man, the apes and monkeyL of the Old World form a section — Catarrhina — of the sub-order Anthropoidea, characterized by the following features: There are only two pairs of premolar teeth, so that the complete dental formula is i, {, c. {, p. f, m. f. The tympanum has an external bony tube, or meatus ; but there is no tympanic bulla. A squamoso- frontal suture causes the frontal and the alisphenoid bones to enter largely into the formation of the orbital plate; and the orbito- temporal foramen is small. Cheek-pouches and callosities on the buttocks are frequently present. The nails are flat or rounded, the descending colon of the intestine has an S-like (sigmoid) flexure; 5YS FIG. 8. — Adult Male Gorilla (Anthropopithecus gorilla). the caecum is simple, and there may be a vermiform appendix. The inter-nasal septum is thin, and the nostrils are directed outwards. The tail, which may be rudimentary, is never prehensile. The ethmoturbinal bones of the nasal chamber are typically united. Laryngeal sacs are commonly developed. In addition to the primary discoidal placenta, a secondary, and sometimes temporary one is developed. It does not come within the province of this article to treat of man (see ANTHROPOLOGY); but it may be mentioned that the distinctive characteristics of the family Hominidae (including the single genus Homo), as compared with those of the Simiidae, or man-like apes, are chiefly relative. These are shown by the greater size of the brain and brain-case as compared with the facial portion of the skull, smaller development of the canine teeth of the males, more complete adaptation of the structure of the vertebral column to the vertical position, greater length of the lower as compared with the upper extremities, and the greater length of the great toe, with almost complete absence of the power of bringing it in opposition to the other four toes. The last and the small size of the canine teeth are perhaps the most marked and easily defined distinctions that can be drawn between the two groups, so far as purely zoological characters are concerned. The regular arch formed by the series of teeth is, however, as already mentioned, another feature distinguishing man from the man-like apes. In common with the gibbons (Hylobatidae} the man-like apes, or Simiidae, are distinguished from the lower representatives of the present sub-order by the following features: The sternum is short and broad, and the thorax wide and shallow (fig. 6), while the pelvis, as shown in the same figure, is more or less laterally expanded, and hollow on its inner-surface ; and the number of dorso-lumbar verte- brae ranges from sixteen to eighteen. The arm is longer than the leg; and while the hair on the fore-arm is directed upwards, that of the upper-arm slopes downwards to meet it at the elbow. Cheek-pouches are absent. The cusps of the molars are separate; and five in number above and four below. The caecum has a vermi- form appendix; and the secondary placenta merely forms a tem- porary fold. The Simiidae are specially characterized by the absence of callosities on the buttocks; the presence of sixteen or seventeen dorso-lumbar vertebrae, and of twelve or thirteen pairs of ribs; the wrinkling of the enamel of the cheek-teeth; the great expansion and concavity of the iliac bones of the pelvis; and the application of only the edge of the sole of the foot to the ground in walking. PRIMATES The existing members of the family are referable to at least two genera, the one African and the other Asiatic. The first genus, Anthropopithecus,1 is typified by the West African chimpanzee, A. troglodytes (fig. 7), and is characterized by the absence of excessive elevation in the skull, by the fore limb not reaching more than half-way down the shin, the presence of thirteen pairs of ribs, the well-developed great toe, the absence of a centrale in the carpus, and the black or grey hair. There is a well-developed laryngeal sinus, which may extend downwards to the axilla. Chimpanzees are characterized by the large size of the ears, and typically by .the small development of the supra-orbital ridges. The latter are, however, more developed in the Central African A. tchego (of which the kulu-kamba is a local phase) ; this form — whether regarded as a species or a race — being thus more gorilla-like (see CHIMPANZEE). The gorilla (Anthropopithecus gorilla, fig. 8), of which there are likewise several local forms, ranging from the West Coast through the forest-tract to East Central Africa, and apparently best regarded as sub-species, is frequently made the type of a second genus— Gorilla; but is extremely close to the chimpanzee, from which it is perhaps best distinguished by its much smaller ears. It is the largest of the apes, although the females are greatly inferior in stature and bulk to the males. The gorilla is also a much less completely arboreal ape than the chimpanzee, in consequence of which more of the sole of the foot is applied to the ground in walking. The enormous supra-orbital ridges of the skull of the male, and like- wise the large and powerful tusks in that sex are very characteristic. A full-grown gorilla will stand considerably over six feet in height. According to Dr A. Keith, in addition to its smaller and flatter ears, the gorilla may be best distinguished from the chimpanzee by the presence of a nasal fold running to tue margin of the upper lip ; by the large size and peculiar characters of the tusks and cheek- teeth ; by its broad, short, thick hands and feet, of which the fingers and toes are partially webl>ed ; by the long heel ; and by the relative length of the upper half of the arm as compared with the fore-arm. An important distinctive feature of the skull of the gorilla is the great length of the nasal bones. Finally, in adult life the gorilla is sharply differentiated from the chimpanzee by its sullen, untameable, ferocious disposition. As regards the relationship existing between the gorilla and the chimpanzee, Dr Keith observes: "An examination of all the structural systems of the African anthropoids leads to the inference that the gorilla is the more primitive' of the two forms, and ap- proaches the common parent stock more nearly than does the chimpanzee. The teeth of the gorilla, individually and collectively, form a complete dentition, a dentition at the very highest point of development; the teeth of the chimpanzee show marked signs of retrogression in development both in size and structure. The muscular development and the consequent bony crests for muscular attachment of the gorilla far surpass those of the chimpanzee. The muscular development of the adult chimpanzee represents that of the adolescent gorilla. Some of the bodily organs of the gorilla belong to a simpler and earlier type than those of the chimpanzee. But in one point the chimpanzee evidently represents more nearly the parent form — its limbs and body are more adapted for arboreal locomotion; of the two, the gorilla shows the nearer approach to the human mode of locomotion. On the whole the evidence at pur disposal points to the conclusion that the chimpanzee is a derivative from the gorilla stock, in which, with a progressive brain development, there have been retrograde changes in most of the other parts of the body. The various races of chimpanzee differ according to the degree to which these changes have been carried." (See GORILLA.) From both the chimpanzee and the gorilla the orang-utan, or mias (Simia satyrus), of Borneo and Sumatra is broadly distinguished by the extreme elevation of the skull (fig. 4), the excessive length of the fore limbs, which reach to the ankle, the presence of only twelve pairs of ribs and of a centrale in the carpus, the short and rudi- mentary great toe, and the bright-red cclour of the hair. Adult males are furnished with a longish beard on the chin, and they may also develop a large warty prominence, consisting of fibro- cellular tissue, on each side of the face, which thus assumes an extra- ordinary wide and flattened form. There is no vestige of a tail. The hands are very long; but the thumb is short, not reaching the end of the metacarpal bone of the index-finger. The feet have exceedingly long toes, except the great toe, which only reaches to the middle of the first joint of the adjacent toe, and is often destitute not only of a nail, but of the second phalange also. It nevertheless possesses an opponens muscle. The brain has the hemispheres greatly convoluted, and is altogether more like the brain of man than is that of any other ape. A prolongation is developed from each ventricle of the larynx, and these processes in the adult become enormous, uniting together in front over the windpipe and forming one great sac which extends down between the muscles to the axilla. The canine teeth of adult males are very large. In Borneo the orang-utan displays great variability, and has accordingly been divided into a number of local races, in some of which the males 1 It has been proposed to transfer the name Simia to the chim- panzee, on the ground that it was originally given to that animal. apparently lack the lateral expansion of the face. Whether tfc« Sumatran orang-utan should be regarded as a distinct species, with two local races, may be left an open question. (See ORANG-UTAN). Gibbons. — The comparatively small, long-armed and_ tailless Asiatic apes known as gibbons have been very generally included in the same family as the man-like apes; but since they differ in several important features — to say nothing of their smaller bodily size — it has recently been proposed to refer them to a family apart, the Hylobatidae. The distinctive features of this family include the presence of small naked callosities on the buttocks, the possession of eighteen dorso-lumbar vertebrae and thirteen pairs of ribs, the absence of foldings in the enamel of the molar teeth, the slight lateral expansion and concavity of the iliac bones of the pelvis, and the application of the whole sole of the foot to the ground in walking. The vertebral column presents no trace of the sigmoid flexure which is developed partially in the Simiidae and completely in the Hominidae. None of the gibbons have any rudiment of a tail; and the canines are elongated and tusk-lilce. When the body is erect, the arms are so long that they reach the ground. The great toe is well developed, reaching to the middle or end of the first joint of the adjacent toe; but the thumb only attains to, or reaches a little beyond, the upper end of the first joint of the index-finger. There is a centrale in the carpus. The laryngeal sacs are no longer prolongations of the laryngeal ven- tricles, but open into the larynx above the false vocal chords. The group is distributed throughout the forest-regions of south-eastern Asia, eastwards and southwards from Assam, and is represented by a considerable number of species. Among these, the siamang, Hylobates syndactylus, of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, diflers from all the rest by the union of the index and third fingers up to the base of their terminal joints, in consequence of which this species is regarded as representing a sub-genus (Symphalangus) by itself, while all the others belong to Hylobates proper. The general colour of gibbons is either pale fawn or black, with or without .a white band across the forehead. In a female from Hainan in the menagerie of the Zoological Society of London, the colour of the coat changed from black to fawn about the time full maturity was attained. Apparently no such change takes place in the male. According to Dr W. yolz, the two banks of the Lematang River.in the Palembang district of Sumatra are respectively inhabited by two different species of gibbons — on the west bank is found the siamang (Hylobates syndactylus), while the country to the east of the river is the home of the agile gibbon, or waw-waw (H. agilis). It is not necessary to capture, or even to see, specimens of the two species in order to satisfy oneself as to their limitations, for they may be readily distinguished by their cries: the siamang calling in a single note, whereas the cry of the waw-waw forms two notes. The remarkable thing about their distribution in Palembang .is that the two species are found in company throughout the rest jpi Sumatra; and even in Palembang itself they inhabit the mountain districts, where the river is so narrow that they could easily leap over it, and yet they keep to the opposite banks. Gibbons are perhaps the most agile of all the Old World monkeys, rivalling .in this respect the American spider-monkeys, despite their lack .of the prehensile tails of the latter (see GIBBON). Langur Group. — The well-known long-tailed langur monkeys Tof India and the adjacent regions are the first representatives of the third family of apes and monkeys, which includes all the remaining members of the sub-order now under consideration. In the Cercopt- thecidae, as the family is called, the following features are distinctive: The sternum, or breast-bone, is narrow and elongated, ana the thorax compressed and wedge-shaped, while the iliac bones of the pelvis are narrow, with the inner surface flat; the dorso-lumbar vertebrae are nineteen or twenty in number. The front limbs are shorter than the hind pair; the whole sole of the foot is applied .to the ground in walking; and the hair on the arm is directed down- wards from the shoulder to the hand. There are always bare callosities on the buttocks, and very generally cheek-pouches. The caecum is conical. Transverse ridges connect the cusps of the molars. The secondary placenta is fully developed. The first group of the family is represented by the langurs and their allies, collectively forming the sub-family Semnopithecinae, in which the tail and hind limbs are very long, and the body .is slender; there are no cheek-pouches, but, on the other hand, the stomach is complicated by sacculations or pouches, and the last lower molar has a posterior heel, thus carrying five cusps. The thumb is small or absent, the callosities on the buttocks are also small, and the nails are narrow and pointed. The laryngeal sac (or throat-sac) opens in the middle line of the front of the larynx, and is formed by an- extension of the thyro-hyoid membrane. The true langurs, of the genus Semnapithecus, in which a small thumb is retained, form a large group confined to south-eastern Asia, where it ranges from India and the Himalaya to Borneo and Sumatra by way of Burma, Cochin China and the Malay Peninsula. A well-known representative is the sacred hanuman monkey (5. entellus) of India, which, like the larger Himalayan S. schistaceus, is slate-coloured ; the Bornean 5. hosei, on the other hand, is wholly maroon-red. Other species, like the Indian S.johni, have the head crested. The allied genus Rhinopithecus, as typified by the orange 3.30 PRIMATES snub-nosed monkey, 1?. roxellanae (fig. 9), of eastern Tibet and Szechuen, is characterized by the curiously short and upturned nose and the long silky hair of the back, especially in the winter coat. In the typical species the predominating colour is orange, tending to yellowish-olive on the back; but in R. bieti of the mountains border- ing the valley of the Mekpn and R. brelichi of Central China it is slaty-grey. The third Asiatic genus is represented by the proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) of Borneo, in which the nose is extra- ordinarily elongated. The nose of the adult male is commonly (From Mflne-Edwards.) FlG. 9. — The Orange Snub-nosed Monkey (Rhinopilhecus roxellanae) . represented as projecting straight out from the face, but it really bends down to overhang the upper lip; it is much shorter in the female, and quite small and bent upwards in the young. (SeeLANGUR and PROBOSCIS MONKEY.) The African guerezas, forming the genus Colobus, differ from their Asiatic cousins by the total loss of the thumb. Some of these monkeys, like Colobus satanas of West Africa, are wholly black; but in others, such as C. guereza (or abyssinicus), C. sharpei and C. caudatus of North-east and East Africa, forming the sub-genus Guereza, there is much long white hair, which in the species last- named forms a mantle on the sides of the body and an elongated fringe to the tail, thus assimilating the appearance of the animal to the long lichens hanging from the boughs of the trees in which it dwells. Most or all of the Semnopithecinae feed on leaves; a circumstance doubtless correlated with the complex structure of their stomach. Cercopitheques, Mangabeys, Macaques and Baboons. — The whole of the remaining members of the family Cercopithecidae are included in the sub-family Cercopithecinae, which presents the following charac- teristics: The hind limbs are not longer than the front pair; the tail may be either long, short or practically absent; cheek-pouches are present; the stomach is simple; the callosities on the buttocks are often very large; the last lower molar may or may not have a posterior heel; and the thumb is well developed. Whereas all the Semnopithecinae are completely arboreal, many of the Cercopithe- cinae, and more especially the baboons, are to a great extent or entirely terrestrial. The typical representatives of the group are the African monkeys, forming the genus Cercopithecus, which in- cludes a very large number of species with the following characters in common: the tail, although shorter than in the Semnopithecinae, is long, as are the hind limbs, while the general form is slender. The jaw and muzzle are short and the cheek-pouches large; while the nose is not prominent, with the nostrils approximated ; whiskers and a beard of variable length are usually developed. The fingers of the long hands are united by webs at the base; the thumb is small in comparison with the great toe. The callosities are of moderate size; and the hairs of the thick and soft fur are in most cases marked by differently-coloured rings. For convenience of description the numerous species of this genus may be arranged in a number of groups or sub-genera. The first of these groups includes the spot-nosed forms (Rhinosticlus), characterized by the presence of a spot of white, red or blue on the nose ; well-known species, being the lesser white-nosed guenon (C. petaurista) of West Africa and the hocheur, C. nictitans, which is also West African. In the typical group, as represented by the malbrouck monkey (C. cyno- surus) of the West Coast, and the Abyssinian grivet (C. sabaeus), the fur of the back is of a more or less olive-green hue, while the under surface and whiskers are white and the limbs grey. The large patas monkey (C. patas) of West Africa and the red-backed monkey (C. pyrrhonotus) of Kordofan typify a third section (Erythro- cebus), characterized by the red upper and white lower surface of the body. A fourth section (Mona) includes the mona (C. mono) of Western, and Sykes's monkey (C. albigularis) of Eastern Africa, with a number of allied species, characterized by the presence of a black band running from the outer angle of the eye to the ear, and the black or dark-grey limbs. The bearded monkey (C. pogonias) of Fernando Po and Guinea, with two sub-species, typifies a small section (Otopithecus) , characterized by large rufous or yellowish ear-tufts and the presence of three black stripes on the forehead. Pogonocebus is another small section, including the well-known Diana monkey (C. diana) of Western, and De Brazza's monkey (C. neglectus) of Eastern Africa, easily recognized by the long (generally white) beard and frontal crest. Finally, the little talapoin (C. talapoin) of the Gaboon alone represents a group (Miopithecus) broadly distinguished by having three, in place of four, cusps on the crowns of the lower molars. The next group is that of the African mangabeys (Cercocebus), the more typical species of which are easily recognized by their bare flesh-coloured eyelids, and the absence of rings of different colours on the hair, or at least on that of the back. In these monkeys the general form is intermediate between that of the cercopitheques and the macaques, to be lext mentioned, the head being more oval and the muzzle more produced than in the former, but less so than in the latter. The limbs are longer and the body is more slender than in the macaques, and the callosities are also smaller. On the other hand, the thumb is smaller than in the guenons, and the tail is carried curled over the back instead of straight ; while these monkeys differ from the former in having a posterior heel to the last lower molar, which is thus five-cusped, as in the macaques. The laryngeal air sacs of the latter are, however, wanting. Well-known representatives of the typical section of the group are the sooty mangabey (C, fuliginosus) and the white-collared mangabey (C. collaris) of West Africa, the latter easily recognized by the bright red crown of the head. A second group of the genus, Lophocebus (or Semnocebus) is typified by the white-cheeked mangabey (C. albigena) of the equatorial forest-region, in which the head is crested and the eyelids lack bare flesh-coloured rims. The rhesus monkey (Macacus rhesus) of India is the typical representative of the macaques, which may be regarded as the Asiatic representatives of the mangabeys. From that group the macaques differ by their heavier and stouter build (fig. 10), thicker limbs, the presence of large laryngeal sacs, the larger size of the callosities, and the more produced muzzle, while many of them have the tail (which may be absent) much shorter. The nostrils are not terminal, and the hairs are generally ringed. In habits the macaques are much more terrestrial than the mangabeys, some of them being completely so. In the typical group, which, in addition to the rhesus, includes the Himalayan macaque (M. assamensis) , the brown macaque (M. arctoides) of Burma and Tibet (fig. 10), the tail may be about (From Milne-Edwards.) FIG. 10. — The Tibet Macaque (Macacus arctoides tibelanus). equal to half the length of the body or less; but in the Barbary ape, M. (Inuus) inuus, of North Africa and Gibraltar, this appendage is wanting. In a third group (Nemestrinus), represented by the pig-tailed macaque (M. nemestrinus), ranging from Burma to Borneo, and the lion-macaque (M. leoninus) of Siam, the tail, which is carried erect, is about one-third the length of the body. The lion-tailed macaque (M. silenus) of southern India, often miscalled the wanderoo, represents a group by itself (Vetulus) characterized by PRIMATES the long hair fringing the face and meeting under the chin, and the tufted lion-like tail, which is from one-half to three-quarters the length of the body. The last group (Cynomolgus) , now often regarded as a distinct genus, is typified by the widely-spread crab- eating macaque (M. cynomolgus), characterized by its produced muzzle, short and stout limbs, and basally-swollen tail, which is tu-arly as long as the body. It also includes the South Indian bonnet-macaque (M. sinicus) and the Ceylon toque-macaque jrileatus), taking their names from the elongated hair on the crown, which are nearly allied, and with the rtrst-named species approach the baboons in their elongated muzzles (see MACAQUE). A still nearer approach to the baboons is made by the black ape (Cynopithecus niger) of Celebes and the neighbouring islands, which is represented by several sub-species, among them the so-called FIG. II. — The Yellow Baboon (Papio cynocephalus). Moor-macaque (Macacus maurus). Some difference of opinion exists as to the proper serial position of this species, which is in- cluded in Macacus by several zoologists who separate Cynomolgus as a genus. It is characterized by the marked elongation of the muzzle, which, like the neck, hands and feet, is naked. The nostrils are, however, directed outwards and downwards, as in the maca- ques; but, on the other hand, there are baboon-like ridges on the sides of the muzzle and heavy supra-orbital ridges. There are large cheek-pouches; and the tail is a mere stump. The colour is sooty-black. The weird-looking gelada baboon (Theropithecus gelada) of southern, and the allied T. obscurus of eastern Abyssinia represent a genus which is essentially baboon-like in general charac- teristics, but has the nostrils of the macaque-type, while the facial portion of the skull is shorter than the cranial. The preorbital portion of the face is concave with the ridges rounded, and the tusks are very long. The long tail is tufted at the tip, and the hair is long and bushy, developing into a mantle-like mane on the fore- quarters of old males, leaving the chest bare. The general colour is dark-brown. The last representatives of the Cercopithecidae are the baboons, or dog-faced baboons, of Africa and Arabia, forming the genus Papio. These are for the most part large monkeys, associating in herds under the leadership of an old male, and dwell- ing chiefly among rocks, although they ascend trees in search of gum. They are easily recognized by their long dog-like faces (fig. ll), in which the nostrils open at the extremity of the greatly elongated muzzle. On the sides of the muzzle are prominent longitudinal ridges covered with bare skin which may be brilliantly coloured. The callosities, which are also generally bright-coloured, are large; and the tail is of moderate length or short. The hairs are ringed with different colours, and the general colour is olive- yellow, grey or brownish. The typical, and at the same time the smallest representative of the group kis the yellow baboon (P. cynocephalus or P. babuin) (fig. 11), ranging from Abyssinia to Angola and Mozambique, and distinguished by its rather short and grooved muzzle and longish tail, which is nearly as long as the body. The majority of the species, such as the widely spread P. anubis (with several local races), P. sphinx of West Africa, and the chacma (P. porcarius) of South Africa, are included in the sub-genus Chaero- pithecus, and have the muzzle longer and undivided and the tail shorter, in most the colour is golden-olive with very distinct rings, but in the chacma it is darker. The hamadryad baboon, P. hama- dryas, of north-east Africa .and Arabia, and the closely allied P. arabicus of southern Arabia, represent a sub-genus (Hamadryas) characterized by the ashy-grey colour and the profuse mantle-like mane of the adult males; the tail being slightly shorter than the body. Lastly, the West African mandrill (P. maimon) and drill (P. leucophaeus) form the sub-genus Maimon, distinguished by the extremely short tail, and the great development of the facial ridges, which are strongly fluted. In the mandrill, which is the most brilliantly coloured of all mammals, the ridges are vermilion and cobalt, while the callosities on the buttocks are of equal brilliance ; but in the drill, which has white ear-tufts, the colouring is more sombre (see BABOON and MANDRILL). American Monkeys and Marmosets. — The monkeys and marmosets of tropical America constitute the Platyrrhina, or second section of the Anthropoidea, and are characterized as follows: An additional premolar is present in both jaws, bringing up the number of these teeth to three pairs. The tympanum is ring-like, with no external bony-tube, or meatus; and a tympanic bulla exists. A parieto-zygomatic suture causes the jugal bone to be included in the orbital plate; and the orbito-temporal foramen is large. Cheek-pouches and callos- ities on the buttocks are wanting. The descending colon does not form a sigmoid flexure; and the caecum is generally bent in a hook-like form, with, at most, very slight narrowing of its terminal extremity. The cartilage forming the inter-nasal septum is broad, and the nostrils are directed obliquely out- wards. The tail, which never has fewer than fourteen verte- brae, is generally as long as the body, and frequently prehensile. The ethmoturbinals are originally separate; and the laryngeal sac, when present, is of peculiar type. Usually there is only a simple primary discoid placenta, but rudiments of a secondary one have been recently described. The first family, or Cebidae, includes the American monkeys, as distinct from marmosets, which present the following character- istics: The ears are more or less naked externally. The terminal joints of the fingers and toes carry flat or curved nails; and the thumb, when present, is opposable to the other fingers. Except in the uakaris, the tail is long, generally short-haired, and frequently with a terminal bare surface for prehension. Dentition i. f, c. \, p. i, m, f. Generally a foramen (entepicondylar) in the inner side of the lower end of the humerus. As a rule, only a single offspring is produced at a birth. Ranging over tropical America, the Cebidae have their headquarters in the vast Brazilian forests, where so many of the animals are more or less arboreal in their habits. These monkeys are completely arboreal, more so, indeed, than the gibbons among the Catarrhina. The first sub-family, Alouatinae, is represented only by the howlers, Alouata (or Mycetes), characterized by the long prehensile tail with the extremity naked below, the well-developed thumb, and the extension of the hyoid-bone into an enormous bladder-like chamber contained between the two branches of the lower jaw (fig. 3). In this bony cup is received one of the three or five laryn- geal sacs. There are about half a dozen species, with several sub-species; three of the best known being A. seniculus, A. belzebul and A. ursina. Several are brilliantly coloured, with bright or golden hair on the flanks; but in the Amazonian A. nigra the male is black and the female straw-coloured. The muzzle is longer than in other Cebidae (see HOWLER). FIG. 12. — The White-cheeked Capuchin (Cebus lunatus). The Cebinae include the typical members of the family, character- ized by the large brain, of which the elongated hemispheres cover the cerebellum; the brain-case of the skull being, of course, elongated in proportion. The lumbar vertebrae are short, with upright comb-like processes, instead of the rhomboidal ones of the howlers. The lower jaw and hyoid are of normal form. In the first section of the sub-family the tail is evenly haired throughout, the thumb 332 PRIMATES well developed, the limbs of medium length, with the front not longer than the hind pair, the nails curved, and the humerus with an entepicondylar foramen. The typical genus Cebus includes the numerous species of capuchins, many of which are so commonly seen in captivity. They are stouter in build and smaller in size than the spider-monkeys, and their tails are only prehensile to a small extent, but are commonly carried spirally rolled. The conical upper canines project below the upper lip, and the molars have blunt low cusps. Well-known species are the white-cheeked capuchin, C. lunatus (fig. 12), of south Brazil; the true capuchin, C. capucinus, ranging from Guiana to Brazil ; and the brown capu- chin, C. fatuellus, of Guiana; all of these showing the black crown from which these monkeys take their popular name. The most northern representative of the group is the white-throated C. hypoleucus, which ranges to Costa Rica. The squirrel-monkeys, Chrysothrix (or Saimins), of which C. sciureus is the most familiar representative, are not unfrequently placed in the Nyctipithecinae, although their true position seems to be here. They differ from Cebus by their smaller size and more delicate build, by the tail being scarcely at all prehensile, by the smaller canines, smaller and more sharply cusped molars, and the large and closely-approxi- mated orbits, whose inner walls are partly membranous (see CAPU- CHIN and SQUIRREL-MONKEY). The second section of the sub-family includes the spider-monkeys (fig. 13), and is characterized by the completely prehensile tail, FIG. 13. — Geoffrey's Spider-Monkey (Ateles geoffroyi). with the inner surface of the tip naked, the rudimentary condition or absence of the thumb, the laterally compressed and more or less pointed nails, and the absence of an entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. The limbs, too, are very long and slender, with the front pair of greater length than the hind ones. The caecum approximates to that of the Catarrhina, having its terminal ex- tremity pointed. The true spider-monkeys (Ateles) lack the thumb, and have the nails but slightly compressed and pointed, the limbs very long, the nasal septum of ordinary width, and the fur not woolly. Nearly all have the hair on the head, except that of the forehead, directed forwards. There are nearly a dozen species. In these monkeys so powerful is the grasp of the tail that the whole body can be sustained by this organ alone. It even serves as a fifth hand, as detached objects, otherwise out of reach, can be grasped by it, and brought towards the hand or mouth. Their prehension is in other respects exceptionally defective, owing to the loss of the thumb. Spider-monkeys are very gentle in dis- position; and, by this and their long limbs and fitness for tree-life, seem to represent the gibbons of the Old World. _ Nevertheless, in spite of their admirable adaptation for arboreal life, their com- paratively slow progression offers a marked contrast t» the vigorous agility of the gibbons (see SPIDER-MONKEY). The brown spider- monkey (Brachyteles arachnoides) of south Brazil alone represents a genus connecting the preceding in some degree with the next, a rudimentary thumb being present, while the fur is woolly, the rtails are much compressed, and the nostrils more approximated than usual. In the woolly spider-monkeys of the genus Lagothrix (fig. 14) not only is the fur woolly, but the thumb is fairly well developed; the nails are like those of Brachyteles, but the nostrils are normal. Humboldt's spider-monkey, L. humboldti (or L. lagotrica) and the dusky spider-monkey, L. infumata, both of which occur in Brazil and Amazonia, alone represent this genus. FIG. 14. — Humboldt's Woolly Spider-Monkey (Lagothrix humboldti). Some half-dozen species of the monkeys known as sakis (Pithecia) form the typical representatives of the sub-family Pithecinae, in which the tail, even when long, is non-prehensile, while the lower incisors are slender and inclined forwards in a peculiar manner, with a gap on each side separating them from the long canine. The hemispheres of the brain cover the cerebellum, the brain-case is elongated, and, despite the absence of a laryngeal sac, the lower jaw is deep with a large angle, thus recalling that of the howlers. There is no caecum. In all cases the thumb is well developed. The arrangement of the hair is very variable. From the other members of the group the sakis are sufficiently distinguished by the long and bushy tail; while they are further characterized by having a large head. In some cases the hair on the crown of the FIG. 15. — Lemur-like Douroucouli (Nyctipithecusfelinus). head is divided by a transverse parting, so as to overhang the upper part of the face. P. satanas of Para and P. chiropotes of Guiana are well-known species. The uakaris (Uacaria or Cothurus) of Amazonia are broadly distinguished from all other Cebidae by their short or rudimentary tails ; Ua. calva being remarkable for its brilliant red jaw and pale chestnut hair (see UAKARI). PRIMATES 333 The last and lowest representatives of the Cebidae constitute the sub-family Nyctipithectnae, the members of which are cat-like monkeys, with woolly or bushy hair, short, conical muzzles, non- prehensile tails and well-developed thumbs. The brain-case of the skull is not elongated, and the hemispheres of the brain do not cover the cerebellum. The lumbar vertebrae are elongated, with long, sharp, backwardly directed spinal processes; the hinder part of the lower jaw is tall; and there is no laryngeal sac. The FIG. 16.— The Moloch Titi (Callithrix moloch). long and hooked caecum has its terminal portion constricted. In accordance with their nocturnal habits, the douroucoulis (Nycti- pithecus) are easily recognized by their large and closely approxi- mated eyes, which are, however, separated by a complete septum, the comparatively narrow nasal septum, small ears buried in the FIG. 17. — The Golden Marmoset (Hapale chry solemn). woolly fur, and lonij bushy tail. Well-known species are the lemur-like douroucouh (N. felinus, fig. 15) of Amazonia, Peru and Ecuador, and N. vociferans, with a nearly similar distribution. The titis, Callithrix (or Callicebus*), are smaller monkeys (fig. 16), 1 Apparently the name Callithrix was originally given to the marmosets, and if transferred to that group should be replaced by Callicebus. with more forwardly directed eyes, which are not surrounded by a radiating fringe of hair and a wider nasal septum. The titis are represented by about ten species, of which C. moloch is represented in fig. 16. Most of them are confined to Amazonia, but a few among them C. moloch, reach the east coast. Like the marmosets, they feed largely upon insects and grubs. The second and last family of the Platyrrhina is represented by the marmosets or oust it is (Hapalidae), all of which are small monkeys, with the ears hairy externally, and the nails, except that of the great toe, claw-like, the thumb non-opposable, the tail long, bushy and non-prehensile, and only two molars in each jaw, the dental formula thus being i. j, c. {, p. |, m. f. The humerus has no entepicondylar foramen. Three young are produced at a birth. Marmosets are divided into two genera, those in which the lower canines are not markedly larger than the incisors constituting the typical Hapale, while such as have the lower canines taller than the teeth between them form the genus Midas. These squirrel-like little monkeys, in which the great toe can be opposed to the other toes, range as far north as 15° N., where they are represented by Midas geoffroyi, and as far in the opposite direction as the southern tropic, where M. chrysopygus and M. rosalia occur. The colour and the length of the hair are very variable, some species having long silky pale-chestnut hair (fig. 17) and tufted ears, while in others the hair is comparatively short and black, or black with brown bars, while the ears are not tufted (see MARMOSET). Lemurs, Prosimiae. — Although the likeness generally takes the form of a more or less grotesque caricature, the faces of all monkeys and apes present, in greater or less degree, some resemblance to the human countenance. In the lower group of Primates, commonly known as lemurs, or lemuroids, this resemblance is wholly lost, and the face assumes an elongated and fox-like form, totally devoid of that " expression " which is so characteristic of man and the higher apes and monkeys. FIG. 18. — Skull of Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur co«o)Xf. lie, Upper canine. pm, Premolars. Ic, Lower canine. m, True molars. Lemurs, Prosimiae or Lemuroidea, which form a group con- fined to the tropical regions of the Old World and more numer- ously represented in Madagascar than elsewhere, are arboreal and for the most part crepuscular or nocturnal Primates, feeding on insects or fruits, or both together and collectively character- ized as follows. The tail, which is generally long and thickly haired, is never prehensile. As a rule, there is a single pair of pectoral teats, but an additional abdominal or even inguinal pair may be present. The thumb and great toe are opposable to the other digits, the former being provided with a flat nail, while the second toe is always furnished with a claw; the fourth toe is longer than all the rest, and the second, or index, finger is small or rudimentary. In the skull (fig. 18) the orbital ring is formed by the frontal and jugal bones, and, except in the Tarsiidae, there is a free communication between the orbit and the temporal fossa; the lachrymal foramen is situated outside the orbit (fig. 18) ; the tympanic either forms a free semicircle in the auditory bulla or enters into the formation of the latter; and the foramen rotundum is generally fused into the sphenoidal fissure. Interparietal bones are frequently developed, and the two halves of the lower jaw are generally welded together in front. Except in the genus Perodictkus, the humerus is fur- nished with an entepicondylar foramen at the lower end; the centrale of the carpus is generally free; and the femur is usually provided with a third trochanter. The cerebellum is only partially covered by the hemispheres of the brain, which in the medium-sized and larger species conform to the general type of the same parts in monkeys and apes. The normal dental 334 PRIMATES formula is t. -f , c. \, p. §, m. f , or the same as in American monkeys; but the upper incisors are small and separated from each other, while the lower ones are large and approximated to the incisor-like canine; the molars have three or four cusps. In all cases the stomach is simple and a caecum present. The testicles are contained in a scrotum, the penis has a bone, the uterus is bicornuate and the urethra perforates the clitoris. The placenta may be either diffuse, with a large allantoic portion, and non-deciduate, or discoidal and deciduate. As a rule, only a single offspring is produced at a birth. Very note- worthy is the occurrence in the females of the Asiatic lorisis of what appears to be the vestige of a marsupial apparatus, attached to the front of the pelvis. Lemur catta also possesses the rudiment of a marsupial fold; while in both sexes of the aye-aye occurs a skin-muscle corresponding to the sphincter marsupii of marsupials. The distribution of existing lemurs is very peculiar, the majority of the species inhabiting Madagascar, where they for the most part dwell in small patches of forest, and form about one-half the entire mammalian fauna of the island. The remain- ing species inhabit Africa south of the Sahara and the Indo-Malay countries. Tarsier. — The tiny little large-eyed Malay lemuroid known as the tarsier, Tarsius spectrum (or T. tarsius), of the Malay Peninsula and islands, together with its Celebean and Philippine representa- tives, alone constitutes the section Tarsiina (and the family Tar- siidae), which has the following distinctive characteristics: The lower incisor is vertical and the canine of normal form, while the upper incisors are in contact; the orbit is cut off from the temporal fossa by a bony plate, leaving only a small orbital fissure; the tympanum enters into the formation of the auditory meatus, through which passes the canal for the internal carotid artery; the tibia and fibula in the hind-leg are fused together, and the calcaneum and nayicular of the tarsus elongated. The tarsier seems to be a primitive form which makes a certain approximation to the Anthropoidea, and differs from other lemuroids in the structure of its placenta. The dental formula isi. f, c. \, p. jj, m. f, total 34. Tarsiers have enormous eyes, occupying the whole front of the orbital region, and are purely nocturnal in their habits, living in trees on the branches of which they move by hopping, a power they possess owing to the elongation of the tarsal bones (see TARSIER). Malagasy Lemurs. — AH the other Prosimiae may be grouped in a second section, the Lemurina, characterized as follows: The lower incisors and the canine are similar in form and inclined forwards (fig. 18); the upper incisors are small and separated by an interval m the middle line; the orbits communicate largely with the temporal fossae; the internal carotid artery enters the skull in advance of the auditory meatus through the foramen lacerum anterius; and the tibia and fibula are separate. The Malagasy lemurs are now all included in the single family Lemuridae, which is confined to Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, and character- ized by the tympanic ring lying free in the auditory bulla. The typical sub-family Lemurinae, which includes the majority of the family group, is characterized by all the fingers except the index having flat nails, the elongation of the facial portion of the skull, the large hemispheres of the brain not covering the cerebellum, the occasional presence of two inguinal in addition to the normal pectoral teats, the dental formula *'. f, c. {, p. |, m. |, with the first upper incisor generally small and sometimes wanting, and the hinder cusps of the upper molars smaller than the front ones. These lemurs are woolly-haired animals, often nearly as large as cats, with the legs longer than the arms, the tail long and bushy, and the spinal processes of the last dorsal and the lumbar vertebrae inclined. In the typical genus Lemur (fig. 19), the tarsus is of normal length, the tail at least half as long as the body, the ears are tufted, there are no inguinal teats, the last premolar is not markedly broader than -the others, and the upper molars have a conspicuous cingulum. These lemurs have long fox-like faces, and habitually walk on the ground or on the branches of trees on all fours, although they can also jump with marvellous agility. They are gregarious, living in small troops, are diurnal in their habits, but most active towards evening, when they make the woods resound with their loud cries, and feed, not only on fruits and buds, but also on eggs, young birds and insects. When at rest or sleeping, they generally coil their long, bushy tails around their bodies, apparently for the sake of the warmth it affords. They have usually a single young one at a birth, which is at first nearly naked, and is carried about, hanging close to and almost concealed by the hair of the mother's belly. After a while^ the young lemur changes its position and mounts upon the mother's back, where it is earned about until able to climb and leap by itself. One of the most beautiful species is the ring-tailed lemur (L. catta, fig. 19), of a delicate grey colour, and with a long tail marked with alternating rings of black and white. This is said by G. A. Shaw to be an exception to other lemurs in not being arboreal, but living chiefly among rocks and bushes. Pollen, however, says that it inhabits the forests of the south-west parts of Madagascar, living, like its congeners, in considerable troops, and not differing from them in its habits. He adds that it is ex- tremely gentle, and active and graceful in its movements, and utters at intervals a little plaintive cry like that of a cat. All the others have the tail of uniform colour. The largest is L. varius, the ruffed lemur, sometimes black and white, and sometimes reddish-brown, the variation apparently not depending on sex or age, but on the individual. In L. macaco the male is black and the female red L. mongoz, L. fulvus and L. rubriventer are other well-known species. FIG. 19. — The Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta). In all these lemurs the small upper incisors are not in contact with one another or with the canine, in front of which they are both placed. In the species of Hapalemur, on the other hand, the upper incisors are very small, sub-equal and separated widely in the middle line; those of each side in contact with each other and with the canine, the posterior one being placed on the inside, and not in front of the latter. Muzzle very, short and truncated. Two inguinal teats, in addition to the normal pectoral pair, are present. The last premolar is broader than those in front, and the upper molars lack a distinct cingulum. The typical H. griseus is smaller than any of the true lemurs, of a dark-grey colour, with round face and short ears. It is quite nocturnal, and lives chiefly among bamboos, subsisting on the young shoots. The second species has been named H. simus. In Hapalemur there is no free centrale to the carpus, and the same is the case with the six or seven species of Lepidolemur (Lepilemur), in which the first upper incisor is rudimentary or wanting, while the second may also be wanting in the adult. There are small lemurs, with small pre- maxillae, short snouts, tails shorter than the body, bladder-like mastoid processes, and the upper molars with an inconspicuous cingulum and the hind-cusps of the last two rudimentary; the fourth upper premolar being relatively broad. Mixocebus caniceps is an allied generic type (see LEMUR). The small Malagasy lemurs of the genera Chirogale, Microcebus and Opolemur differ from the preceding in the elongation of the calcaneum and navicular of the tarsus, on which grounds they have been affiliated to the African galagos. The difference in the struc- ture of the tympanum in the two groups indicates, however, that the elongation of the tarsus has been independently developed in each group. These lemurs have short, rounded skulls, large eyes, long hind limbs and tail, large ears, the first upper incisor larger than the second, the last upper premolar much smaller than the first molar and furnished with only one outer cusp, and the mastoid not bladder-like. Some are less than a rat in size, and all are nocturnal. One of the largest, Microcebus furcifer, is reddish:grey, and distinguished by a dark median stripe on its back which divides on the top of the head into two branches, one of which passes forwards above each eye The most interesting peculiarity of these PRIMATES 335 lemurs is that certain species (Opolemur samati, Chirogale milii, &c.) during the dry season coil themselves up in holes of trees, and pass into a state of torpidity, like that of the hibernating animals in the winter of northern climates. Before this takes place an immense deposit of fat accumulates upon certain parts of the body, especially the basal portion of the tail. The smallest species, M. pusillus, lives among the slender branches on the tops of the highest trees, {ceding on fruit and insects, and making nests like those of birds. In the sub-family Indrisinae the dentition of the adult consists of thirty teeth, usually expressed by the formula i. f , c. {, p. |, m. |; but possibly i. f, c. J, *. 1, m. |. In the milk-dentition there are twenty-two teeth, the two additional teeth in the fore part of the lower jaw having no successors in the permanent scries. Hind limbs greatly developed, but the tarsus normal, the great toe of large size, and very opposable; the other toes united at their base by a fold of skin, which extends as far as the end of the first phalange. The thumb is but slightly opposable; and all the fingers and toes are hairy. The length of the tail is variable Two pectoral teats. nm very large, and colon extremely long and spirally coiled. The brain is large and the thorax wide. The animals of this group are essentially arboreal, and feed exclusively on fruit, leaves, buds and flowers. When they descend (From Milne-Edwards and Grandidier.) FIG. 20. — The Indri (Indris brevicaudatus). to the ground, which is but seldom, they sit upright on their hind legs, and move from one clump of trees to another by a series of short jumps, holding their arms above them in the air. Among them are the largest members of the order. The genus Indris has the upper incisors sub-equal in size; upper canine larger than the first premolar, muzzle moderately long, ears exserted. Carpus without an os centrale. Tail rudimentary. Vertebrae: C-7, D.I2, L.9, 8.4, Ca-9- The indri (/. brevicaudatus, fig. 20), discovered by Sonnerat in 1780, is the largest of the group, and has long woolly hair, partly brown and partly white. In the stfakas, Propithecus, of which there appear to be three species, with numerous local races, the second upper incisor is much smaller than the first. Upper canine larger than the first premolar. Muzzle rather short. Ears short, concealed by the fur. An os centrale in the carpus. Tail long. Vertebrae: C.y, D.I2, L.8, 8.3, Ca.28. In Avahis, represented only by A. laniger, the second upper incisor is larger than the first. Upper canine scarcely larger than the first premolar. Muzzle very short. Ears very small and hidden in the fur, which is very short and woolly. Carpus without os centrale. Tail long. Vertebrae: €.7, D.II, L.o, 8.3, Ca.23 (see INDRI and SIFAKA). The last sub-family, Chiromyinae (formerly regarded as a family), is represented only by the aye-aye, Chiromys (or Daubentonia) madagascariensis, and has the following characteristics: Dentition of adult, t. {, c. %, p. J, m. |, total 18. Incisors (fig. 21) very large, compressed, curved, with persistent pulps and enamel only in front, as in rodents. Teeth of cheek-series with flat indistinctly tuber- culated crowns. In the young, the first set of teeth more resemble those of normal lemurs, being «. |, c. J, m. \, all very small. Four teats, inguinal in position, a feature peculiar to this species. All the digits of both feet with pointed, rather compressed claws, except the great toe, which has a flattened nail; middle digit of the hand excessively attenuated. Vertebrae: C-7, D.I2, L.6, 8.3, Ca.2y (see AYE-AYE). FIG. 21. — Skull of the Aye-aye (Chiromys madagascariensis). X j. Galagos and iortses.— The lemurs of Africa and the Indo-Malay countries — commonly miscalled sloths — differ from the Lemuridae in that the tympanic enters into the formation of the auditory meatus, in consequence of which they are referred to a family by themselves, the Nycticebidae, which is in turn divided into two sub-families, Galaginae and Nycticebinae. The African galagos or Galaginae, which have the same dental formula as the Lemuridae, are distinguished by the elongation of the calcaneum and navicular of the tarsus. In the single genus Galago, with the sub-genera Otolemur and Hemigalago, the last upper premolar, which is nearly as large as the first molar, has two large external cusps. Verte- brae: C.7, D.I3, L.6, 8.3, Ca.22-26. Tail long, and generally bushy. Ears large, rounded, naked and capable of being folded at the will of the animal. Teats four, two pectoral and two inguinal (see GALAGO). The lorises, Nycticebinae (Lorisinae), are distinguished as follows: Index-finger very short, sometimes rudimentary and nailless. Fore and hind limbs nearly equal in length. Tarsus not specially elongated. Thumb and great toe diverging widely from the other digits, the latter especially being habitually directed backwards. Tail short or rudimentary. Teats two or four. Lorises and pottos (as the African representatives of the group are called) are essentially nocturnal, and remarkable for the slowness of their movements. They are completely arboreal, their limbs being formed only for climbing and clinging to branches, not for jumping or running. They have rounded heads, very large eyes, short ears and thick, short, soft fur. They feed, not only on veget- able substances, but, like many of the Lemuridae, also on insects, eggs and birds, which they steal upon while roosting at night. One of the greatest anatomical peculiarities of these animals is the breaking up of the large arterial trunks of the limbs into numerous small parallel branches, constituting a rete mirabile, which is found also in the sloths, with which the lorises are sometimes confounded on account of the slowness of their movements. The Asiatic lorises, which are divided into two genera, are characterized by the retention of the normal number of phalanges in the small index-finger, and the presence of a pair of minute abdominal teats (From A. Milne-Edwards.) FIG. 22. — The Slow Loris (Nyciicebus tardigradus). (the existence of which has only recently been discovered by Messrs Annandale and Willey). In the slow lorises, forming the genus Nycticebus (fig. 22), the first upper incisor is larger than the second, which is often early deciduous. Inner margin of the orbits separated from each other by a narrow flat space. Nasal and 33^ PRIMATES premaxillary bones projecting but very slightly in front of the maxillae. Body and limbs stout. No tail. Vertebrae: C.y, D.I7, L.6, 8.3, Ca.i2. The single species N. tardigradus, with several races, in- habits eastern Bengal, the Malay countries, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Siam and Cochin China. These lorises lead solitary lives in the recesses of large forests, chiefly in mountainous districts, where they sleep during the day in holes or fissures of large trees, rolled up into a ball, with the head between the hind legs. On the approach of evening they awake, and during the night ramble among the branches of trees slowly, in search of food, which consists of leaves and fruit, small birds, insects and mice. When in quest of living prey they move noiselessly till quite close, and then sud- denly seize it with one of their hands. The female produces but one young at a time. In the second genus, represented only by the slender loris (Loris gracilis) of southern India and Ceylon, the upper incisors are very small and equal. Orbits very large, and only separated in the middle line above by a thin vertical plate of bone. Nasals and premaxillae produced forwards con- siderably beyond the anterior limits of the maxillae, and support- ing a pointed nose. Body and limbs slender. No external tail. Vertebrae: C-7, D.I4, L.o, 8.3, Ca.6. The slender loris is about the size of a squirrel, of a yellowish-brown colour, with large, prominent eyes, pointed nose, long thin body, long, angularly bent, slender limbs and no tail. Its habits are like those of the rest of the group. The Indian and Ceylon races are distinct (see LORIS). The African pottos, Perodicticus, differ by the reduction of the index-finger to a mere nailless tubercle, and apparently by the absence of abdominal teats. In the typical section of the genus there is a short tail, about a third of the length of the trunk. Two or three of the anterior dorsal vertebrae have very long slender spinous processes which in the living animal project beyond the general level of the skin forming distinct conical prominences, covered only by an exceedingly thin and naked integument. P. potto, the potto, is one of the oldest known members of the lemuroids having been described in 1705 by Bosman, who met with it in his voyage to Guinea. It was, however, lost sight of until 1835, when it was rediscovered in Sierra Leone. It is also found in the Gaboon and the Congo, and is strictly nocturnal and slower in its movements even than Nycticebus tardigradus, which otherwise it much resembles in its habits. A second species, P. batesi, in- habits the Congo district. A third species, the awantibo (P. calabarensis), rather smaller and more delicately made, with smaller hands and feet and rudimentary tail, constitutes the sub-genus Arctocebus. It is found at Old Calabar, and is very rare. Vertebrae : C.7, D.is, L.7, 8.3, Ca.9. EXTINCT PRIMATES The most interesting of all the extinct representatives of the order is Pithecanthropus erectus (q.v.), which is represented by the imperfect roof of a skull, two molars and a femur, discovered in a bed of volcanic ash in Java. The forehead is extremely low, with beetling brow-ridges, and the whole calvarium presents a curiously gibbon-like aspect. The capacity of the brain-case is estimated to have equalled two-thirds that of an average modern man. The creature is regarded as transitional between the higher apes, more especially the Hylobatidae and the lowest representatives of the genus Homo, such as the Neanderthal men. From the Lower Pliocene of India has been obtained the palate of a chimpanzee-like ape, which by some is referred to the existing Anthropopithecus, while by others it is considered to represent a genus by itself — Palaeopithecus. The same formation has yielded the canine tooth of a large ape, apparently referable to the existing Asiatic genus Simla. From the Miocene of Europe has been described the genus Dryopithecus, typified by D. fontani, a generalized ape of the size of a chimpanzee, related, perhaps, both to the Simiidae and the Hylobatidae. The Lower Pliocene of Germany has yielded other remains referred 'to a distinct genus under the name of Paidopithex rhenanus. From the Miocene of the Vienna basin Dr O. Abel has described certain ape-remains under the name of Gripho- pithecus suessi, as well as others regarded as representing a species of Dryopithecus with the. name D. darwini. As regards the first, all that can be said is that it indicates a member of the group to which Dryopithecus belongs. It has been suggested that the latter genus is closely related to man, but this idea is discountenanced by the great relative length of the muzzle and the small space for the tongue. Teeth of another man-like ape from the Tertiary of Swabia, described under the pre- occupied name Anthropodus, have been re-named Neopithecus. The genus Anthropodus is represented by remains of an ape of doubtful position from the French Pliocene. Pliopithecus from the French Miocene is certainly a gibbon, perhaps not distinguishable from Hylobates. Oreopithecus, from the Miocene of Tuscany, is perhaps in- termediate between gibbons and baboons (Papio), the latter of which, as well as Macacus, are represented in the Indian Pliocene. Mesopithecus, of the Grecian Lower Pliocene, presents some characters connecting it with Sewnopithecus and others with Macacus. An allied type from the Lower Pliocene of France is Dolichopithecus, taking its name from the elongated skull; while Macacus occurs in the Upper Pliocene and Pleistocene of several parts of Europe. Cryptopithecus, from the Swiss Oligocene, appears to be the oldest known Old World monkey. From the Miocene of Patagonia are known certain monkeys described as Homunculus, Anthropops, &c., apparently more akin to the Cebidae but perhaps representing an extinct family. Passing on to the lemurs, it may be mentioned in the first place that G. Grandidier has described an extinct lemur from the Tertiary of France, which he believes to be nearly related to the slow lorises, and has accordingly named Pronycticebus gaudryi. If the determination be correct the discovery is of interest as tending to link the modern faunas of southern India and West Africa (which possess many features in common) with the Tertiary fauna of Europe. Certain remarkable extinct lemuroids of large size have been discovered in the superficial deposits of Madagascar, in one of which (Megaladapis) the upper cheek-teeth are of a tritubercular type (fig. 23), while in the second and smaller form (Nesopithecus) the dentition makes a notable approximation to that of the Cercopithecidae, Each FIG. 23. — Skull and Hinder Right Upper Cheek-teeth of Megaladapis madagascariensis. of these genera, which probably survived till a very late date, is generally regarded as typifying a family group. In Megala- dapis the skull is distinguished by its elongation and the small size of the eye-sockets, the tritubercular upper molars presenting considerable resemblance to those of the living Lepidolemur. The brain is of a remarkably low type. In one species the approximate length of the skull is 250, and in the second 330 millimetres. Even more interesting are the two large species of Nesopithecus, one of which was at first described as Globilemur. They show a very complicated type of brain, and were at first regarded as indicating Malagasy representatives of the Anthro- poidea. In regard to the character of the tympanic region of the skull this genus shows several features characteristic of the more typical Malagasy lemuroids; and the eye-sockets are open behind, while the dentition is numerically the same as in some of the latter. On the other hand, in several features Nesopithecus resembles the' Anthropoidea; the upper incisors are not separated in the middle line, and the upper molars PRIME— PRIME MINISTER 337 present the pattern found in the Cercopithecidae, while in one species the lachrymal bone and foramen are within the orbit. The resemblances to apes are not confined to the skull, but are found in almost all the bones. Probably the genus may be regarded as a specialized lemuroid. The Oligocene and Eocene formations of Europe and North America have yielded remains of a number of primitive lemuroids, grouped together under the name of Mesodonta or Pseudolemures, and divided into families severally typified by the genera Hyopsodus, Notharclus, Anaptomorphus and Microchoerus (N ecrolemur) , of which the last two are European and the others American. To particu- larize the characteristics of the different families would occupy too much space, and only the following features of the group can be mentioned. The dental formula is *.f , c.\, p.% or $, m.%. The canines are often large; the upper molars carry from three to six cusps, while the lower ones are of the tuberculo-sectorial type with either four or five cusps. The lachrymal foramen may be either within or without the orbit, which is in free communication with the temporal fossa, with or without a complete bony ring. The humerus has an entepicondylar foramen. It is specially noteworthy that Adapis resembles the Lemuridae in the form and relations of the tympanic ring. Anaptomorphus has large orbits and tritubercular molars. Certain Middle and Lower Eocene North American genera, such as Mixodecles and Pelycodus, together with the European Plesiadapis and Protoadapis, which have been regarded as lemuroids, are now frequently referred to the RODENTIA (q.v.). On the other hand, Metachiromys, of the Bridger Eocene of America, originally described as a relative of Chiromys, has been stated to be an armadillo. LITERATURE. — The above article is based on the articles APE and LEMUR in the gth edition of this encyclopaedia. The following are the chief works on the subject: H. O. Forbes, " A Handbook to the Primates," Allen's Naturalists' Library (2 vols., 1904); A. A. W. Hubrecht, " The Descent of the Primates " (New York, 1897); " Furchung und Keimblatt-bildung bei Tarsius spectrum," Verh. Ac. Amsterdam (1902); C. J. Forsyth Major, "Our Know- ledge of Extinct Primates from Madagascar," Geol. Magazine, decade 7, vol. vii. (1900); "Skulls of Foetal Malagasy Lemurs," Proc. Zool. Soc. (London, 1899); "The Skull in Lemurs and Monkeys," ibid. (1904); H. Winge, " Jordfundne og nulevende Aber " (Primates), E. Mus. Lundi (1895); C. Earle, " On the Affini- ties of Tarsius," American Naturalist (1897); W. Leche, " Unter- suchungen iiber das Zahnsystem lebender und fossiler Halbaffen," Gegenbaurs Festschrift (Leipzig, 1896); E. Dubois, " Pithecanthropus erectus, eine menschenahnliche Uebergangsform aus Java " (Batavia, 1894); A. Keith, "On the Chimpanzees and their relationship to the Gorilla," Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1899); W. Rothschild, "Notes on Anthropoid Apes," ibid. (1905); O. Schlaginhaufen, " Das Hautleistensystem der Primatenplanta," Morphologisches Jahrbuch, vols. iii. and xxxiv. (1905) ; G. E. Smith, " The Morphology of the Occipital Region of the Cerebral Hemisphere in Man and Apes," Analomischer Anzeiger, vol. xxiv._(io,O4); H. F. Standing, >l. Soc., 1908, 18, pp. (R. L.'J " Primates from Madagascar," Trans. Zoo> 59-216. PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING. These three words are to be referred to Lat. primus, first, " prime," in O. Eng. prim, occurs first in the ecclesiastical sense of the Latin prima hora, the first hour, one of the lesser canonical hours of the Roman Church (see BREVIARY). Hence the word " primer " (Med. Lat. primarius), i.e. a book of hours. This was a book for the use of the laity and not strictly a service book. These books originally contained parts of the offices for the canonical hours, the penitential and other psalms, the Litany, devotional prayers and other matter. There were several " Primers " printed in the reign of Henry VIII.; the King's Primer of 1545 contained the Calendar, the Commandments, Creed, Lord's Prayer, the penitential psalms, Litany and prayers for special occasions. The primer of William Marshall, the printer and reformer, iS34> is entitled The Prymer in Englyshe, with certeyn prayers and godly meditations, very necessary for all people thai understande not the Latyne Tongue. Later these primers contained the Catechism, graces before and after meals, and the A. B. C. They were published for children, like the earlier Sarum Primer (I537). and became educational in purpose, as reading books. The earlier primers were also used in this way, as is shown by the " litel child " of Chaucer's Prioress's Tale, who sitting " at his prymer, redemptorie herde synge." Thus " primer " or " primmer " became the regular name for an elementary book for learners. For the type known as " great primer " and " long primer," see TYPOGRAPHY. Apart from the use of " prime " as the period of greatest vigour of life, the first of the guards in fencing, and for those numbers which have no divisors except themselves and unity (see ARITHMETIC), the principal use is that of the verb, in the sense of to insert in the pan of an old-fashioned small arm, the " primer," containing powder which, on explosion by percussion, fires the charge. This use seems to be due to " priming " being the first stage in the discharge of the weapon. Finally " prim- ing " is the first coat of size or colour laid on a surface as a preparation for the body colour. PRIME MINISTER, or PREMIER, in England, the first minister of the Crown. Until 1905 the office of prime minister was unknown to the law,1 but by a royal warrant of the and of December of that year the holder of the office, as such, was given precedence next after the archbishop of York. The prime minister is the medium of intercourse between the cabinet and the sovereign; he has to be cognizant of all matters of real importance that take place in the different departments so as tc» exercise a controlling influence in the cabinet; he is virtually responsible for the disposal of the entire patronage of the Crown; he selects his colleagues, and by his resignation of office dissolves the ministry. Yet he was until 1905, in theory at least, but the equal of the colleagues he appointed. The prime minister is nominated by the sovereign. " I offered," said Sir Robert Peel on his resignation of office, " no opinion as to the choice of a successor. That is almost the only act which is the personal act of the sovereign ; it is for the sovereign to determine in whom her confidence shall be placed." Yet this selection by the Crown is practically limited. No prime minister could carry on the government of the country for any length of time who did not possess the confidence of the House of Commons. The prime minister has no salary as prime minister, but he usually holds the premiership in connexion with the first lordship of the treasury, the chancellorship of the exchequer, a secretaryship of state or the privy seal. Sir Robert Walpole must be regarded as the first prime minister — that is, a minister who imposed harmonious action upon his colleagues in the cabinet. This was brought about partly by the capacity of the man himself, partly by the lack of interest of George I. and II. in English home affairs. This creation, as it were, of a superior minister was so gradually and silently effected that it is difficult to realize its full importance. In previous ministries there was no prime minister except so far as one member of the administration dominated over his colleagues by the force of character and intelligence. In the reign of George III. even North and Adding- ton were universally acknowledged by the title of prime minister, though they had little claim to the independence of action of a Walpole or a Pitt. British Prime Ministers. Sir R. Walpole . . 1721-1742 Earl of Shelburne John, Lord Carteret (afterwards Mar- Afterwards Earl quess of Lans- Granville) . . . 1742-1744 downe) . . . 1782-1783 Henry Pelham . . 1744-1754 Lord North (after- Duke of Newcastle . 1754-1756 wards Earl of Guil- William Pitt and .ford .... 1783 Duke of Newcastle 1756-1762 W. Pitt . 1783-1801 Earl of Bute . . 1762-1763 H. Addington (after- George Grenville . 1763-1765 wards Viscount Marquess of Rock- Sidmouth) . . 1801-1804 1765-1766 w Pitt .... I8o4-i8o6 1807-1809 1809-1812 ingham Chatham Duke of Grafton Lord North ° Marquess of Rock- rqu ngh ,766-1767 . 1767-1770 . 1770-1782 Spencer Perceval of Portland ingham 1782 Earl of Liverpool G. Canning . . 1812-1827 1827 1 The first formal mention in a public document appears to be in 1878, where, in the opening clause of the treaty of Berlin, the earl of Beaconsfield is referred to as " First Lord of Her Majesty's Treasury, Prime Minister of England." 338 PRIMERO— PRIMITIVE METHODIST CHURCH, THE Viscount Goderich (afterwards Earl of Ripon) . . . 1827-1828 Duke of Wellington . 1828-1830 Earl Grey . . . 1830-1834 Viscount Melbourne 1834 Sir R. Peel . . . 1834-1835 Viscount Melbourne 1835-1841 Sir R. Peel . . . 1841-1846 Lord John Russell (afterwards Earl Russell) . . . 1846-1852 Earl of Derby . .1852 Earl of Aberdeen . 1852-1855 Viscount Palmerston 1855-1858 Earl of Derby . . 1858-1859 Viscount Palmerston 1859-1865 Earl Russell . . 1865-1866 Earl of Derby . . 1866-1868 B. Disraeli (after- wards Earl of Beaconsfield) . . 1868 W. E. Gladstone . 1868-1874 B. Disraeli (Beacons- field) .... 1874-1880 W.E.Gladstone. . 1880-1885 Marquess of Salis- bury .... 1885-1886 W. E. Gladstone. . 1886 Marquess of Salis- bury .... 1886-1892 W.E.Gladstone. . 1892-1894 Earl of Rosebery . 1894-1895 Marquess of Salis- bury .... 1895-1902 A. J. Balfour . . 1902-1905 Sir H. Campbell- Bannerman . . 1905—1908 H. H. Asquith . . 1908- PRIMERO (Span, first), a card game of Spanish origin, which Strutt calls " the oldest game of cards played in England." It is described as having a close resmblance to Ombre (q.v.), by which it had been superseded. In both games the spadillo or ace of spades was the best card, but Primero was played with six cards and Ombre with nine. The exact method of play is uncertain. • PRIME VERTICAL, in astronomy, the vertical circle passing east and west through the zenith, and intersecting the horizon in its east and west points (see ASTRONOMY). PRIMITIVE METHODIST CHURCH, THE, a community of nonconformists, which owes its origin to the fact that Methodism as founded by the Wesleys tended, after the first generation, to depart from the enthusiasm that had marked its inception and to settle down to the task of self-organization. There were, however, some ardent spirits who continued to work along the old lines and whose watchword was revivalism, and out of their efforts came the Bible Christian, the Independent Methodist and the Primitive Methodist denominations. These enthusiastic evangelists esteemed zeal a higher virtue than discipline and decorum, and put small emphasis on church systems as compared with conversions. One of the men to whom Primitive Methodism owes its existence was Hugh Bourne (1772-1852), a millwright of Stoke-upon-Trent. He joined a Methodist society at Burslem, but business taking him at the close of 1800 to the colliery district of Harrisehead and Kidsgrove, he was so impressed by the prevailing ignorance and debasement that he began a religious revival of the district. His open-air preaching was accompanied by prayer and singing, a departure from Wesley's practice and the forerunner of the well-known " Camp Meeting." A chapel was built at Harrisehead, and a second revival occurred in September 1804, largely the result of a meeting held at Congleton by some enthusiasts from Southport. One of the after-fruits of this revival was the conversion (Jan. 1805) of the joint founder of Primitive Methodism, William Clowes (1780-1851), a native of Burslem, who had come to Tunstall. Clowes was a man of fine appearance and open disposition, with a compelling personality that found expression in a steady glance and a thrill- ing voice. He was a potter by trade, and had a national reputa- tion as a dancer. He joined a Methodist class, threw his house open for love-feasts and prayer-meetings, and did a great deal of itinerant evangelization among the cottages of the country- side. Lorenzo Dow (i 7 7 7-1834), an eccentric American Methodist revivalist, visited North Staffordshire and spoke of the camp- meetings held in America, with the result that on the 3ist of May 1807 the first real English gathering of the kind was held on Mow Cop, since regarded as the Mecca of Primitive Methodism. It lasted from 6 a.m. to 8 p.m., and Bourne and his friends determined to continue the experiment as a counterblast to the parish wakes of the time, which were little better than local saturnalia. Opposition from a master potter of the district, who threatened to put the Conventicle Act in force, was overcome, but more serious difficulties were presented by the antagonism of the Wesleyan Methodist circuit authorities. But Bourne and his friends persisted against both Conference and the local super- intendent, who issued bills declaring that no camp-meeting would be held at Norton in August 1807. The meeting was held and ten months later Bourne was expelled by the Burslem Quarterly Meeting, ostensibly for non-attendance at class (he had been away from home, evangelizing), really, as the Wesleyan super- intendent told him " because you have a tendency to setup other than the ordinary worship " which was precisely the reason why, fifty years earlier, the Anglican Church had declined to sanction the methods of John Wesley. The camp-meetings went steadily on, and their influence is reflected in the writings of George Eliot, George Borrow and William Howitt. The societies which Bourne formed were for a time allowed to go under (Wesleyan) Methodist protection, but the crisis came in 1810. when the Stanley class of ten members declined to wash theii hands of the Camp-Meeting Methodists, and so were refused admission. About this time, too (1809), Bourne appointed James Crawfoot, a Wesleyan local preacher who had been removed from the list for assisting the Independent Methodists, as a travelling preacher at los. a week, instructing him to give his whole time to evangelization and to get his converts to join the denomina- tions to which they were most inclined. Clowes, who, in spite of his revivalist sympathies, was more attached to Methodism than Bourne, was cut off from his church for taking part in camp-meetings at Ramsor in 1808 and 1810. His personality drew a number of strong men after him, and a society meeting held in a kitchen and then in a warehouse became the nucleus of a circuit, a chapel being built at Tunstall in July 1811, two months after the fusion of the Bourne and Clowes forces. Clowes, like Crawfoot, was set apart as a preacher to " live by the gospel," and in February 1812 the name "Primitive Methodist" was formally adopted, although for nearly a generation the name " Clowesites " survived in local use. The first distinct period in the history of Primitive Methodism proper is 1811-1843. It was a time of rapid expansion, marked by great missionary fervour, and may be called the Circuit Period, for even after the circuits were grouped into districts in 1821 they did not lose their privilege of missionary initiative. The line of geographical progress first followed the valley of the Trent. The original circuit at Tunstall no sooner felt its feet than it favoured consolidation rather than extension. But irrepressibles like John Benton broke through the " non-mission law," and pressed forward through the " Adam Bede " country to Derby (which became the 2nd circuit in 1816); Nottingham, where a great camp-meeting on Whit Sunday 1816 was attended by 12,000 people; Leicestershire, where Loughborough became the 3rd circuit, with extensions into Rutland, Lincolnshire and Norfolk; and ultimately to Hull, which became the 4th circuit, and where a meeting which deserves to be called the First Conference was held in June 1819. The Hull circuit during the next five years, through its Yorkshire, Western, North- Western and Northern Missions, carried on a vigorous campaign with great success, especially among the then semi-savage colliers of Durham and Northumberland. During the five years 1810-1824 there had been made from Hull 17 circuits with a membership of 7600, and Hull itself had 3700 more. Simultaneously with this work in the north, Tunstall circuit, having thrown off its lethargy at the Wrine Hill camp-meeting on the 23rd of May 1819, was carrying on an aggressive evan- gelism. In the Black Country, Darlaston circuit was formed in 1820, and John Wedgewood's Cheshire Mission, begun in 1810, led to work in Liverpool on the one hand and in Salop on the other. From Macclesfield a descent was made on Manchester; from Oakengates in South Shropshire came extensions to Here- fordshire, Glamorganshire and Wiltshire, where the famous Brinkworth circuit was established. The succeeding years, however, 1825-1828, showed a serious set-back, due to the lack of discipline. But drastic measures were taken, and in one year thirty preachers were struck off the list. Thenceforward, while the Oxford Movement was awakening one section of the people of England the Primitive Methodists were making themselves felt among other classes of the population. John Oxtoby, who evangelized Filey and became known as " Praying Johnny," PRIMOGENITURE 339 was known to spend six hours at a time in intercession. Robert Key at Saham Tony in 1832 won over a young woman who converted her brother, Robert Eaglen, who, eighteen years later at Colchester, proved so decisive a factor in the life of Charles Haddon Spurgeon. The Times of the 27th of December 1830, referring to the disaffected state of the southern counties, said: " The present population must be provided for in body and spirit on more liberal and Christian principles, or the whole mass of labourers will start into legions of banditti — banditti less criminal than those who have made them so, and who by a just and fearful retribution will soon become their victims." These were the classes the Primitive Methodists tried to reach, and in doing so they found themselves between two fires. On the one hand there was the mob violence that often amounted to sheer ruffianism, especially in Wessex and the home-counties. On the other hand there was legal persecution all over the country, and the preachers suffered many things from the hands of rural clergy and county magistrates. There are a score of cases of serious imprisonment, and a countless number of arrests and temporary detention. Local preachers received notice to quit their holdings, labourers were discharged, those who opened their cottages for meetings were evicted, and to show any hospitality to a travelling preacher was to risk the loss of home and employment. But the spirit of the evangelists was unquenchable. At the Conference of 1842 both Clowes and Bourne became supernumeraries with a pension of £25 a year each. Clowes, indeed, had been free from circuit work since 1827, and he continued to pray and preach as he was able till his death in March 1851. Bourne, who worked at his trade more or less all through life, spent his last ten years in advocating the temper- ance cause; he died in October 1852. The years 1842-1853 mark a transition period in the history of Primitive Methodism. It was John Flesher who chiefly guided the movement from a loosely jointed Home Missionary Organization on to the lines of a real Connexionalism. One of the first steps was to move the Book Room and the meeting place of the executive committee from Bemersley to London. Soon after came the gradual process by which the circuits handed over their mission-work to a central Connexional Committee. The removal to London was proof that the leaders were alive to the necessity of grappling with the rapid growth of towns and cities, and that the Connexion, at first mainly a rural movement, had also urban work to accomplish. The famous Hull circuit long retained a number of powerful branches, a survival of the first period, but by 1853 it had come into line with what was by that time regarded as the normal organization. The period 1853-1885 (where typical names are W. and S. Antliff, Thomas Bateman and Henry Hodge) finds Primitive Methodism as a connexion of federated districts, a unity which may be described as mechanical rather than organic. The districts between 1853 and 1873 were ten in number, Tunstall, Nottingham, Hull, Sunderland, Norwich, Manchester, Brink- worth, Leeds, Bristol and London. Conference — the supreme assembly — was a very jealously guarded preserve, being attain- able only to preachers who had travelled 18 and superintended 12 years, and to laymen who had been members 12 and officials 10 years. This exclusiveness naturally strengthened the popular- ity and power of the districts, where energy and talent found a scope elsewhere denied. Thus Hull district inaugurated a bold policy of chapel-buildings; Norwich that of a foreign mission; Sunderland and Manchester the ideal of a better- educated ministry, Sunderland institute being opened in 1868; Nottingham district founded a middle-class school; Leeds promoted a union of Sunday-schools, and the placing of chapel property on a better financial footing. The period as a whole had some anxious moments; emigration to the gold-fields and the strife which afflicted Wesleyan Methodism brought loss and confusion between 1853 and 1860. Yet when Conference met at Tunstall in the latter year to celebrate its jubilee it could report 675 ministers and 1 1 ,384 local preachers, 132,114 members, 2267 chapels, 167,533 scholars and 30,988 teachers. Over-seas, too, there was much activity and success. Work begun in Australia and New Zealand prospered, and the former country finally contributed over 11,000 members to the formation of the United Methodist Church of Australia, New Zealand with its 2600 members preferring to remain connected with the home country. In the United States there had been a quiet but steady growth since the first agents went out in 1829 and Hugh Bourne's advisory visit in 1844. There are now three Conferences — the Eastern, Pennsylvania and Western, with about 70 ministers, 100 churches and 7000 members. The Canadian churches had a good record, consummated in 1884 when they contributed 8000 members and 100 ministers to the United Methodist Church of the Dominion. In January 1870 the first piece of real foreign missionary work was begun at Fernando Po, followed in Decem- ber of the same year by the mission at Aliwal North on the Orange River in South Africa. This station is the centre of a polyglot circuit or district 1 50 m. by 50 m., and there is a member- ship of 1731 and an efficient institution for training teachers, evangelists and artisans. In 1899 another South African mission was started, ultimately locating itself at Mashukulumbwe, and a few years later work was begun in Southern Nigeria. Since 1885 Primitive Methodism has been developing from a " Connexion " into a " Church," the designation employed since 1902. At home a Union for Social Service was formed in 1906, the natural outcome of Thomas Jackson's efforts for the hungry and distressed in Clapton and Whitechapel, and of similar work at St George's Hall, Southwark. Other significant episodes have been the Unification of the Funds, the Equalization of Districts and the reconstruction of Conference on a broader basis, the Ministers' Sustentation Fund and the Church Exten- sion Fund, and the enlargement and reorganization of the college at Manchester. This undertaking owes much to the liberality of Sir William P. Hartley, whose name the college, which is a school of the Victoria University, now bears. The Christian Endeavour movement in Great Britain derives, perhaps, its greatest force from its Primitive Methodist members; and the appointment of central missions, connexional evangelists and mission-vans, which tour the more sparsely populated rural districts, witness to a continuance of the original spirit of the denomination, while the more cultured side is fostered by the Hartley lecture. In celebration of the centenary of the Church, a fund of £250,000 was launched in 1007, and this was brought to a successful issue. Statistics for 1909 show 1178 ministers, 16,158 local preachers, 212,168 members, 4484 chapels, 465,531 Sunday scholars, 59,557 teachers. In the United States there were, in 1906, 101 church edifices and a total membership of 7SS8. See H. B. Kendall, The Origin and History of the Primitive Method- ist Church (2 vols., 1906) ; and What hath God Wrought ? A Cente- nary Memorial of the P.M. Church (1908). (A. J. G.) PRIMOGENITURE (Lat. primus, first, and genitus, born, from gignere, to bring forth), a term used to signify the preference in inheritance which is given by law, custom or usage, to the eldest son and his issue, or in exceptional cases to the line of the eldest daughter. The practice is almost entirely confined to the United Kingdom, having been abolished by the various civil codes of the European states, and having been rejected in the United States as contrary to the spirit of the constitution. The history of primogeniture is given in the article SUCCESSION, while the existing English law will be found in the articles HEIR; INHERITANCE; WILL, &c. But it may be briefly said here that the English law provided that in ordinary cases of inherit- ance to land of intestates the rule of primogeniture shall prevail among the male children of the person from whom descent is to be traced, but not among the females; and this principle is applied throughout all the degrees of relationship. There are exceptions to this rule, as in the cases of " gavelkind " and " borough-English," and in the copyhold lands of a great number of manors, where customs analogous to those of gavelkind and borough-English have existed from time immemorial. In another class of exceptions the rule of primogeniture is applied 340 PRIMROSE to the inheritance of females, who usually take equal shares in each degree. The necessity for a sole succession has, for example, introduced succession by primogeniture among females in the case of the inheritance of the Crown, and a similar necessity led to the maxim of the feudal law that certain dignities and offices, castles acquired for the defence of the realm, and other inheritances under " the law of the sword," should not be divided, but should go to the eldest of the co-heiresses (Bracton, De Legibus, ii. c. 76; Co. Litt., 1650). There are also many other special customs by which the ordinary rule of primogeniture is varied. It may be remarked that the English law of inherit- ance of land creates a double preference, subject to certain exceptions and customs, in favour of the male over the female and of the first-born among the males. This necessitates the rule of representation by which the issue of children are regarded as standing in the places of their parents, called " representative primogeniture." The rule appears to have been firmly established in England during the reign of Henry III., though its application was favoured as early as the i2th century throughout the numerous contests between brothers claiming by proximity of blood and their nephews claiming by representation, as in the case of King John and his nephew Prince Arthur (Glanvill, vii. c. 3; Bracton, De Legibus, ii. c. 30). See Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, K. E. Digby, History of the Law of Real Properly; Sir H. Maine, Ancient Law and Early History of Institutions; C. S. Kenny, Law of Primogeniture in England. PRIMROSE.1 The genus Primula contains numerous species distributed throughout the cooler parts of Europe and Asia, and found also on the mountains of Abyssinia and Java; a few are American. They are herbaceous perennials, with a permanent stock from which are emitted tufts of leaves and flower-stems which die down in winter; the new growths formed in autumn remains in a bud-like condition ready to develop in spring. They form the typical genus of Primulaceae (q.v.), the floral conforma- tion of which is very interesting on several accounts independently of the beauty of the flowers. The variation in the length of the stamens and of the style in the flowers of Primula has attracted much attention since Charles Darwin pointed out the true significance of these varied arrangements. Briefly it may be said that some of the flowers have short stamens and a long style, while others have long stamens, or stamens inserted so high up that the anthers protrude beyond the corolla tube, and a short style. Gardeners and florists had for centuries been familiar with these variations, calling the flowers from which the anthers protruded " thrum-eyed " and those in which the stigma appeared in the mouth of the tube " pin-eyed." Darwin showed by experiment that the most perfect degree of fertility, as shown by the greatest number of seeds and the healthiest seedlings, was attained when the pollen from a short-stamened flower was transferred to the stigma of a short-styled flower, or when the pollen from the long stamens was applied to the long style. As in any given flower the stamens are short (or low down in the flower-tube) and the style long, or conversely, it follows that to ensure a high degree of fertility cross fertih'zation must occur, and this is effected by the transfer of the pollen from one flower to another by insects. Incomplete fertility arises when the stigma is impregnated by the pollen from the same flower. The size of the pollen-grains and the texture of the stigma are different in the two forms of flower (see figure under PRIMULACEAE). The discovery of the physiological significance of these variations in structure, which had long been noticed, was made by Darwin, and formed the first of a series of similar observations and experiments by himself and subsequent observers (see Darwin, Different Forms of Flowers, &c.). Among British species may be mentioned the Common Primrose (P. vulgaris); the cowslip (P. veris); the true Oxlip (P. elatior), a rare plant only found in the eastern counties; and the common 1 Lat. primula; Ital. and Span, primavera; Fr. primevere, or in some provinces primerole. Strangely enough, the word was applied, according to Dr Prior, in the middle ages to the daisy (Bellis perennis), the present usage being of comparatively recent origin. oxlip, the flowers of which recall those of the common primrose, but are provided with a supporting stem, as in the cowslip; it is, in fact, a hybrid between the cowslip and the primrose. In addition to these two other species occur in Britain, namely, P. farinosa, found in Wales, the north of England and southern Scotland, and P. scotica, which occurs in Orkney and Caithness. These two species are found also in high Arctic latitudes, and P. farinosa, or a very closely allied form, exists in Fuegia. The Auricula (q.v.) of the gardens is derived from P. Auricula, a yellow-flowered species, a native of the Swiss mountains. The Polyanthus (q.v.), a well-known garden race, is probably derived from a cross between the primrose and cowslip. The Himalayas are rich in species of primrose, often very difficult of determination or limitation, certain forms being peculiar to particular valleys. Of these P. denliculata, Stuartii, sikkimmensis, nivalis, floribunda, may be mentioned as frequently cultivated, as well as the lovely rose-coloured species P. rosea. The Royal Cowslip (P. imperialist resembles P. japonica, but has leaves measuring 18 in. long by 5 in. wide. It grows at an elevation of 9000 ft. in Java, and has deep yellow or orange flowers. The primrose is to be had in cultivation in a considerable variety of shades of colour, ranging from the palest yellow to deep crimson and blue. As the varieties do not reproduce quite true from seed, it is necessary to increase special kinds by division. The primrose is at its best in heavy soils in slight shade, and with plenty of moisture during the summer. One of the most popular of winter and early spring decorative plants is the Chinese primrose, Primula sinensis, of which some superb strains have been obtained. For ordinary purposes young plants are raised annually from seeds, sown about the beginning of March, and again for succession in April and, if needed, in May. The seed should be sown in well-drained pots or pans, in a compost of three parts light loam, one part well-rotted leaf-mould, and one part clean gritty sand, as it does not germinate freely if the soil contains stagnant moisture, afterwards placing a sheet of glass over the pans to prevent evaporation of moisture. When the seeds germinate, remove the glass and place the pans in a well- lighted position near the glass, shading them from the sun with thin white paper, and giving water moderately as required. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, prick them out in pans or shallow boxes, and, as soon as they have made leaves an inch long, pot them singly in 3-in. pots, using in the soil a little rotten dung. They should then be placed in a light frame near the glass in an open situation, facing the north. When their pots are filled with roots they should be moved into 6-in. or 7-in. pots. The soil should now consist of three parts good loam broken with the hand, one part rotten dung and leaf-mould, and as much sand as will keep the whole open. They should be potted firmly, and kept in frames close up to the glass till September, excess in watering being carefully avoided. In the autumn they should be transferred to a light house and placed near the glass, the atmosphere being kept dry by the occasional use of fire-heat. The night temperature should be kept about 45°. When the flowering stems are growing up, manure water once or twice a week will be beneficial. The semi-double varieties are increased from seeds, but the fully- double ones, and any particular sort, can only be increased by cuttings. Primula japonica, a bold-growing and very beautiful Japanese plant, is hardy in sheltered positions in England. P. cortusoides, var. Sieboldii (Japan), of which there are many lovely forms, is suitable for outdoor culture and under glass. There are several small-growing hardy species which should be accommodated on the best positions on rockeries where they are secure from ex- cessive dampness during winter; excess of moisture at that season is the worst enemy of the choice Alpine varieties. They are propa- gated by seed and by division of the crowns after flowering. P. Forrestii is a quite new orange-yellow flowered species from China; as is also P. Bulleyi. They are probably hardy — at least in favoured spots. Evening primrose belongs to the genus Oenothera (natural order Onagraceae), natives of temperate North and South America. The common evening primrose, Oe. biennis, has become naturalized in Britain and elsewhere in Europe; the form or species known as var. grandiflora or Oe, Lamarckiana is a very showy plant with larger flowers than in the common form. Other species known in gardens are Oe. missouriensis (macrocarpa) , 6 to 12 in., which has stout trailing branches, lance-shaped leaves and large yellow blossoms; Oe. taraxacifolia, 6 to 12 in., which has a stout crown from which the trailing branches spring out, and these bear yery large white flowers changing to delicate rose; this perishes in cold soils, and should therefore be raised from seed annually. Of erect habit are Oe. speciosa, I to 2 ft., with large white flowers; Oe. fruticosa, 2 to 3 ft., with abundant yellow flowers. The name of Cape Primrose has been given by some to the hybrid forms of Streptocarpus, a South African genus belonging to the natural order Gesneraceae. PRIMROSE LEAGUE, THE— PRIMULACEAE PRIMROSE LEAGUE, THE, an organization for spreading Conservative principles amongst the British democracy. The primrose is associated with the name of Lord Beaconsfield (?.».), ing preferred by him to other flowers. On a card affixed to the wreath of primroses sent by Queen Victoria to be placed upon his coffin was written in Her Majesty's own handwriting: " His favourite flowers: from Osborne: a tribute of affectionate regard from Queen Victoria." On the day of the unveiling of Lord Beaconsfield's statue all the members of the Conservative party in the House of Commons were decorated with the primrose. A small group had for some time discussed the means for obtain- ing for Conservative principles the support of the people. Sir H. D. Wolff therefore said to Lord Randolph Churchill, " Let us found a primrose league." The idea was accepted by several gentlemen in the habit of working together, and a meeting was held at the Carlton Club shortly afterwards, consisting Lord Randolph Churchill, Sir H. Drummond Wolff, Mr (afterwards Sir John) Gorst, Mr Percy Mitford, Colonel Fred Burnaby and some others, to whom were subsequently added Mr Satchell Hopkins, Mr J. B. Stone, Mr Rowlands and some Birmingham supporters of Colonel Fred Burnaby, who also wished to return Lord Randolph Churchill as a Conservative member for that city. These gentlemen were of great service in remodelling the original statutes first drawn up by Sir H. Drummond Wolff. The latter had for some years perceived the influence exercised in benefit societies by badges and titular appellations, and he further endeavoured to devise some quaint phraseology which would be attractive to the working classes. The title of Knight Harbinger was taken from an office no longer existing in the Royal Household, and a regular gradation was instituted for the honorific titles and decorations assigned to members. This idea, though at first ridiculed, has been greatly developed since the foundation of the order; and new distinctions and decorations have been founded, also contributing to the attractions of the league. The League was partially copied from the organization of the Orange Society in Ireland. In lieu of calling the different subsidiary associations by the ordinary term " Lodges," the name was given of " Habitations," which could be constituted with thirteen members. These were intended as a substitute for the paid canvassers, about to be abolished by Mr Gladstone's Reform Bill. The principles of the League are best explained in the declaration which every member is asked to sign: " I declare on my honour and faith that I will devote my best ability to the maintenance of religion, of the estates of the realm, and of the imperial ascendancy of the British Empire; and that, consistently with my allegiance to the sovereign of these realms, I will promote with discretion and fidelity the above objects, being those of the Primrose League." The motto was " Imperium et libertas "; the seal, three primroses; and the badge, a monogram containing the letters PL, sur- rounded by primroses. Many other badges and various articles of jewellery have since been designed, with this flower as an emblem. A small office was first taken on a second floor in Essex Street, Strand; but this had soon to be abandoned, as the dimensions of the League rapidly increased. Ladies were generally included in the first organization of the League, but subsequently a separate Ladies' Branch and Grand Council were formed. The founder of the Ladies' Grand Council was Lady Borthwick (afterwards Lady Glenesk), and the first meeting of the committee took place at her house in Piccadilly on the 2nd of March 1885. The ladies who formed the first committee were: Lady Borth- wick, the dowager-duchess of Marlborough (first lady president), Lady Wimborne, Lady Randolph Churchill, Lady Charles Beresford, the dowager-marchioness of Waterford, Julia marchioness of Tweeddale, Julia countess of Jersey, Mrs (subse- quently Lady) Hardman, Lady Dorothy Nevill, the Honourable Lady Campbell (later Lady Blythswood), the Honourable Mrs Armitage, Mrs Bischoffsheim, Miss Meresia Nevill (the first secretary of the Ladies' Council). When the League had become a success, it was joined by Lord Salisbury and Sir Stafford Northcote, who were elected Grand Masters. Its numbers gradually increased to a marvellous extent, as may be seen by the following figures: — Year. Knights. Dames. Associates. Total. Habita- tions. 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1901 1910 747 8071 32.645 50,258 54.580 58,180 6o.795 63.251 75.26o 87.235 153 1381 23,381 39.215 42,791 46,216 48,796 50,973 64,906 80,038 57 1914 181,257 476,388 575.235 705.832 801,261 887,068 1,416,473 1,885,746 957 11,366 237.283 565,861 672,606 810,228 910,852 i ,001 ,292 1,556,639 2,053,019 46 169 1 200 1724 1877 1986 2081 2143 2392 2645 See an article in the Albemarle of January 1892, written by Miss Meresia Nevill; and the Primrose League Manual, published at the offices at Westminster. The latter publication is interesting as a history of the organization. (H. D. W.) PRIMULACEAE, in botany, an order of Gamopetalous Dicotyledons belonging to the series Primulr.les and containing 28 genera with about 350 species. It is cosmopolitan in dis- tribution, but the majority of the species are confined to the tem- perate and colder parts of the northern hemisphere and many are arctic or alpine. Eight genera are represented in the British flora. The plants are herbs, sometimes annual as in pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis) (fig. i), but generally perennial as in Primula, (After Wossidlo. Fischer.) From Strasburger's Lehrbuch dcr Bolanik, by permission of GusUv FIG. i. — Anagallis arvensis (pimpernel). i , Flowering branch. 3, Capsule. 2, A flower cut through longi- 4, Seed. tudinally, showing the central 2, 3, 4, Enlarged. placenta. where the plant persists by means of a sympodial rhizome, or in Cyclamen by means of a tuber formed from the swollen hypocotyl. The leaves form a radical rosette as in Primula (primrose, cowslip, &c.), or there is a well-developed aerial stem which is erect, as in species of Lysimachia, or creeping, as in Lysimachia Nummularia (creeping jenny or money- wort). Hottonia (water violet) is a floating water plant with submerged leaves cut into fine linear segments. The leaves are generally simple, often with a toothed margin; their arrangement is alternate, opposite or whorled, all three forms occurring in one and the same genus Lysimachia. The flowers are solitary in the leaf-axils as in pimpernel, money-wort, &c., or umbelled as in primrose, where the umbel is sessile, and cowslip, where it is stalked, or in racemes or spikes as in species of Lysimachia. Each flower is subtended by a bract, but there are no bracteoles, and corresponding with the absence of the latter the two first developed sepals stand right and left (fig. 2). The flowers are hermaphrodite and regular with parts in fives (pentamerous) throughout, though exceptions from the pentamerous arrangement occur. The sepals are leafy and persistent; the corolla is generally divided into a longer or shorter tube and a limb which is spreading, as in primrose, or reflexed, as in Cyclamen; in Soldanella it is bell-shaped; in Lysimachia the tube is often very short, the petals appearing almost free; in Glaux the petals are absent. The five stamens spring from the corolla-tube and are FIG. 2. Diagram of s typical flower of Primula- ceae. 342 PRIMULINE— PRINA opposite to its lobes; this anomalous position is generally explained by assuming that an outer whorl of stamens opposite the sepals has disappeared, though sometimes represented by scales as hi Samolus and Soldanella. Another explanation is based on the late appearance of the petals in the floral develop- ment and their origin from the backs of the primordia of the stamens; it is then assumed that three alternating whorls only are present, namely, sepals, stamens bearing petal-like dorsal outgrowths, and carpels. The superior ovary — half-inferior in Samolus — bears a simple style ending in a capitate entire stigma, and contains a free-central placenta bearing generally a large number of ovules, which are exceptional in the group Gamopetalae in having two integuments. The fruit is a capsule dehiscing by 5 sometimes 10 teeth or valves, or sometimes transversely (a pyxidium) as in Anagallis. Cross pollination is often favoured by dimorphism of the flower, as shown in species of Primula (fig. 3). The two forms have long and short styles repectively, the stamens occupying corresponding positions half-way down or at the mouth of the corolla-tube; the long-styled flowers have smaller pollen-grains, which correspond with smaller stigmatic papillae on the short styles. The order is divided into five tribes by characters based on differences in position of the ovules — which are generally semi- anatropous so that the seed is peltate with the hilum in the centre on one side (or ventral), but sometimes, as in Hottonia and (From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanit.) FIG. 3. — Primula sinensis. L, Long-styled flowers. P, Pollen grains, and N, stig- K, Short-styled flowers. matic papillae of long-styled G, Style. form. S, Anthers. p, n. Ditto of short-styled form. (P,N,p,n, X no.) Samolus, anatropous with the hilum basal — together with the method of dehiscence of the capsule and the relative position of the ovary. The chief British genera are Primula, including P. vulgaris, primrose, P. veris, cowslip, P. elatior, oxlip, and the small alpine species P. farinosa, with mealy leaves; Lysimachia, loose strife, including L. Nummularia, money- wort; Anagallis, pimpernel; and Hottonia, water violet. PRIMULINE, a dye-stuff containing the thiazole ring system conjointly with a benzene ring. The primulines are to be considered as derivatives of dehydrothiotoluidine (aminoben- zenyltoluylmercaptan), which is obtained when para-tolui- C6H4.NH,(p) Primuline. dine is heated with sulphur for eighteen hours at 180-190° C. and then for a further six hours at 200-220° C. (P. Jacobson, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 333; L. Gattermann, ibid. p. 1084). Dehy- drothiotoluidine is not itself a dye-stuff, but if the heating be carried out at a higher temperature in the presence of more sulphur, then a base is formed, which gives primuline-yellow on sulphonation (A. G. Green, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1888, i, p. 194). Primuline-yellow is a mixture of sodium salts and probably contains in the molecule at least three thiazole rings in combination. It is a substantive cotton dye of rather fugitive shade, but can be diazotized on the fibre and then developed with other components, so yielding a series of ingrain colours. Thioflavine T is obtained by the methylation of dehydro- thiotoluidine with methyl alcohol in the presence of hydrochloric acid [German Patent 51738 (1888)]. Thioflavine S results from the methylation of dehydrothiotoluidine sulphonic acid. This sulphonic acid on oxidation with bleaching powder or with lead peroxide, in alkaline solution yields Moramine yellow, which dyes cotton a beautiful yellow. PRIMUS, MARCUS ANTONIUS, Roman general, was born at Tolosa in Gaul about A.D. 30-35. During the reign of Nero he was resident in Rome and a member of the senate, from which he was expelled for forgery in connexion with a will and was banished from the city. He was subsequently reinstated by Galba, and placed in command of the 7th legion in Pannonia. During the civil war he was one of Vespasian's strongest sup- porters. Advancing into Italy, he gained a decisive victory over the Vitellians at Bedriacum (or Betriacum) in October 69, and on the same day stormed and set fire to Cremona. He then crossed the Apennines, and made his way to Rome, into which he forced an entrance after considerable opposition. Vitellius was seized and put to death. For a few days Primus was virtually ruler of Rome, and the senate bestowed upon him the rank and insignia of a consul. But on the arrival of Licinius Mucianus he was not only obliged to surrender his authority, but was treated with such ignominy that he left Rome. Primus must have been alive during the reign of Domitian, since four epigrams of Martial are addressed to him. Tacitus describes him as brave in action, ready of speech, clever at bringing others into odium, powerful in times of civil war and rebellion, greedy, extravagant, in peace a bad citizen, in war an ally not to be despised. See Tacitus, Histories, ii., iii., iv. ; Dio Cassius Ixv. 9-21. PRINA, GIUSEPPE (1768-1814), Italian statesman. He gave early proofs of rare talent, and after studying at the university of Pa via he passed as doctor of law in 1789. He was a firm adherent of Napoleon Bonaparte, and when Eugene Beauharnais became viceroy of Italy, was appointed minister of finance. Genial in private life, he was harsh and unyielding in his official capacity, and his singular skill in devising fresh taxes to meet the enormous demands of Napoleon's government made him the best-hated man in Lombardy, the more so that, being a Piedmontese, he was regarded as a foreigner. The news of the emperor's forced abdication on the nth of April 1814 reached Milan on the i6th, and roused hopes of independence. The senate assembled on the igth and Prina's party moved that delegates should be despatched to Vienna to request that Eugene Beauharnais should be raised to the throne of a free Italian kingdom. In spite of precautions this fact became public and provoked the formidable riot styled " The battle of the um- brellas " that broke out the next day. A furious mob burst into the senate, pillaged its halls and sought everywhere for the execrated Prina. Not finding him there, the rioters rushed to his house, which they wrecked, and seizing the doomed minister, who was discovered in a remote chamber donning a disguise, dur- ing four hours dragged him about the town, until wounded, mutilated, almost torn to pieces, he received his death-blow. The mob then insulted his miserable remains, stuffing stamped- paper into his mouth. These horrors were enacted by day, in a thoroughfare crowded with " respectable " citizens sheltered from the rain by umbrellas. The authorities were passive, and although some courageous persons actually rescued the victim at an early stage and concealed him in a friendly house, the blood- thirsty mob soon discovered his refuge and were about to force an entrance, when the dying man surrendered to save his deliverer's property. The riots directly contributed to the re-establishment of Austrian rule in Milan. See M. Fabi, Milano ed il ministro Prina (Novara, 1860); F. Lemmi, La Restaurazione austriaca a Milano nel 1814 (Bologna, PRINCE 343 1902); Ugo Foscolo, Alcune parole intorno alia fine del reeno d' Italia. The story of the murder of Prina forms the subject of a play by G. Rovetta, entitled Principle di secolo. PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince), a title implying either political power or social rank. The Latin word princeps originally signified " the first " either in place or action (cf. Ger. Ftirst; O.H.G. /orwto = English " first ")• As an honorary title it was applied in the Roman republic to the princeps senatus, i.e. the senator who stood first on the censor's list, and the princeps juventulis, i.e. the first on the roll of the equestrian order. The assumption of the style of princeps senatus by Augustus (q.v.) first associated the word with the idea of sovereignty and dominion, but throughout the period of the empire it is still used as a title of certain civil or military officials (e.g. princeps officii, for the chief official of a provincial governor, in the Theodosian code, leg. I., De offic. reel. prov. i. 7; princeps militiae, i.e. the commander of a cohort or legion); while in the middle ages the term is still applied vaguely in charters to the magnates of the state or the high officials of the palace, principes being treated as the equivalent of proceres, optimates or seniores. Yet the idea of sovereignty as implied in the word princeps, used as a title rather than as a designation, survived strongly. In the Visigothic and Lombard codes princeps is the equivalent of rex or imperator; and when, after the overthrow of the Lombard kingdom by the Franks, Arichis II. (d. 787) of Beneventum wished to assert his independent sovereignty, he had himself anointed and crowned, and exchanged his style of duke for that of prince. From Italy the use of the title spread — first, with the Crusaders, to the Holy Land, where Bohemund, son of Tancred, took the style of prince of Antioch; next, with the Latin conquerors, into the East Roman Empire, where in 1 205 William de Champlette, a cadet of the house of Champagne, founded the principality of Achaea and the Morea. This example was followed by lesser magnates, who styled themselves loosely, or were so styled by the chroniclers, " princes," even though they had little claim Fnace to '"dependent sovereignty. From the East the fashion was carried back to France; but there the erection of certain fiefs into " principalities," which became common in the isth and i6th centuries, certainly implied no concession of independent sovereignty, and the title of " prince " thus bestowed ranked below that of " duke," being sometimes borne by cadet branches of ducal houses, e.g. the princes of Leon and of Soubise, cadets of the house of Rohan. On the other hand, the title of " prince " was borne from the time of Charles VII. or Louis XL by the sons of the royal house, so-called " princes of the blood " (princes du sang), who took precedence in due order after the king. To these were added, from the time of Louis XIV., the princes Ugitimis, recognized bastards of the sovereign, who ranked next after the princes of the blood. Thus, e.g. the princes of Conde, Conti and Lamballe owed their exalted precedence, not to their principalities, but to their royal descent. In Germany, Austria and other countries formerly embraced in the Holy Roman Empire the title of " prince " has had a some- Oermmay. wnat different history. During the first period of the empire, the " princes " were the whole body of the optimates who took rank next to the emperor. In the nth century, with the growth of feudalism, all feudatories holding in chief of the Crown ranked as " princes," from dukes to simple counts, together with archbishops, bishops and the abbots of monasteries held directly of the emperor. Towards the end of the 1 2th century, however, the order of princes (Fiirstenstand) was narrowed to the more important spiritual and temporal feudatories who had a right to a seat in the diet of the empire in the " college of princes " (Ftirslenbank). Finally, in the I3th century, seven of the most powerful of these separated themselves into a college which obtained the sole right of electing the emperor. These were called " prince electors " (Kurfiirstcn) , and formed the highest rank of the German princes (see ELECTOR). The formal designation of " prince " (Ftirst) was, however, extremely rare in' Germany in the middle ages. Examples are the princes of Mecklenburg (Prilislav I., prince of the Holy Roman Empire in 1 1 76) and RUgen, the latter title now belonging to the kings of Prussia. In the i7th century some half-dozen more principalities were created, of which that of Schwarzburg- Sondershausen (1697) survives as a sovereign house. The i8th century increased their number, and of the princely houses of this period those of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt (1710), Waldeck (1712) and Reuss, elder branch (1778), have preserved their sovereignty. Of the other sovereign " princes " in Germany, Reuss, cadet branch, obtained the title in 1806, Schaumburg-Lippe in 1807. Outside the German Empire the prince of Liechtenstein, whose title dates from 1608, still remains sovereign. Thus, in Germany, with the decay of the empire the title "prince" received a sovereign connotation, though it ranks, as in France, below that of " duke." There are, however, in the countries formerly embraced in the Holy Roman Empire other classes of " princes." Some of these inherit titles, sovereign under the old empire, but " mediatized " during the years of its collapse at the beginning of the igth century, e.g. Thurn and Taxis (1695), Hohenlohe (1764), Leiningen (1779); others received the title of " prince " immediately before or after the end of the empire as " compensation " for ceded territories, e.g. Metternich-Winneburg (1803). Besides these mediatized princes, who transmit their titles and their privilege of " royal " blood to all their legitimate descendants, there are also in Austria and Germany " princes," created by the various German sovereigns, and some dating from the period of the old empire, who take a lower rank, as not being " princes of the Holy Roman Empire " nor entitled to any royal privileges. Some of these titles have been bestowed to give a recognized rank to the morganatic wives and children of royal princes, e.g., the princes of Battenberg, or the title of " princess " of Hohenberg borne by the consort of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand d'Este; others as a reward for distinguished service, e.g. Hardenberg, Bliicher, Bismarck. In this latter case the rule of primogeniture has been usual, the younger sons taking the title of " count " (Graf). These non-royal princes are ranked in the Almanack de Gotha with British and French dukes and Italian princes. All these various classes of princes are styled Ftirst and have the predicate " Serene Highness " (Durchlauchf). The word Prinz, actually synonymous with Ftirst, is reserved as the title of the non-reigning members of sovereign houses and, with certain exceptions (e.g. Bavaria), for the cadets of mediatized ducal and princely families. The heir to a throne is " crown prince " (Kronprinz), " hereditary grand duke " (Erbgrossherzog) or " hereditary prince " (Erbprinz). The heir to the crown of Prussia, when not the son of the monarch has the title of " prince of Prussia " (Prinz von Preussen).1 In Italy the title " prince " (principe) is also of very unequal value. In Naples, following the precedent set by Arichis II., " much affecting the glory of a greater name than duke," it ranked above that of duke. In other parts ltaty' of Italy the heads of great families sometimes bear the title of "prince," e.g. Prince Corsini, duke of Casigliano; sometimes that of " duke," e.g. the Caetani, princes of Teano, whose chief is styled " duke of Sermoneta," the title of " prince of Teano " being borne by his eldest son. The title of "prince of Naples " is attached to the eldest son of the king of Italy. The excessive multipli- cation of the title has tended to deprive it of much social value in itself, and under the democratic constitution of Italy it confers neither power nor precedence. " Prince " is also the translation of the Russian title knyaz, though veliky knyaz, the style of the Imperial princes, is rendered " grand duke." Some of the Russian, or Polish- Russian, princely families are of great importance — e.g.the Czartoryskis,the Swiatopolk-Czetwertynskis,or the Russian 1 Furst may or may not be a sovereign or territorial title, but it is only borne by the head of the family, e.g. Heinrich XIV., regie- render Furst (reigning prince) von Reuss or Furst Bismarck. Prinz always implies cadetship, e.g. Prinz Heinrich XLV. Reuss. The title Prinz von Preussen, therefore, excludes any idea of territorial sovereignty, whereas the correct German rendering of that of prince of Wales, which originally at least implied such sovereignty, would be Furst von Wales. Russia. 344 PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND Britain branch of the Lubomirskis. But, in general, though the title " prince " implies descent from one or other of the ruling dynasties of Russia, it is in itself of little account, being exceed- ingly common owing to its being borne by every member of the family. The predicate of " Serene Highness," though borne by certain magnates who were princes before they became Russians — as in the case of the families mentioned above — is not attached to the Russian title of "prince." In some cases, however, it is conferred with the title by imperial warrant (e.g. Lieven, 1826). The title of " prince " is also borne by the descendants of those Greek Phanariot families (see PHANARIOTS), e.g. Mavrocordato, Ypsilanti, Soutzo, who formerly supplied hospodars r fy' to the Turkish principalities on the Danube. In the Ottoman Empire the rulers appointed to the quasi-inde- pendent Christian communities subject to it have usually been designated " prince, " and the title has thus come to signify in connexion with the Eastern Question a sovereignty more or less subordinate. As such it was rejected on behalf of the Bavarian prince Otho, when he accepted the throne of Greece, in favour of that of " king. " On the other hand, the substitution, in 1852, in Montenegro of the title of " prince and lord " (knyaz i gospodar) for the ancient title of iiladika (archbishop) certainly implied no such subordination. The only other instance in Europe of " prince " as a completely sovereign title is that of the prince of Monaco, the formal style having been adopted by the Grimaldi lords in 1641. In Great Britain " prince " and " princess " as titles are confined to members of the royal family, though non-royal dukes are so described in their formal style (see DUKE). Nor is this use of great antiquity; the custom of giving the courtesy title of " prince " to all male descendants of the sovereign to the third and fourth generation being of modern growth and quite foreign to English traditions. It was not till the reign of Henry VII. that the king's sons began to be styled " princes "; and as late as the time of Charles II., the daughters of the duke of York, both of whom became queens regnant, were called simply the Lady Mary and the Lady Anne. The title of " princess royal, " bestowed on the eldest daughter of the sovereign was borrowed by King George II. from Prussia. Until recent years the title " prince " was never conferred on anybody except the heir-apparent to the Crown, and his princi- pality is a peerage. Since the reign of Edward III. the eldest sons of the kings and queens of England have always been dukes of Cornwall by birth, and, with a few exceptions, princes of Wales by creation. Before that Edward I. had conferred the principality on his eldest son, afterwards Edward II., who was summoned to and sat in parliament as prince of Wales. But Edward the Black Prince was the original grantee of the principality as well as of the dukedom, under the special limitations which have continued in force to the present day. The entail of the former was " to him and his heirs the kings of England " and of the latter " to him and his heirs the first-begotten sons of the kings of England. " Hence when a prince of Wales and duke of Cornwall succeeds to the throne the principality in all cases merges at once in the Crown, and can have no separate existence again except under a fresh creation, while the dukedom, if he has a son, descends immediately to him, or remains in abeyance until he has a son if one is not already born. If, however, a prince of Wales and duke of Cornwall should die in the lifetime of the sovereign, leaving a son and heir, both dignities are extinguished, because his son, although he is his heir, is neither a king of England nor the first-begotten son of a king of England. But, if instead of a son he should leave a brother his heir, then — as was decided in the reign of James I. on the death of Henry, prince of Wales, whose heir was his brother Charles, duke of York — the dukedom of Cornwall would pass to him as the first-begotten son of the king of England then alive, the principality of Wales alone becoming merged in the Crown. It has thus occasionally happened that the dukes of Cornwall have not been princes of Wales, as Henry VI. and Edward VI., and that the princes Prince ot Wales. of Wales have not been dukes of Cornwall, as Richard II. and George III. But even now the cadets of the reigning family can only by royal intervention legally be saved from merging, as of old, in the general untitled mass of the people. The children of the sovereign other than his eldest son, though by courtesy " princes " and " princesses, " need a royal warrant to raise them de jure above the common herd; and even then, though they be dubbed " Royal Highness " in their cradles, they remain " commoners " till raised to the peerage. In 1905 King Edward VII. established what appears to be a new precedent, by conferring the titles of "princess" and "highness" upon the daughters of the princess Louise, duchess of Fife, created '' princess royal. " This use of the word " prince " — which has in England so lofty a connotation — to translate foreign titles of such varying impor- tance and significance naturally leads to a good deal of confusion in the public mind. It is not uncommon in English society to see, e.g. a Russian prince, who may be only the cadet of a family not included in the Almanack de Gotha, given precedence as such over the untitled members of a great English ducal family, and treated with some of that exaggerated deference paid to " royalty. " On the other hand, the insular complacency of many Englishmen is apt to regard all German princes with a certain contempt, whereas the title is in Germany sometimes associated with sovereign power, sometimes with vast territorial possessions, and always with high social position. See, Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. " Princeps," ed. G. A. L. Henschal (Niort, 1883); John Selden, Titles of Honour (London, 1672); Almanack de Gotha (1906) ; H. Schulze, Die Hausgesetze der regie- renden deutschen Furstenhduser (3 vols., Jena, 1862-1883); H. Rehm, Modernes Fiirstenrecht (Munich, 1904). (W. A. P.) PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, a province of the Dominion of Canada, lies between 45° 58' and 47° 7' N. and 62° and 64° 27' W. The underlying geological formation is Permian, though outliers of Triassic rock occur. The coal seams supposed to underlie the Permian formation are apparently too deep down to be of practical value. The rocks consist of soft red micaceous sandstone and shales, with interstratified but irregular beds of brownish-red conglomerates containing pebbles of white quartz and other rocks. There are also beds of hard dark-red sandstone with the shales. Bands of moderately hard reddish-brown conglomerate, the pebbles being of red shale and containing white calcite, are seen at many points; and then greenish-grey irregular patches occur in the red beds, due to the bleaching out of the red colours by the action of the organic matter of plants. Fossil plants are abundant at many places. Beds of peat, dunes of drifted sand, alluvial clays and mussel mud occur in and near the creeks and bays. Physical Features. — The island lies in a great semi-circular bay of the Gulf of St Lawrence, which extends from Point Miscou in New Brunswick to Cape North in Cape Breton. From the mainland it is separated by Northumberland Strait, which varies from 9 to 30 miles in width. It is extremely irregular in shape, and deep inlets and tidal streams almost divide it into three approximately equal parts; from the head of Hillsborough river on the south to Savage Harbour on the north is only one and a half miles, while at high tide the distance between the heads of the streams which fall into Bedeque and Richmond Bays is even less. North of Summerside the land nowhere rises more than 175 ft. above sea-level; but between Summerside and Charlottetown, especially near north Wiltshire, is a ridge of hills, running from north to south and rising to a height of nearly 500 ft. From Charlottetown eastwards the land is low and level. The north shore, facing the gulf, is a long series of beaches of fine sand, and is a favourite resort in summer. On the south, low cliffs of crumbling red sandstone face the strait. The climate is healthy, and though bracing, milder than that of the neighbour- ing mainland. Fogs are much less common than in either New Brunswick or Nova Scotia. Area and Population. — The greatest length of the island is 145 m., its greatest breadth 34 m., its total area 2184 sq. m. PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND 345 The population in 1901 was 103,259, having sunk from 109,078 in 1891. It is thus much the most densely populated province in Canada, there being nearly fifty-two persons to the sq. m. Though very large families are not so common as in the province of Quebec, the agricultural character of the population makes the average number of persons to a family greater (5-51) than in any other province. As in all the maritime provinces, there is a steady immigration to the Canadian West and to the United States. The population is mainly of British descent, but also comprises descendants of the French Acadians and of the American loyalists. About 200 Indians of the Mic-Mac tribe remain, and have slightly increased in numbers since 1891. In 1901 the origin of the people was: Scots, 41,753; English, 24,043; Irish, 21,992; French, 13,867; all other nationalities, 1604. The principal religious denominations and the number of their adherents were as follows: Church of Rome, 45,796; Presby- terians, 30,750; Methodists, 13,402; Anglican, 5976; Baptists, 5905. The Irish and French are almost entirely Roman Catholic, the Scots about two-thirds Presbyterian and one third Roman Catholic. Jurisdiction over the Catholics is held by the bishop of Charlottetown, and over the Anglicans by the bishop of Nova Scotia. The Presbyterians form part of the synod of the Maritime Provinces. Administration, &c. — Five members of the House of Commons and four senators are sent to the federal legislature. At its entry into federation in 1873, the number of members was six, and the reduction to five in 1901 was bitterly denounced. The local government now consists of a lieutenant-governor and of a legislative assembly. This conducts not only the general affairs of the province, but most of those of the towns and villages; legal provision has, however, been made for the establishment of a municipal system, and Charlottetown and Summerside are incorporated municipalities, though with powers of self-govern- ment much more limited than those of any other incorporated Canadian towns. The provincial revenues, which tend to prove inadequate, are largely made up of the subsidy paid by the federal government, though there are numerous taxes, which bear heavily on the small industrial population. But for the increase in 1907 of the federal subsidy, financial exigencies might have forced the adoption of direct taxation, in spite of its unpopularity among the farmers. Education. — Primary education in the province has been given free since 1852. Since 1877 it has been under the control of a minister of education with a seat in the provincial cabinet. At Charlottetown is the Prince of Wales College, really a rather advanced secondary school, with which is affiliated the Normal School. St Dunstan's College, another advanced high school in Charlottetown, is under Roman Catholic control. Advanced university education is not given in the province. Attendance at the primary schools is by law compulsory, but the exigencies of a farming population and the lack of adequate means of enforcement render the law inoperative. The salaries of the teachers are, as a rule, low, and the school buildings cheerless and ill-maintained. Agriculture. — The soil, an open sandy loam, deep red in colour, which was slightly exhausted at the beginning of the century by repeated crops of cereals, has been renewed by the application of mussel mud dredged from the bays and tidal streams. All the staple crops are grown — especially oats, potatoes and turnips. Wheat is raised only for local consump- tion. Cattle and hogs flourish. In the last years of the igth century the introduction of co-operation gave a great impetus to the manufacture of butter and cheese. The first cheese factory was opened in 1892, and the first creamery in 1894. Of over 1 5,000 farmers all, save about 900, own their own farms, and are in nearly all cases well-to-do. Large quantities of animal and vegetable food, amounting to about one-half of the total product, are exported, chiefly to Cape Breton, Newfoundland, and the New England states. Fruit is raised less extensively than in Nova Scotia, but enough is grown to supply the local market, and apples of good quality are exported. Fisheries. — Though smaller in value than those of any other sea-board province, the fisheries of Prince Edward Island are, in proportion to the total population, extremely productive. Of the catch of about £200,000, lobsters, most of which are canned, are worth about £90,000, and oysters £20,000, in the latter case about half the total value of the catch of the Dominion, which is compelled to import largely from the United States. There are signs of the approaching exhaustion of the oyster beds, but no adequate remedy or new source of supply has been found. Herring, cod, mackerel and smelts are also caught in large quantities in the coast waters. Other Industries. — About one-third of the province is covered with birch, beech, maple, pine, spruce, cedar and other woods, but though a little lumber is exported, the industry is declining. The building of wooden ships, a flourishing trade till about 1886, is now almost extinct. The packing of pork and of lobsters is actively pursued near Charlottetown, and small factories have been established for the manufacture of boots and shoes, tobacco, condensed milk, &c., but the great bulk of the manufactured goods used are imported from the other provinces. Communications. — The Prince Edward Island branch of the Intercolonial railway, owned and worked by the federal govern- ment, runs from Souris in the east to Tignish in the north-west, with branches to Georgetown, Murray Harbour, Charlottetown and Cape Traverse. Good wagon roads intersect each other everywhere, and nearly all the villages and country districts are connected by telephone. During spring, summer and autumn Charlottetown has daily communication with Pictou in Nova Scotia and Shediac in New Brunswick, and a frequent service to other ports in Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Massachusetts. The harbour of Charlottetown and the Northumberland Straits are closed by ice from about the middle of December to the beginning of April, after which there is a service by specially constructed ice-breaking boats between Georgetown and Pictou. The ice is often too thick to make a regular service possible, and the island has long agitated for federal construction of a railway tunnel between Cape Traverse in Prince Edward Island and the neighbouring shore of New Brunswick, 9 m. distant. History. — Jacques Carder sighted Prince Edward Island on his first voyage in June 1 534, but mistook it for part of the main- land. Succeeding voyagers discovered his mistake, and toward the end of the i6th century it was called Isle St Jean, which name it retained till 1798, when it was given its present name out of compliment to the duke of Kent, at that time commanding the British forces in North America. In 1603 Champlain took possession of it for France, and in 1663 it was granted by the company of New France to Captain Doublet, an officer in the navy whose failure to make permanent settlements soon brought about the loss of his grant. Little attention was paid to the island until after the Peace of Utrecht, when the French made efforts to colonize it. In 1719 it was granted, en franc alleu noble, to the count of St Pierre, who tried to establish fisheries and a trading company. He spent large sums on his enterprise, but the scheme proved unsuccessful and his grant was revoked. In 1758, soon after the capture of Louisbourg, Isle St Jean was occupied by a British force under Lord Rollo (see Annual Register, 1758). Its population at this time numbered about 4000, under a military governor with his headquarters at Port la Joie (Charlottetown). After its final cession to Great Britain in 1763 it was placed under the administration of Nova Scotia, but later was made a separate government, its first parliament meeting in 1773. In 1764-1765 it was surveyed, and most of the present names given; in 1767 it was divided into townships of about 20,000 acres each, grants of which were made to individuals with claims on the government. They were to pay a small sum as quit rents, and the conditions imposed provided for the establishment of churches and wharves and bona-fide settlement. On these terms practically the whole island was granted away in a single day. The grantees were in most cases mere speculators, and the lands fell into the hands of a large number of non-residents. A continual agitation against the absentees was kept up by the settlers, who rapidly increased in numbers. During the early PRINCES' ISLANDS— PRINCETON i pth century many Scottish immigrants settled in the island. A commission appointed in 1860 advised the compulsory purchase of the lands, and their sale in smaller holdings to genuine settlers, but a bill passed with this intent was disallowed by the imperial authorities. In 1864 a conference to consider the question of maritime union met at Charlottetown. The visit of delegates from Canada widened it into a general conference on federation, from which sprang the Dominion of Canada. Prince Edward Island's local patriotism forced its representatives to withdraw from the later conferences, but the abrogation in 1866 by the United States of the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, financial difficulties connected with the building of an island railway, and the offer of better terms by the Dominion government, brought it into federation in 1873. A bill on the lines of that formerly disallowed was soon afterwards passed, and the land difficulty was finally settled. Since then the main political issues have been the quarrel with the federal government over the construction of a tunnel and the control of the liquor traffic, which has been prohibited but by no means suppressed. AUTHORITIES. — Sir J. W. Dawson, Acadian Geology (1891); Report of Dr R. W. Ells, Geological Survey (1882-1884); Report of R. Chalmers, Geological Survey (1894); Rev. G. Sutherland, Manual of History of Prince Edward Island (1861); D. Campbell, History of Prince Edward Island (1875); Special Reports on Educa- tional Subjects, vol. iv. (London, 1901); articles in J. C. Hopkins's Canada, an Encyclopaedia (Toronto, 1898-1900). (W. L. G.) PRINCES' ISLANDS (anc. Demonesi; Byzantine, Papadonisia; Turkish, Kizil Adalar, or " Red Islands," from the ruddy colour of the rocks), a cluster of nine islands in the Sea of Marmora, forming a caza of the prefecture of Constantinople. They figure in Byzantine history chiefly as places of banishment. A convent in Prinkipo (now a mass of ruins at the spot called Kamares) was a place of exile for the empresses Irene, Euphrosyne, Zoe and Anna Dalassena. Antigone was the prison of the patriarch Methodius, and its chapel is said to have been built by the empress Theodora. In Khalki the monastery of the Theotokos (originally of St John), which since 1831 has been a Greek commercial school, was probably founded by John VI. or VII. Palaeologus, was rebuilt about 1680, and again in the i8th century by Alexander Ypsilanti, hospodar of Moldavia. Close beside it is the tomb of Edward Barton, second English ambassador to the Porte. Hagia Trias (a school of theology since 1844) was rebuilt by the patriarch Metrophanes. On Prote were the monasteries to which Bardanes (Philippicus), Michael I. Rhangabes, Romanus I., Lecapenus and Romanus IV. Diogenes were banished. The islands are a favourite summer resort; four are inhabited and noted for the mildness and salubrity of their ch'mate. Prinkipo (Pityusa), altitude 655 ft.; Khalki (Chalcitis; Turkish Heibeli), 445 ft.; Prote (Turkish Kinali), 375 ft.; and Antigone (Panormus; Turkish Burgaz Adasi), 500 ft. The buildings on all the islands were injured by the earthquake of 1894, especially the naval college, and monastery of St George on Khalki, and the monastery of Christ on Prinkipo. The population is about 10,500, half being Greek. Khalki contains an Ottoman naval school and Greek theological and commercial colleges. See G. Schlumberger, Les lies des Princes (Paris, 1884); A. Grise- bach, Rumelien und Brussa (Gottingen, 1839). PRINCETON, a city and the county-seat of Gibson county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 27 m. N. of Evansville. Pop. (1900), 6041, 628 being of negro descent and 198 foreign-born; (1910) 6443. It is served by the Evansville & Terre Haute and the Southern railways (the latter of which has shops here), and by the Evansville & Southern Indiana traction line (electric). It has a considerable trade in oil and coal and in the agricultural products of the surrounding region, and has various manufactures. Princeton was first settled in 1814, and was chartered as a city in 1884. PRINCETON, a borough of Mercer county, New Jersey, on Stony Brook, and the Delaware & Raritan canal, 49 m. S.W. of New York City. Pop. (1905) 6029; (1910) 5136. Princeton is served by the Pennsylvania railroad, and by two electric lines to Trenton (10 m.), passing through Lawrenceville (in Lawrence township; until 1816 called Maidenhead; pop., 2522 in 1910), the seat of the Lawrenceville school (1882), for boys, which was endowed by the residuary legatees of John Cleve Green (1800- 1875), and is probably the first endowed secondary school for boys in the Middle States. Princeton is situated 210 ft. above sea-level, and the county to the east, north and west is rocky and hilly. The borough is the seat of Princeton University (?.».), and of " The Theo- logical Seminary of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America," commonly known as Princeton Theological Semi- nary, which was opened in 1812, and was chartered in 1824. The seminary was for one year under the sole care of Archibald Alexander (?.».), and among its teachers and representative theologians have been Samuel Miller (1769-1850), who was professor of ecclesiastical history and church government here (1813-1849), Charles Hodge, Joseph Addison Alexander and James Waddel Alexander, William Henry Green, Archibald Alexander Hodge, Francis L.Patton,who became president in 1902 and Benjamin B. Warfield (b. 1851), professor of didactic and polemic theology from 1887. Under such leaders Princeton theology has been distinctly conservative, supporting the old standards of the Westminster Confession and Catechisms. The seminary is well endowed, so that there is no charge for tuition or room rent ; among its principal benefactors were James Lenox (1800-1880), Robert Leighton Stuart (1806-1882), his widow and his brother Alexander (1810-1879), John Cleve Green, men- tioned above, and Mrs Mary J. Winthrop (d. 1902). It has a fine campus south-west of the business centre of the borough; in the Lenox Library and the Lenox Reference Library, built in 1843 and 1879 respectively, and gifts of James Lenox, there were 82,200 bound volumes and 31,500 pamphlets in 1909; Stuart Hall (1876) contains lecture-rooms; Miller Chapel is the place of worship; and the three dormitories are Alexander Hall (the " Old Seminary "), first used for this purpose in 1817, Brown Hall, built in 1864-1865, and Hodge Hall (1893). In 1908- 1909 the faculty numbered 16 and the students 153, of whom 8 were fellows and 17 graduate students. Princeton became in 1897 the home of Grover Cleveland, who died there; and from 1898 until his death it was the residence of Laurence Hutton (1843-1904), a well-known writer on the history of the stage. Besides its fine residences and buildings of the seminary and of the university, the only notable buildings are the handsome Princeton Inn, about midway between the campus of the university and that of the seminary, and " Mor- ven," the homestead of the Stocktons, built in the first decade of the 1 8th century. In the Princeton Cemetery are buried presidents and professors of the university. The first settlers were the companions of Richard Stockton, the grandfather of Richard Stockton, signer of the Declaration of Independence. The removal hither in 1756 from Newark of the College of New Jersey, later Princeton University, gave the place its first educational prominence. At the time of the War of Independence town and gown were both strongly patriotic. The first state legislature of New Jersey met here on the 27th of August 1776; and in Nassau Hall, the first of the college buildings, erected in 1 7 54-1 756, which was then the largest edifice in the colonies, the Continental Congress sat from the 30th of June to the 4th of November 1873, and on the 3ist of October Congress received the news of the signature of the definitive treaty of peace with Great Britain. After the battle of Trenton Cornwallis's troops were hurried to that place, three regiments and three companies of light-horse being left at Prince- ton when the mam body, on the 2nd of January 1777, passed through. Washington, unable to retreat or to meet the British attack, turned Cornwallis's left flank and advanced on the weak British garrison in Princeton. A detachment under General Hugh Mercer (c. 1720-1777), ordered to destroy the Stony Brook bridge, and so cut off escape to Trenton, met two of the three regiments,led by Lieut.-Colonel Charles Mawhood,near the bridge, and, though doing great execution with its rifles at a distance, was unable, being unequipped with bayonets, to hold its ground PRINCETON UNIVERSITY 347 in hand-to-hand fighting, and fled through an orchard, leaving Mercer there mortally wounded; he died on the i2th in a farm- house (still standing) on the battlefield. Washington's main army now came to the assistance of the retreating Americans, and forced the retreat of the other British regiments (the 55th and 40th) to Princeton, where they either surrendered or fled towards New Brunswick. The British losses were heavy and the Americans lost many officers. The bridge was destroyed by the American troops just before the approach of General Alexander Leslie (c. 1740-1794) with reinforcements from Corn- wallis. Washington's flank movement at Trenton and his engage- ment with the British at Princeton made necessary the withdrawal of the British from West Jersey. In the autumn of 1783 Wash- ington, summoned to Princeton by Congress, then in session there, made his headquarters at Rocky Hill, about 4 m. north of Princeton in Montgomery township, Somerset county, whence on the and of November he issued his farewell address to the army; his headquarters is preserved as a museum. A battle monument in Princeton, designed by MacMonnies and paid for by the Federal Congress, the state of New Jersey and the borough of Princeton, has been projected. See J. R. Williams, Handbook of Princeton (New York, 1905); I. F. Hageman, History of Princeton and its Institutions (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1879) ; W. S. Stryker, The Battles of Trenton and Prince- ton (Boston, 1898); and V. L. Collins, The Continental Congress at Princeton (Princeton, 1908). PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, an American institution of higher learning in Princeton, New Jersey, until 1896 called officially the college of New Jersey. Its campus consists of 539 acres comprised in three tracts of ground adjoining each other. The main campus, one of the mbst beautiful in the country, is on the south side of Nassau Street, the old country road between Philadelphia and New York, and is principally con- tained in a block of about 225 acres, which on its west side has an almost continuous row of English collegiate Gothic buildings: Blair Hall, Stafford Little Hall and the gymnasium. Nassau Hall, which was built in 1756, nearly destroyed by fire in 1802, rebuilt in 1804, and damaged by fire in 1855, is a squarely built edifice "in the Georgian style. Originally hous- ing the whole college, it is familiariy known as North College, in a quadrangle arrangement of which West College, built in 1836, is the only other remainder; the south side having been occupied since 1838 by Clio Hall and Whig Hall, -the homes of the two literary societies, founded respectively in 1765 and 1769, and since 1893 housed in white marble buildings of classical type; and East College, having given place to the main building of the University Library (1897), in Oxford Gothic of Longmeadow stone, the gift of Mrs Percy Rivington Pyne. Besides West College, the dormitories are Reunion Hall (1870), commemo- rating the reconciliation of the Old and New schools of the Presbyterian Church; University Hall (1876), formerly an hotel and now housing on its lower floors the university dining halls for all freshmen and sophomores; Witherspoon Hall (1877), in Victorian Gothic of grey stone trimmed with brown; Edwards Hall (1880), a brown stone Gothic building; Albert B. Dod Hall (1890), a granite limestone-trimmed Italian building; David Brown Hall (1891), granite and Pompeian brick, in Florentine Renaissance; the Pyne Buildings (1896) in half-timbered Chester style; Blair Hall (1897), built in English Collegiate Gothic of white Germantown stone, on the south-western margin of the campus; the Stafford Little Hall (1899 and 1901), in the same style as Blair Hall, and joining it on the south; Seventy-nine Hall (1904), the gift of the class of 1879, another Tudor Gothic building of red brick trimmed with Indiana limestone; and Patton Hall (1906); Campbell Hall (1909), the gift of the class o£ 1877; and a new group of buildings, chiefly dormitories, oc- cupying the entire north-west corner of the main campus, front- ing on Nassau and University Place, three sections of which (two being the gift of Mrs Russell Sage) were completed in 1910. These buildings are in the same architectural style and of the same materials as Blair and Little Halls. There is accommodation for about 90% of the undergraduates of the university in the campus dormitories, including the new buildings. The recitation halls are: Dickinson (1870; remodelled in 1876) and McCosh Hall (1007), for the academic department; and the school of science building (1873), a gift of John C. Green, on the north-east corner of the main block of the campus. The Halsted Observatory (1869) and the Observatory of In- struction (1878) are well known for the work done in them by the astronomer Charles Augustus Young (1834-1908) ; among the laboratories are the biological (1887), the chemical (1891), the civil engineering (1904), the Palmer physical (1908), and, for natural science, Guyot Hall (1909), which also houses the natural science museum, including valuable fossils. There is a museum of historic art (1887) which includes the finds of the Princeton archaeological expedition to Syria, and in Nassau Hah1 there 'is a psychological laboratory. There are two audi- toriums, the Marquand chapel (1881), the gift of Henry G. Marquand, and Alexander Hall (1892), used for commencement exercises. Also on the campus are the dean's house (1756), until 1878 the president's residence; Prospect (1849), bought by the college in 1878, which is the president's residence; the university offices (1803); and Dodge Hall (1900) and Murray Hall (1879), which are the home of the college Y.M.C.A., the Philadelphian Society, founded in 1825. The university library is housed in a large building already described, built (1896) on to the Chancellor Green library building (1872), given by John C. Green in memory of his brother Henry Woodhull Green, chancellor of the state of New Jersey, and now the reading room and reference library. In 1910 the library had a collection of 257,800 volumes and about 58,000 unbound pamphlets. There are two athletic fields: one, the university, two blocks east of the main campus, and the other, the Brokaw field, in the south-west corner of the main campus; immediately north of the latter are the Brokaw Memorial gateway and building (1892), with a swimming pool, and the university gymnasium (1903). South-east of the Campus is Lake Carnegie, an artificial widening of Millstone River, the gift of Andrew Carnegie; it is used for boating. A notable feature of the university is its upper-class club-houses. The upper-class clubs have in the social life of Princeton somewhat the place of the Greek letter societies elsewhere. There are no fraternities at Princeton: each entering student pledges himself to " have no connexion whatever with any secret society, nor be present at the meetings of any secret society " so long as he is a member of the university, " it being understood that this promise has no refer- ence to the American Whig and Cliosophic Societies." These two societies, the object of which is particularly to cultivate skill in debate and public speaking, are affiliated with the English department of the faculty. A peculiarity of the university is its system of student government, which is most markedly developed in the Princeton " honour system " in examinations and written recitations, under which every student signs a pledge on his paper that he has " neither given nor received assistance," and there is no faculty or monitorial watch over students in examinations; the system is administered by a student committee, to which any dishonesty in examinations is to be reported, and which then investigates the charge, and if it finds it true reports the offender to the faculty for dismissal. The university in 1910 included an academic department, leading to the degree of A.B.,or Litt. B.;the John C. Green school of science (1873), offering courses leading to the degree of B.S. and C.E. ;a school of electrical engineering; and a graduate depart- ment (1877), with courses leading to master's and doctor's degrees. Entrance requirements are largely in accordance with the recommen- dations of the National Educational Association and the college entrance examination board; students entering the academic department must offer Greek if they are candidates for the degree of A.B.; students (not offering Greek for entrance) who concentrate in mathematics or science in junior and senior year are candidates for the B.S. degree, and those who concentrate in other departments during those years, for the Litt. B. degree. The entrance require- ments for the B.S. and Litt. B. degree are the same, and they differ from those for the A.B. degree (and agree with those for the C.E. degree) in including more mathematics, i.e. solid geometry and plane trigonometry. The school of electrical engineering is graduate and professional in its scope. The graduate school (1871) is only slightly developed, and this development has been almost entirely since 1900; a bequest of more than $300,000 in 1906 provided for the John R. Thomson Graduate College; and the estate of Isaac Chauncey Wyman (d. 1910), of the class of 1848, valued at about 348 PRINCIPAL— PRINCIPAL AND AGENT $3,000,000, was left to the university for the establishment of the graduate school. A notable feature of the scheme of instruction is the preceptorial (or tutorial) system, introduced in 1905; it somewhat resembles Jowett's method at Balliol College, Oxford; the preceptors, usually young men (many of them domiciled in the dormitories), have " con- ferences " each with a certain number of students on prescribed reading, especially in the departments of philosophy, history and politics, art and archaeology, and the languages. The preceptorial system has been a great success, and seems to have given the univer- sity a greater intellectual vitality. In 1909-1910 the university faculty numbered 169, of whom 51 were preceptors. In the same year there were 1400 students of whom 134 were in the graduate school, 13 in the school of electrical engineering, 521 in the A.B. course, 440 in the Litt.B. and B.S. courses, 203 in the C.E. course, and 89 not in regular courses. The corporate title of the university is " The Trustees of Princeton University," and the university is governed by the trustees, of whom the governor of the state of New Jersey is ex officio president. The president of the university is president of the board in the absence of the governor. The Board consists of twenty-five " life trustees," a self-perpetuating body, two ex officio trustees, and (since 1900) five alumni trustees, elected by the graduates of the university for a five-year term, one each year. The tuition fee is $160 a year in all undergraduate courses. There are many scholarships and prizes, a fund for the remission of tuition to students of insufficient means, and funds for the assistance of students for the ministry. In July 1909 the assets of the university were $4,749,482, of which $4,168,900 was invested for endowment; of the endowment $3,410,907 was special, $330,445 general, $60,000 historical, $122,643 was for scholarships and $244,905 was for pro- fessorships; and in this fiscal year the gifts for current expenses and special purposes amounted to $199,294 and the gifts for endowment to $1,508,283. The university owes its origin to a movement set on foot by the Synod of Philadelphia in 1739 to establish in the Middle Colonies a college to rank with Harvard and Yale in New Eng- land and William and Mary in Virginia. Owing to dissension in the Church, no progress was made until 1746, when the plan was again broached by the synod of New York, recently formed by the secession of the presbytery of New York and the pres- bytery of New Brunswick, radical (New School) presbyteries of the Synod of Philadelphia. The synod of New York was led by Ebenezer Pemberton (1704-1779), a graduate of Harvard (1721), and Jonathan Dickinson (1688-1747), a graduate of Yale (1706). Together they had attempted to make peace between the conservatism of the presbytery of Philadelphia and the radicalism of the presbytery of New Brunswick. Most of the leaders of the presbytery of New Brunswick had been educated at the Log College, a school with restricted curriculum, situated about 20 m. N.N.E. of Philadelphia, but recently closed. The students of the Log College were almost without exception preparing for the Presbyterian ministry, and on the closing of the Log College, the opportunity was taken by the synod of New York to found a larger and better institution of higher learning, broader in scope and training, and to transfer to the new project the Log College interests. On October 22nd 1746, John Hamilton, acting governor of New Jersey, granted a charter for erecting a college in New Jersey. The college of New Jersey was opened in May 1747 at Elizabeth, New Jersey, with the Rev. Jonathan Dickinson as president. Little was accomplished until 1748, when, on the I4th of September, a second charter was granted to the " trustees of the College of New Jersey," thirteen in number. The college under the ad- ministration of Jonathan Dickinson, held its exercises from the last of May 1747 to the 7th of October 1747, when Dickinson died. Upon the succession of Aaron Burr to the presidency, the school removed to Newark, where the first commencement was held in 1748 and where Burr began the work of organizing the college and its curriculum; but the situation was unsuit- able, and in 1752 the trustees voted to remove the college to Princeton, where land was given for the Campus by Nathaniel Fitz Randolph. While funds were being collected in Great Britain, work was begun in Princeton in 1754 on the first college build- ing, which, at Governor Belcher's request, was named Nassau Hall, in honour of King William. A year after the completion of this single college building and the removal of the students to Princeton, Burr died and was succeeded by his father-in-law, Jonathan Edwards, who died after five weeks in office (1738). He was succeeded (1759-1761) by Samuel Davies, and Davies (in 1761-1766) by Samuel Finley (1715-1766). John Wither- spoon (q.v.) was president from 1768 until his death in 1794, and more than any of his predecessors influenced the college. The presidents immediately succeeding Witherspoon were: his son-in-law, Samuel Stanhope Smith (1750-1819), who resigned in 1812; Ashbel Green (1762-1848), who resigned in 1822; James Carnahan (1775-1859), who held office for thirty-one years (1823- 1854), and in whose presidency there was, in 1846-1852, a de- partment of law in the college; and John Maclean (1800-1886), who was president from 1854 to 1868. Up to the outbreak of the Civil War, the college was largely attended by Southerners, and the Civil War thus dealt it a doubly heavy blow, from which it began to recover under the long presidency (1868-1888) of James McCosh, who, like his successor, Francis Landey Patton (q.v.), president from 1888 to 1902, greatly advanced the material welfare of the college. Fourteen new buildings were erected during Dr McCosh's administration, and the John C. Green School of Science was established in 1873 by the gift of John Cleve Green; and during Dr Patton's administration the en- rolment of students more than doubled, as did the number of members of the faculty. In October 1896, on the isoth anni- versary of its founding, the official name of the College of New Jersey, long popularly displaced by Princeton, was dropped, and the corporation became " The Trustees of Princeton Uni- versity," although the institution did not become, in the usual American use of the term, a university, having no professional schools whatever, and only a small post graduate department. On Dr Patton's resignation in 1902 he was succeeded by Woodrow Wilson (.), the first layman to become president, who introduced the preceptorial system already described. PRINCIPAL, a person or thing first, or chief in rank or im- portance, or, more widely, prominent, leading. The Lat. adj. principalis, first, chief, original, also princely, is formed from princeps, the first, chief, prince, from primus, first, and capere to hold. In Late Lat. principalis was used as a substitute for an overseer or superintendent, and also for the chief magistrate of a municipality (Symmachus, Ep. 9, i). It is a common title for the head of educational institutions, universities, colleges and schools. It is thus used of the director, of some of the heads of newer universities in England, e.g. London and Bir- mingham, always so in Scotland, and frequently combined with the vice-chancellorship. At the university of Oxford the name occurs twice as the title of the head of a college, viz. of Brasenose and Jesus. It was always used of the heads of halls, of which St Edmund Hall alone remains. It is also the designation used of the head of the newer theological or denominational colleges, and also of the women's colleges. At Cambridge it does not occur. In law, it is used in distinction from " accessory," for the person who actually commits the crime, " principal in the first degree," or who is present, aiding and abetting at the commission of the crime," principal in the second degree;" and also for the person for whom another acts by his authority (see PRINCIPAL AND AGENT below) . Finally as a shortened form of " principal sum," " principal money," &c., the term is used of the original sum lent or invested upon which interest is paid, and so, widely of any capital sum, as opposed to interest or income derived from it. PRINCIPAL AND AGENT. In law an agent is a person authorized to do some act or acts in the name of another, who is called his principal. The law regulating the relations of principal and agent has its origin in the law of mandate among the Romans, and in England the spirit of that system of juris- prudence pervades this branch of the law. The law of agency is thus almost alike throughout the whole British Empire, and a branch of the British commercial code, in which it is of great importance that different nations should understand each other's system, differs only slightly from the law of the rest of Europe. In a general view of the law of agency it is necessary to have regard to the rights and duties of the principal, the agent, and the public. The agent should not do what he has no authority PRINGLE 349 for; yet if he be seen to have authority, those with whom he deals should not be injured by secret and unusual conditions. The employer is bound by what his agent does in his name, but the public are not entitled to take advantage of obligations which arc known to be unauthorized and unusual. The agent is entitled to demand performance by the principal of the obliga- tions undertaken by him within the bounds of his commission, but he is not entitled to pledge him with a recklessness which he would certainly avoid in the management of his own affairs. It is in the regulation of these powers and corresponding checks in such a manner that the legal principle shall apply to daily practice, that the niceties of this branch of the law consist. Agents are of different kinds, according to their stipulated or consuetudinary powers. The main restraint in the possible powers of an agent is in the old maxim, delegatus non palest delegare, designed to check the complexity that might be created by inquiries into repeatedly-deputed responsibility. The agent cannot delegate his commission or put another in his place; but in practice this principle is sometimes modified, for it so may arise from the nature of his office that he is to employ other persons for the accomplishment of certain objects. Thus, there is nothing to prevent a commercial agent from sending a por- tion of the goods entrusted by him to his own agent for disposal. In the general case agency is constituted by the acceptance of the mandate or authority to act for the principal, and the evi- dence of this may be either verbal or in writing. The English statute of frauds requires an agent to have authority in writing for the purposes of its ist, 2nd and 3rd clauses relating to leases. " And it is a general rule, that an agent who has to execute a deed, or to take or give livery or seisin, must be appointed by deed for that purpose. Moreover, as a corporation aggregate can in general act only by deed, its agent must be so appointed, though it would seem that some trifling agencies, even for cor- porations, may be appointed without one." (Smith's Mercantile Law, B. I. ch. iv.). It is a general rule that those obligations which can only be undertaken by solemn formalities cannot be entered on by a delegate who has not received his authority in writing. But it is often constituted, at the same time that its extent is defined, by mere appointment to some known and recognised function — as where one is appointed agent for a banking establishment, factor for a merchant, broker, super- cargo, traveller, or attorney. In these cases, usage defines the powers granted to the agent; and the employer will not readily be subjected to obligations going beyond the usual functions of the office; nor will the public dealing with the agent be bound by private instructions inconsistent with its usual character. While, however, the public, ignorant of such secret limitations, are not bound to respect them, the agent himself is liable for the consequences of transgressing them. Agency may also be either created or enlarged by implication. What the agent has done with his principal's consent the public are justified in believing him authorized to continue doing. Thus, as a familiar instance, the servant who has continued to purchase goods for his master at a particular shop oa credit is presumed to retain authority and trust, and pledges his master's credit in further purchases, though he should, without the knowledge of the shopkeeper, apply the articles to his own uses. The law is ever jealous in admitting as accessories of a general appoint- ment to any particular agency the power to borrow money in the principal's name, to give his name to bill transactions, and to pledge him to guaranties; but all these acts may be author- ized by implication, or by being the continuation of a series of transactions, of the same kind and in the same line of business, to which the principal has given his sanction. Thus an employer may, by the previous sanction of such operations, be liable for the bills or notes drawn, indorsed and accepted by his clerk or other mandatary; nay, may be responsible for the obligations thus incurred after the mandatary's dismissal, if the party dealing with him knew that he was countenanced in such trans- actions, and had no reason to suppose that he was dismissed. In questions of this kind the distinction between a general and a special agent is important. A general agent is employed to transact all his principal's business of a particular kind, at a certain place — as a factor to buy and sell; a broker to nego- tiate contracts of a particular kind ; an attorney to transact his legal business; a shipmaster to do all things relating to the employment of a ship. Such an agent's power to do every- thing usual in the line of business in which he is employed is not limited by any private restriction or order unknown to the party with whom he is dealing. On the contrary, it is incum- bent on the party dealing with a particular agent, i.e. one specially employed in a single transaction, to ascertain the extent of his authority. The law applicable to a mercantile agent's power to pledge or otherwise dispose of the goods entrusted to him being in an unsatisfactory state, a statutory remedy was applied to it by an act of 1825 (6 Geo. IV. c. 94), amended in 1842 (5 & 6 Viet. c. 39) and replaced by the Factors Act 1889. The obligations of the principal are: to pay the agent's re- muneration, or, as it is often called, commission, the amount of which is fixed by contract or the usage of trade; to pay all advances made by the agent in the regular course of his em- ployment; and to honour the obligations lawfully undertaken for him. The agent is responsible for the possession of the proper skill and means for carrying out the functions which he undertakes. He must devote to the interests of his em- ployer such care and attention as a man of ordinary prudence bestows on his own — a duty capable of no more certain defini- tion, the application of it as a fixed rule being the function of a jury. He is bound to observe the strictest good faith; and the law even interposes to remove him from temptation to . sacrifice his employer's interests to his own (see COM- MISSION: Secret). Thus, when he is employed to buy, he must not be the seller. When an agent is employed to sell, he must not be the purchaser. He ought only to deal with persons in good credit, but he is not responsible for their absolute solvency unless he guarantee them. A mercantile agent guaranteeing the payments he treats for is said to hold a del credere com- mission. See also AUCTIONS AND AUCTIONEERS; BROKER ;FACTOR; GUARAN- TEE, &c. ; also Smith's Mercantile Law (nth ed., 1905); Bowstead, On Agency (4th ed., 1909). PRINGLE, SIR JOHN (1707-1782), British physician, was the younger son of Sir John Pringle, of Stitchel, Roxburghshire, and was born on the loth of April 1707. He was educated at St Andrews, at Edinburgh, and at Leiden. He took the degree of doctor of physic at the last-named university, where he was an intimate friend of G. van Swieten and A. von Haller. He settled in Edinburgh at first as a physician, but after 1734 also acted as professor of moral philosophy in the university. In 1742 he became physician to the earl of Stair, then com- manding the British army in Flanders, and in 1744 was appointed by the duke of Cumberland physician-general to the forces in the Low Countries. In 1749, having settled in London, he was made physician in ordinary to the duke of Cumberland; and in 1752 he married a daughter of Dr William Oliver (1695- 1764) of Bath, the inventor of " Bath Oliver " biscuits. Sub- sequently he received other court appointments as physician, and in 1766 was made a baronet. His first book, Observations on the Nature and Cure of Hospital and Jayl Fevers, was pub- lished in 1750, and in the same year he contributed to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society three papers on " Experiments on Septic and Antiseptic Substances," which gained him the Copley medal. Two years later he published his important work, Observations on the Diseases of the Army in Camp and Garrison, which entitles him to be regarded as the founder of modern military medicine. In November 1772 he was elected president of the Royal Society. In this capacity he delivered six " discourses," which were afterwards collected into a single volume (1783). After passing his seventieth year he resigned his presidency and removed to Edinburgh in 1780, but returned to London ia September 1781, and died on the 1 8th of January following. There is a monument to him in Westminster Abbey, executed by Nollekens. 350 PRINGSHEIM— PRINTING A Life of Pringle by Andrew Kippis is prefixed to the volume containing the Six Discourses. The library of the College of Physi- cians of Edinburgh possesses ten folio volumes of his unedited MSS. including an essay " On Air, Climate, Diet and Exercise." There are floges on him by Vicq d'Azyr and Condorcet. PRINGSHEIM, NATHANAEL (1823-1894), German botanist, was born at Wziesko in Silesia, on the 3oth of November 1823. He studied at the universities of Breslau, Leipzig, and Berlin successively. He graduated in 1848 as doctor of philosophy with the thesis De forma et incremento stratorum crassiorum in plantarum cellula, and rapidly became a leader in the great botanical renaissance of the igth century. His contributions to scientific algology were of striking interest. Pringsheim was among the very first to demonstrate the occurrence of a sexual process in this class of plants, and he drew from his observations weighty conclusions as to the nature of sexuality. Together with the French investigators G. Thuret and E. Bornet, Pringsheim ranks as the founder of our scientific knowledge of the algae. Among his researches in this field may be men- tioned those on Vaucheria (1855), the Oedogoniaceae (1855-1858), the Coleochaeteae (1860), Hydrodictyon (1861), and Pandorina (1869); the last-mentioned memoir bore the title Beobachtungen iiber die Paarung de Zoosporen. This was a discovery of fundamental importance; the conjugation of zoospores was regarded by Pringsheim, with good reason, as the primitive form of sexual reproduction. A work on the course of mor- phological differentiation in the Sphacelariaceae (1873), a family of marine algae, is of great interest, inasmuch as it treats of evolutionary questions; the author's point of view is that of Naegeli rather than Darwin. Closely connected with Pring- sheim's algological work was his long-continued investigation of the Saprolegniaceae, a family of algoid fungi, some of which have become notorious as the causes of disease in fish. Among his contributions to our knowledge of the higher plants, his exhaustive monograph on the curious genus of water-ferns, Savinia, deserves special mention. His career as a morphol- ogist culminated in 1876 with the publication of a memoir on the alternation of generations in thallophytes and mosses. From 1874 to the close of his life Pringsheim's activity was chiefly directed to physiological questions: he published, in a long series of memoirs, a theory of the carbon-assimilation of green plants, the central point of which is the conception of the chlorophyll-pigment as a screen, with the main function of protecting the protoplasm from light-rays which would neu- tralize its assimilative activity by stimulating too active re- spiration. This view has not been accepted as offering an ade- quate explanation of the phenomena. Pringsheim founded in 1858, and edited till his death, the classical Jahrbuch fur wissenschaflliche Botanik, which still bears his name. He was also founder, in 1882, and first president, of the German Botanical Society. His work was for the most part carried on in his private laboratory in Berlin; he only held a teaching post of importance for four years, 1864-1868, when he was professor at Jena. In early life he was a keen politician on the .Liberal side. He died in Berlin on the 6th of October 1894. A fuller account of Pringsheim's career will be found in Nature, (1895) vol. li., and in the Berichte derdeutschen botanischenGesellschaft, (1895) vol. xiii. The latter is by his friend and colleague, Ferdinand Cohn. (D. H. S.) PRINSEP, JAMES (1799-1840), Anglo-Indian scholar and antiquary, was born on the zoth of August 1799. In 1819 he was given an appointment in the Calcutta mint, where he ultimately became assay-master, succeeding H. H. Wilson, whom he likewise succeeded as secretary of the Asiatic Society. Apart from architectural work (chiefly at Benares), his leisure was devoted to Indian inscriptions and numismatics, and he is remembered as the first to decipher and translate the rock edicts of Asoka. Returning to England in 1838 in broken health, he died in London on the 22nd of April 1840. Prinsep's Ghat, an archway on the bank of the Hugli, was erected to his memory by the citizens of Calcutta. PRINSEP, VALENTINE CAMERON (1838-1904), English artist, was born on the 4th of February 1838. His father, Henry Thoby Prinsep, who was for sixteen years a member of the Council of India, had settled at Little Holland House, which became a centre of artistic society. Henry Prinsep was an intimate friend of G. F. Watts, under whom his son first studied. Val Prinsep also worked in Paris in the atelier Gleyre; and " Taffy " in his friend Du Maurier's novel Trilby, is said to have been sketched from him. He was an intimate friend of Millais and of Burne-Jones, with whom he travelled in Italy. He had a share with Rossetti and others in the decoration of the hall of the Oxford Union. He first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1862 with his " Bianca Capella," his first picture, which attracted marked notice, being a portrait (1866) of General Gordon in Chinese costume; the best of his later exhibits were " A Versailles," " The Emperor Theophilus chooses his Wife," " The Broken Idol " arid " The Goose Girl." He was elected A.R.A. in 1879 and R.A. in 1894. In 1877 he went to India and painted a huge picture of the Delhi durbar, exhibited in 1880, and afterwards hung at Buckingham Palace. He married in 1884 Florence, daughter of the well-known col- lector, Frederick Leyland. Prinsep wrote two plays, Cousin Dick and Monsieur le Due, produced at the Court and the St James's theatres respectively; two novels; and Imperial India: an Artist's Journal (1879). He was an enthusiastic volunteer, and one of the founders of the Artists' Corps. He died on the nth of November 1904. PRINT, the colloquial abbreviation used to describe printed cloths generally, though it is most commonly applied to the staple kinds of cotton goods. The word must be distinguished from " printer," which refers to the regular kinds of cotton cloths intended for printing. (See TEXTILE PRINTING.) PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre), the art or practice of transferring by pressure, letters, characters or designs upon paper or other impressible surfaces, usually by means of ink or oily pigment. As thus defined, it includes three entirely different processes: copperplate printing, lithographic or chemical stone-printing, and letterpress printing. The differ- ence between the three lies in the nature or conformation of the surface which is covered with the pigment and afterwards gives a reproduction in reverse on the material impressed. For the nature and method of preparing these surfaces see respectively ENGRAVING (and allied articles), LITHOGRAPHY and TYPOGRAPHY. In copperplate printing the whole of the plate is first inked, the flat surface is then cleaned, leaving ink in the incisions or trenches cut by the engraver, so that, when dampened paper is laid over the plate and pressure is brought to bear, the paper sinks into the incisions and takes up the ink, which makes an impression in line or lines on the paper. In lithographic printing the surface of the stone, which is practi- cally level, is protected by dampening against taking the ink except where the design requires. In letterpress printing the printing surface is in relief, and alone receives the ink, the remainder being protected by its lower level. Before the inven- tion of typography, pages of books, or anything of a broadside nature, were printed from woodcuts, i.e. blocks cut with a knife on wood plankwise, as distinct from wood engravings which are cut with a burin on the end grain, a more modern innovation. These woodcuts, like the lithographic or engraved surface, served one definite purpose only, but in typography the types can be distributed and used again in other combinations. The term " printing " is often used to include all the various processes that go to make the finished product; but in this article it is properly confined to " press-work," i.e. to the work of the printing-press, by which the book, newspaper, or other printed article, when set up in type and ready as a surface to be actually impressed on the paper, is finally converted into the shape in which it is to be issued or published. History of Printing-press. Before dealing with modem machinery it will be necessary to consider the historical evolution of the printing-press, especi- ally since the middle of the igth century, from which point printing machinery has developed in a most remarkable manner. PRINTING 351 1 1 is not clear how the first printers struck off their copies, but without doubt Gutenberg did use at an early period in his career a mechanical press of some kind, which was constructed of wood. In fact he could not have produced his famous forty-two lim- Hible without such aid. The earliest picture of a press shows roughly the construction to have been that of an upright frame, the power exerted Wooden by a movable handle, placed in a screw which was Hand- tightened up to secure the requisite impression, and presses. was ioosene(j again after the impression was obtained. The type pages were placed on a flat bed of solid wood or stone, ami it was quite a labour to run this bed into its proper position FIG. I. — Blaeu's Wooden Hand-press, under the hanging but fixed horizontal plane, called the platen, which gave the necessary impress when screwed down by the aid of the movable bar. This labour had to be repeated in order to release the printed sheet and before another copy could be struck off. This same press, with a few modifications, was apparently still in general use till the early part of the iyth century, when Willem Janszon Blaeu (1571-1638) of Amsterdam, who was appointed map maker to the Dutch Republic in 1633, made some substantial improvements in it. Our first authority on printing, Joseph Moxon, in his Mechanick Exercises, as Applied to the Art of Printing (vol. i., 1683), says, " There are two sorts of presses in use, viz. the old fashion and the new fashion," and he gives credit to Blaeu for the invention of the new and decidedly improved press (fig. i). Blaeu's improvement consisted of putting the spindle of the screw through a square block which was guided in the wooden frame, and from this block the platen was suspended by wires or cords. This block gave a more rigid platen, and at the same time ensured a more equal motion to the screw when actuated by the bar-handle. He also invented a device which allowed the bed on which the type pages were placed to run in and out more readily, thus reducing the great labour involved in that part of the work of the older form of press, and he also used a new kind of iron lever or handle to turn the screw which applied the necessary pressure. The value of these various improve- ments, which were in details rather than in principles, was speedily recognized, and the press was introduced into England and became known as the " new fashion." From this it will be observed that in a general way there had only been two kinds of wooden presses in use for a period of no less than three hundred and fifty years, and when the work of some of the early printers is studied, it is marvellous how often good results were obtained from such crude appliances. The iron press (fig. 2) invented by Charles, 3rd earl Stanhope (1753-1816), at the end of the i8th century was a decided advance on those made of wood. Greater power was obtained at a smaller expenditure of labour, and it allowed of larger and heavier surfaces being printed. The chief points of the iron press consisted of an improved application of the power to the spindle. The main part of it was the upright frame or staple, of iron; the feet of this staple rested upon two pieces of substantial timber dove- tailed into a cross, which formed a base or foundation for the Iron Hand- presses. FIG. 2. — The Stanhope Iron Hand-press. complete press to stand upon. The staple was united at the top and bottom, but the neck and body were left open, the former for the mechanism and the latter for the platen and the bed when run in preparatory to taking the impression. The upper part of the staple, called the nut, answered the same purpose as the head in the older kind of wooden press, and was in fact a box with a female screw in which the screw of the spindle worked. The lower portion of the neck was occupied by a piston and cup, in and on which the toe of the spindle worked. On the near side of the staple was a vertical pillar, termed the arbor, the lower end of which was inserted into the staple at the top of the shoulder — the upper end passing through a top-plate, which being screwed on to the upper part of the staple held it firmly. The extreme upper end of the arbor, which was hex- agonal, received a head, which was really a lever of some length; this head was connected by a coupling-bar to a similar lever or head, into which the upper end of the spindle was inserted. The bar by which the power was applied by the pressman was fixed into the arbor, and not into the spindle, so that the levtr was the whole width of the press, instead of half, as in Blaeu's wooden press, and it was better placed for the application of the worker's strength. There was also another lever to the arbor head in addition to that of the spindle head; and lastly, the screw itself was so enlarged that it greatly increased the power. The platen was screwed on to the under surface of the spindle; the table or bed had slides underneath which moved in, and not on, ribs as in the older form of press, and was run in and out by means of strips of webbing fastened to each end and passed round a drum or wheel. As the platen was very heavy the operator was assisted in raising it from the type-forme by a balance weight suspended upon a hooked lever at the back of the press. This somewhat counterbalanced the weight of the platen, raised it after the impression had been taken, and brought the bar- handle back again to its original position, ready for another pull. The Stanhope press, which is still in use, was soon followed by other hand-presses made of iron, with varying changes of details. The most successful of these were the Albion and Columbian presses, the former of English manufacture, and the latter invented (1816) by an American, George Clymer (1754-1834), of Philadelphia. The Albion press (fig. 3), which was designed by Richard Whittaker Cope, was afterwards much improved upon by John Hopkinson (1849-1898). It is still used where hand printing prevails, and it was this form of press which was employed by William Morris at his famous, but short-lived, Kelmscott Press, 352 PRINTING in the production of many sumptuous books, the most celebrated of which was the Chaucer, a large folio volume, illustrated by Sir Edward Burne-Jones. The chief characteristics of the Albion are its lightness of build and its ease in running; the pull is short, the power great, and the means whereby .it is attained so simple that the press does not readily get out of order. It is easily taken to pieces for cleaning, and readily re-erected. The power is obtained by pulling the bar-handle across, which causes L- _ FIG. 3. — Payne & Sons' Albion Hand-press. an inclined piece of wedge-shaped steel, called the chill, to become perpendicular; in so doing the platen is forced down, and the impression takes place at the moment the chill is brought into a vertical position. On the return of the bar the platen is raised by a spiral spring, placed in a box and fixed at the head of the press. The larger sizes of these presses usually print a sheet of double crown, measuring 30X20 in. Although the Columbian is not so much in demand as the Albion, it is still employed for heavy hand-work because of its greater stability and power. This power is acquired by a very massive lever, moving on a pivot bolt in the top of the near side of the staple, and passing across the press to the further side of the frame, at which end the power is applied through the coup- ling-bar by a bar-handle working from the near side. The platen is attached to the centre of the lever by a square bar of iron, and its vertical descent is assured by two projecting guides, one from each cheek; it is then raised from the type-forme, and the iron bar carried back by two levers — the one attached to and above the head and weighted with the eagle; the other behind the press, attached to the arm to which the coupling-bar is fixed, and which also has a weight at the end. The great power of this press adapts it to the working of large and solid formes in printing, but it is somewhat slower in action than the Albion press, which is both lighter in construction and quicker in working. The average output of the modern hand-press, when all is made ready for running, is about two hundred and fifty impres- sions per hour. This number, it should be said, is the product of two men who work together as " partners." One inks the type-forme and keeps a sharp look-out for any inequality of inking, and sees generally that the work is being turned out in a workmanlike manner. The other lays on the sheet to certain marks, runs the carriage in under the platen, and pulls the bar- handle across to give the necessary impression. He then runs back the carriage and takes out the printed sheet, which he replaces by another sheet, and repeats the different operations for the next impression. During the interval between taking off the printed sheet and laying on the next one his partner inks the type surface with a roller which carries just sufficient ink properly distributed to preserve uniformity of " colour." Having dealt with hand-presses, we must now go back to the end of the i8th century, when the first experiments were made to devise some mechanical means of producing larger printed sheets, and at a quicker rate. In England the broad distinction between " presses " and " machines " is generally considered to rest in the fact that the former are worked by hand, and the latter by steam, gas or electricity; and the men who work by these two methods are called respectively " pressmen " and " machine minders " or " machine managers." But in America the terms " presses " and " pressmen " are universally applied to machines and the men who operate them. For the purposes of this article presses and machines are used as synonymous terms. Various schemes had been propounded with a view of increasing the output of the hand-press, and in 1790 William Nicholson (1753-1815) evolved his ideas on the TheFirst subject, which were suggestions rather than definite Cylinder inventions.' Nicholson was not a printer, but, as he Machine. was an author and editor, it is presumed that he had some knowledge of printing. His proposals were to print from type placed either on a flat bed or a cylinder, and the impression was to be given by another cylinder covered with some suitable material, the paper being fed in between the type and the impression cylinder, and the ink applied by rollers covered with cloth or leather, or both. While Nicholson's schemes did not bear any practical result they certainly helped others later on. His suggestion to print from type made wedge-shaped (that is, smaller at the foot and wider at the top) to allow of its being so fixed on a cylinder that it would radiate from the centre and thus present an even printing surface, was adopted later by Applegath and others, and really was the first conception of printing on the rotary principle which has now been brought to such perfection. It was left to Friedrich Konig (1774-1833), a German, to produce the first really practical printing machine. His inven- tion was to print type placed on a flat bed, the impression being given by a large cylinder, under which the type passed, but his inking appliances were not satisfactory. He induced the proprietor of The Times (London) to take two of these machines, and in 1814 that newspaper was printed with steam power at the rate of noo impressions per hour, a great advance on the number produced up to that time. Both Nicholson's and Konig's machines printed only one side at a time — the second or backing printing being a separate and distinct operation — but they really embodied the general principles on which all other machines have been constructed or modelled. It will be understood that Nicholson's theories were to print both from the flat and from type arranged in circular or cylinder form. These two principles are defined as reciprocating, for the flat bed which travels backwards and forwards; and rotary, for that which continuously revolves or rotates. Konig's inven- tion was a reciprocating one. Two other classes of presses of somewhat different design were largely in operation in the middle of the ipth century — the " double platen," which still printed only one side at each impression from each end, and the " perfecting machine," which was made with two large cylinders and printed from two type- formes placed on separate beds. Although the latter machine turned out sheets printed on both sides before it delivered them (hence its name), the second impression was still a distinct operation. The double platen press was somewhat Double analogous to the hand-press, both the type beds Platen and impressions being flat. A machine of this kind, Machine. if it printed a sheet of double demy, which measures 35X225 in., was about 13 ft. in length, and the platen itself, of very massive construction, was placed in the centre. This platen had a perpendicular motion, being guided in grooves and worked by a connecting rod fixed to a cross beam and crank, which acquired its motion from the main shaft. There were two type beds and two inking tables, which travelled backwards and forwards, and one platen only, situated in the middle of the machine, PRINTING 353 which in turn gave the needful impression as the type-formes passed underneath. The sheets were laid or fed to certain marks between the frisket and tympan, and when these were closed together the carriage was propelled under the platen and the impression was given to that portion of the machine, while at the other end another sheet was being fed in ready to receive its impression in due course. It was once thought that the finest work could not be produced (by a cylinder impressing a surface in the progress of its recipro- cating motion, but that it was likely to give a slurred or blurred impression. This is why machines of flat construction were so long employed for the best class of work. But cylinder presses now made so truly turned, and geared to such nicety, that this idea no longer prevails. The cylinder press is able to produce generally quite as good work as the double platen, its speed is much greater, and it requires a smaller amount of power to drive it. The perfecting machine has had a great vogue, and has been much improved from time to time, especially in America, though the two-revolution machine in recent years superseded it, whether temporarily or not being still uncertain. We shall deal with it more fully below in relation to the modern and more complicated class of machinery; and this also applies to the ordinary stop or single cylinder, and small platen machines, both of which have been in use many years, and are still in demand. Before the general introduction of rotary machines which print from curved stereotype plates from an endless web or reel Type °f paper (see below), several other presses of a revol- Rfvoiviag ving character were made, to some extent based on Machines. Nicholson's ideas. The first printing surface used was ordinary type, because the difficulty of curving the stereo- type plates had not been surmounted. This type was fixed, both in vertical and in perpendicular positions, upon a cylinder, round which rotated other cylinders, which held and compressed the sheets against the larger one, which also revolved and carried the printing surface. These machines were made to print several sheets at a time, and were called four-, six-, eight- or ten-feeders, according to the number of sheets fed in and printed. They necessitated a great deal of labour, because each feed required a separate layer-on and taker-off besides the superin- tending printer, and other hands to carry away the sheets as fast as they accumulated at the different taking-off boards. Besides, these sheets all had to be folded by hand. In this class of machine various improvements were made from time to time by different manufacturers, each profiting by the experiences of the others, and two kinds of such revolving presses may now be given as examples. After many experiments Augustus Applegath (1789-1871) in 1848 constructed for The Times (London), a machine which was an eight-feeder, built entirely on the cylindrical principle, the cylinders placed not in a horizontal but in a vertical position. The type was fixed on a large cylinder, and instead of the printing surface presenting a complete circle, the different columns were each arranged so as to form a polygon. Around this large type cylinder were eight smaller ones, all upright, for taking the impression for each of the eight sheets fed in separately, and rollers were so arranged as to apply the ink to the type as it passed alternately from one impression cylinder to the other. The sheets were laid in from eight different feed-boards, placed horizontally, and they passed through tapes, when they were seized by another series of tapes and then turned sideways between their corresponding impression and type cylinder, thus obtaining sheets printed on one side only. The impression cylinder then delivered the sheets separately (still in a vertical position) into the hands of the boys employed as takers-off. The results from this press were, at the time, considered fairly satisfactory, the number of copies (about 8000) printed per hour from one type-forme having been materially increased by the employing of the eight different stations to feed the sheets in, all of which in turn were printed from the same single type surface. XXII. 12 About 1845 Robert Hoe & Co. of New York, and subsequently of London, had constructed, to meet the increased demands of newspapers, the " Hoe Type Revolving Machine," one good point of which was an apparatus for securely fastening in the type on a large central cylinder fixed horizontally. This was accomplished by the construction of cast-iron beds, one for each separate page (not column, as in Applegath's machine). The column rules were made tapering towards the feet of the type, and the type was securely locked in on these beds so that it could be held firmly in the required position to form a complete circle, thus allowing the cylinder to revolve at a greater speed than Apple- gath's, which was polygonal. Around the large type cylinders were placed the smaller impression cylinders, the number of these being governed by the output required. Hoe's first presstc were four-feeders, but as many as ten feeds were supplied, as in the case of the two presses built to replace the Applegath machine for The Times, each of which produced about 2000 impressions from each feed, making a total of 20,000 per hour, printed on one side, or from two machines 20,000 sheets printed on both sides. As will be observed, the only differences in principle between these two type revolving machines were in the positions of the respective cylinders, and the fixing of the type to form a printing surface. It was Sir Rowland Hill who first suggested the possibilities of a press which should print both sides at once, from a roll or reel of paper. This was about 1825, but it was William A. Bullock (1813-1867) of Philadelphia who in 1865 invented the first machine to print from a continuous web of paper. This machine had two pairs of cylinders, that is, two type or stereotype cylinders, and two others which gave the impression as the web passed between. The second impression cylinder was made somewhat larger so as to give a greater tympan surface, to lessen the off-set from the side first printed. In his machine the stereo- type plates were not made to fill the whole periphery of the forme cylinders so as to allow of the sheets being cut before printing, a difficulty which the first machines did not satisfactorily over- come. The sheets were severed by knives placed on the cylin- ders, and when cut were carried by grippers and tapes; and delivery was made by means of automatic metal fingers fixed upon endless belts at such distances apart as to seize each sheet in succession as it left the last printing cylinder. These presses were not at first reliable in working, especially in the cutting and delivery of the sheets after printing, but were finally so far improved that the Bullock press came into quite general use. The inventor was killed by being caught in the driving belt of one of his own presses. Modern Presses. The machines invented during the second half of the igth century and still in general use, are best classified as follows: — 1. The iron hand-press, such as the Albion or the Columbian, used for the pulling of proofs, or for the printing of limited editions de luxe. atuinct- 2. Small platen machines (worked by foot or tioa of power) used for the printing of cards, circulars and Modem small jobbing or commercial work. Presses and 3. Single cylinder machines (in England generally ***"**• called " Wharfedales "), usually built on the " stop " cylinder principle, and printing one side of the sheet only. 4. Perfecting machines, usually with two cylinders, and prin- ting or " perfecting " both sides of a sheet before it leaves the machine, but with two distinct operations. 5. Two-revolution machines, which, although with but one cylinder, have largely superseded perfecting machines, as their output has been increased and the quality of their work compares favourably with that of the average two-cylinder. 6. Two-colour machines, usually made with one feed, that is, with only one cylinder, but with two printing surfaces, and two sets of inking apparatus one at each end of the machine. Occa- sionally these machines are made with two cylinders. 7. Rotary machines, printing from an endless web of paper from curved stereotype or electrotype plates, principally used 354 PRINTING for newspaper or periodical work. They are made to print upon a single reel, or upon two, four, six or even eight reels, in both single or double widths, i.e. two or four pages wide. The hand-press has already been sufficiently described, and we may proceed to deal with the other classes. The small but useful platen machine (fig. 4) is very largely employed in those printing-houses that make commercial work Pl-iten a speciality. The smaller machines can be worked Jobbing w't'1 the f.oot' but if the establishment is equipped with Machines. Power it is customary to gear them for driving. The larger machines require power. As its name implies, the type bed and impression platen are both flat surfaces as in the hand-press, but as they are self-inking and are easily driven, the average output is about 1000 copies per hour, and but one operator is required, whereas two men at a hand- press can produce only 250 copies in the same time. In design these platen presses usually consist of a square frame with a driving shaft fixed horizontally across the centre of it. This shaft is attached to a large fly-wheel which gives impetus to the press when started and assists in carrying over the impression when the platen is in contact with the print- ing surface. The type-forme is usually fixed in an almost vertical and stationary posi- tion, and it is the platen on which the sheet is laid which rises from the horizontal position to the vertical in order to give the necessary impact to produce a printed impression from the type- forme. Practically this platen is, as it were, hinged at the off side, nearest the type bed, and its rise and fall is effected by the use of two arms, one on each side of the platen, which derive an eccentric motion from FIG. 4. — The Golding Jobber Platen Machine. Cams geared in connexion with the shaft. When the sheet is printed and the platen falls back to the horizontal the operator removes it with one hand and with the other lays on a fresh sheet. Generally the larger of these machines will print a sheet up to 21 X 16 in. The modern single or " stop " cylinder, quite different in construc- " Wharfe- t'on from the old single cylinder machines, largely suc- dale " ceeded the double platen machine. The principle of the Machines. st°P cylinder was really a French invention, but it has been more commonly adopted in Great Britain, where the machines are known as " Wharfedales " (fig. 5). They are much used for the printing of books and commercial work. The average production is about 1000 copies per hour. The type bed travels with a reciprocating motion upon rollers or runners made of steel, the bed being driven by a simple crank motion, starting and stopping without much noise or vibration. All the running parts are made of hard steel. The cylinder is " stopped " by a cam motion while the bed is travelling backward, and during this interval the sheet to be printed is laid against the " marks," and the gripper closes on it before the cylinder is released, thus ensuring great accuracy of lay, and consequent good register. After the impression is made the sheet is seized by another set of fingers and is' transferred to a second and smaller cylinder over the larger one, and this smaller cylinder or drum delivers the sheet to the-" flyer," or delivery apparatus, which in turn deposits it upon the table. The inking arrangements are usually very good, for, by a system of racks and cogs which may be regulated to a nicety, the necessary distribution of ink and rolling of the printing surface runs in gear with the travelling type bed or coffin. All the accessories for inking are placed at the end of the machine, the ink itstlf being supplied from a ductor, which can be so regulated by the keys attached to it as to let out the precise amount of pigment required. The ink passes to a small solid metal roller, and is then conveyed by a vibrating roller made of composi- tion to a larger and hollow metal cylinder or drum which distributes the ink for the first time. This revolves with the run of the machine and at the same time has a slight reciprocating action which helps the distribution. A second vibrating composition roller conveys the ink from this drum to the distributing table or ink slab, on which other rollers, called distributors, still further thin out the ink. As the type bed travels, larger composition rollers, called inkers, placed near the cylinder, adjusted to the requisite pressure on the type, pick up the necessary amount of ink for each impression and convey it to the type as it passes under them. Usually three or four such rollers are required to ink the forme. The perfecting machine is so named because it produces sheets printed on both sides or, in technical language, " perfected." This operation is performed by two distinct printings. This class of machine has been in use a great many years, although both the stop-cylinder and the two-revolution press have to some extent superseded it. It is perhaps best adapted for the printing of newspapers or magazines having circulations that do not require rotary machines intended for long runs. Although some perfecting machines have been made with one cylinder only, which reverses itself on the old " tumbler " principle, they now are made with two cylinders, and it is with this class that we are par- ticularly concerned. There are various makes of perfecting machines of which the Dryden & Foord is shown in fig. 6; among the best recent typed is the Huber Perfecter. Although the two-type beds have a reciprocating motion, as in the ordinary one-sided press, the two cylinders rotate towards each other. The frame of the machine, owing to the fact that it contains two carriages and a double inking apparatus, is long, the exact size depending on the size of the sheet to be printed. Close to the large cylinders are the inking rollers, which take the necessary amount of ink, each set from its own slab as it passes under, and these rollers convey the requisite ink to the printing surface as the forme-carriage runs under its own cylinder. The distinctive feature is the ingenious manner in which the sheets are printed first on one side, and then on the other. This is performed by cam-ing them over a series of smaller cylinders or drums, by means of tapes. The pile of sheets FIG. 5.— Payne & Sons' Wharfedale Stop-Cylinder Machine. PRINTING 355 to be fed in stands on a high board at one end. The sheet is laid to its mark and is conveyed round an entry drum; thence it is carried round the first impression cylinder, and under this, moving at the same speed as the cylinder, is the type bed containing the inner of broad tapes which lie on the laying-on board and are fastened to a small drum underneath it. This drum has a series of small cogs which move the web or tapes in the same direction. The sheet is laid to a back mark on the tapes, and is propelled between two rollers V A FIG. 6. — Dryden & Foord's Perfecting (two-cylinders) Machine forme already inked. The paper then receives its impression on the first siilf. In the older type of machine it is next led up to the right- hand one of the two reversing drums, which are placed above the large printing cylinders, and over which it passes with the printed side downwards. It is then brought under the second or left-hand drum, and so on to the other large impression cylinder, with the blank side of the sheet exposed to the type of the outer forme on the table underneath. Thus it will be seen that the sheet is reversed in its travel between the first and second large cylinders which -give the impression. The sheet is then finally run out and delivered in the space between the two large cylinders, and laid on the delivery board — usually with the aid of flyers. In the more recent type of direct into the machine. Another variety employs grippers some- what after the manner of the ordinary single cylinder. The Anglo- French perfecting machine is one of that class. As a rule most double-cylinder presses produce on an average about 1000 copies per hour, printed both sides. The two-revolution machine is another one-cylinder machine built on the reciprocating principle. Its speed is greater than the stop cylinder (it may be geared to produce from 1500 to _, 2000 copies per hour, printed one side only). The R °~ Miehle (fig. 7), which is of American design but now made also in Great Britain, is a good example of this kind of machine and is much used, especially for illustrated work. It has FIG. 7. — The Miehle Two-revolution Cylinder Machine. perfecting machines the sheet is fed directly into grippers, change taking place when grippers on each cylinder meet, the outer forme grippers taking the sheet from the inner forme grippers. This is a general description of the principles on which these machines are built, but, as in other classes, there are many variations in details. For example, there are the drop-bar, the web and the gripper methods of feeding these presses. In the first case a bar descends upon the paper after it is laid to point marks, and this bar, having a rotary motion, runs the sheet between a roller and a small drum into the machine. The web arrangement consists of a series the high over-feedboard, and the taking-off apparatus is automatic but on a different plan from that of the ordinary Wharfedale, the sheets being carried over tapes with the freshly-printed side upper- most, thus preventing smearing; they are then carried on to the heap or pile by the frame or long arms placed at the end of the machine. A recent feature of this machine is the tandem equipment, whereby two, three or even four machines may be coupled together for colour work. Only one layer-on is required and register is obtained auto- matically throughout. The principle of the two-revolution press is that the cylinder PRINTING always rotates in the same direction, and twice for each copy given, once for the actual impression, and again to allow of the return of the forme-carriage in its reciprocating action. This also allows time for the feeding in of the next sheet to be printed. Among other advantages claimed for this press one is that the movement which governs the action of the type bed in reversing is so arranged that the strain which sometimes occurs in other reciprocating machines is considerably reduced; another is that the registering or correct backirg of the pages on the second side in printing is uncommonly good ; but this depends much upon the layer-on. In many of the old kinds of two-revolution machines, owing to the cylinder being geared separately from the type bed, it was apt to be occasionally thrown out, but in the Miehle, for instance, it is only out of gear in reversing, and in gear while printing. Great strength is imparted to the frame, and the type bed is particularly rigid. These points, together with a truly turned and polished cylinder, with carefully planned means of adjustment, much simplify the preparation of making-ready of any kind of type-forme or blocks for printing, which is carried out much in the same way as on the ordinary single cylinder, but in a more convenient manner. Many of these machines are made to print four double crowns, 60 X 40 in., or even larger. continuously rotate, the web of paper travelling in and out, serpentine manner, between various cylinders of two characters — one (the type cylinders) carrying the surface to be impressed, usually curved stereotype plates, and the other (the impression cylinders) giving the desired impression. Such a press, if driven by electric power, is set in motion by merely pushing a button or small switch, a bell first giving warning of the press being about to move. The number of duplicate sets of stereotype plates to be worked from by these presses is determined by the size and number of the pages to be printed, and this in turn is regulated by the capacity of the machine. As already explained, the forerunners of the rotary presses of the present day were the type-revolving printing-machines, and, whilst they were still being used, experiments were being made to cast curved stereotype plates which would facilitate and simplify the work of producing newspapers. This was successfully accomplished by the use of flexible paper matrices, from which metal plates could be cast in shaped moulds to any desired curve. These plates were then fixed on the beds of the Hoe type revolving machine, which were adapted to receive them instead of the movable type- formes previously used. This new method enabled the printers FIG. 8. — Payne & Sons' Two-colour Single Cylinder Machine. The two-colour machine is generally a single cylinder (fig. 8) with one feed only, and the .bed motion reciprocating. The two .^ colours are printed each at one revolution from the two 7Vo-Co/ourtype_formes as ^ey pass un(jer the cylinder, which "*• rotates twice in its travel. A double inking apparatus is of course necessary, and the inking arrangements are placed at the two extreme ends of the machine. In comparison with the ordinary single cylinder the two-colour machine is built with a longer frame, as is necessary to allow the two type-formes to pass under the cylinder, both in its travel forward and on its return. This cylinder on its return is stationary, in fact it might be called a double or rather an alternative stop-cylinder machine, with the ink- ing facilities arranged somewhat on the same plan as on either a two-feeder or a perfecting machine. These two-colour presses are intended only for long runs, short runs may be worked to advantage separately on the ordinary single-colour machine. Generally, with the exception just mentioned, the machine is much the same as the ordinary stop or Wharfedale. Before leaving the subject of printing with the reciprocating bed- motion, it may be mentioned that although in all modern machines of that kind the printed sheet is self-delivered, the imprinted paper has generally been fed in by hand, and for some classes of work this is still done. But many automatic feeders have been invented from time to time, which for the many purposes for which they are suitable must be reckoned part of a modern printing establishment. As distinct from flat bed printing with a reciprocating motion, printing on rotary principles is a most interesting study, and it is this department of printing mechanics which has r? developed so very much in recent years. It seems les- almost as though this branch had reached its limit, and as though any further developments can only be a question of duplication of the existing facilities so as to print from a greater number of cylinders than, say, an octuple machine. This would be merely a matter of building a higher machine so as to take a larger number of reels arranged in decks. As the name implies, these presses are so constructed that both printing surfaces and paper to duplicate the type pages and to run several machines at 'the same time, thus producing copies with far greater rapidity. In some large offices as many as five machines were in constant use. About this period the English stamp duty on printed matter was repealed, and this materially aided the development of the newspaper press. Subsequently the proprietors of The Times made various experi- ments with a view to making a rotary perfecting press, and as a result started the first one about 1868. It was somewhat similar in design to the Bullock press, so far as the printing apparatus was concerned, except that the cylinders were all of one size and placed one above the other. The sheets were severed after printing, brought up by tapes, and carried down to a sheet flyer, which moved backwards and forwards, and the sheets were alternately " flown " into the hands of two boys seated opposite each other on either side of the flyers. Hippolyte Marinpni (1823-1904), of Paris, also devised a machine on a somewhat similar principle, making the impression and type cylinders of one size and placing them one over the other. About 1870 an English rotary machine called the " Victory " was invented by Messrs Duncan & Wilson. It printed from the web, and had a folder attached. An improved form of this machine is still in use. This machine had separate fly-boards for the delivery of the sheets. In 1871 Messrs Hoe & Co. again turned their atten- tion to the construction of a rotary perfecting press to print from the reel or continuous web of paper, and from stereotype plates fastened to the cylinder. The rotary presses in use at the present time are indeed wonderful specimens of mechanical ingenuity, all the various operations of damping (when necessary), feeding, printing (both sides), cutting, folding, pasting, wrapping (when required) and counting being purely automatic. These machines are of various kinds, and are specially made to order so as to cope with the particular class of work in view. They may be built on the " deck " principle of two, three, four, or even more reels of paper, and either in single width (two pages wide), or double width (four pages wide). Single and two-reel machines are generally constructed on the " straight line " principle, i.e. arranged with the paper at one end of the machine, PRINTING 357 and passing through the cylinders to the folder at the other end where the copies are delivered. Three- and four-reel machines have also been constructed on the same principle, but the more usual arrangement of the four-reel press is to place two reels ateither end, with the folders and delivery boards in the centre. This makes it |Kiv.ti>le to operate them as independent machines, or to run in combination with each other. When presses are made in double width a two-reel machine is known as a quadruple, a three-reel as a sextuple, and a four-reel as an octuple machine. Double sextuple and double octuple machines are made, having six and eight reels respectively. The quadruple machine is a favourite one and is perhaps most in demand for news- paper work. This press prints from two reels of the double width. The first reel is placed to the right of the machine near the floor, and the second at the back of the machine and at right angles to it. A quadruple machine will produce 48,000 copies per hour of four, six or eight pages; and proportionately less of a greater number of pages ; all folded, counted and pasted if required. The four cylinders, which are on the right-hand side of the press, are respectively the plates, four pages on each type cylinder, making a total of thirty-two pages in all. Each press produces of that number of pages 50,000 copies per hour, printed both sides, cut, folded and Q,^,-^ counted off in quires complete; by increasing the sets of u0 futile. The bulk of the offences for which it is meted out are trivial and unimportant. Eighty-three per cent of the annual convictions, summarily and on indictment, followed by committal to gaol, are for misconduct that is dis- tinctly non-criminal, such as breaches of municipal by-laws and police regulations, drunkenness, gaming and offences under the vagrancy acts. The leniency of the sentences indicates the com- paratively trilling character of the wrongdoing. Forty per cent, of the males and 39% of the females were sent to prison for periods of a week or less; on the other hand, no more than 4% were sentenced to six months and under, only 2 % were imprisoned for terms between six months and one year; and -75% to more than one year. The question will arise some day whether it is really necessary to maintain fifty-six local prisons, with all their elaborate paraphernalia, their imposing buildings and expensive staff, to maintain discipline in daily life and insist upon the proper observance of customs and usages, many of them of purely modern invention. Of course there is in most cases the alternative of a fine, the non-payment of which entails the imprisonment; yet a penalty imposed on the pocket is so clearly the proper retribution for such misdeeds that better methods should be devised for the collection of fines. The chief aim of penal legislation should indeed be either to keep gaols empty or to use them only where distinct reduction in the number of offenders, whether by regeneration or by con- tinuous withdrawal from noxious activity, can be obtained. An axiom based upon this view has been formulated, and although paradoxical it may well be quoted here. The great aim and object of all penal processes, it has been said, should be the recognition of the general principle of dividing all offenders into two categories: (i) those who ought never to enter a gaol, and (2) those who ought never to be allowed to leave it. Praise- worthy efforts to compass the first end have been made in recent legislation. The First Offenders Act in 1887 had the effect of postponing sentence and sparing these offenders from incar- ceration subject to their good conduct. An average of about 4500 thus escaped imprisonment in the five years between 1893 and 1897, and an average of 5500 the five following years. The gain in this was great, seeing that no more than 6 to 8% were actually sent to gaol after the commission of a second offence, and that there was therefore a very distinct saving in expense of maintenance of prisoners incarcerated. The value of this act is to be seen in its wide adoption. It is in force in some of the states of the American Union. It was adopted in France by the Berenger law of 1891, and in Belgium, where 14% of sentences of imprisonment in one year and a-half were postponed. In some countries the concession has been accompanied by admonition. The Summary Jurisdiction Acts, by which large numbers of minor offenders were discharged on bail, or subjected to fines or very brief terms of imprisonment, have also tended to diminish the prison population enormously. The number annually discharged increased from 33,000 in 1893 to 51,302 in 1 002. This excellent system has commended itself to many countries and it is now adopted by the bulk of governments and jurisdictions owing allegiance to the British Crown. Two new systems of applying imprisonment have commended themselves to English administrators, and both have been effected by the Prevention of Crime Act 1908. The first is a new method for educating and reforming young offenders, already on the frontiers of habitual crime, no longer children, but at an age still susceptible of permanent improvement; the second is the legal acceptance of the principle of indefinite detention, the willingness to inflict an indeterminate sentence on those who have already forfeited the right to be at large. Both these measures originated in the United States. The Borstal scheme of a juvenile-adult reformatory has been to some extent planned on the institutions of Elmira reformatory in the state of New York and of Concord in Massachusetts (see JUVENILE OFFENDERS). Side by side with the new processes introduced, the idea of the indeterminate sentence was started and put in practice, by which release was made to depend upon reasonable hope of amendment and sentences were prolonged until it was more or less certain that the treatment had resulted in cure. Other measures are set forth in the new classification of convicts, prescribed by the secretary of state in the rules sub- mitted by him to the House of Commons in 1904. All convicts 368 PRISON are classed in three categories, viz. (A) the Ordinary division; (B) the Habitual Offenders' division; and (C) the Long Sentence division. The " A " or Ordinary division comprises all ordinary con- victs under old rules who are still separated into the three classes of " star," intermediate and recidivist, as provided by the act of 1898. The qualifications for each class are clearly laid down. Only those never previously convicted, or known as of not habitually criminal or corrupt habits, are eligible for the " star " class. The intermediate class takes those not previously con- victed but deemed unsuitable as " stars " from antecedents and generally unsatisfactory character. The recidivist class is for those previously sentenced to penal servitude or whose record shows them to have been guilty of grave and persistent crime. These three classes begin with cellular confinement, but for varying periods; the first for three months, the second six months and the third for nine months, in all cases subject to a medical report upon mental and physical condition. Female convicts pass the first three months of their sentence in separate cells. The " B " division indicates the worst penalties to be inflicted upon habitual criminals. There is no recognition whatever of the principle of the indeterminate sentence. The law merely prescribes the forfeiture of all remission. The convict is not eligible for release or licence, but when the time of conditional liberation would have formerly arrived the case is submitted to the authorities and dealt with on its merits. Early release depends upon the reports on industry and conduct, and the prospect of his keeping straight if set free. He may have to " do " his whole time but not an hour beyond it. Certain privileges are conceded to the " B " division to com- pensate those in it for the loss of remission. They wear a special dress, a band of blue cloth on the left arm; they may earn an extra gratuity and spend a part of it in buying extra food or articles of comfort and relaxation; they may take their meals in association, converse at them or at exercise, but not at labour. The " C " division has been designed for convicts serving long sentences, who have gained all possible privileges in the early years of sentence and have little or nothing to expect further until the last year of their sentence, when they may earn an additional gratuity. But after ten years they may enter the " C " division, earn a special gratuity therein, and enjoy the various privileges accorded to the " B " or habitual criminals' division with the additional advantage that there is no inter- ference with their remission. Still milder and more humanitarian prison treatment was that put forward by the home secretary in 1910 in his speech already referred to. In it he suggested that the following reforms should be carried out, some by administrative order and some by future legislation: (i) time for the payment of fines inflicted for minor offences; (2) disciplinary treatment outside prison for all offenders under 21 years of age; (3) punishment of those guilty of offences not involving moral turpitude to be relieved of all degrading features; (4) the reduction of the period of solitary confinement to a maximum of one month; (5) and the abolition of the ticket-of -leave system. It was also proposed to give four lectures or concerts a year in convict prisons. Prisons in other Countries. — The general progress made in prison treatment will be best realized by a brief survey of penal institutions in the principal countries of the world. It will be convenient to take them alphabetically. i. Austria-Hungary. — The regime of cellular confinement has not been universally adopted ; only six prisons are built on that principle and no more than 15% of the whole number of prisoners can be subjected to the system. Cellular separation is not inflicted for long periods, the minimum being six months and the maximum three years. The bulk of the prisoners live and labour in common. A great feature has been the execution of public works by prisoners in a state of semi-liberty beyond prison walls — the practical adoption of the so-called " Irish " or intermediate prison-^and good results are seen in road-making and the improvement of river courses. 2. Belgium. — This country has spared neither pains nor money in carrying out penal processes, and the Belgian prisons are examples of the cellular system prolonged to the utmost limits of human endurance. There is a minimum of ten years, but the individual may elect to continue in separation, or be transferred to partial association. A new school of Belgian criminologists has been headed by M. Prins, the chief of the prison department, who has protested that to hope the vicious, hardened offender, after a long detention, " surrounded with every attention, soaked with good counsel, will leave his cell regenerated," is a Utopian dream. 3. British Dominions beyond the Sea. — The principle of cellular separation was accepted as far back as 1836 and the model prison of Pentonville, opened in 1842, has since been copied throughout the civilized world. The cellular system has been adopted in all British colonies with various modifications, and prisons built on modern principles are to be found in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the Cape of Good Hope. India retains association as the system most suitable for its criminal classes, with other methods generally abandoned in Great Britain, such as the employment of weil- conducted prisoners as auxiliaries in prison discipline and service; deportation is still the penalty for the worst offences and is carried out on a large scale and with satisfactory results in the Andaman Islands. In Egypt since the establishment of British control a very marked change has been introduced in prison affairs. 4. Denmark. — In Denmark all convicted prisoners pass through several stages, from cellular treatment to the intermediate prison and conditional liberty. Two new prisons on the latest model have been erected at Copenhagen, one for males and the other for females. The smaller gaols for short terms are mostly on the cellular plan. 5. France. — France has devoted very considerable attention to prison matters and is now practising the two extremes of treatment, the strict cellular isolation of the Belgian system and the penal exile or transportation which was long the English rule. 6. Germany. — The unified German Empire has not as yet adopted one system of prison treatment, and its various component kingdoms still retain independence in views and practice. Baden has a well-known cellular prison at Bruchsal, but separation is not imposed for more than four years and associated labour is carried out in another quarter of the prison. Bavaria has four cellular prisons, the chief being at Munich and Nuremberg, but the collective system also obtains. Prussia having declared for the cellular system constructed the well-known Moabit prison in Berlin, also those of Ratibor in Silesia and of Herford in Westphalia, while those of Graudenz, Breslau, Werden and Cologne have been added since. The total number of separate cells to-day is 11,041 against 3247 in 1869. Two new cellular prisons, Luttringhausen and Saarbruck, have recently been added. Frankfurt has a good prison on the Pentonville (London) plan; so has Hamburg; and new buildings have been erected at Wohjan, Siegburg, Breslau and Munster. Separate cells in Prussia had increased in 1896 from 3247 to 6573. The cellular regime is applicable to prisoners between 1 8 and 30, and to first offenders of 50 years of age, the term being fixed by the governor of the gaol, but never exceeding three years. Saxony established a penitentiary at Zwickau in 1850 and in its earlier management exhibited exaggerated kindness to its inmates. Both the cellular and the associated systems obtain. Wurttemberg has accepted the cellular system. There are prisons for females at Heilbronn, and for males at Ludwigsburg and Stuttgart; in Wurttemberg itself the regime is collective. 7. Holland has followed her nearest neighbour Belgium and has now at command separate cells sufficient to receive the whole number of her prison population. The system of unbroken seclusion, prolonged to five years, is maintained with strictness. 8. Italy. — Although accepting the principle of cellular imprison- ment, Italy has not adopted it largely, partly from want of funds and not a little because the current of thought has set against it. The really penal establishments are 77 in number, the great ergastolo of San Stefano being one. Agricultural labour for convicts has been tried in colonies of coatti (or those provisionally released) planted out in the islands of the Italian archipelago. 9. Norway. — The separation of Norway, as an independent state, from Sweden has produced no great change in its prison institutions, which still follow the lines of the neighbouring country. 10. Portugal. — There are three or more cellular prisons at Lisbon, Coimbra and Santarem, and the system of strict separation when first adopted in 1884 was expected both to amend and deter. 11. Sweden. — Prince Oscar of Sweden was one of the earliest adherents of cellular imprisonment, and at his urgent representation penitentiary reform was warmly espoused in 1841. His influence is still felt, and the system in force in Norway and Sweden is progres- sive from strict separation to working outside the cell. Sweden, which adopted the cellular system in 1842, has now cells sufficient for prisoners sentenced to two years and less. There are three principal central prisons, one at Langholm near Stockholm, a second at Malmo and a third at Mya Varfet near Gothenburg. 12. United States. — The penal system of the United States varies between being the most advanced and the most backward in the civilized world. At one end of the scale are the numerous bad PRISONERS' BASE— PRITCHARD, C. 369 county gaols and the horrors of the convict lease system in the southern states, now nearly extinct ; at the other such modern and well-equipped reformatories as Elmira and Concord (see JUVENILE OFFENDERS). The worst feature is the indiscriminate association sometimes seen of all inmates, bond and free, the convicted and accused ; even witnesses against whom there is no shadow of a charge are sometimes imprisoned among felons. Nor is it only in distant corners of the great continent that this criticism applies, though constant improvements are removing the grounds for it. It is only a short time since the local gaol in the city of New York, " the Tombs," a house of detention for prisoners awaiting trial, was described in an official report to the state legislature as a disgrace. ... It is defective in every modern appliance. It is dark, damp and ill-ventilated . . . worst of all is the hideous system of keeping two or three men in a cell ; . . . a means of indescribable torture to a decent man and a prolific source of vice and crime to a criminal. Such ment of dogs would be gross cruelty." This building has, how- t-vi-r, now been pulled down, and a new and better one has taken its place. The administration of prisons rests mainly with the various state authorities, and there is no federal or general system which would introduce uniformity of treatment. The federal government has no influence or control except for offences against the federal laws, regulating coinage, postal service, the revenue and so forth. Prison management is essentially a local concern, but some general features are common to all states, such as the rule that while petty offenders and prisoners awaiting trial are under county and city jurisdiction, the state takes charge of all persons convicted of serious crimes. The state prisons receive by far the largest propor- tion of the criminal population, more than half the general total being imprisoned therein. Some of them are models of cleanliness and good order, built on the best and most imposing lines with large comfortable cells and an abundance of light and air. The earnest desire of most prison administration is to develop industrial training and trade profits side by side with mildness of treatment. The latter sometimes lapses into methods which are not usually thought compatible with prison discipline, such as the permission to play on musical instruments, the holding of concerts, the privilege of smoking and chewing tobacco, of receiving baskets of provisions, novels and newspapers from friends outside. It is worthy of note that prison architecture in the United States misses many of the gloomy features common to such constructions. The newest prisons are generally lighter, more roomy, better venti- lated and on the whole more comfortable than even the best British prisons. In 1900 Sir E. Ruggles Brise, the English expert on prisons, declared that " the purity of the air and the cleanliness of the Ameri- can prisons are admirable, and under a very elaborate system of warming by hot air, a regular and uniform temperature is sustained throughout the year, which, considering the varying nature of the climate from extreme heat to cold many points below zero, is a considerable engineering triumph." Prison Industries. — It is an axiom in prison science that enforced labour cannot easily be made productive. No doubt the problem has been in a measure solved in England by that usefuj incentive to industry, the mark system. But the more substantial returns cannot always be expected with the sedentary employments and single-handed effort inseparable from the regime of cellular imprison- ment. England for many years past, in adopting the principle of Public Works Prisons after a certain short period spent in separa- tion, has pronounced in favour of open-air employment in association. Although the system still has many hostile critics its value cannot be contested. It has been said by a trustworthy authority,1 " We are convinced also that severe labour on public works is most beneficial in teaching criminals habits of industry and training them to such employments as digging, road-making and brick-making — work of a kind which cannot be carried or. in separate confinement." A good proof of the value of the system as remunerative and healthful, morally and physically, is seen in the growing desire of other coun- tries to follow our lead. Very similar operations have been carried out in Austria-Hungary, where large tracts of land have been brought into cultivation, and watercourses have been diverted successfully despite serious difficulties, climatic and physical ; in Russia convict labour has been largely used in the construction of the Trans-siberian railway ; the military operations in the Sudan were greatly aided by convict labourers engaged in useful work at the base and all along the line; Italy passed_ a law in 1904 enacting outdoor labour for the reclamation and draining of waste lands by prisoners under long sentence; and France, although much wedded to cellular imprison- ment, is beginning to favour extra-mural employment of prisoners under strict regulations. The subject was discussed at the Peniten- tiary Congress at Budapest in 1905, and a resolution passed recom- mending extra-mural employment for prisoners of rural origin, vagrants and drunkards, and those subject to tuberculous disease, " so largely the concomitant of cellular confinement." Prison industries continue to be largely sedentary in character; they cover a wide range, although the conditions of life are for the most part artificial. Most trades and handicrafts are practised, such as shoemaking, tailoring, carpentry, the work of white- and 1 Report of the Royal Commission on Penal Servitude (1878-1879). blacksmiths; skilful and intelligent workmen, such as the French and Japanese, find a wide outlet for their versatile and artistic talent. The well-known products, styled articles de Paris, prison-made, find a large sale, and many objects of high art, fine paintings, cloisonnS enamels and gold lacquer are among the beautiful products from Japanese prisoners. The indoor manufactures followed in British prisons are not so varied as the foregoing and have been limited by the protests and objections raised by free or outside labour against alleged unfair competition. Accordingly, the production of goods has been largely curtailed for the open market and prison labour is restricted nowadays to supplying articles required for current use by public departments — such as the navy, army, post office and, of course, all prison establishments. Prison labour has found an outlet, therefore, in such work as service blanket making, hammock making, mail-bag making, the manufacture of cartridge cases, flags, chopping firewood for barracks and so on, having been diverted almost entirely from mat-making, once an exclusive prison trade originally invented indeed by prison task-masters. The total annual value of the labour applied in English prisons has varied. In 1896-189^7 the total accruing from manufactures, farm operations and the ordinary service of the prison was £213,812, the prison population in local and convict prisons being 17,614; in 1903-1904 the total amounted to £244,518, the prison population on the 3ist of March 1904 being 21,1 17. The gross expenditure was £524,289 for 1896-1897, as against £615,656 for 1903-1904. Figures are not avail- able for any exact comparison of outlay and return in other countries, but the earnings in European countries generally run to about half the expenditure. In the United States the policy varies between the two extremes of making prisoners self-supporting and of leaving them in .idleness so that the whole weight of expense falls upon the state. In some states economic considerations have carried the day ; in others the stringency of labour laws under the pressure of labour associations has paralysed all prison industry. In the first mentioned, the contract system, by which a contractor hires the prisoner's labour from the state, has proved very profitable, but at the sacrifice of discipline and neglect of reformatory processes upon the individual. This leasing-out system has been carried further in some of the southern states, and has produced the convict camps, which have been muph criticized and condemned from the harshness of the discipline enforced, the many abuses that exist and the meagre results other than monetary that have been obtained. The modern movement in favour of industrial employment combined with humane and intelligent considerations has swept away the more or less barbaric method of enforcing labour by auto- matic machinery such as the treadmill, crank and shot drill (see TREADMILL). AUTHORITIES. — John Howard, State of Prisons in England and Wales (1784); Cesare Lombroso, L' Uomo delinquent, &c. (1899); Beaumont and A. de Tocqueville, Systeme penitentiaire aux Etats- Unis (1837); Crawford, Report on Penitentiaries (U.S.A., 1838); Maconochie, Prison Discipline (1856); Dr Guillaume, Progress of Prison Discipline in Switzerland (1872); Arthur Griffiths, Memorials of Millbank (1873), Chronicles of Newgate (1882) ; Armingol y Cornet, Prisons and Prison Discipline tn Spain (1874); Stevens, Regime des etablissements penilentiaires en Belgique (1875); F. V. Holtzendorf and von Jagemann, Handbuch des uefdngniswesens (1877); Scaglia Beltrani, Reforma penitenzaria in Italia (1879); Sir Edmund F. Du Cane, Punishment and Prevention of Crime (1885); Braco, Estudos penitenciarios e criminaes (Lisbon, 1888); Garofalo, Studio sul delitto, sulle sui cause e sui mezzi di repressions (1890); Adolphe Guillot, Les Prisons de Paris (1890); Tallack, Preventive and Peno- logical Principles (1896) ; Salillas, Vida penal en Espana (Madrid). (A. G.) PRISONERS', BASE (PRISONERS' BARS), an ancient game much affected by children. The players are divided into two sides, each standing within a base or home marked off at some distance apart. After preliminary songs and war-like challenges, a player on "one side runs out and is pursued by one of " the enemy "; if touched he becomes a prisoner of the side to which his captor belongs. If another player from the side of the pursued runs between him and his pursuer, the latter has to follow him, but the last to leave his base is privileged to touch any one of the enemy who left his base before him. The rules of the game are, however, traditional, and necessarily somewhat elastic. The end comes, of course, when all of one side have been captured by the other. PRITCHARD, CHARLES (1808-1893), British astronomer, was born at Alberbury, Shropshire, on the 29th of February 1808. At the age of eighteen he was enrolled as a sizar at St John's College, Cambridge, whence he graduated in 1830 as fourth wrangler. In 1832 he was elected fellow of his college, and in the following year he was ordained, and became head master of a private school at Stockwell. From 1834 to 1862 he was headmaster of Clapham grammar school. He then 370 PRITCHARD, H.— PRIVET retired to Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, and took an active interest in the affairs of the Royal Astronomical Society, of which he became honorary secretary in 1862 and president in 1866. His career as a professional astronomer began in 1870, when he was elected Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford. At his request the university determined to erect a fine equatorial telescope for the instruction of his class and for purposes of research, a scheme which, in consequence of Warren de la Rue's munificent gift of instruments from his private observatory at Cranford, expanded into the establishment of the new univer- sity observatory. By De la Rue's advice, Pritchard began his career there with a determination of the physical libration of the moon, or the nutation of its axis. In 1882 Pritchard com- menced a systematic study of stellar photometry. For this purpose he employed an instrument known as the " wedge photometer" (see PHOTOMETRY, CELESTIAL, and M'em. R.A.S. xlvii. 353), with which he measured the relative bright- ness of 2784 stars between the North Pole and about — 10° declination. The results were published in 1885 in his Uranome- tria Nova Oxoniensis, and their importance was recognized by the bestowal in 1886 upon him, conjointly with Professor Pickering, of the Royal Astronomical Society's gold medal. He now resolved to try the experiment of applying photography to the determination of stellar parallax. With the object of testing the capabilities of the method, he took for his first essay the well-known star 61 Cygni, and his results agreed so well with those previously attained that he undertook the systematic measurement of the parallaxes of second-magnitude stars, and published the outcome in the third and fourth volumes of the Publications of the Oxford University Observatory. Although some lurking errors impaired the authority of the concluded parallaxes this work ranks as a valuable contribution to astronomy, since it showed the possi- bility of employing photography in such delicate investigations. When the great scheme of an international survey of the heavens was projected, the zone between 25° and 31° north declination was allotted to him, and at the time of his death some progress had been made in recording its included stars. Pritchard became a fellow of New College, Oxford, in 1883, and an honorary fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, in 1886. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1840, and in 1892 was awarded one of the royal medals for his work on photometry and stellar parallax. He died on the 28th of May 1893. See Proc. Roy. Soc. liv. 3; Month. Notices, Roy. Astr. Soc. liv. 198; W. E. Plummer, Observatory, xvi. 256 (portrait); Astr. and Astrophysics, xii. 592; J. Foster, Oxford Men and their Colleges, p. 206; Hist. Register of the Univ. of Oxford, p. 95 ; The Times (May 30, 1893) ; C. J. Robinson's Register of Merchant Taylors' School, ii. 210; Charles Pritchard, D.D., Memoirs of his Life, by Ada Pritchard (London, 1897). PRITCHARD, HANNAH (1711-1768), English actress, whose name before her early marriage — to an actor — was Vaughan, first attracted attention as a singer at Bartholomew's Fair in 1733. She was soon playing a wide variety of parts, mostly comedy, at the Haymarket, Drury Lane and Covent Garden. When Garrick became patentee of Drury Lane in 1747 she joined his company and played with him for twenty years, her last appearance being as Lady Macbeth — one of her greatest roles — in April 1768, a few months before her death. Her talents were highly thought of by the critics of the day. Her daughter, who had studied under Garrick, and whose beauty created a sensation when she made her debut (as " Miss Prit- chard ") in October 1756, did not live Up to the expectations then raised. She married in 1762 the actor John Palmer, retired from the stage at the same time as her mother, and after her husband's death married a political writer named Lloyd. PRITTLEWELL, a residential parish in the borough of Southend-on-Sea, and in the S.E. parliamentary division of Essex, England; lying i% m. inland (N.N.W.) from Southend, with a station on the Southend branch of the Great Eastern railway. The church of St Mary the Virgin has fine Perpen- dicular work and traces of Norman work. There are fragments of a Cluniac priory of the i2th century. Pop. (1901), 27,245. PRIVAS, a town of south-eastern France, capital of the depart- ment of Ardeche, 95 m. S. by W. of Lyons on a branch line of the railway from that city to Nimes. Pop. (1906), town, 3495; commune, 7000. Privas is situated near the Ouveze, here joined by the Mezayon and Chazalon. The town is the seat of a pre- fecture, a court of assizes and a tribunal of first instance. Other institutions are training colleges for both sexes, a communal college and a lunatic asylum for the departments of Ardeche and Dr6me. Silk-milling is carried on. The rearing of silk- worms and the cultivation of the mulberry are widespread industries. There are mines of iron ore in the vicinity. Trade is in silk, tanned leather, game, chestnuts and fruit preserves. Privas is first heard of in the i2th century, as a possession of the counts of Valentinois, and subsequently became the seat of a separate barony. One of the strongholds of the Reformed Faith, it suffered terribly during the Wars of Religion. In- effectually besieged by the royal troops in 1574, it passed in 1619, by the marriage of the heiress of the barony, Paule de Chambaud, into the possession of the vicomte de Lestrange, a Roman Catholic noble. A general rising followed, and in 1629 it was besieged and taken by Louis XIII. It was reduced to ruins, and the king decreed that it should not be again inhabited; but in 1632, some of the townspeople having fought against Lestrange, who had joined Montmorency's rebellion, the inhabitants were allowed to return. Some ancient houses, which escaped the general destruction, are still standing. PRIVATEER, an armed vessel belonging to a private owner, commissioned by a belligerent state to carry on operations of war. The commission is known as letters of marque. Accep- tance of such a commission by a British subject is forbidden by the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870. Privateering is now a matter of much less importance than it formerly was, owing to the terms of art. i of the Declaration of Paris, April 16, 1856, " Privateering is and remains abolished." The declaration binds only the powers who are signatories or who afterwards assented, and those only when engaged in war with one another. The United States and Spain have not acceded to it, but though it did not hold as between them in the war of 1898, they both observed it. Privateers stand in a position between that of a public ship of war and a merchant vessel, and the raising of merchant vessels to the status of warships has in recent wars given rise to so much difficulty in distinguishing between volun- teer war-ships and privateers that the subject was made one of those for settlement by the Second Hague Conference (1907). The rules adopted are as follows: — 1. A merchant-ship converted into a war-ship cannot have the rights and duties appertaining to vessels having that status unless it is placed under the direct authority, immediate control and responsibility of the power the flag of which it flies. 2. Merchant-ships converted into war-ships must bear the external marks which distinguish the war-ships of their nation- ality. 3. The commander must be in the service of the state and duly commissioned by the proper authorities. His name must figure on the list of the officers of the fighting fleet. 4. The crew must be subject to military discipline. 5. Every merchant-ship converted into a war-ship is bound to observe in its operations the laws and customs of war. 6. A belligerent who converts a merchant-ship into a war- ship must, as soon as possible, announce such conversion in the list of its war-ships. In connexion with the conversion of the " Peterburg " and " Smolensk " on the high seas during the Russo-Japanese War, and the ruse by which they came through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, it was agreed, after a vain attempt to solve the question in a way satisfactory to all parties, that the subject of whether the conversion may take place upon the high seas should remain outside the scope of the convention. (T. BA.) PRIVET, in botany, the vernacular name of Ligustrum,la. genus of Oleaceae, containing about thirty-five species, natives 1 Other vernacular names for the. common species are prim, primprint, primwort and primrose. PRIVILEGE— PRIVY COUNCIL of temperate and tropical Asia; only the common privet is a native of Europe. They are shrubs or low trees with evergreen or nearly evergreen opposite entire leaves, and dense clusters of small, white, tubular four-parted flowers, enclosing two stamens and succeeded by small, globular, usually black berries, each with a single pendulous seed. The best-known species is the common European privet, L. vuigare, which makes good hedges; L. ovalifolium (a native of Japan) thrives by the seaside and even in towns; there is a yellow-leaved variety (var. variegatum), the leaves becoming white as they get older. L. lucidum (China) is taller and handsomer. There are numerous varieties of L. vuigare in cultivation; var. buxifolium has broader and more persistent leaves; var. fructu-luteum has bright yellow fruit; var. pendulum has long weeping branches; and var. variegatum has the leaves variegated with bright yellow. L. japonicum, L. Massalon- gianum (Khassia Hills) and other species are also cultivated. Mock-privet is Phillyrea, a member of the same order and a small genus of ornamental hardy evergreen shrubs, natives of the Mediterranean region and Asia Minor. PRIVILEGE, in law, an immunity or exemption conferred by special grant in derogation of common right. The term is derived from privilegium, a law specially passed in favour of or against a particular person. In Roman law the latter sense •was the more common; in modern law the word bears only the former sense. Privilege in English law is either personal or real — that is to say, it is granted to a person, as a peer, or to a place, as a university. The most important instances at present existing in England are the privilege of parliament (see PARLIA- MENT), which protects certain communications from being regarded as libellous (see LIBEL AND SLANDER), and certain privileges enjoyed by the -clergy and others, by which they are to some extent exempt from public duties, such as serving on juries. Privileged copyholds are those held by the custom of the manor and not by the will of the lord. There are certain debts in England, Scotland and the United States which are said to be privileged — that is, such debts as the executor must first apply the personal estate of the deceased, in payment, for example, of funeral expenses or servants' wages. In English law the term " preferred " rather than " privileged " is generally applied to such debts. There are certain deeds and summonses which are privileged in Scots law, the former because they require less solemnity than ordinary deeds, the latter because the ordinary induciae are shortened in their case (see Watson, Law Diet., s.v. " Privilege "). In the United States the term privilege is of considerable political importance. By art. iv. § 2 of the constitution, " the citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and im- munities of citizens in the several states." By art. xiv. § i of the amendments to the constitution (enacted July 28, 1868), " no state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States." It will be noticed that the former applies to citizens of the states, the latter to citizens of the United States. " The intention of this clause (art. iv.) was to confer on the citizens of each state, if one may so say, a general citizenship, and to communicate all the privileges and immunities which the citizens of the same state would have been entitled to under the like circum- stances " (Story, Constitution of the United Slates, § 1806). The clauses have several times been the subject of judicial decision in the Supreme Court. With regard to art. iv., it was held that a state licence tax discriminating against commodities the production of other states was void as abridging the privi- leges and immunities of the citizens of such other states (Ward v. Stale of Maryland, 12 Wallace's Reports, 418). With regard to art. xiv. i, it was held that its main purpose was to protect from the hostile legislation of the states the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, looking more especi- ally to the then recent admission of negroes to political rights. Accordingly it was held that a grant of exclusive right or privi- lege of maintaining slaughter-houses for twenty-one years, imposing at the same time the duty of providing ample con- veniences, was not unconstitutional, as it was only a police regulation for the health of the people (The Slaughter-House Cases, 16 Wallace, 36). The same has been held of a refusal by a state to grant to a woman a licence to practise law (Bradwell v. The Stale, 16 Wallace, 130), of a state law confining the rights of suffrage to males (Minor v. Happersetl, 21 Wallace, 162), and of a state law regulating the sale of intoxicating liquors (Bartc- meyer v. Iowa, 18 Wallace, 129). Suits to redress the depriva- tion of privilege secured by the constitution of the United States must be brought in a United States court. It is a crime to conspire to prevent the free exercise and enjoyment of any privilege, or to conspire to deprive any person of equal privileges and immunities, or under colour of law to subject any inhabitant of a state or territory to the deprivation of any privileges or immunities. (Revised Statutes of United Stales, §§ 5507, 5510, SSiQ)- PRIVY COUNCIL. The origin of the privy council dates back substantially to the Norman period of English history. The commune concilium, the assembly, in theory, of all the tenants-in-chief of the Crown, had attached to and included in it a group of officers of state and of the royal household, who with a staff of clerks and secretaries carried on the executive, judicial and financial business of government. This group, of necessity permanent, it is suggested, formed the curia regis; and appears to have consisted of the chancellor, the chief justiciary (so long as the office lasted), the treasurer, the steward, the chamberlain, the marshal and the constable, together with the two archbishops and any other persons the king might choose to appoint. Their duties were to advise the king in matters of legislation and administration, to see justice done and generally to execute the royal will. Such a blend of advisory, executive and judicial power could exist only in a simple con- dition of affairs, and therefore it was to be expected that as government became more settled, and so more complicated, a separation of powers would inevitably follow. The change came quickly. Quite early finance was dealt with by a small section of the court convened at the exchequer chamber; this soon developed into a separate department controlled by the treasurer, managing the revenue and deciding all suits connected with its administration. A little later the court of king's bench and the court of common pleas grew into being, and by the end of the reign of John these two courts were finally separated from one another and from the curia. The establishment of separate courts of justice, although relieving the curia of much of its work, did not deprive it of all judicial power. The king was the fountain of justice, and where redress could not be obtained in the ordinary way, either from the greatness of the disputants, through private oppression, or because no other means existed, resort still remained to the Crown, either in the first instance or when all other courses had failed the petitioner. Relieved of financial detail and the bulk of its judicial work, the curia continued to develop on the lines of an advisory and administrative council. Becoming prominent as a council of regency during the minority of Henry III., it quickly assumed definite form as the concilium regis. Under Edward I. " its members take an oath; they are sworn of the council — swearing to give good advice, to protect the king's interests, to do justice honestly, to take no gifts" (Maitland, Const. Hist. p. 91). At this period in addition to the great officers of state the judges and a number of bishops appear among the members. One of the most important duties of the council was to advise the Crown in matters of legislation. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, ordinances in subordinate matters appear to have been made regularly by the king in council and accepted as legal by parliament and by the judges. In early parliamentary days it was also part of the council's duty to put into legis- lative form the petitions sent up by the Commons. Frequently the statute in its final form did not correspond with the petition, and the Commons were continually complaining of the council's unwarrantable interference. Eventually by the reign of Henry VII. the council had ceased to interfere, the petitions being drawn in the form of a bill, and enacted without alteration.* 372 PRIVY COUNCIL During the i4th century the concilium regis had become definitely distinct as well from parliament as from the courts of law. Under Henry IV. in 1404 the council numbered nineteen — three bishops, nine peers and seven commoners. The members held office at the king's pleasure, they are sworn to give their best advice and are well paid for their work. They meet continually, though the king is often absent, but their proceed- ings are committed to writing. Maitland (Const. Hist. p. 199) sums up the work as follows: " The function of the Council is to advise the King upon every exercise of the royal power. Every sort of ordinance, licence, pardon, that the King can issue is brought before the Council. Sometimes Parliament trusts it with extraordinary powers of legislation and taxation; to raise loans and the like. It is to the advice of the Council that the King looks in all his financial difficulties." The powers of the council naturally varied with the character of the king. Quiescent and obedient under a strong king, its influence was re-asserted under a weak one; and when infant kings sat on the throne, for all practical purposes it became the ruler of the land. In spite of the existence of regular courts of law the council continually interfered with affairs of justice. Many attempts were made by it to set aside or to disregard the judgments of the ordinary courts, but by the beginning of the i5th century parliament had forcibly intervened, and the council gave in. Repeatedly statutes were passed during the reign of Edward III. with a view to checking the council's original jurisdiction in criminal matters, but without effect, as in the reigns of Henry IV. and his son the Commons are found still petitioning against the practice. Yet during the period under review parliament is continually enacting that certain offenders are to be punished by and at the discretion of the council. Evidently such a tribunal, quickly and informally constituted, bound by no legal rules and maxims, proved a useful engine for sharp and speedy punishment. In 1487 was passed an act (3 Hen. VII. c. i) which is accounted the creator of the Court of Star Chamber. Perjury, riot, bribery of jurors and misconduct of officials had grown rife, and the act authorizes certain members of the council to call offenders before it, to examine them, and if satisfied of their guilt, to punish them. In later years a committee of the council appear to have sat and exercised a widely extended criminal jurisdiction, inflicting every kind of punishment short of the dea^h penalty. This body became known as the Court of Star Chamber and remained in existence until its abolition by act of parliament in 1641. During the i4th century many petitions relating to civil disputes were presented to the council and were frequently taken into consideration by it on the ground that extraordinary remedies were required, either from lack of legal form or owing to influential private oppression. Eventually where the courts could decide, it became the practice of the council not to inter- fere, but where no relief could be obtained the council passed the petition on to the chancellor. In course of time the petitions went direct to the chancellor, and in this manner the equity jurisdiction of the court of chancery was established. The act of 1641, which abolished the Court of Star Chamber, also formally forbade the council to meddle with civil causes. During the Tudor period the council grew in importance; it became useful to the Crown as a vehicle for straining prerogative to the utmost. By the act 31 Hen. VIII. the king's procla- mation acquired the force of law, and for a short period the king in council had concurrent legislative power with parlia- ment. Henry's statute was repealed by i Edw. VI. c. 1 2 and the legislative supremacy of parliament re-established. In 1553 the council numbered forty members — four bishops, fourteen peers and the rest commoners. The increase in the number of its mem- bers, the direct and often independent communication between the Crown and its secretaries, and the strong personality of the Tudor sovereigns quickly reacted on the work of the council. It had become too large for consultative purposes and the sovgreign began a practice, which quickly grew, of consulting only its important members. In this way, within the council itself, there appears a small inner ring — a true privy council — • the parent of the cabinet of later days. The struggle of James I. and Charles I. for absolute power and finally the Rebellion, ended by leaving the council for the time being impotent. The act of 1641 had not only abolished its special criminal jurisdiction but forbade its interference in civil cases, while the growth of the Secretariat had gradually removed the bulk of its administrative powers. In the end there was little left for it but occasional meetings to give legal sanction to orders it had no concern with, and on the judicial side to act as a court of final resort in Admiralty matters and for all civil and criminal appeals from the courts of the Crown's dominions beyond the seas. In the reign of Charles II. an attempt was made to revive the usefulness of the council. A scheme was prepared by Sir William Temple in 1679 and accepted by the king. A representative council of thirty members came into being and attempted to carry out the new scheme, but the king, after a short trial, held to his old opinion that the numbers of the council made it " unfit for the secrecy and despatch which are necessary in many great affairs." Once more the king returned to his confidential committee, his cabal, out of which the cabinet of the future grew. Under William III. faction flourished and made general agreement at the council board impossible. George I., ignorant of the English language, never appeared at its meetings, with the result that the direction of affairs passed into the hands of a committee of ministers — the cabinet. Although the true privy council is the cabinet, the name is to-day given collectively to a large number of eminent people whose membership and position are titular only. All members of the cabinet if not already privy councillors become so on appointment to cabinet office. Occasionally, subordinate members of the ministry and some of its private supporters are made privy councillors as a special distinction. The lord chancellor, the lords of appeal in ordinary, the president of the probate division, the lord president of the court of session in Scotland, the lord justice clerk and the lord advocate of Scotland are always privy councillors, as are the archbishops of Canterbury and York and the bishop of London. In 1897 all the premiers of the self-governing colonies were made privy councillors. Of recent years, retired ambassadors, judges, retired civil servants and persons distinguished in science, letters and arts have been appointed. The custom seems also to be growing of using the honour of privy councillor to reward political supporters who do not wish for hereditary titles. The collective title of the council is " the Lords and others of His Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council." The members are addressed as " Right Honourable " and wear a state uniform. The appoint- ment is informal, the new privy councillor simply being invited by the king to take his seat at the board. He is then sworn in, and his name placed on the list. Office lasts for the life of the sovereign and six months after, but it is the modern custom for the new sovereign to renew the appointment. Meetings of the whole council are held at the beginning of a new reign or when the reigning sovereign announces his or her marriage. The lord mayor of London is then summoned to attend. The whole council might also be summoned on other occasions of state and ceremony. The formal meetings of the council are attended by the few councillors concerned with the orders to be issued. These are generally ministers or officials. The chief officer of the council is the lord president, now a cabinet minister of the highest rank, but without departmental duties. The office of clerk of the council dates from 1 540 and his signature is necessary to authenticate all orders. The administrative work of the council has always been done through committees, and during the last two centuries in spite of changed conditions this rule has been preserved in theory. The board of trade, the local government board, the education department and the board of agriculture were all committees of the council. Now, of course, these so-called committees are state departments presided over by ministers responsible to PRIVY PURSE— PRIZE 373 parliament. The existing jurisdiction of the council is both administrative and judicial. Administrative. — This jurisdiction depends chiefly upon statutory authority, which practically makes of tne privy council a subordinate legislature. It is found impossible for parliament to enact long and intricate measures dealing with departmental detail, hence a general mi-.isure is passed and the privy council is authorized under the act to draw up orders in council which of course have the full force of law. This power is exercised usually by committees to which matters are referred by the Crown in council, the departments of state concerned settling the details. Other examples of administra- tive work are the universities committee, with temporary powers under the Universities Act (1877), and the committee of council for the consideration of charters of incorporation under the Municipal Corporations Act (1882), the latter a work of considerable difficulty and delicacy and usually carried out in close consultation with the local government board. Cases affecting the constitutional rights of the Channel Islands are referred to a committee for the affairs of Jersey and Guernsey. The committees report to the Crown in council , and their report is adopted and enforced by an order in council published in the Gazette. Among other acts conferring administra- tive powers on the privy council are the Pharmacy Act (1852), as amended by 31 & 32 Viet. c. 121, the Medical Act (1858), the Foreign Enlistment Act (1870), the Destructive Insects Act (1877), the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act (1878), the Dentists Act (1878) the Veterinary Surgeons Act (1881). Judicial. — By the 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 41 a judicial committee of the council was constituted. It consists of all the members of the council holding or having held the office of lord president or lord chancellor or certain high judicial offices enumerated in the act. By the Appellate Jurisdiction Acts of 1876 and 1887 other high judicial offices are included. All the lords of appeal in ordinary are members of the committee. Under the act of 1833 the king may also appoint any other two persons, being councillors. By the acts of 1833 and 1887 two persons having been Indian or Colonial judges may be appointed, and such appointments carry an annual salary of £400. By an act of 1895 any of the chief justices of certain colo- nies who are also privy councillors may be appointed to the com- mittee, but not more than five such appointments may be made. Under this act certain colonial chief justices now sit. In appeals under the Clergy Discipline Acts three bishops sit as assessors. In colonial Admiralty appeals two nautical assessors attend. These assessors are merely technical advisers, and have no part in any derision. Appeals also lie from consular courts and prize courts. The decisions of ecclesiastical courts are subject to review by the committee, the sovereign being the " supreme governor " of the Church, but no appeal is competent where the case is one for the exercise of the bishop's discretion. In these ecclesiastical cases the committee does not profess to expound and settle doctrine with ecclesiastical authority : it merely interprets the laws of the Church. In matters relating to ritual history and precedents are taken into account. Appeals also lie from vice-admiralty courts abroad, the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, India and all the colonies. As a rule they lie as of right when the value of the matter at issue is of a certain amount (the amount varying according to the appeal rules of the different foreign possessions) and in a few other cases. Recent legislation, at the instance of the colonies, has to some extent further restricted the right to appeal. Appeals lie at the discretion of the committee on leave being obtained by petition for special leave to appeal. All proceedings are by petition (see PETITION) which is addressed to the Crown in council in the first instance. The judicial proceedings of the council are in reality conducted like an ordinary case in the courts of law. Counsel are heard, and the ordinary rules of law and legal practice followed, and costs taxed. Judgment is given by motion which takes the form of advice to the Crown, and whatever may have taken place privately in discus- sion between the members, outwardly the committee is unanimous. Within recent years it has been suggested that the appellate juris- diction of the House of Lords and the privy council should be coalesced, and thus constitute one final court of appeal for the whole empire. Besides the appellate there exists in the sovereign in council an original jurisdiction in questions concerning boundaries between dependencies, the extent of charters and the like. Until recently the council dealt with the petitions to extend the time patents were protected, but this work has now been given by statute to the controller-general of patents. Ireland has its own privy council. The lord-lieutenant takes the place of the Crown. There is little real work and the distinction of membership is titular as in England. Scotland has had no privy council since the Act of Union which provided for one council for Great Britain. British colonies with parliamentary government have cabinets or committees of ministers, borrowed from the English model, but no privy council. In France, before the Revolution, the king had a council which bore some resemblance to the English type (see FRANCE: Law and Institutions). In Germany a " pnvy council " (Geheimes Rats-Kollegium, Gekeimes Conseit, Staatsrat), which under the prince formed the supreme organ of government, formerly existed in the various states of the empire, and out of this the ministries developed in the I7th century. These were originally committees of the council (Geheime Konferenz, Geheimes Kabinett, &c.) which, as in England, gradually absorbed its functions. In some of the German states, however, it still survives as the " council of state " (Staatsrat) and in Wttrttemberg as " privy council " (Geheimer Rat). The title Wirklicher Geheimer Rat (real privy councillor), with the predicate Excellenz is given to the highest officials. That of Geheimer Rat simply is very generally, e.g. in Prussia, given to high officials, usually with the addition of the branch of the service to which they belong, e.g. Geheimer Finanzrat, Geheimer Justizrat. The title is also sometimes purely honorary, e.g. that of Geheimer Commerzienrat, bestowed on eminent men of business. (G. E.*) PRIVY PURSE, is the amount set apart in the civil list (q.v.) for the private and personal use of the sovereign in England. During the reign of Queen Victoria it was £60,000 a year, but on the accession of Edward VII. the amount was fixed at £i 10,000 a year, which was the amount paid to the last sovereign (William IV.) who had a queen consort. The official who is charged with all payments made by the sovereign for his private expenses or charities is termed the keeper of the privy purse. The department of the keeper of the privy purse to the sovereign, assumed its existing shape in the earlier part of the last century. Under Queen Victoria the offices of keeper of the privy purse and private secretary were combined. As now organized these branches of the royal household consist of the private secretary and the keeper of the privy purse, two assistant private secre- taries and keepers of the privy purse, and a secretary, assistant secretary and several clerks of the privy purse. These officials, though of the royal household, are not in the department of the lord steward or the lord chamberlain, but are of the king's personal staff. PRIVY SEAL, a seal of the United Kingdom, next in impor- tance to the great seal, and occupying an intermediate position between it and the signet. The authority of the privy seal was principally of a two-fold nature. It was a warrant to the lord chancellor to affix the great seal to such patents, charters, &c., as must necessarily pass the great seal (more particularly letters patent ( and this much seems to be given by experience. Q. Whenever we can justify Laplace's first principle " that " pro- bability is the ratio of the number of favourable cases to the number of all possible cases " no additional difficulty is involved in his second 11 E.g. T. S. Mill, Logic, bk. III., ch. xviii. § 2. u Cf. Venn, Logic of Chance, ch. vi. § 24. 1 Boole, Trans. Roy. Soc. (1862), ix. 251. 14 Op. cit. Introduction. 14 Below, par. 130. 11 Grammar of Science, ed. 2, p. 146. 17 From the article by the present writer on the " Philosophy of Chance " in Mind, No. ix., in which some of the views here indicated are stated at greater length than is here possible. Cf. v. Kries, op. cit. ch. ii. 18 On the principle of Taylor's theorem; cf. Edgeworth, Phil. Mag. (1892), xxxiv. 431 seq. 10 Cf. J. S. Mill, in the passage referred to below, par. 13, on the use that may be made of an " antecedent probability," though " it would be impossible to estimate that probability with anything like numerical precision." 11 Op. cit. Introduction. PROBABILITY [FIRST PRINCIPLES principle, of which the following may be taken as an equivalent. If we distribute the favourable cases into several groups the pro- bability of the event will be sura of the probabilities pertaining to each group.1 10. Another important instance of unverified probabilities occurs when it is assumed without specific experience that one phenomenon is independent of another in such wise that the probability of a double event is equal to the product of the one event multiplied by the pro- bability of the other — as in the instance already given of two aces occurring. The assumption has been verified with respect to " runs " in some games of chance;2 but it is legitimately applied far beyond those instances. The proposition that very long runs of particular digits, e.g. of 7, may be expected in the development of a constant like TI — e.g. a run of six consecutive sevens if the expansion of the constant was carried to a million places of decimals — may be given as an instance in which our conviction greatly transcends specific verification. In the calculation of probable, and improbable, errors, it 3 has to be assumed without specific verification that the observa- tions on which the calculation is based are independent of each other in the sense now under consideration. With these explanations we may accept Laplace's third principle " If the events are independent of each other the probability of their concurrence (I'existence de leur ensemble) is the product of their separate probabilities." 4 1 1 . Interdependent Probabilities. — Among the principles of proba- bilities it is usual to enunciate, after Laplace, several other pro- positions.6 But these may here be rapidly passed over as they do not seem to involve any additional philosophical difficulty. 12. It has been shown that when two events are independent of each other the product of their separate probabilities forms the probability of their concurrence. It follows that the probability of the double event divided by the probability of either, say the first, component gives the probability of the other, the second component event. The quotient, we might say, is the probability that when the first event has occurred, the second will occur. The proposition in this form is true also of events which are not independent of one another. Laplace exemplifies the composition of such interdepen- dent probabilities by the instance of three urns, A,B,C, about which it is known that two contain only white balls and one only black balls.' The probability of drawing a white ball from an assigned urn, say C, is f. The probability that, a white ball having been drawn from C, a ball drawn from B will be white, is J. Therefore the probability of the double event drawing a white ball from C and also from B is fXi, or J. The question now arises. Supposing we know only the probability of the double event, which probability we will call [BC], and the probability of one of them, say [C] (but not, as in the case instanced, the mechanism of their interdependence) ; what can we infer about the probability [B] of the other event (an event such as in the above instance drawing a white ball from the urn B) — the separate probability irrespective of what has happened as to the urn Cr We cannot in general say that [B] = [BC] divided by [C] but rather that quotient Xfc, where k is an unknown coefficient which may be either positive or negative. It might, however, be improper to treat k as zero on the ground that it is equally likely (in the long run of similar data) to be positive or negative. For given values of [BC] and [C], k has not this equiprobabte character, since its positive and negative ranges are not in general equal; as appears from considering that [B] cannot be less than [BC], nor greater than unity.7 13. Probability of Causes and Future Effects. — The first principles which have been established afford an adequate ground for the reasoning which is described as deducing the probability of a cause from an observed event.8 If with the poet9 we may represent a perfect mixture by the waters of the Po in which the " two Doras " and other tributaries are indiscriminately commingled, there is no great difference in respect of definition and deduction between the probability that a certain particle of water should have emanated from a particular source, or should be discharged through a particular mouth of the river. " This principle," we may say with De Morgan, " of the retrospective or ' inverse ' probability is not essentially 1 Bertrand on " Probabilit6s composes," op. cit. art. 23. z In some of the experiences referred to at par. 5. 3 See below, pars. 132, 159. 4 Op. cit. Introduction. 6 There is a good statement of them in Boole's Laws of Thought, ch. xvi. § 7. Cf. De Morgan " Theory of Probabilities " (Encyc. Metrop.), §§ 12 seq. •Laplace, op. cit. Introduction, IV" Principe; cf. V Principe and liv., Itch, i. | i. 7 In such a case there seems to be a propriety in expressing the indeterminate element in our data, not as above, but as proposed by Boole in his remarkable Laws of Thought, ch. xvii., ch. xviii., § I (cf. Trans. Edin. Roy. Soc., (1857), vol. xxi. ; and Trans. Roy. Soc., 1862, vol. ix., vol. clii. pt. i. p. 251); the undetermined constant now representing the probability that if the event C does not occur the event B will. The values of this constant — in the absence of speci- fic data, and where independence is not presumable— are, it should seem, equally distributed between the values o and i. Cf. as to Boole's Calculus, Mind, loc. cit., ix. 230 seq. 8 Laplace's Sixth Principle. • Manzoni. different from the one first stated (Principle I.)." 10 Nor is a new first principle necessarily involved when after ascending from an effect to a cause we descend to a collateral effect.11 It is true that in the investigation of causes it is often necessary to have recourse to the unverified species of probability. An intance has already been given of several approximately equiprobable causes, the several values of a quantity under measurement, from one of which the observed phenomena, the given set of observations, must have, so to speak, emanated. A simpler instance of two alternative causes occurs in the investigation which J. S. Mill 12 has illustrated — whether an event, such as a succession of aces, has been produced by a par- ticular cause, such as loading of the die, or by that mass of " fleeting causes " called chance. It is sufficient for the argument that the " a priori " probabilities of the alternatives should not be very unequal.13 14. (2) Whether Credibility is Measurable. — The domain of probabili- ties according to some authorities does not extend much, if at all, beyond the objective phenomena which have been described in the preceding paragraphs. The claims of the science to measure the subjective quantity, degree of belief, are disallowed or minimized. Belief, it is objected, depends upon a complex of perceptions and emotions not amenable 14 to calculus. Moreover, belief is not credi- bility; even if we do believe with more or less confidence in exact conformity with the measure of probability afforded by the calculus, ought we so to believe ? In reply it must be admitted that many of the beliefs on which we have to act are not of the kind for which the calculus prescribes. It was absurd of Craig I6 to attempt to evalu- ate the credibility of the Christian religion by mathematical calcula- tion. But there seem to be a number of simpler cases of which we may say with De Morgan16 " that in the universal opinion of those who examine the subject, the state of mind to which a person ought to be able to bring himself " is in accordance with the regulation measure of probability. If in the ordeal to which Portia's suitors were subjected there had been a picture of her not in one only, but in two of the caskets, then — though the judgment of the principal parties might be distorted by emotion — the impartial spectator would normally expect with greater confidence than before that at any particular trial a casket containing the likeness of the lady would be chosen. So the indications of a thermometer may not correspond to the sensations of a fevered patient, but they serve to regulate the temperature of a public library so as to secure the com- fort of the majority. This view does not commit us to the quantita- tive precision of De Morgan that in a case such as above supposed we ought to " look three times as confidently upon the arrival as upon the non-arrival " of the event." Two or three roughly dis- tinguished degrees of credibility — very probable, as probable as not, very improbable, practically impossible — suffice for the more important applications of the calculus. Such is the character of the judgments which the calculus enables us to form with respect to the occurrence of a certain difference between the real value of any quantity under measurement and the value assigned to it by the measurement. The confidence that the constants which we have determined are accurate within certain limits is a subjective feeling which cannot be dislodged from an important part of probabilities.18 This sphere of subjective probability is widened by the latest develop- ments of the science 19 so far as they add to the number of constants for which it is important to determine the probable — and improbable — error. For instance, a measure of the deviation of observations from an average or mean value was required by the older writers only as subordinate to the determination of the mean, but now this " standard deviation " (below, par. 98) is often treated as an entity for which it is important to discover the limits of error.20 Some of the newer methods may also serve to countenance the measurement of subjective quantity, in so far as they successfully apply the calculus to quantities not admitting of a precise unit, such as colour 10 De Morgan, Theory of Probabilities, § 19; cf. Venn, Logic of Chance, ch. vii. § 9; Edgeworth, "On the Probable Errors of Frequency Constants," Journ. Stat. Soc. (1908), p. 653. The essential symmetry of the inverse and the direct methods is shown by an elegant proof which Professor Cook Wilson has given for the received rules of inverse probability (Nature, 1900, Dec. 13). 11 Laplace's Seventh Principle. 12 Logic, book III., ch. xviii. § 6. " Cf . above, par. 8 ; below, par. 46. 14 Cf. Venn, Logic of Chance, p. 126. 15 See the reference to Craig in Todhunter, History ...of Probability. 16 Formal Logic, p. 173. 17 Ibid. Cf. " Theory of Probabilities " (Encyc. Metrop.), note to § 5, " Wherever the term greater or less can be applied there twice, thrice, &c., can be conceived, though not perhaps measured by us." 18 It is well remarked by Professor Irving Fisher (Capital and Income, 1907, ch. xvi.), that Bernoulli's theorem involves a " sub- jective " element a " psychological magnitude." The remark is applicable to the general theory of error of which the theorem of Bernoulli is a particular case (see below, pars. 103, 104). 19 In the hands of Professor Karl Pearson, Mr Sheppard and Mr Yule. Cf. par. 149, below. 20 Cf. Edgeworth, Journ. Stat. Soc. (Dec. 1908). METHODS OF CALCULATION] PROBABILITY 379 of eye or curliness of hair.1 A closer analogy is supplied by the older writers who boldly handle " moral " or subjective advantage, as will be shown under the next head. 15. (3) Axioms of Expectation. — Expectation so far as it involve! ibility presents the same philosophical questions. They occur chiefly in connexion with two principles analogous to and deducible proportions which have been stated with respect to probabi- (i.) The expectation of the sum of two quantities subject to - the sum of the expectations of each, (ii.) The expectation of • nxluct of two quantities subject to risk is the product of the • MS of each; provided that the risks are independent. . iinple, let one of the fortuitously fluctuating quantities be the winnings of a pU\cr at a game in which he takes the amount A if he throws ace with a die (and nothing if he throws another face). '1 Inii the expectation of that quantity is JA; or, in n trials (n being lar.;e), the player may expect to win about nJA. Let the other fortuitously fluctuating quantity be winnings of a player at a game in which he takes the amount B when an ace of any suit is dealt from an ordinary pack of cards. The expectation of this quantity is j^B; or in n trials the player may expect to win about n^jB. Now suppose a compound trial at which one simultaneously throws a die and deals a card ; and let his winning at a compound trial be the sum of the amounts which he would have received for the die and the card respectively at a simple trial. In n such compound trials he may t to win about wSA+n^B, or the expectation of the winning at a compound trial is the sum of the separate expectations. suppose the winning at a compound trial to be the product of the two amounts which he would have received for the die and the card if played at a simple trial. It is zero unless the player obtains two aces. It is AXB when this double event occurs. But this double event occurs in the long run only once in 78 times. Accord- ingly the expectation of the winning at a compound trial at which the winning is the product of the winnings at two simple trials is the product of the separate expectations. What has been shown for two expectations of the simplest type, where o is the probability of an event which has been associated with a quantity a, may easily be extended to several expectations each of the type where ara, is an expectation of the simplest type, above exemplified, or of the type aidiXaja2XajojX ... or a mixture of these types. For by the law which has been exemplified the sum of r expectations can always be reduced to the sum of r — I, and then the r — I tor— 2, and so on ; and the like is true of products. 16. It should be remarked that the proviso as to the independence of the probabilities involved is required only by the second of the two fundamental propositions. It may be dispensed with by the first. Thus in the example of interdependent probabilities given by Laplace' — three urns about which it is known that two contain only black balls and one only white — if a person drawing a ball first from C and then from B is to receive x shillings every time he draws a white ball, from one or other of the urns, he may expect if he performs the compound operation n times to receive wXzXjx shillings. But the expectation of the product of the number of shillings won by drawing a w hite ball from C and the number of shillings won by afterwards drawing a white ball from B is not »(§)***, but nji2. 17. The first of the two principles is largely employed in the practical applications of probabilities. The second principle is !>• employed in the higher generalizations of the science * (the laws of error demonstrated in Part II.); the requisite independence of the involved probabilities being mostly of the unverified * species. i.-i. Expectation of Utility. — A philosophical difficulty peculiar to expectation • arises when the quantity expected has not the objective character usually presupposed in the applications of mathematics. The most signal instance occurs when the expectation relates to an advantage, and that advantage is estimated subjectively by the amount of utility or satisfaction afforded to the possessor. Mathe- maticians have commonly adopted the assumption made by Daniel Bernoulli that a small increase in a person s material means or " physical fortune " causes an increase of satisfaction or " moral fortune," inversely proportional to the physical fortune; and accord- ingly that the moral fortune is equateable to the logarithm of the physical fortune.7 The spirit in which this assumption should be employed is well expressed by Laplace when he says 8 that the expec- 1 Below, par. 152. 1 Consider the equivalent of Laplace's second principle given at par 9, above, and his third principle quoted at par. 10. 3 Above, par. 12. 4 In the more familiar form ; that (of two independently fluctuating quantities) the mean of the product is the product of the means (CK Czuber, Theorie der Beobachtungsfehler, p. 133). 6 Above, par. 6. * These peculiarities afford some justification for Laplace's restric- tion of the term expectation to " goods." As to the wider definition here adopted see below, par. 94 and par. 95, note. 7 Each fortune referred to is divided by a proper parameter. See below, par. 69 8 Op. cit. liv. II. ch. xiii. No. 41. Cf. liv. II. ch. i. No.2. tation of subjective advantage (I'esperance morale) " depends on a thousand variable circumstances which it is almost always impossible to define and still more to submit to calculation." " One cannot give a general rule for appreciating this relative value," yet the principle above stated in " applying to the commonest cases leads to results which are often useful." 19. In this spirit we may regard the logarithm in Bernoulli's (as in Malthus's) theory as representative of a more general relation. Thus generalized the principle has been accepted by economists and utilitarian philosophers whose judgment on the rela- tion between material goods and utility or satisfaction carries weight. Thus Professor Alfred Marshall writes:9 " In accordance with a suggestion made by Daniel Bernoulli, we may perhaps suppose that the satisfaction which a person derives from his income may be regarded as beginning when he has enough to support life and after- wards as increasing by equal amounts with every equal successive percentage that is added to his income; and vice versa for loss of income." l° The general principle is embodied in Bentham's utili- tarian reasoning which has been widely accepted.11 The possibility of formulating the relation between feeling and its external cause is further supported by Fechner's investigations. This branch of Probabilities also obtains support from another part of the science, the calculation sanctioned by Laplace, of the disutility'incident to error of measurement. " Altogether it seems impossible to deny that some simple mathematical operations prescribed by the calculus of probabilities are sometimes serviceably employed to estimate prospective benefit in the subjective sense of desirable feeling. 20. Single Cases and " Series." — Analogous to the question regard- ing the standard of belief which arose under a former head, a question regarding the standard of action arises under the head of expectation. The former question, it may be observed, arises chiefly with respect to events which are considered as singular, not forming part of a series. There is no doubt, there is a full belief, that if we go on tossing (unloaded) dice the event which consists of obtaining either a five or a six will occur in approximately 33'3% of the trials. The important question is what is or should be our state of mind with regard to the result of a trial which is sui generis and not to be repeated, like the choice of a casket in the Merchant of Venice.1* A similar difficulty is presented by singular events, with respect to volition. Is the chance of one to a thousand of the prize £1000 at a lottery approximately equivalent to £i in the eyes of a person who for once, and once only, has the offer of such a stake ? The question is separable from one with which it is often confounded, the one discussed in the last paragraph what is the " moral " value of the prize ? The person might be a millionaire for whom £i and £1000 both belong to the category of small change. The stake and the prize might both be " moral." The better opinion seems that apart from a system of transactions like that in which an insurance company undertakes, or at least a " cross-series ' ' 14 of the kind which seem largely to operate in ordinary life, expectations in which the risks are very different are no longer equateable. So De Morgan with regard to the " single case " (the solitary' transaction in question) declares that the mathematical expectation is not a sufficient approximation to the actual phenomenon of the mind when benefits depend upon very small probabilities ; even when the fortune of the player forms no part of the consideration " u [without making allow- ance for the difference between " moral " and mathematical pro- babilities]. So Condorcet, " If one considers a single man and a single event there can be no kind of equality " u (between expecta- tions with very different risks). It is only for the long run — Iprsqu'on embrasse la suite indefinie des tenements — that the rule is valid: To the same effect at greater length the logicians Dr Venn " and von Kries.18 Some of the mathematical writers have much to learn from their logical critics u on this and other questions relating to first principles. Section II. — Calculation of Probability. 21. Object of the Section. — In the following calculations the principal object is to ascertain the number of cases favourable to an event in proportion to the total number of possible cases.10 * Principles of Economics, book III., ch. vi. § 6, p. 209, ed. 4. 10 Cf. below, par. 71. 11 Some further references bearing on the subject are given in a paper by the present writer on the " Pure Theory of Taxation," No. III. Economic Journ. (1897), vii. 550-551. 11 Below, par. 131. 11 Above, par. 14. 14 Above, par. 5. 15 Article on " Probabilities " (Encyc. Metrop.), § 40. " Essai (1785), pp. 142 et seq. 17 Logic of Chance, ch. vi. §§ 24-28. 8 Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung, pp. 184 seq. u The relations of recent logicians to the older mathematical writers on Probabilities may be illustrated by the relations of modern " historical " economists to their more abstract predecessors. " Of the two properties which have been found to characterize probability (above, par. 5) — proportionate (t) number of (equally) favourable cases and (2) frequency of observed occurrence — ;the former especially pertain to the data and quaesita of this section. 38o PROBABILITY [METHODS OF CALCULATION " The difficulty consists in the enumeration of the cases," as Lagrange says. Sometimes summation is the only mathematical operation employed; but very commonly it is necessary to apply the theory of permutations and combinations involving multipli- cation.1 22. Fundamental Theorem. — One of the simplest problems of this sort is one of the most important. Given a melange of things con- sisting of two species, if n things are taken at random what is the probability that s out of these n things will be of a certain species ? For example, the melange might be a well-shuffled pack of cards, and the species black and red ; the quaesitum, what is the probability that if n cards are dealt, s of them will be black ? There are two varieties of the problem : either after each card is dealt it is returned to the pack, which is reshuffled, or all the n cards are dealt (as in ordinary games of cards) without replacement. The first variety of the problem deserves its place as being not only the simpler, but also the more important, of the two. 23. At the first deal there are 26 cases favourable to black, 26 to red. When two deals have been made (in the manner prescribed), out of 52 * cases formed by combinations between a card turned up at the first deal and a card turned up at the second, 26X26 cases are combinations of two blacks, 26X26 are combinations of two reds, and the remainder 2(26X26) are made up of combinations between one black and one red; 26X26 cases of black at the first deal and red at the second, and 26X26 cases of red at the first and black at the second deal. The number of cases favourable to each alternative is evidently given by the several terms in the expansion of (26+26)2. The corresponding probabilities are given by dividing each term by the total number ojf cases, viz. 52 2. Similarly, when we go on to a third deal, the respective probabilities of the three possible cases, three blacks, two blacks and one red, two reds and one black, three blacks, are given by the successive terms in the binomial expansion of (26+26)', and so on. The reasoning is quite general. Thus for the event which consists of dealing either clubs or spades (black) we might substitute an event of which the probability at a single trial is not i, e.g. dealing hearts. Generally, if p and I —p are the respective probabilities of the event occurring or not occurring at a single trial, the respective probabilities that in n trials the event will occur n times, n— I times . . . twice, once or not at all, are given by the successive terms in the expansion of [p+(i — p)]"', of which expansion the general term is lstt*_s\t P"(l ~P)n~'- 24. The probability may also be calculated as follows. Taking for example the case in which the event consists of dealing hearts; consider any particular arrangement of the n cards, of which s are hearts, e.g. the arrangement in which the s cards first dealt are hearts and the following n — s all belong to other suits. The probability of the first s cards being all hearts is (£)«; the probability that none of the last (n— s) cards are hearts is (J)n~*. Hence the probability of that particular arrangement occurring is (i)*(|)n~'. But this arrangement is but one of many, e.g. that in which the 5 hearts are the last dealt, which are equally likely to occur. There are as many different arrangements of this type as there are combina- tions ofn things taken together s times, that isnl/sl(n—s)l The probability thus calculated agrees with the preceding result. 25. It follows from the law of expansion for [p+(i— p)]n that as n is increased, the value of the fractions which form the terms at either extremity diminishes. When n becomes very large, the terms which are in the neighbourhood of the greatest term of the expansion overbalance the sum total of the remaining terms.2 Thus in the example above given, if we go on and on dealing cards (with replacement) the ratio of the red cards dealt to all the cards dealt tends to become more and more nearly approximate to the limit \. These statements are comprised in the theorem known as James Bernoulli's. Stated in its simplest form — that " in the long run all events will tend to occur with a relative frequency proportional to their objective probabilities " 3 — this theorem has been regarded as tautological or circular. Yet the proofs of the theorem which have been given by great mathematicians may deserve attention as at least showing the consistency of first principles.4 Moreover, as usually stated, James Bernoulli's imports something more than the first axiom of probabilities.6 26. The generalization of the Binomial Theorem which is called 1 Cf. Bertrand's distinction between " Probabilites totales," and " Probabilit6s compos6es," Calcul des probabilites, ch. ii. arts. 23, 24. 2 Cf. Todhunter, History . . . of Probability, p. 360, and other statements of James Bernoulli's Theorem, referred to in the index. * Venn, op. cit. p. 91. 4 Some of these proofs are adduced, and a new and elegant one added by Bertrand, op. cit. ch. v. 6 When the degree in which a certain range of central terms tends to preponderate over the residue of the series is formulated with precision, as in the statement given by Todhunter (op. cit. p. 548) when he is interpreting Laplace, then James Bernoulli's theorem presents a particular case of the law of error — the case considered below in par. 103. the " Multinomial Theorem '' 6 gives the rule when there are more than two alternatives at each trial. For instance, if there are three alternatives, hearts, diamonds or a card belonging to a black suit, the probability that if n cards are dealt there will occur i hearts, t diamonds, and n—s—t cards which are either clubs or spades is n! /A • (l\ ' M »-«-' s\tl(n-s-t)l \4/ W W 27. Applications of Fundamental Theorem. — The peculiar interest of the problem which is here placed first is that its solution represents a law of almost universal application : the law assigning the frequency with which different values assumed by a quantity, like most of the quantities with which statistics has to do, depends upon several independent agencies. It is remarkable that the problem in pro- babilities which historically was almost the first belongs to the kind which is first in interest. Of this character is a question which occupied Galileo and before him Cardan, and an even earlier writer: what are the chances that, when two or three dice are thrown, the sum of the points or pips turned up should amount to a certain number ? A particular case of this problem is presented by the old game of " passedix ": what is the probability that if three dice are thrown the sum of the pips should exceed ten ? 7 The answer is obtained by considering the number of combinations that are favour- able to each of the different alternatives, 18 pips, 17, 16 . . . . II pips, which make up the event in question. Thus out of the total of 216 (63) combinations, one is favourable to 18, three to 17, and so on. There are twenty-five chances, as we may call the permutations, in favour of 12, twenty-seven in favour of n.8 The sum of all these being 108, we have for the event in question 108/216, an even chance. More generally it may be inquired: what is the probability that, if n dice are thrown, the number of points turned up will be exactly i ? By an extension of the reasoning which was employed in the first problem it is seen that the required probability is that of which the index is i in the expansion of the expression |7lV + (IV + (IV + (IV + (IV + (iVln LW hw hw h W hw ^wJ The calculation may be simplified by writing this expression form i the /i\nr /i\s), what is the probability that no two candidates should choose the same subject? If the candidates be arranged in any order, the probability that the second candidate should not choose the same subject as the first candidate is (re — 1)/«. The pro- bability that the third candidate will not choose either of the two subjects taken by the aforesaid candidates is (n—2)/n, and so on. Thus the required probability is n(»-l) (re-2)...|n -(*-!)!/»'. 38. When as in these cases the interest of the problem lies chiefly in the application of the theory of combinations, or permutations, there is a propriety in Whitworth's enunciation of the questions under the head of choice rather than chance. It comes to the same whether we say that there are x ways in which an event may happen, or that the probability of its happening in an assigned one of those ways is l/x. For example, suppose that there are n couples waltzing at a ball; if the names of the men are arranged in alphabetical order, what is the probability that the names of their partners will also be in alphabetical order? The probability that the man who is first in alphabetical order should have for partner the lady who is first in that order is l/n. The probability that the man who is second alphabetical order should have for partner the lady who is second in that order is l/(n-l), and so on. Therefore the required proba- bility is I /re!. Or it may be easier to say that the number of ways, each consisting of a set of couples in which the party can be arranged, is n ! ; of which only one is favourable. 39. The same principle governs the following question. For how many days can a family of 10 continue to sit down to dinner in a different order each day ; it not being indifferent who sits at the head of the table — what is the absolute, as well as the relative, position of the members? The number of permutations, viz. 10!, is the answer. If we are to attend to the relative position only — as would be natural if the question related to 10 children turning round a fly- pole — the number of different arrangements would be only 9! 40. Method of Equations in Finite Differences. — The last question may serve to introduce a method which Laplace has applied with great eclat to problems in probabilities. Let yn be the number of ways in which re men can take their places at a round table, without respect to their absolute position; and consider how the number will be increased by introducing an additional man. From every particular arrangement of the original n men can now be obtained re different arrangements of the re + l men (since the additional man may sit between any two of the party of n). Hence y^+i^nyn, an equation of differences of which the solution is C (n — i)\ The con-, slant may be determined by considering the case in which re is 2. 41. The following example is not quite so simple. If a coin is thrown n times, what is the chance that head occurs at least twice running? Calling each sequence of n throws a " case," consider the number ot cases in which head never occurs twice running; let «n be this number, then 2n — un must be the number of cases when head occurs at least twice successively. Consider the value of Un+i', if the last or (n+2)th throw be tail, ttn+2 includes all the cases («n+i) of the re + i preceding throws which gave no succession of heads; and if the last be head the last but one must be tail, and these two may be preceded by any one of the «„ favourable cases for the first re throws. Consequently, «n + 2 = ttn+1 +Un. If o, |3 are the roots of the quadratic x2 — x — I =o, this equation gives ' Here A and B are easily found from the conditions «i = viz. _9 09 A = whence o - \ i (3 - a.' <*£)* 5 + &c. j . The probability that head never turns up twice running is found by dividing this by 2", the whole number of cases. This probability, of course, becomes smaller and smaller as the number of trials (re) is increased. This is a particular case of a more general problem solved by Laplace2 as to the occurrence i times running of an event of which the probability at one trial is p. 42. In such problems where we now employ the calculus of finite difference Laplace employed his method of generating functions. A distinguished instance is afforded by the problem of points which was put by the Chevalier de Mere to Pascal and has exercised genera- tions of mathematicians. It is thus stated by Laplace.3 Two players of equal skill have staked equal sums; the stakes to belong to the player who shall have won a certain number of games. Suppose they agree to leave off playing when one player, A, wants x " points " (games to be won) in order to complete the assigned number, while the second player wants x' points: how ought they 1 Cf. Boole's Finite Differences, ch. vii. § 5. ! Op. cit. liv. II. ch. ii., No. 12. 3 Op. cit. liv. II. ch. ii., No. 8. to divide the stakes? This is a question in Expectation, but its difficulty consists in determining the probability that one of the players, say A, shall win the stakes. Let that probability be yf,i'. Then, after the next game, if A has won, the probability of his win- ning the stakes will be y*-i,x'. But if A loses, B winning, the proba- bility will be y»,j'-i. But these alternatives are equally likely. Accordingly the probability of A winning the stakes may be writ' This is the same probability as that which was before written yx,x'. Equating the two expressions we have, for the function y, an equation of finite difference involving two variables, of which the solution is 4 •v-lx \ | * ' | *U'+l) I I . I *(*+!) • • • (x+x' — 2) y 2'1 ) "ri 2~1~ 1-2 22"1" 1-2 ••• (x'~ i) 2J 43. The problem of points is to be distinguished from anothei classical problem, relating to a contest in which the winner has not simply to win a certain number of games, but to win a certain number of counters from his opponent.6 Space does not admit even the enunciation of other complicated problems to which Laplace has applied the method of generating functions. 44. Probability of Causes Deduced from Observed Events. — Problems relating to the probability of alternative causes, deduced from observed effects, are usually placed in the separate category of " inverse " probability, though, as above remarked,6 they do not necessarily involve different principles. The difference principally consists in the need of evidence, other than that which is afforded by the observed event, as to the probability of the alternative causes existing and operating. The following is an example free from the difficulty incident to unverified a priori probabilities, which commonly besets this kind of problem. A digit haying been taken at random from mathematical tables (or the expansion of an endless constant such as ir) ; a second digit is obtained by taking from a random succession of digits one that added to the first digit makes a sum greater than 9. Given a result thus formed, what are the respective probabilities that the second digit should have been o, I, 2, ... 8 or 9? In the long run the first digit assumes with equal frequency the values o, I, 2 ... 8, 9. Accordingly the second digit can never be o. There is only one chance of its being I, namely when the first digit is 9 If the second digit is 2, and the first either 8 or 9, the observed effect will be produced. And so on. If the second digit is 9, the effect may occur in nine ways. Accordingly in the long run of pairs thus formed it will occur that the cases or causes which are defined by the circumstances that the second digit is o, I, 2, ... 8, 9, respectively, will occur with frequencies in the following ratios o : I : 2 ... 8 : 9. The probability of the observed event having been caused by a particular (second) digit, e.g. 7, is 7/(o+i+2 + . . +9) =7/45- 45. The following example taken from Laplace 7 is of a more familiar type. An urn is known to contain three balls made up of white and black balls in some unknown proportion. From this urn a ball is extracted m times (being each time replaced after extraction). If a white ball is drawn every time, what are the respective proba- bilities that the number of white balls in the urn are 3, 2, I or o? By parity of reasoning it appears that in the first case the result is certain, its probability I, in the second case the probability of the observed event occurring is (|)m, in the third case that probability is (i)m, in the fourth case zero. Accordingly the respective inverse probabilities are in the ratios provided that (as in the preceding example, with respect to the second digits) the alternative causes, the four possible constitutions of the urn, are (a priori) equally probable. This is rather a bold assump- tion with respect to the contents of concrete urns8 and similar group- ings; but with regard to things in general may perhaps be justified on the principle of cross-series.' 46. Often in the investigation of causes we are not thrown back on unverified a priori probabilities. We have some specific evidence though of a very rough character. An example has been cited from Mill in a preceding paragraph.10 Against the improbabilities cal- culated by the methods of tne present section there has often to be balanced an improbability evidenced by common sense, which does not admit of mathematical calculation. Bertrand u puts the follow- ing case. The manager of a gambling house has purchased a roulette table which is found to give red 5300 times, black 4700 times, out of 10,000 trials. The purchaser claims an indemnity from the maker. What can the calculus tell us as to the justice of the claim? Nothing 4 A clear and corrected version of Laplace's reasoning is given by Todhunter, History. . . of Probability, art. 973, p. 528, with reference to the more general cases in which the " skills " of each party — their chances of winning a single game — are not equal but respect- ively p and q (p-\-q = i). See also Czuber, Wahrscheinlichkeits- theorie, pp. 30 seq. 6 See Todhunter, op. cit. art. 107, and other articles referring to duration of play. See also Boole, Finite Differences, ch. xiv., art. 7, ex. 6. 6 Above, par. 13. 7 Op. cit. liv. II. ch. i. No. i. 8 Cf. Bertrand, op. cit. § 118. 9 Above, par. 5. 10 Par. 13. ll Op. cit. § 134. MKTHODS OF CALCULATION] PROBABILITY 383 pn-cisc, yet something worth knowing. The a priori improbability of the maker's inaccuracy must be very great to overcome the im- probability of such an event occurring by chance if the machine is lately made (accuracy being defined, say, by the condition that the ratio of red to [red + white) would prove to be in the in- definitely long run of trials between 0-499 and 0-501). The odds against the so defined event occurring are found to be some millions to one.1 47. The difficulty recurs in more practical problems: for instance, certain symptoms having been observed, to find the probability that they are produced by a particular disease. Such concrete applica- tions of probabilities are often open to the sort of objections which have been urged against the classical use of the calculus to determine the probability that witnesses are true, or judges just. Probability of Testimony. — The application of probabilities to nony proceeds upon two assumptions: (l) that to each witness there pertains a coefficient of probability representing the average Ireijuency with which he speaks the truth or untruth, (2) that the statements of witnesses are independent in the sense proper to proba- bilities. Thus if two witnesses concur in making a statement which must be either true or false, their agreement is a circumstance which is only to be accounted for by one of two alternatives: either that they are both speaking the truth, or both false. If the average truthfulness — the credibility — of one witness is p, that of the other p', then the probabilities of the two alternative explanations are to other in the ratio pp' : (i — p) (i —p') ; the probability that the statement is true is pp /\pp' + (l —p) (l —p')\. So far no account js taken of the a priori probability of the statement. This evidence may be treated as an independent witness. Thus, if a person whose credibility is p asserts that he has seen at whist a hand consisting entirely of trumps dealt from a well-shuffled pack of cards, there are two alternative explanations of his assertion, with probabilities in the ratio />Xo-ooo,ooo,ooo,oo63 : (i -p) X 0-999,999,999,993. The truthfulness of the witness must be very great to outweigh the a priori improbability of the fact.2 These formulae are easily extended to the case of three or more witnesses. The probability of a statement made by three witnesses of respective credibilities P, p', p" is For r witnesses we have Pipt.. -PrllPi fr... P,+(i -Pi) (I -pi) ... (i -pr)\. Dividing both the numerator and the denominator by ptpi...pr, we see that the probability of the statement increases with the number of the witnesses, provided that for every witness (i —p)/p is a proper fraction, and accordingly p>$. As an example of several witnesses, let us inquire how many witnesses to a fact such as a hand at whist consisting entirely of trumps would be required in order to make it an even chance that the fact occurred, supposing the credibility of each witness to be •&.* Let x be the required num- ber of witnesses. We have the l/(l +(J)* 0-000,000,000,006) = J, or x log Q = I2'2. Whence, if x is 13, it is more than an even chance that the statement is true. 49. When an event may occur in two or more ways equally probable a priori, the formulae show that the probability of the state- ment will depend on the credibility of the witnesses; and accordingly the explicit consideration of a priori probabilities may, as in our first instance, be omitted. One who reports the number of a ticket obtained at a lottery ordinarily makes a statement against which there is no a priori improbability ; but if the number is one which had been predicted, there is an a priori improbability —that an assigned ticket should be drawn out of a melange of n tickets. Similar reason- ing is applicable to the probability that the decisions of judgments, the verdict of juries, is right. 50. The assumptions upon which all this reasoning is based are open to serious criticisms. The postulated independence of wit- nesses and judges is frequently not realized. The revolutionary tribunal which condemned Condorcet was affected by ah identity of illusions and passions which that mathematician had not taken into account when he calculated " that the probability of a decision being conformable to truth will increase indefinitely as the number of voters is increased." 4 51. The use of coefficients based on the average truthfulness or justice of each witness and judge involves the neglect of par- ticulars which ought to influence our estimate of probability, such as the consistency of a witness's statements and the relation of the case to the interests, prejudices and capacities of the witness or the judge.* Thus even in so simple a case as the alleged occurrence of 1 By a calculation based on the fundamental theorem (above, par. 23; cf. below, par. 103). * But see below, par. 51. ' Morgan Crofton, loc. cit. p. 778, par. i. * Essai, p. 6 (there is postulated a proviso analogous to that which has been stated in par. 49 above, with reference to witnesses : that the probability of any one voter being right is> J). *See Mill's forcible remarks on this use of probabilities, which an extraordinary hand at whist, the " truthfulness " of the witness in the general sense of the term may not adequately represent his liability to have made a mistake about the snuffling.' A neglect of particulars, however, is sometimes practised with success in the applications of statistics (insurance, for instance). Perhaps there are broad results and general rules to which the mathematical theory may be applicable. Perhaps the laborious researches of Poisson on the " probability of judgments " are not, as they have been called by an eminent mathematician, absolument rien.1 More than mathematical interest may attach to Laplace's investigation of a rule appropriate to cases like the following. An event (suppose the death of a certain person) must have proceeded from one of n causes A, B, C, &c., and a tribunal has to pronounce on which is the most probable. Professor Morgan Crofton's original proof of Laplace's rule is here reproduced.* 52. Let. each member of the tribunal arrange the causes in the order of their probability according to his judgment, after weighing the evidence. To compare the presumption thus afforded by any one judge in favour of a specified cause with that afforded by the other judges, we must assign a value to the probability of the cause derived solely from its being, say, the rth on his list. As he is supposed to be unable to pronounce any closer to the truth than to say (suppose) H is more likely than D, D more likely than L, &c., the probability of any cause will be the average value of all those which that probability can have, given simply that it always occupies the same place on the list of the probabilities arranged in order of magnitude. As the sum of the n probabilities is always I, the question reduces to this: — Any whole (such as the number i) is divided at random into n parts, and the parts are arranged in the order of their magnitude — least, second, third, . . . greatest; this is repeated for the same whole a great number of times; required the mean value of the least, of the second, &c., parts, up to that of the greatest. Let the whole in question be represented by a line AB=o, and jet it be .divided at random into n parts by taking n — i points indiscriminately on it. Let the required mean values be Vi, X2u, Xjo .... \na, where Xi, X2, X, . . . must be constant fractions. As a great number of positions is taken in AB for each of the n points, we may take a as representing that number; and the whole number N of cases will be N=a"->. The sum of the least parts, in every case, will be Si = NXm = Xia". Let a small increment, B6 = 5a, be added on to the line AB at the end B; the increase in this sum is &S>i=n\ian~l&a. But, in dividing the new line Ab, either the n — l points all fall on AB as before, or n — 2 fall on AB and i on B6 (the cases where 2 or more fall on Bb are so few we may neglect them). If all fall on AB, the least part is always the same as before except when it is the last, at the end B of the line, and then it is greater than before by io; as it falls last in n"1 of the whole number of trials, the increase in Si is n~la'~lba. But if one point of division falls on B6, the number of new cases introduced is (n — i)a*~1&a; but, the least part being now an infinitesimal, the sum Si is not affected; we have therefore To find Xj, reasoning exactly in the same way, we find that where one point falls on B6 and n — 2 on AB, as the least part is infinitesimal, the second least part is the least of the n — I parts made by the n—2 points; consequently, if we put X/ for the value of Xi when there are n — l parts only, instead of », l =~l "~l .•.nX, = »-i + (»-i)X,'; but X', = (»-!)-*; .-.nX, = n-> + (n-i)-'. In the same way we can show generally that nX, = n~l + (n — i ) X'r_, ; and thus the required mean value of the rth part is Xro=an-'ln-'+(»-i)-1+(n-2)-'+ . . . (n_r+i)-i[. he places among the " misapplications of the calculus which have made it the real opprobrium of mathematics " (Logic, Book III, ch. xviii. § 3). Cf. Bertrand, Calcul des probabililes ; Venn, Logic of Chance, ch. xvi. § 5-7; v. Kries, Princtpien der Wahrschcinlich- keitsrechnung, ch. ix., preface, § v., and ch. xiii. §§ 12, 13; Laplace's general reflections on this matter seem more valuable than his calculations: " Tant de passions et d'interfits particuliers y me'lent si souvent leur influence qu'il est impossible de soumettre au calcul cette probabilite," op. cit. Introduction (Des Choix et decisions des assemblers). * As to the possibility of mistake in this respect, see Proctor, How to play Whist, p. 121. 7 Bertrand, loc. cit. 8 Loc. cit. § 43. PROBABILITY [METHODS OF CALCULATION Thus each judge' implicitly assigns the probabilities L, 1 (L + ! \ , I /i i i , i \ ( »*' n \n n — i/ ' w \M n — i ' n — 27 ' to the causes as they stand on his list, beginning from the lowest. The values assigned for the probability of each alternative cause may be treated as so many equally authoritative observations representing a quantity which it is required to determine. Accord- ing to a general rule given below l the observations are to be added and divided by their number; but here if we are concerned only with the relative magnitudes of the probabilities in favour of each alternative it suffices to compare the sums of the observations. We thus arrive at Laplace's rule. Add the numbers found on the different lists for the cause A, for the cause B, and so on; that cause which has the greatest sum is the most probable. 53. Probability of Future Effects deduced from Causes. — Another class of problems which it is usual to place in a separate category are those which require that, having ascended from an observed event to probable causes, we should descend to the probability of collateral effects. But no new principle is involved in such problems. The reason may be illustrated by the following modifi- cation of the problem about digits which was above set 2 to illustrate the method of deducing the probability of alternative causes. What is the probability that if to the second digit which contributed to the effect there described there is added a third digit taken at random, the sum of the second and third will be greater than 10 (or any other assigned figure)? The probabilities — the a posteriori probabilities derived from the observed event (that the sum of the first and second digit exceeds 9) — each multiplied by 45, of the alternatives constituted by the different values o, I, 2, . . . 8, 9 of the second figure are written in the first of the subjoined rows. 0123456789 0012345678 O O 2 6 12 2O • 30 42 56 72 Below each of these probabilities is written the probability, X 10 that if the corresponding cause existed the effect under consideration would result. The product of the two probabilities pertaining to each alternative way of producing the event gives the probability of the event occurring in that way. The sum of these products which are written in the third row divided by 45X10, viz. Ii8=^r> is the required probability. It may be expected that actual trial would verify this result. 54. " Rule of Succession." — One case of inferred future effects, sometimes called the " rule of succession," claims special notice as having been thought to furnish a test for the cogency of induction. A white ball has been extracted (with replacement after extraction) n times from an immense number of black and white balls mixed in some unknown proportion; what is the probability that at the (n + i)th trial a white ball will be drawn? It is assumed that each constitution of the melange 3 formed by the proportion of white balls (the probability of drawing a white ball), say p, is a priori as likely to have any one value as another of the series Ap,2Ap, 3Ap, . . . l—2&p, i — Ap, i. Whence a posteriori the probability of any particular value of p as the cause of the observed recurrence is p"/'Zpn, where p in the denominator receives every value from Apto i. The probability that this cause, if it exists, will produce the effect in question, the extraction of a white ball at the (n + i)th trial, is p. The probability of the event, obtained by summing the probabilities of all the different ways in which it may occur, is accordingly 2£"+l/2pn, where p both in the numerator and the denominator is to receive all possible values between A p and i . In the limit we have = (»+ o/ (»+2) . In particular if n = i, the probability that an event which has been observed once will recur on a second trial is f . These results are perhaps not so absurd as they have seemed to some critics, when the principle of " cross-series " 4 is taken into account. Among authoritjes who seem to attach importance to the rule of succession, in addition to the classical writers on Probabilities, may be men- tioned Lotze 6 and Karl Pearson.6 Section III. — Calculation of Expectation. 55. Analogues of Preceding Problems. — -This section presents problems analogous to the preceding. If n balls are extracted 1 Below, pars. 135, 136. A difficulty raised by Cpurnot with respect to the determination of several quantities which are con- nected by an equation does not here arise. The system of values determined for the several causes fulfils by construction the con- dition that the sum of the values should be equal to unity. 1 Above, par. 44. * It comes to the same to suppose the total number of balls in the mixture to be N; and to assume that the number of white balls is a priori equally likely to have any one of the values I, 2, . . . N-i, N. 4 Above, par. 5. • Logic, bk. ii. ch. ix. § 5. ' Grammar of Science, ch. iv. § 16. Cf. the article in Mind above referred to, ix. 234. from an urn containing black and white balls mixed up in the proportions p: (i—p), each ball being replaced after extraction, the expected number of white balls in the set of n is by definition np.1 It may be instructive to verify the consistency of first prin- ciples by demonstrating this axiomatic proposition.8 Consider the respective probabilities that in the series of n trials there will occur no white balls, exactly one white ball, exactly two white balls, and so on, as shown in the following scheme : — No. of white balls o, Corresponding) ( probability. ^ i, Bl =fnn(l-#>-> n\ (n-2)!2l To calculate the expectation of white balls it is proper to multiply I by the probability that exactly one white ball will occur, 2 by the probability of two white balls, and so on. We have thus for the required expectation . . . +np» =np [(i- np[(i -p)+p]"-l=np. The expectation in the case where the balls are not replaced — not similarly axiomatic — may be found by approximative formulae.9 56. Games of Chance. — -With reference to the topic which occurred next under the head of probabilities, a distinction must be drawn between the number of trials which make it an even chance that all the faces of a die will not have turned up at least once, and the number of trials which are made on an average before that event occurs. We may pass from the probability to expectation in such cases by means of the following theorem. If i is the number of trials in which on an average success (such as turning up every face of a die at least once} is obtained, then s = i+/i+/2+. . . ; where f, denotes the probability of failing in the first r trials. For the required expectation is equal to I Xprobability of succeeding at the first trial + 2 X probability of succeeding at the second trial +&c. Now the probability of succeeding at the first trial is i —fi ; the probability of succeeding at the second trial (after failing £t the first) is fi(i— fa); the probability of succeeding at the third trial is similarly /z(i — /s); and so on. Substituting these values for the expression for the expectation, we have the proposition which was to be proved. In the proposed problem /.-«! Assigning to n in each of these terms, every value from i to oo we have 6-|/(l — f), =30, for the sum of the first set, with corre- sponding expressions for the sets formed from the following terms. Whence i = i + 30 — 30 + 20 — V + f = H'7- By parity of reasoning it is proved that on an average 7fJJ cards10 must be dealt before at least one card of every suit has turned up.11 57. Dominoes are taken at random (with replacement after each extraction) from the set of the kind described in a preceding paragraph.12 What is the difference (irrespective of sign) to be expected between the two numbers on each domino? The digit 9, according as it is combined with itself, or any smaller digit, gives the sum of differences o + i +2 +... + 9. The digit 8 combined with itself or any smaller digit gives the sum of differences 0 + 1+2 + .. .+8 and so on. The sum of the differences is Sjr. r+l, where r has every integer value from I to 9 inclusive, = ? 9 3.- . = 165. And the number of the differences is io-+ 9+8+. . .+2 + 1= 55. There- fore the required expectation is 165/55=3. 58. Digits taken at Random. — The last question is to be distin- guished from the following. What is the difference (irrespective of sign) between two digits, taken at random from mathematical tables, or the expansion of an endless constant like IT? The com- binations of different digits will now occur twice as often as the repetitions of the same digit. The sum of the differences may now be obtained from the consideration that the sum of the positive differences must be equal to sum of the negative differences when the null differences are distributed equally between the positive and the negative set. The sum of the positive set is, as before, 7 See the introductory remarks headed " Description and Division of the Subject." 8 Cf . above, par. 25. » See Pearson, Phil. Trans. (1895), A. 10 Whitworth, Exercises, No. 502. u Ibid. No. 504, cf. above, par. 29. 12 Ibid. par. 36. METHODS OF CALCULATION] PROBABILITY 385 165. But the denominator of this numerator is not the same as before, but less by half the number of null differences, that is 5. .us obtain for the required expectation 165/50 = 3 3. mple verification of this prediction may thus be ob- \ Professor Morgan Crofton to exhibit Laplace's method of deter- mining the worth of several candidates by combining ' the votes of electors. There is a close relation between this method and the method above given for deter- ' mining the probabilities of several alternatives by combining the judgments of different judges.1 But there is this difference — that the several estimates of worth, unlike those of probability, are not subject to the condition that their sum should be equal to a constant quantity (unity). The guaesita are now ex- pectations, not probabilities. Professor Morgan Crofton's version * of the argument is as follows. Suppose there are n candidates for an office; each elector is to arrange them in what he believes to be the order of merit; and we have first to find the numerical value of the merit he thus implicitly attributes to each candidate. Fixing on some limit a as the maximum of merit, n arbitrary values less than a are taken and then arranged in order of magnitude — least, second, third, . . . greatest ; to find the mean value of each. i Take a line AB = a, and set off n arbitrary lengths AX, AY, AZ . . . beginning at A; that is, n points are taken at random in AB. Now the mean values of AZ, XY, YZ, . . . are all equal; for if a new point P be taken at random, it is equally likely to be 1st, 2nd, 3rd, &c., in order beginning from A, because out of n + i points the chance of an assigned one being 1st is (n+i)-1; of its being 2nd (n + i)-1;and so on. But the chance of P being 1st is equal to the mean value of AX divided by AB; of its being 2nd M(XY)-rAB; and so on. Hence the mean value of AX is w + i)-1; that of AY is 2AB (n + i)"1; and so on. Thus the mean merit assigned to the several candidates is oCn + i)-1, 2o(n + l)-1, 3o(n+i)~l. . .waf.n+i)-1. Thus the relative merits may be estimated by writing under the names of the candidates the numbers i, 2, 3, . . . n. The same being done by each elector, the probability will be in favour of the candidate who has the greatest sum. Practically it is to be feared that this plan would not succeed, because, as Laplace observes, not only are electors swayed by many considerations independent of the merit of the candidates, but they would often place low down in their list any candidate whom they judged a formidable competitor to the one they preferred, thus giving an unfair advantage to candidates of mediocre merit. 63. This objection is less appropriate to competitive examinations, to which the method may seem applicable. But there is a more fundamental objection in this case, if not indeed in every case, to the reasoning on which the method rests: viz. that there is sup- posed an a priori distribution of values which is in general not supposable; viz. that the several estimates of worth, the marks given to different candidates by the same examiner, are likely to r evenly the whole of the tract between the minimum and maximum, e.g. between o and 100. Experience, fortified by theory, shows that very generally such estimates are not thus indifferently disposed, but rather in an order which will presently be described as the normal law of error.* The theorem governing the case would therefore seem to be not that which is applied by Laplace and Morgan Crofton, but that which has been investigated by Karl Pearson,4 a theorem which does not lend itself so readily to the purpose in hand.* 1 Above, par. 52. 1 See Edgeworth, " Element*, «. ^...c... Journ. Slat. Soc. (1890). Cf. below, par. 124 1 Loc. cit. § 45. iments of Chance in Examinations," x--,-,. -f. below, par. 124. Biometrika, \. 390. * Moore, of Columbia University, New York, has attempted to 64. Expectation of Advantage. — The general examples of ex- pectation which have been given may be supplemented by some appropriate to that special use of the term which Laplace has sanc- tioned when he considers the subject of expectation as a " good "; in particular money, or that for the sake of which money is desired, "moral " advantage, in more modern phrase utility or satisfaction. 65. Pecuniary Advantage. — The most important calculations of pecuniary expectation relate to annuities and insurance; based largely on life tables from which the expectation of life itself, as well as of money value at the end, or at any period, of life is predicted. The reader is referred to these heads for practical exemplifications of the calculus. It must suffice here to point out how the calcula- tions are facilitated by the adoption of a .law of frequency, the Gompertz or the Gompertz-Makeham law, which on the one hand can hardly be ranked with hypotheses resting on a vera causa, yet on the other hand is not purely empirical, but is recommended, as germane to the subject-matter, by colourable suppositions.* 66. There is space here only for one or two simple examples of money as the subject of expectation. Two persons A and B throw a die alternately, A beginning, with the understanding that the one who first throws an ace is to receive a prize of £i. What are their respective expectations?7 The chance that the prize should be won at the first throw is J, the chance that it should be won at the second throw is J j ; at the third throw (|)*J, at the fourth throw (j)1 J, and so on. Accordingly the expectation of A expectation of B =£iXH 1 1 +(&)'+(!)'+. - .1. XXII. 13 Thus A's expectation is to B's as i : |. But their expectations must together amount to £i. Therefore A's expectation is ft of a pouud, B's /f. 67. There are n tickets in a bag, numbered i, 2, 3, ... n. A man draws two tickets at once, and is to receive a number of sovereigns equal to the product of the numbers drawn. What is his expectation ?8 It is the number of pounds divided by an improper fraction of which the denominator is the number of possible products, Jn(n — i), and the numerator is the sum of all possible products = i((i +2+3 . . . +n)» — (i» +2l+ . . . + n\. Whence the required number (of pounds) is found to be ^(n+i) (3n+2). The result may be contrasted with what it would be if the two tickets were not to be drawn at once, but the second after replacement of the first. On this supposition the expectation in respect of one of the tickets separately is J(n+i). Therefore, as the two events are now independent, the expectation of the pro- duct,9 being the product of the expectations, is ji(« + i)|l. 68. Peter throws three coins, Paul two. The one who obtains the greater number of heads wins £i. If the number of heads are equal, they play again, and so on, until one or other obtains a greater number of heads. What are their respective expectations?18 At the first trial there are three alternatives: (o) Peter obtains more heads than Paul, (fi) an equal number, (y) fewer. The cases in favour of a are (i) Peter obtains three heads, (2) Peter, two heads, while Paul one or none, (3) Peter one head, Paul none. The cases in favour of /3 are (i) two heads for both, or (2) one head, or (3) none, for both. The remaining case favours y. The probability of a is t+fj+|l = i. The probability of /3 is fi+fj+ii = /,. The probability of y is i — \% =-f,. Alternative 0 is to be split up into three o', 0 , y', of which the probabilities (when ft has occurred) are as before, •ff, ft, A. (?' is similarly split up, and so on. Thus Peter's expectation is i9,lI+A + (i|lj5>+ . . . |£i=A£i. Paul's expectation is -f^£l. An urn contains m balls marked i, 2, 3, . . . m. Paul extracts successively the m balls, under an agreement to give Peter a shilling every time that a ball comes out in its proper order. What is Peter's expectation? The expectation with respect to any one ball is — , and therefore the expectation ; with respect to all is i (shilling).11 69. Advantage subjectively estimated. — Elaborate calculations are paradoxically employed by Laplace and other mathematicians to determine the expectation of subjective advantage in various cases of risk. The calculation is based on Daniel Bernoulli's formula which may be written thus: If * denote a man's physical fortune, and y the corresponding moral fortune y = k log (*/*), *, h being constants, x and y are always positive,andx>ft; forevery trace Karl Pearson's theory in the statistics relating to the efficiency of wages (Economic Journal, Dec. 1907; and Journ. Slot. Soc., Dec. 1907). • Cf. below, par. 169. 7|Whitworth, Choice and Chance, question 126. ' Whitworth, Exercises, No. 567. 9 According to the principle above enounced, par. 15. 1 Bertrand, id. § 44, prob. xlvii. 11 Bertrand, id. § 39, prob. xliii. It is not to be objected that the probabilities on which the several expectations are calculated are not independent (above, par. 16). S 386 PROBABILITY [GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS man must possess some fortune, or its equivalent, in order to live. To estimate now the value of a moral expectation. Suppose a person whose fortune is a to have the chance p of obtaining a sum o, q of obtaining /3, r of obtaining 7, &c., and let P+q+r+ ... =1, only one of the events being possible. Now his moral expectation from the first chance — that is, the increment of his moral fortune multiplied by the chance — is =Pk log Hence his whole moral expectation is l E^kplog (a+a)+kq log(o+0)+*rlog(a+7) + . . . -fcloga; and, if Y stands for his moral fortune including this expectation, that is, k log (a/h) + E, we have \=kp \og(a+a)+kq log(a+0) + . . . -k log h. To find X, the physical fortune corresponding to this moral one, we have Y = k log X — k log h. Hence. X = (a+a)P(a+P)), viz. p*l>'(a)—fif>'(a),=o. Also the second differential coefficient, viz. /^•"(a)+£-^"(a), is negative, since by hypothesis ^* is con- tinually negative. And as o continues to increase from zero, the second differential coefficient of (ya— >»), viz. ^"(a+o)+^'''(a+^a), continues to be negative. Therefore the increments received by the first differential coefficient of (ya — y<>) are continually negative; and therefore (ya.— ya\ is continually negative; y(i+pe), since his physical fortune is increased by the secured sum e, minus the payment (i — p)f, while if he does not insure it will be pi>(l+e) + (l — P)'!' (i). We have then to .compare \Ki +/>«). say yi, with pt(i+e) + (i—p)«), say jrlf with pi}/{i-\-t)-\-g$ (i), say yi. By reasoning analogous to that which has been above employed — observing that (p—p*) ^"(i) is negative for all possible values of p — we conclude that ysx/coa 6; so that the favourable cases will be measured by P>f J-*l* Jo cosS dx = 2c. Thus the probability required is p = 2c/ra. It may be asked — why should we take the centre of the rod as the point where distance from the nearest line has all its values equally probable? Why not one extremity of the line, or some other point suited to the circumstances of projection? Fortunately it makes no difference in the result to what point in the rod we assign this pre-eminence. 77. The legitimacy of the assumption obtains some verification from the success of a test suggested by Laplace. If a rod is actually thrown, as supposed in the problem, a great number of times, and the frequency with which it falls on one of the parallels is observed, that proportionate number thus found, say p, furnishes a value fur the constant T. For T ought to equal 2c/pa. The experiment l>een made by Professor Wolf of Frankfort. Having thrown a needle of length 36 mm. on a plane ruled with parallel lines at ;unce from each other of 45 mm. 5000 times, he observed that the needle crossed a parallel 2532 times. Whence the value of v :. duced 3-1596, with a probable error1 =*= -05. 78. More hesitation may be felt when we have to define a random chord of a circle,8 for instance, with reference to the question, what is the probability that a chord taken at random will be greater than the side of an equilateral triangle? For some purposes it would no doubt be proper to assume that the chord is con- structed by taking any point on the circumference and joining it to another point on the circumference, the points from which one is taken at random being distributed at equal intervals around the circumference. On this understanding the probability in question would be J. But in other connexions, for instance, if the chord is obtained by the intersection with the circle of a rod thrown in random fashion, it seems preferable to consider the chord as a case of a straight line falling at random on a plane. Morgan ion3 himself gives the following definition of such a line: If an infinite number of straight lines be drawn at random in a plane, there will be as many parallel to any given direction as to any other, all directions being equally probable; also those having any given direction will be disposed with equal frequency all over the plane. Hence, if a line be determined by the co-ordinates p, a, the perpendicular on it from a fixed origin O, and the inclination of that perpendicular to a fixed axis, then, if p, constant, the whole number of cases for which w falls between given limits u', w" is the integral JC*dp being taken for all positions of C between two tangents to the boundary parallel to PQ. The question is thus reduced to the evaluation of this double integral, which, of course, is generally difficult enough; we may, however, deduce from it a remarkable result; for, if the integral \JfCsdpd2 = 2(a-HJ)/A =2S/A, which is constant; hence M(AB)/L = S/A. Hence the mean value of the arc is the same fraction of the peri- meter that the constant area S is of the annulus. If L be not related as above to the outer boundary, M(AB)/L = M(S)/A, M(S) being the mean area of the segment cut off by a tangent at a random point on the perimeter L. The above result may be expressed as an integral. If .s be the arc AB included by tangents from any point (x, y) on the annulus, ffsdxdylS. It has been shown (Phil. Trans., 1868, p. 191) that, if 8 be the angle between the tangents XA, XB, ffedxdy=*(A-2S). The mean value of the tangent XA or XB may be shown to be M(XA) = SP/2A, where P = perimeter of locus of centre of gravity of the segment S. 87. When we go on to species of three dimensions further specu- lative difficulties occur. How is a random line through a given point to be defined ? Since it is usual to define a vector by two angles (viz. the angle made with the axis X by a vector r in the plane XY, and 8 (or JTT— 8) the angle made by the vector p with r in the plane containing both p and r and the axis Z) it seems natural to treat the angles i=|. Now to find £>; the chance of Z falling within the triangle WXY is the mean area of WXY divided by ABC. Now by par. 89, for any particular position of W, M(WXY)=\VGG', where G, G' are the centres of gravity of ABW, CBW. It is easy to see that WGG' = JABC = i, putting ABC = l. Now if Z falls in CBW, the chance of WXYZ re-entrant is 2M(IYW), for Y is as likely to fall in WXZ as Z to fall in WXY; also if Z falls in ABW the chance of WXYZ re-entrant is 2M(IXW). Thus the whole chance is p2 = 2M(IYW + IXW) = i- Hence the proba- bility of a re-entrant quadrilateral is M+M-t. That of its being convex is f. From this probability we may pass to the mean value of and 92. the area XYZ, if M be" this mean, the chance of a fourth point falling on the triangle is M/A; and the chance of a re-entrant quadrilateral is four times this, or 4M/A. This chance has just been shown to be J; and accordingly M = ^j A. _ 93. The preceding problem is a par- ticular case of a more general problem investigated by Sylvester. For another instance, let the given area A be a circle; within such three points are taken at random; 'and let M be the mean value of the triangle thus formed. Adding a concentric ring o, we have since M': of the circles, M' = M(A+a)/A. AMo/A=3a(M,-M); .-.M = iM,, where Mt is the value of M when one of the points is on the cir- cumference. Take O fixed; we have to find the mean value of OXY (fig. 9). Taking (p, 6)(p', 6') as co-ordinates of X, Y, (OXY). ,, M as the areas •.•M,=(,r a-x)dxdy, is easily shown to be identical with 2f" f* sinV sin»0' cos O'dSdB' -if si 'Z ' ' Jo JO J° ir. 4'D-O From this mean value we pass to the probability that four points within a circle shall form a re-entrant figure, viz. * I27T2 94. The function of expectation in this class of problem appears to afford an additional justification of the position here assigned to this conception1 as distinguished from an average in the more general sense which is proper to the following Part. PART II. — AVERAGES AND LAWS OF ERROR 95. Averages. — An average may be defined as a quantity derived from a given set of quantities by a process such that, if the constituents become all equal, 'the average will coincide with the constituents, and the constituents not being equal, the average is greater than the least and less than the greatest of the constituents. For example, if Xi,Xt, . . . *n are the con- stituents, the following expressions form averages (called respect- ively the arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means): — (xl X xi X . . . X xn)l. The conditions of an average are likewise satisfied by innumer- able other symmetrical functions, for example: — r.«\ i. The conception may be extended from symmetrical to unsym- metrical functions by supposing any one or more of the constitu- ents in the former to be repeated several times. Thus if in the first of the averages above instanced (the arithmetic mean) the constituent xr, occurs I times, the expression is to be modified by putting lxr for xr in the numerator, and in the denominator, for n, n+r-i. The definition of an average covers a still wider field. The process employed need not be a function? One of the most important averages is formed by arranging the con- stituents in the order of magnitude and taking for the average a value which has as many constituents above it as below it, the median. The designation is also extended to that value about which the greatest number of the constituents cluster most closely, the " centre of greatest density," or (with reference to the geometrical representation of the grouping of the constitu- ents) the greatest ordinate, or, as recurring most frequently, the mode.3 But to comply with the definition there must be added the condition that the mode does not occur at either extremity of the range between the greatest and the least of the constituents. There should be also in general added a definition of the process by which the mode is derived from the given constituents.4 Perhaps this specification may be dispensed 1 See introductory remarks and note to par. 95. 1 A great variety of (functional) averages, including those which are best known, are comprehended in the following general form ^"'(MK^Xi), (xi), . . . (xn)]\', where is an arbitrary function, ~1 is inverse (such that ^"'(^M) — x), M is any (functional) mean. When M denotes the arithmetic mean; if (x) = log x (~1(x)^et) we have the geometric mean; if (x) = i/x, we have the harmonic mean. Of this whole class of averages it is true that the average of several averages is equal to the average of all their constituents. 1 This convenient term was introduced by Karl Pearson. 4 E.g. some specified method of smoothing the given statistics. with when the number of the constituents is indefinitely large. For then it may be presumed that any method of determining the mode will lead to the same result. This presumption pre- supposes that the constituents are quantities of the kind which form the sort of " series " which is proper to Probabilities.5 A similar presupposition is to be made with respect to the con- stituents of the other averages, so far as they are objects of probabilities. 96. The Law of Error. — Of the propositions respecting average with which Probabilities is concerned the most important are those which deal with the relation of the average to its con- stituents, and are commonly called " laws of error." Error is defined in popular dictionaries as " deviation from truth " ; and since truth commonly lies in a mean, while measurements are some too large and some too small, the term in scientific diction is extended to deviations of statistics from their average, even when that average — like the mean of human or barometric heights — does not stand for any real objective thing. A " law of error" is a relation between the extent of a deviation and the frequency with which it occurs: for instance, the proposition that if a digit is taken at random from mathematical tables, the difference between that figure and the mean of the whole series (indefinitely prolonged) of figures so obtained, namely, 4-5, will in the long run prove to be equally often±o-5, ± 1-5,^=2- 5,^3- 5, ±4.5.6 The assignment of frequency to discrete values — as o, i, 2, &c., in the preceding example — is often replaced by a continuous curve with a corresponding equation. The distinc- tion of being the law of error is bestowed on a function which is applicable not merely to one sort of statistics — such as the digits above instanced — but to the great variety of miscellaneous groups, generally at least, if not universally. What form is most deserving of this distinction is not decided by uniform usage; different authorities do not attach the same weight to the different grounds on which the claim is based, namely the extent of cases to which the law may be applicable, the closeness of the application, and the presumption prior to specific experi- ence in favour of the law. The term " the law of error " is here employed to denote (i) a species to which the title belongs by universal usage, (2) a wider class in favour of which there is the same sort of a priori presumption as that which is held to justify the more familiar species. The law of error thus understood forms the subject of the first section below. 97. Laws of Frequency. — What other laws of error may require notice are included in the wider genus " laws of fre- quency," which forms the subject of the second section. Laws of frequency, so far as they belong to the domain of Probabilities, relate much to the same sort of grouped statistics as laws of error, but do not, like them, connote an explicit reference to an average. Thus the sequence of random digits above instanced as affording a law of error, considered without reference to the mean value, presents the law of frequency that one digit occurs as often as another (in the long run). Every law of error is a law of frequency; but the converse is not true. For example, it is a law of frequency — discovered by Professor Pareto7 — that the number of incomes of different size (above a certain size) is approximately represented by the equation y=A./x°, where x denotes the size of an income, y the number of incomes of that size. But whether this generalization can be construed as a law of error( in the sense here defined) depends on the nice inquiry whether the point from which the frequency diminishes as the income x increases can be regarded as a " mode," y diminishing as x decreases from that point. 6 See above, pt. i., pars. 3 and 4. Accordingly the expected value of the sum of n (similar) constituents (xi+xi+. . . + xa) may be regarded as an average, the average value of nxr where XT is any one of the constituents. 6 See as to the fact and the evidence for it, Venn, Logic of Chance, 3rd ed., pp. in, 114. Cf. Ency. Brit., 8th ed., art " Probability," p. 592; Bertrand, op. cit., preface § ii. ; above, par. 59. 7 See his Cours d'econoime politique, ii. 306. Cf. Bowley, Evidence before the Select Committee on Income Tax (1906, No. 365, Question 1163 seq.); Benini, Metodologica statistica, p. 324, referred to in the Journ. Slot. Soc. (March, 1909). LAWS OF ERROR] PROBABILITY 391 Section I. — The Law of Error. 98. (i) The Normal Law of Error. — The simplest and best recog- nized statement of the law of error, often called the " normal law," is the equation z-- ^ more conveniently written (i/Virc) exp — (x— «)*/«*! . where x is the magnitude of an observation or " statistic," z is the pro- portional frequency of observations measuring x, a is the arithmetic mean of the group (supposed indefinitely1 multiplied) of similar statistics : c is a constant sometimes called the " modulus"1 proper to the group; and the equation signifies that if any large number N of such a group is taken at random, the number of observations between x and x + AX is (approximately) equal to the right-hand side of the equation multiplied by NAX. _ A graphical representation of the corresponding curve — sometimes railed the " probability-curve " — is here given (fig. 10), showing the general shape of the curve, and how its dimensions vary with the magnitude of the modulus c. The area being constant (viz. unity), the curve is furled up when c is small, spread out when c ige. There is added a table of integrals, corresponding to areas subtended by the curve; in a form suited for calculations of probability, the variable, T, being the length of the abscissa referred to (divided by) the modulus.3 It may be noted that the points of inflexion in the figure are each at a distance from the origin of I/V2 modulus, a distance equal to the square foot of the mean square of error — often called the " standard deviation." Another notable value of the abscissa is that which divides the area on either side of the origin into two equal parts; commonly called the " probable error." The value of T which corresponds to this point is 0-4769. . . . FIG. 10. 99. An a priori proof of this law was given by Herschel4 as follows: " The probability of an error depends solely on its magni- tude and not on its direction;" positive and negative errors are equally probable. " Suppose a ball dropped from a given height with the intention that it should fall on a given mark," errors in all directions are equally probable, and errors in perpendicular directions are independent. Accord- ingly the required law, " which must necessarily be general and apply alike in all cases, since the causes of error are supposed alike unknown," 5 is for one dimension of the form <£(**), for two dimcn- 1 On this conception see below, par. 122. 'E.g. in the article on " Probability " in the 9th_ed._of the Ency. Brit.; also by Airy and other authorities. Bravais, in his article Sur la probabilite ties erreurs. ..." Memoires presentes par clivers savants " (1846), p. 257, takes as the " modulus or parameter "_the inverse square of our c. Doubtless different parameters are suited to different purposes and contexts; c when we consult the common tables, and in connexion with the operator, as below, par. 160; k( = Je3) when we investigate the formation of the probability-curve out of independent elements (below, par. 104); A( = I/CJ) when we are concerned with weights or precisions (below, par. 134). If one form of the coefficient must be uniformly adhered to, probably, ff( = c'V2), for which Professor Pearson expresses a preference, appears the best. It is called by him the " standard deviation." * Fuller tables are to be found in many accessible treatises. Burgess's tables in the Trans, of the Edin. Roy. 5oc._ for_ 1900 are carried to a high degree of accuracy. Thorndike, in his Mental and Social Measurements, gives, among other useful tables, one referred to the standard deviation as the argument. New tables of the probability integral are given by W. F. Sheppard, Biometrics, ii. 174 seq. 4 Edinburgh Review (1850), xcii. 19. 'The italics are in the original. The passage continues: " And T I T I T I T 1 O'OO o-ooooo •2 •22270 •3 93401 24 99931 •01 •01128 •3 •32863 •4 95229 25 99959 •02 •02256 '4 •42839 •5 966II 26 99976 °3 •03384 •5 52050 6 •97635 27 •99986 •04 •04511 6 60386 7 •98379 28 99992 •f>5 •05637 7 •67780 8 98909 2-9 99996 •06 •06762 •8 74210 9 99279 3-o 99998 •07 •07886 9 79691 2-0 99532 oo I -OOOOO •08 •09008 i-o 84270 2-1 99702 •09 •10128 i i •88020 2 '2 W«I4 •i •11246 1-2 •9I03I 2'3 •99886 sions (x?+y*); and (x1 + y») SB 4, (*») X ^(y) ; a functional equation of which the solution is the function above written. A reason which satisfied Herschel is entitled to attention, especially if it is endorsed by Thomson and Tait.4 But it must be confessed that the claim to universality is not, without some strain of inter- pretation,7 to be reconciled with common experience. Table of the Valves of the Integral I =TJ Q 100. There is, however, one class of phenomena to which Herschel's reasoning applies without reservation. In a " molecular chaos," such as the received kinetic theory of gases postulates, if a molecule be placed at rest at a given point and the distance which it travels from that point in a given time, driven hither and thither by collid- ing molecules, is regarded as an " error," it may be presumed that errors in all directions are equally probable and errors in perpen- dicular directions are independent. It is remarkable that a similar presumption with respect to the velocities of the molecules was employed by Clerk Maxwell, in his first approach to the theory of molecular motion, to establish the law of error in that region. 101. The Laplace-Quetelet Hypottesis. — That presumption has, indeed, not received general assent ; and the law of error appears to be better rested on a proof which was originated by Laplace. Accord- ing to this view, the normal law of error is a first approximation to the frequency with which different values are apt to be assumed by a \ariable magnitude dependent on a great number of inde- pendent variables, each of which assumes different values in random fashion over a limited range, according to a law of error, not in general the law, nor in general the same for each variable._ The normal law prevails in nature because it often happens — in the world of atoms, in organic and in social lite — that things depend on a number of independent agencies. Laplace, indeed, appears to have applied the mathematical principle on which this explana- tion depends only to examples (of the law of error) artificially generated by the process of taking averages. The merit of account- ing for the prevalence of the law in rerum natura belongs rather to Quetelet. He, however, employed too simple a formula8 for the action of the causes. The hypothesis seems first to have been stated in all its generality both of mathematical theory and statistical exemplification by Glaisher.' 102. The validity of the explanation may best be tested by first (A) deducing the law of error from the condition of numerous independent causes; and (B) showing that the law is ..._.. adequately fulfilled in a variety of concrete cases, in (£> ~* which the condition is probably present. The con- !°" ™ dition may be supposed to be perfectly fulfilled in games freticul of chance, or, more generally, sortitions, characterized by Coaaf. the circumstance that we have a knowledge prior to tioas specific experience of the proportion of what Laplace calls favourable cases10 to all cases — a category which includes, for instance, the distribution of digits obtained by random extracts from mathematical tables, as well as the distribution of the numbers of points on dominoes. 103. The genesis of the law of error is most clearly illustrated by the simplest sort of " game," that in which the sortition is between two alternatives, heads or tails, hearts or not-hearts, or, gener- ally, success or failure, the probability of a success being p and that of a failure q, where £ + = V«i is given by the above- written law of frequency, vi being the distance of the stopping- point from npi. Put vi = x and 2»/>gi2=c2; then the probability may be written (I/VT c) exp— *2/c2. 104. It is a short step, but a difficult one, from this case, in which the element is binomial — heads or tails — to the general case, in which the element has several values, according to the law of frequency — consists, for instance, of the number of points pre- sented by a 'randomly-thrown die. According to the general theorem, if Q is the sum 2 of numerous elements, each of which assumes different magnitudes according to a law of frequency, z=fr(x), the function / being in general different for differ- ent elements, the number of times that Q assumes magnitudes between x and x+Ax in the course of N trials is NzAx, if z = (i/V2?r£) exp — (x— o)2/2fe; where o is the sum of the arithmetic means of all the elements, any one of which o, = |jx/r(x)( +£) =4>( — £) ; the construction signifying that the probability of the element having a value £ (between say £ — JA£ and £ + $A£) is 0(£)A|. Square brackets denoting summation between extreme limits, put x(a) for [S^)^ la* A£] where £ is an integer multiple of A£ (or Ax)=pAx, say. Form the mth power of x(«). The coefficient of e* * in (x(<0)m is the probability that the sum of the values of the m elements should be equal to rAx; a probability which is equal to Ax>, where y is the ordinate of the locus representing the frequency of the compound quantity (formed by the sum of the elements). Owing to the symmetry of the function the value of 3V, will not be altered if we substitute fore* , e , nor if we substitute K« + e ), that is cos arAx. Thus (x(a))m becomes a sum of terms of the form Aryr cos arAx, where y_,=y+r. Now multiply (x(<0)m thus expressed by cos t&xa, where, t being an integer, t&x = x, the abscissa of the "error" the probability of whose occurrence is to be determined. The product will consist of a sum of terms of the form bxy, J(cos a(r-H)Ax+cos a(r — /)Ax). As every value of[r— / (except zero) is matched by a value [equal in absolute magnitude, —r+t, and likewise every value of r+t is matched by value —r—t, the series takes the form AxjvS cos qaAx+Axy,, where q has all possible integer values from I to the largest value of |r|8 increased by |/|; and the term free from circular functions is the equivalent of Axyr cos a(r+t)Ax, when r=—t, together with Axyr cos a(r— /)Ax, when r = +l. Now sub- stitute for aAx a new symbol (3; and integrate with respect to /3, the thus transformed (x(<»))m cos tAxa between the limits /3 = o and /3 = ir. The integrals of all the terms which are of the form Axjvcos g/3 will vanish, and there will be left surviving only irAxj',. We thus obtain, as equal to ir&xy,, \ or{xWAx)}mcos tpdf). Now change the independent variable to o; then as df} = da&x, )m cos HJ both large). Then Q a quantity formed by adding to- gether each pair of concurrent values presented by A and B must also conform to the law of error, since Q is the sum of m\+mt elements. The general form which satisfies this condition of reproductivity is limited by other conditions to the normal law of error.4 in. The list of variant proofs is not yet exhausted,' but enough has been said to establish the proposition that a sum of numerous elements of the kind described will fluctuate approximately according to the normal law of error. 112. As the number of elements is increased, the constant above designated k continually increases; so that the curve representing „ . the frequency of the compound magnitude spreads out from its centre. It is otherwise if instead of the simple sum we consider the linear function formed by adding the m elements each multiplied by l/m. The spread " of the average thus constituted will continually diminish as the number of the elements is increased; the sides closing in as the 'The Analyst (Iowa), vols. v., vi., vii. passim; and especially vi. 142 seq., vii. 172 seq. 1 Morgan Crofton, loc. cit. p. 781, col. a. The principle has been used by the present writer in the Phil. Mag. (1883), xvi. 301. 1 For a criticism and extension of Crofton's proof see the already cited paper on " The Law of Error," Camb. Phil. Trans. (1905), pt. i. § 2. Space does not permit the reproduction of Crofton's proof as given in the 9th ed. of the Ency. Brit. (art. " Probability," 548). 4 Loc. cit. pt. I. § 4; and app. 6. 1 Loc. cit. p. 122 seq. vertex rises up. The change in " spread " produced by the accession of new elements is illustrated by the transition from the high to the low curve, in fig. 10, in the case of a sum; in the case of an average (arithmetic mean) by the reverse relation. 113. The proposition which has been proved for linear functions may be extended to any other function of numerous variables, each representing the value assumed by an independently fluctuating element; if the function may be expanded Extea*la!> in ascending powers of the variables, according to *° Taylor's theorem, and all the powers after the first „ may be neglected. The matter is not so simple as it is FuactJoa*- often represented, when the variable elements may assume large, perhaps infinite, values; but with the aid of the postulate above enunciated the difficulty can be overcome.* 114. All the proofs which have been noticed have been extended to errors in two (or more) dimensions.7 Let Q be the sum of a number of elements, each of which, being a function- of two variables, x and y, assumes different pairs of, . values according to a law of frequency \z,=fr(x, y), the functions being in general different for different elements.n/"1" The frequency with which Q assumes values of the variables between * and +A* and between y and y+Ay is zAxAy, if , _ I _ m(x-a)*-2l(x - a)(q - b) + k(y - 6)» P p ~ 2(km-P) ~: where, as in the simpler case, a = Za,, a, being the arithmetic mean of the values of * assumed in the long run by one of the elements, 6 is the corresponding sum for values of y, and = 2 \_Jfi* ~ ar)I/r(*> - V)Mx, the summation extending over all the elements, and the integration between the extreme limits of each; supposing that the law of frequency for each element is contin- j- uous, otherwise summation is to be substituted for integration. For ex- ample, let each element be constituted as follows: Three coins having been tossed, the number of heads presented by the first and second coins together is put for x, the number of heads pre- ' sented by the second and third coins together is put for y. The law of fre- quency for the element is represented in fig. n, the integers outside denoting the values of x or y, the fractions in- side probabilites of particular values t of x and y concurring. - If i is the distance from o to I and FIG. IJ- from i to 2 on the abscissa, and i' the corresponding distance on the ordinate, the mean of the values of x for the element — Aa, as we may say, — is *', and the corresponding mean square of horizontal deviations is i'v L.ikewise A6 = »'; Am = Jt's; and A/ = i(+»X-H'-»X -»') = ftt . Accordingly, if n such elements are put together (if n steps of the kind which the diagram represents are taken), the frequency with which a particular pair of aggregates x and y will concur, with which a particular point on the plane of xy, namely, x = ri and • — ri, will be reached, is given by the equation t z = 2 ^P - (r ~ n)V~ (r ~ n)(r' - n)"' 115. A verification is afforded by a set of statistics obtained with dice by Weldon, and here reproduced by his permission. A success is in this experiment defined, not by obtaining a head when a coin is tossed, but by obtaining a face with more than three points on it when a die is tossed ; the probabilities of the two events are the same, or rather would be if coins and dice were perfectly symmetrical.' Professor Weldon virtually took six steps of the sort above described when, six painted dice having been thrown, he added the number of successes in that painted batch to the number of successes in another batch of six to form his x, and to the number of successes in a third batch of six to form his y. The result is represented in the annexed table, where each degree on the axis of x and y respectively corre- sponds to the » and i' of the 'preceding paragraphs, and «'= t'. The observed frequencies being represented by numerals, a general correspondence between the facts and the formula is apparent. ' Loc. cit. pt. ii. § 7. '.The second by Burbury, in Phil. Mag. (1894), xxxvii. 145; the third by its author in the Analyst for 1881 ; and the remainder by the present writer in Phil. Mag. (1896), xii. 247; and Cam*. Phil. Trans. (1905), loc. cit. * Compare the formula for the simple case above, § 4. 9 On the irregularity of the dice with which Weldon experimented, see Pearson, Phil. Mag. (1900), p. 167. 394 PROBABILITY [LAWS OF ERROR The maximum frequency is, as it ought to be, at the point x = 6i, y = 6i'. The density is particularly great along a line through that point, making 45° with the axis of x; particularly small in the complementary direction. This also is as it ought to be. For if the centre is made the origin by substituting x for (x— a) and y for (y—b), and then new co-ordinates X and Y are taken, making an angle 6 with * and y respectively, the curve which is traced on the plane of zX by its intersection with the surface is of the form z=J exp-X2[fe sin2 0-2l cos 6 sin 6+m coss 6]/2(km-P), a probability-curve which will be more or less spread out according as the factor k sin2 0— 2l cos 0 sin B-\-m cos2 8 is less or greater. Now this expression has a minimum or maximum when (k— m) sin 0—2l cos 28=0; a minimum when (k — m) cos 20+2 /sin 26 is positive, and a maximum when that criterion is negative; that is, in the present case, where k = m, a minimum when 6 = \v and a maximum when 0 = Jir. 0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 12 11 i i 5 I i 10 2 6 28 27 19 2 9 i 2 II 43 76 57 54 15 4 8 6 18 49 116 138 118 59 25 5 7 12 47 109 208 213 118 71 23 i 6 9 29 77 199 244 198 121 32 3 5 3 12 51 119 181 200 129 69 18 3 4 2 16 55 IOO 117 91 46 19 3 3 2 H 28 53 43 34 17 I 2 7 12 13 18 4 i I 1 2 4 i 2 i 0 116. Characteristics of the Law of Error.1 — As may be presumed from the examples just given, in order that there should be some approximation to the normal law the number of elements need not be very great. A very tolerable imitation of the probability-curve has been obtained by superposing three elements, each obeying a law of frequency quite different from the normal one,2 namely, that simple law according to which one value of a variable occurs as frequently as another between the limits within which the variation is confined (y = i/2a, between limits x=+a, *=— a). If the component elements obey unsymmetrical laws of frequency, the compound will indeed be to some extent unsymmetrical, unlike the " normal " probability-curve. But, as the number of the elements is increased, the portion of the compound curve in the neighbourhood of its centre of gravity tends to be rounded off into the normal shape. The portion of the compound curve which is sensibly identical with a curve of the " normal " family becomes greater the greater the number of independent elements ; caeteris paribus, and granted certain conditions as to the equality and the range of the elements. It will readily be granted that if one component predominates, it may unduly impress its own character on the compound. But it should be pointed out that the characteristic with which we are now concerned is not average magnitude, but deviation from the average. The component elements may be very unequal in their contributions to the average magnitude of the compound without prejudice to its " normal " character, provided that the fluctuation of all or many of the elements is of one and the same order. The proof of the law requires that the contribution made by each element to the mean square of deviation for the compound, k, should be small, capable of being treated as differential with respect to k. It is not necessary that all these small quantities should be of the same order, but only that they should admit of being rearranged, by massing together those of a smaller order, as a numerous set of 1 Experiments in pari materia performed by A. D. Darbishire afford additional illustrations. See " Some Tables for illustrating Statistical Correlation," Mem. and Proc. Man. Lit., and Phil. Soc., vol. li. pt. iii. 1 Journ. Slot. Soc. (March 1900), p. 73, referring to Burton, Phil. Mag. (1883), xvi. 301. independent elements in which no two or three stand out as sui generis in respect of the magnitude of their fluctuation. For example, if one element consist of the number of points on a domino (the sum of two digits taken at random), and other elements, each of either i or o according as heads or tails turn up when a coin is cast, the first element, having a mean square of deviation l6'5, will not be of the same order as the others, each having 0-25 for its mean square of deviation. But sixty-six of the latter taken together would con- stitute an independent element of the same order as the first one; and accordingly if there are several times sixty-six elements of the latter sort, along with one or two of the former sort, the conditions for the generation of the normal distribution will be satisfied. These propositions would evidently be unaffected by altering the average magnitude, without altering the deviation from the average, for any element, that is, by adding a greater or less fixed magnitude to each element. The propositions are adapted to the case in which the elements fluctuate according to a law of frequency other than the normal. For if they are already normal, the aforesaid conditions are unnecessary. The normal law will be obeyed by the sum of elements which each obey it, even though they are not numerous and not independent and not of the same order in respect of the extent of fluctuation. A similar distinction is to be drawn with respect to some further conditions which the reasoning requires. A limita- tion as to the range of the elements is not necessary when they are already normal, or even have a certain affinity to the normal curve. Very large values of the element are not excluded, provided they are sufficiently rare. What has been said of curves with special reference to one dimension is of course to be extended to the case of surfaces and many dimensions. In all cases the theorem that under the conditions stated the normal law of error will be generated is to be distinguished from the hypothesis that the conditions are fairly well fulfilled in ordinary experience. 117. Having deduced the genesis of the law of error from ideal conditions such as are attributed to perfectly fair ._ ., ... games of chance, we have next to inquire how far^ rf these conditions are realized and the law fulfilled in common experience. 118. Among important concrete cases errors of observation occupy a leading place. The theory is brought to bear on this case by the hypothesis that an error is the algebraic sum of _ numerous elements, each varying according to a law of frequency special to itself. This hypothesis involves two assumptions: (i) that an error is dependent on numerous independent causes; (2) that the function expressing that dependence can be treated as a linear function, by expanding in terms of ascend- ing powers (of the elements) according to Taylor's theorem and neglecting higher powers, or otherwise. The first assumption seems, in Dr Glaisher's words, " most natural and true. In any observation where great care is taken, so that no large error can occur, we can see that its accuracy is influenced by a great number of circumstances which ultimately depend on independent causes: the state of the observer's eye and his physiological condition in general, the state of the atmosphere, of the different parts of the instrument, &c., evidently depend on a great number of causes, while each contributes to the actual error."3 The second assumption seems to be frequently realized in nature. But the assumption is not always safe. For example, where the velocities of molecules are distributed according to the normal law of error, with zero as centre, the energies must be distributed according to a quite different law. This rationale is applicable not only to the fallible perceptions of the senses, but also to impressions into which a large ingredient of inference enters, such as estimates of a man's height or weight from his appearance,4 and even higher acts of judgment.6 Aiming at an object is an act similar to measuring an object, misses are produced by much the same variety of causes as mistakes; and, accordingly, it is found that shots aimed at the same bull's-eye are apt to be distributed according to the normal law, whether in two dimensions on a target or according to their horizontal deviations, as exhibited below (par. 156). A residual class comprises miscellaneous statistics, physical as well as social, in which the normal law of error makes its appearance, presumably in consequence of the action M/sce;. of numerous independent influences. Well-known t instances are afforded by human heights and other statistics bodily measurements, as tabulated by Quetelet 6 and others.7 Professor Pearson has found that " the normal curve suffices to describe within the limits of random sampling the distri- bution of the chief characters in man."8 The tendency of social phenomena to conform to the normal law of frequency is well 8 Memoirs of Astronomical Society (1878), p. 105. 4 Journ. Slat. Soc. (1890), p. 462 seq. 6 E.g. the marking of the same work by different examiners. Ibid. f Lettres sur la theorie des probabilites and Physique sociale. 7 E.g. the measurements of Italian recruits, adduced in the Atlante statisttco, published under the direction of the Ministero de Agricul- tura (Rome, 1882); and Weldon's measurements of crabs, Proc. Roy. Soc. liv. 321; discussed by Pearson in the Trans. Roy. Soc. (1894), vol. clxxxv. A. 8 Biometrika, iii. 395. Cf. ibid. p. 141. LAWS OF ERROR] PROBABILITY 395 exemplified by A. L. Bowley's grouping of the wages paid to different classes.1 119. The division of concrete errors which has been proposed is not to be confounded with another twofold classification, namely, observations which stand for a real objective thing, and eta Hlca- su statistics as are not thus representative of something outside themselves, groups of which the mean is called " subjective." This division would be neither clear nor useful. On the one hand so-called real means are often only approxi- mately equal to objective quantities. Thus the proportional frequency with which one face of a die — the MX suppose — turns up is only approximately given by the objective fact that the six is one face of a nearly perfect cube. For a set of dice with which Weldon experimented, the average frequency of a throw, presenting either five or six points, proved to be not -3, but 0-3377.* The difference of this result from the regulation 0-3 is as unpredictable from objective data, prior to experiment, as any of the means called subjective or fictitious. So the mean of errors of observation often differs from the thing observed by a so-called "constant error." So shots may be constantly deflected from the bull's-eye by a steady wind or " drift." 1 20. On the other hand, statistics, not purporting to represent a real object, have more or less close relations to magnitudes which cannot be described as fictitious. Where the items averaged are ratios, e.g. the proportion of births or deaths to the total population in several districts or other sections, it sometimes happens that the distribution of the ratios exactly corresponds to that which is ob- tained in the simplest games of chance-^-" combinational " distribu- tion in the phrase of Lexis.* There is unmistakably suggested a sortition of the simplest type, with a real ascertainable relation between the number of " favourable cases " and the total number of cases. The most remarkable example ot this property is presented by the proportion of male to female (or to total) births. Some other instances are given by Lexis 4 and Westergaard.5 A similar correspondence between the actual and the " combinational " dis- tribution has been found by Bortkevitch * in the case of very small probabilities (in which case the law of error is no longer " normal "). And it is likely that some ratios — such as general death-rates — not presenting combinational distribution, might be broken up into subdivisions — such as death-rates for different occupations or age- periods — each distributed in that simple fashion. 121. Another sort of averages which it is difficult to class as sub- jective rather than objective occurs in some social statistics, under the designation of index-numbers. The percentage which repre- sents the change in the value of money between two epochs is seldom regarded as the mere average change in the price of several articles taken at random, but rather as the measure of something, e.g. the variation in the price of a given amount of commodities, or of a unit of commodity.7 So something substantive appears to be de- signated by the volume of trade, or that of the consumption of the working classes, of which the growth is measured by appropriate index-numbers,* the former due to Bourne and Sir Robert Giffen,* the latter to George Wood.10 122. But apart from these peculiarities, any set of statistics may be related to a certain quaesitum, very much as measurements are related to the object measured. That quaesitum is the limiting or ultimate mean to which the series of statistics, if indefinitely prolonged, would converge, the mean of the complete group; this conception of a limit applying to any frequency-constant, to " c," for instance, as well as " a " in the case of the normal curve." The given statistics may be treated as samples from which to reason up to the true constant by that principle of the calculus which determines the comparative probability of different causes from which an observed event may have emanated." 123. Thus it appears that there is a characteristic more essential to the statistician than the existence of an objective quaesitum, namely, the use of that method which is primarily, but not ex- clusively, proper to that sort of quaesitum — inverse probability." 1 Wages in the United Kingdom in the Nineteenth Century; and art. " Wages " in the Ency. Brit., loth ed., vol. xxxiii. • Phil. Mag. (1900), p. 168. 3 Cf. Journ. Stat. Soc., Jubilee No., p. 192. 4 Massenerscheinungen. 4 Grundzuge dermStatistik. Cf. Bowley, Elements of Statistics, p. 302. • Das Gesetz der kleinen Zahlen. I See for other definitions Report of the British Association (1889), pp. 136 and 161, and compare Walsh's exhaustive Measurement of General Exchange- Value. 8 Cf. Bowley, Elements of Statistics, ch. ix. • Journ. Stat. Soc. (1874 and later). Parly. Papers (C. 2247] and [C. 3079]- M " Working-Class Progress since 1860," Journ. Stat. Soc. (1899), P- 639. II On this conception compare Venn, Logic of Chance, chs. iii. and iv., and Sheppard, Proc. Land. Math. Soc., p. 363 seq. u Laplace's 6th principle, Theorie analytique, intro. x. " See above, pars. 13 and 14. Without that delicate instrument the doctrine of error can seldom be fully utilized; but some of its uses may be indicated before the introduction of technical difficulties. 124 Having established the prevalence of the law of error,14 we go on to its applications. The mere presumption that wherever three or four independent causes co-operate, the law of error . tends to be set up, has a certain speculative interest.1* The assumption of the law as a hypothesis is legjti- ±*N -, mate. When the presumption is confirmed by specific ™* experience this knowledge is apt to be turned to «••"'• account. It is usefully applied to the practice of gunnery,1* to determine the proportion of shots which under assigned con- ditions may be expected to hit a zone of given size. The expendi- ture of ammunition required to hit an object can thence be inferred. Also the comparison between practice under different conditions is facilitated. In many kinds of examination it is tound that the total marks given to different candidates for answers to the same set of ?uestions range approximately in conformity with the law of error. t is understood that the civil service commissioners have founded on this fact some practical directions to examiners. Apart from such direct applications, it is a useful addition to our knowledge of a class that the measurable attributes of its members range in conformity with this general law. Something is added to the truth that " the days of a man are threescore and ten," if we may regard that epoch, or more exactly for England, 72, as " Nature's aim, the length of life for which she builds a man, the dispersion on each side of this point being . . . nearly normal."17 So Herschel says: " An [a mere] average gives us no assurance that the future will be like the past. A [normal] mean may be reckoned on with the most complete confidence."1* The existence of independent causes,19 in- ferred from the fulfilment of the normal law, may be some guarantee of stability. In natural history especially have the conceptions supplied by the law of error been fruitful. Investigators aTe already on the track of this inquiry: if those members of a species whose size or other measurable attributes are above (or below) the average are preferred — by " natural " or some other kind of selection — as parents, how will the law of frequency as regards that attribute be modified in the next generation!1 125. A particularly perfect application of the normal law of error in more than one dimension is afforded by the movements of the molecules in a homogeneous gas. A general idea of the rdle played by probabilities in the explanation "»"" of these movements may be obtained without entering *™ *"' ™" °' into the more complicated and controverted parts of v,°. . the subject, without going beyond the initial very ** abstract supposition of perfectly elastic equal spheres. For con- venience of enunciation we may confine ourselves to two dimen- sions. Let us imagine, then, an enormous billiard-table with perfectly elastic cushions and a frictionless cloth on which millions of perfectly elastic balls rush hither and thither at random — colliding with each other — a homogeneous chaos, with that sort of uniformity in the midst of diversity which is characteristic of probabilities. Upon this hypothesis, if we fix attention on any n balls taken at random — they need not be, according to some they ought not to be, contiguous — if n is very large, the average properties will be approxi- mately the same as those of the total mixture. In particular the average energy of the n balls may be equated to the average energy of the total number of balls, say T/N, if T is the total energy and N the total number of the balls. Now if we watch any one of the n specimen balls long enough for it to undergo a great number of collisions, we observe that either of its velocity-components, say that in the direction of x, viz. u, receives accessions from an immense number of independent causes in random fashion. We may presume, therefore, that these will be distributed (among the n balls) according to the law of error. The law will not be of the type which was first supposed, where the " spread " continually increases as the number of the elements is increased." Nor will it be of the type which was afterwards mentioned " where the spread diminishes as the number of the elements is increased. The linear function by which the ele- ments are aggregated is here of an intermediate type; such that the mean square of deviation corresponding to the velocity remains constant. The method of composition might be illustrated by the process of taking r digits at random from mathematical tables adding the differences between each digit and 4-5 the mean value of digits, and dividing the sum by Vr. Here are some figures obtained by taking at random batches of sixteen digits from the expansion of IT, subtracting 16X4-5 from the sum of each batch, and dividing the remainder by V 16: — 14 Cf. above, par. 102. 11 Cf. Gallon's enthusiasm, Natural Inheritance, p. 66. 16 A lucid statement of the methods and results of probabilities applied to gunnery is given in the Official Text-book of Gunnery (1902). 17 Venn, Journ. Stat. Soc. (1891), p. 443. w Ed. Rev. (1850), xcii. 23. "Cf. Gallon, Phil. Mag. (1875), xlix. 44. "Above, par. 112. « Ibid. 396 PROBABILITY [LAWS OF ERROR +1-25, +075, -i, -i, +5-5. -2-75- +0-75- -2, +1-75. +3-25. +0-25, -2-75, -2-25, -o-s, +4-75, +0-25. If, instead of sixteen, a million digits went to each batch, the general character of the series would be much the same; the aggregate figures would continue to hover about zero with a standard deviation of 8-25, a probable error of nearly 2. Here for instance are seven aggregates formed by recombining 252 out of the 256 digits above utilized into batches of 36 according to the prescribed rule: viz. subtracting 36X4-5 from the sum of each batch of 36 and dividing the remainder by V36: — -0-5. +3-3, +2-6, -0-6, +1-5, -2, +i. The illustration brings into view the circumstance that though the system of molecules may start with a distribution of velocities other than the normal, yet by repeated collisions the normal distribution will be superinduced. If both the velocities « and v are distributed according to the law of error for one dimension, we may presume that the joint values of « and v conform to the normal surface. Or we may reason directly that as the pair of velocities u and v is made up of a great number of elementary pairs (the co-ordinates in each of which need not, initially at least, be supposed uncorrelated) the law of frequency for concurrent values of u and v must be of the normal form which may be written l = 2V(fe>n.l-r2)exP- It may be presumed that r, the coefficient of correlation, is zero, for, owing to the symmetry of the influences by which the molecular chaos is brought about, it is not to be supposed that there is any connexion or repugnance between one direction of u, say south to north, and one direction of v, say west to east. For a like reason k must be supposed equal to m. Thus the average velocity = 2k; which multiplied by m, the mass of a sphere, is to be equated to the average energy T/N. The reasoning may be extended with confi- dence to three dimensions, and with caution to contiguous molecules. 126. Correlation cannot be ignored in another application of the many-dimensioned law of error, its use in biological inquiries to Normal investigate the relations between different generations. Correlation ^ was f°und by Galton that the heights and other in Biology. measurable attributes of children of the same parents range about a mean which is not that of the parental heights, but nearer the average of the general population. The amount of this " regression " is simply proportional to the distance of the " mid-parent's " height from the general average. This is a case of very general law which governs the relations not only between members of the same family, but also between members of the same organism, and generally between two (or more) coexistent or in any way co-ordinated observations, each belonging to a normal group. Let x and y be the measurements of a pair thus constituted. Then 2 it may be expected that the conjunction of particular values for x and y will approximately obey the two-dimensioned normal law whichjhas been already exhibited (see par. 114). 127. Regression-lines. — In the expression above given, put //V km = r, and the equation for the frequency of pairs having values of the attribute under measurement becomes This formula is of very general application.3 If two sets of measure- ments were made on the height, or other measurable feature, of the proverbial " Goodwin Sands " and " Tenterden Steeple," and the first measurement of one set was coupled with the first of the other set, the second with the second, and so on, the pairs of magnitudes thus presented would doubtless vary according to the above-written law, only in that case r would presumably be zero ; the expression for z would reduce to the product of the two independent probabilities that particular values of x and y should concur. But slight inter- dependences between things supposed to be totally unconnected would often be discovered by this law of error in two or more dimen- sions.4 It may be put in a more convenient form by substituting £ for (*— o)/V& and ri for (y — 6)/V«. The equation of the surface then becomes 2 = (i/2irVi - r*) exp-[J* - 2r£i; + rf}J2(i — r2). If the frequency of observations in the vicinity of a point is repre- sented by the number of dots in a small increment of area, when r = o the dots will be distributed uniformly about the origin, the curves of equal probability will be circles. When r is different from zero 'Above, par. 114, and below, par. 127. 2 Some plurality of independent causes is presumable. * Herschel's a priori proposition concerning the law of error in two dimensions (above, par. 99) might still be defended either as generally true, so many phenomena showing no trace of interdependence, or on the principle which justifies our putting J for a probability that is unknown (above, par. 6), or 5 for a decimal place that is neglected ; correlation being equally likely to be positive or negative. The latter sort of explanation may be offered for the less serious contrast between the a priori and the empirical proof of the law of error in one dimension (below, par. 158). 4 Cf. above, par. 115. the dots will be distributed so that the majority will be massed in two quadrants : in those for which £ and >j are both positive or both negative when r is positive, in those for which £ and i/ have opposite signs when r is negative. In the limiting case, when r = I the whole host will be massed along the line ij=£, every deviation £ being attended with an equal deviation TJ. In general, to any deviation of one of the variables £' there corresponds a set or " array (Pearson) of values of the other variable ; for which the frequency is given by substituting £' for £ in the general equation. The section thus obtained proves to be a normal probability-curve with standard deviation V (i — r2). The most probable value of TJ corresponding to the assigned value of £ is r£'. The equation jj — r£, or rather what it becomes when translated back to our original co-ordinates (y — b)/ r, o * * each r, e.g. r2j ( = r3i), is the coefficient of correlation between two of the variables, e.g. x2, Xs; Rn is the first minor of the deter- minant formed by omitting the first row and first column; R22 is the first minor formed by omitting the second row and the second column, and so on;Ri2( = R2i) is the first minor formed by omitting the first column and second row (or vice versa). The principle of correlation plays an important r61e in natural history. It has re- placed the notion that there is a simple proportion between the size of organs by the appropriate conception that there are simple proportions existing between the deviation from the average of one organ and the most probable value for the coexistent deviation of the other organ from its average.7 Attributes favoured by " natural " or other selection are found to be correlated with other attributes which are not directly selected. The extent to which the attributes of an individual depend upon those of his ancestors as measured by corre- lation.8 The principle is instrumental to most of the important " mathematical contributions " which Professor Pearson has made to the theory of evolution.9 In social inquiries, also, the principle promises a rich harvest. Where numerous fluctuating causes go to produce a result like pauperism or immunity from small-pox, the ideal method of eliminating chance would be to construct •"regression-equations" of the following type: "Change % in pauperism [in the decade 1871-1881] in rural districts = — 27-07%, +0-299 (change % out-relief ratio), +0-271 (change % on proportion of old), + -064 (change % in population)."10 129. In order to determine the best values of the coefficients involved in the law of error, and to test the worth of the results obtained by using any values, recourse must " be had to inverse probability. 130. The simplest problem under this head is where the quaesitum is a single real object and the j data consist of a large number of observations, Xi, Xt, . . . xn, such that if the number were indefinitely increased, the completed series would form a normal probability-curve with the true point as its centre, and having a given modulus c. It is as if we had observed the position of the dints made by the fragments 6 Cf. note to par. 98, above. 6 Phil. Mag. (1892), p. 200 seq.; 1896, p. 211; Pearson, Trans. Roy. Soc. (1896), 187, p. 302; Burbury, Phil. Mag. (1894), p. 145. 7 Pearson, On the Reconstruction of Prehistoric Races," Trans. Roy. Soc. (1898), A, p. 174 seq.; Proc. Roy. Soc. (1898), p. 418. 8 Pearson, "The Law of Ancestral Heredity," Trans. Roy. Soc.; Proc. Roy. Soc. (1898). 9 Papers in the Royal Society since 1895. 10 An example instructively discussed by Yule, Journ. Stat. Soc. (1899). LAWS OF ERROR] PROBABILITY 397 of an exploding shell so far as to know the distance of each mark measured (from an origin) along a right line, say the line of an extended fortification, and it was known that the shell was fired perpendicular to the fortification from a distant ridge parallel to the Fortification, and that the shell was of a kind of which the fragments are scattered according to a normal law ' with a known coefficient of dispersion; the question is at what position on the distant ridge was the enemy's gun probably placed ? By received principles the probability, say P, that the given set of observations should ' .ve resulted from measuring (or aiming at) an object of which the .1 position was between * and x +Ax is A* J exp - [(x - *,)' + (x - x,)« + &c.]/c' ; here J is a constant obtained by equating to unity) Pdx J — 00 (since the given set of observations must have resulted from some position on the axis of x). The value of x, from which the given i observations most probably resulted, is obtained by making P a maximum. Putting dP/dx = o, we have for the maximum (tPP/dx* being negative for this value) the arithmetic mean of the given observations. The accuracy of the determination is measured by a probability-curve with modulus cj-^n. This in the course of a very long siege if every case in which the given group of shell-marks xi, xs, . . . xn was presented could be investigated, it would be found that the enemy's cannon was fired from the position x', the (point right opposite to the) arithmetic mean of xi, *2, &c., xn, with a frequency assigned by the equation z = (V »/ V «:) exp - n(x - x')«/«*. The reasoning is applicable without material modification to the case in which the data and the quaesitum are not absolute quantities, but proportions; for instance, given the percentage of white balls in several large batches drawn at random from an immense urn con- taining black and white balls, to find the percentage of white balls in the urn — the inverse problem associated with the name of Bayes. 131. Simple as this solution is, it is not the one which has most recommended itself to Laplace. He envisages the quaesitum not so much as that point which is most probably the real one, as that point which may most advantageously be put for the real one. In our illustration it is as if it were required to discover from a number of shot-marks not the point2 which in the course of a long siege would be most frequently the position of the cannon which had scattered the observed fragments but the point which it would be best to treat as that position — to fire at, say, with a view of silencing the enemy's gun — having regard not so much to the fre- quency with which the direction adopted is right, as to the extent to which it is wrong in the long run. As the measure of the detri- ment of error, Laplace8 takes "la valeur moyenne de Perreur a craindre," the mean first power of the errors taken positively on each side of the real point. The mean spare of errors is proposed by Gauss as the criterion.4 Any mean power indeed, the integral of any function which increases in absolute magnitude with the increase of its variable, taken as the measure of the detriment, will lead to the same conclusion, if the normal law prevails.6 132. Yet another speculative difficulty occurs in the simplest, and recurs in the more complicated inverse problem. In putting P as the probability, deduced from the observations that the real point for which they stand is * (between x and x+Ax), it is tacitly assumed that prior to observation one value of x is as probable as another. In our illustration it must be assumed that the enemy's gun was as likely to be at one point as another of (a certain tract of) the ridge from which it was fired. If, apart from the evidence of the shell-marks, there was any reason for thinking that the gun was situated at one point rather than another, the formula would require to be modified. This a priori probability is sometimes grounded on our ignorance; according to another view, the procedure is justified by a rough general knowledge that over a tract of * for which P is sensible one value of * occurs about as often as another.6 1 If normally in any direction indifferently according to the two- or three-dimensioned law of error, then normally in one dimension when collected and distributed in belts perpendicular to a horizontal right line, as in the example cited below, par. 155. 2 Or small interval (cf. preceding section). * " Toute erreur soit positive soit negative doit fitre considered comme un d6savantage ou une perte nSelle a un jeu quelconque," Theorie analytique, art. 20 seq., especially art. 25. As to which it is acutely remarked by Bravais (op. cit. p. 258), " Cette regie simple laisse a desirer une demonstration rigoureuse, car Panalogue du cas actuel avec celui des jeux de hasard est loin d'etre complete." 4 Theoria combinations, pt. i. § 6. Simon Newcpmb is con- spicuous by walking in the way of Laplace and Gauss in his prefer- ence of the most advantageous to the most probable determinations. With Gauss he postulates that " the evil of an error is proportioned to the square of its magnitude " (American Journal of Mathematics, vol. viii. No. 4). 'As argued by the present writer, Camb. Phil. Trans. (1885), vol. xiv. pt. ii. p. 161. Cf. Glaisher, Mem. Astronom. Soc. xxxix. 108. ' The view taken by the present writer on the " Philosophy of Chance," in Mind (1880; approved by Professor Pearson, Grammar 133. Subject to similar speculative difficulties, the solution which has been obtained may be extended to the analogous problem in which the quaesitum is not the real value of an observed magnitude, but the mean to which a series of statistics indefinitely prolonged converges.' 134. Next, let the modulus, still supposed given, not be the same for all the observations, but c\ for xi, ct for x», &c. Then P becomes proportional to exp - K* - *i)'/ci' + (x - xtflct + &c.]. And the value of x which is both the most probable and the " most advantageous" is (xi/cit+xt/cf+&c.)/(l/cit+i/cf+&c.); each observation being weighted with the inverse vj mean square of observations made under similar con- ditions.8 This is the rule prescribed by the " method of least squares"; but as the rule in this case has been deduced by genuine inverse probability, the problem does not exemplify what is most characteristic in that method, namely, that a rule deducible from the hypothesis that the errors of observations obey the normal law of error is employed in cases where the normal law is not known, or even is known not, to hold good. For example, let the curve of error for each observation be of the form of 2= [i/V («0]X exp[ -««/e» - 2j(x/c - 2x'/y*)}, where j is a small fraction, so that z may equally well be equated to (i/Virc)[i — 2J(x/c — 2xt/y')] exp — x*/c2, a law which is actually very prevalent. Then, according to the genuine inverse method, the most probable value of x is given by the quadratic equation 2jlog P = o, where log P = const. - 2(x - x,)1/^1 - Z2J[(x - x,) »/«,' - 2(x — x,)'/yr'], S denoting summation over all the observations. According to the " method of least squares," the solution is the weighted arithmetic mean of the observations, the weight of any observation being inversely proportional to the corresponding mean square, i.e. cr*/2 (the terms of the integral which involve j vanishing), which would be the solution if the j's are all zero. We put for the solution of the given case what is known to be the solution of an essentially different case. How can this paradox be justified? 135. Many of the answers which have been given to this question seem to come to this. When the data are unmanageable, it is legiti- mate to attend to a part thereof, and to determine the most probable (or the " most advantageous ") value of the quaesitum, and the degree of its accuracy, from the selected portion of the data as if it formed the whole. This throwing overboard of part of the data in order to utilize the remainder has often to be resorted to in the rough course of applied probabilities. Thus an insurance office only takes account of tha age and some other simple attribute? of its customers, though a better bargain might be made in particular cases by taking into account all available details. The nature of the method is particularly clear in the case where the given set of observations consists of several batches, the observations in any batch ranging under the same law of frequency with mean x T and mean square of error k,, the function and the constants different for different batches; then if we confine our attention to those parts of the data which are of the type x'r and fe. — ignoring what else may be given as to the laws of error — we may treat the x'r's as should have resultea from a particular system of values for x, y..is J exp [(a1x+bty-(tf/cS + (atx+bly-f,)*/ct+&c.], where J is a constant determined on the same principle as in the analogous simpler cases.1 The condition that P should be a maximum gives as many linear equations for the determination of x' y' . . . as there are unknown quantities. 145. The solution proper to the case where the observations are known to arrange according to the normal law may be extended to numerous observations ranging under any law, on the principles which justify the use of the Method of Least Squares in the case of a single quaesitum. 146. As in that simple case, the principle of economy will now justify the use of the median, e.g. in the case of two quaenta, putting for the true values of x and y that point for which the sum of the perpendiculars let fall from it on each of a set of lines representing the given equations (properly weighted) is a minimum.1 147. The older writers have expressed the error in the determina- tion of one of the variables without reference to the error in the other. But the error of one variable may be regarded , as correlated with that of another; that is, if the system ""•x', y' . . . forms the solution of the given equations, while *'+{, y +17 ... is the real system, the (small) values of £,?j.... which will concur in the long run of systems from which the given set of observations result are normally correlated. From this point of view Bravais, in 1846, was led to several theorems which are applicable to the now more important case of correlation in which £ and ij are given (not in general small) deviations from the means of two or morejcorrelated members (organs or attributes) forming a normal group. 148. To determine the frequency-constants of such a group it is proper to proceed on the analogy of the simple case of one-dimen- sioned error. In the case of two dimensions, for instance, the probability pi that a given pair of observations (*i, y\) should have resulted from a normal group of which the means are *' y' respectively, the standard deviations a\ and at and the coefficient of correlation r, may be written — A*AyA<7iAo-2Ar(l/2jr) \ViTj(l — rj) exp — JE1, where E2= (x' - xtf/rf - 2r(x' - *,)(/ - y,)/Cf. above, par. 115. * Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 60, p. 477- * Below, par. 168. 154. In the determination of the standard-deviation proper to the law of error (and other constants proper to other laws of frequency) it commonly happens that besides the inaccuracy, which has been estimated, due to the paucity of the data, there is an inaccuracy due to their discrete charac- ter: the circumstance that measurement, e.g. of human heights, are given in comparatively large units, e.g. inches, while the real objects are more perfectly graduated. Mr Sheppard has prescribed a remedy for this imperfection. For the standard deviation let m be the rough value obtained on the supposition that the observations are massed at intervals of unit length (not spread out continuously, as ideal measurements would be) ; then the proper value, the mean integral of deviation squared, say (pu)=H2 — &h2, where h is the size of a unit, e.g. an inch. It is not to be objected to this correction that it becomes nugatory when it is less than the probable error to which the measurement is liable on account of the paucity of obser- vations. For, as the correction is always in one direction, that of subtraction, it tends in the long run to be advantageous even though masked in particular instances by larger fluctuating errors.4 155. Professor Pearson has given a beautiful application of the theory of correlation to test the empirical evidence that a given group conforms to a proposed formula, e.g. the normal , law of error.6 Criterion at Empirical Verification. Supposing the constants of the proposed function to be known — in the case of the normal law the arith- metic mean and modulus — we could determine the ' position of any percentile, e.g. the median, say a. Now the pro- bability that if any sample numbering n were taken at random from the complete group, the median of the sample, a', would lie at such a distance from a that there should be r observations between /*oo a and a' is I V2/irn exp — 2r2/n. * If, then, any observed set has an excess which makes the above written integral very small, the set has probably not been formed by a random selection from the supposed given complete group. To extend this method to the case of two, or generally n, percentiles, forming (n + i) compartments, it must be observed thatthe excesses say e and e', are not independent but correlated. To measure the probability of obtaining a pair of excesses respectively as large as e and e', we have now (corresponding to the extremity of the pro- bability-curve in the simple case) the solid content of a certain probability-surface outside the curve of equal probability which passes through the points on the plane xy assigned by e, e' (and the other data). This double, or in general multiple, integral, say P, is expressed by Professor Pearson with great elegance in terms of the quadratic factor, called by him x2. which forms the exponent of the expression for the probability that a particular system of the values of the correlated e, e', &c., should concur — i-3 1^-: when n is odd; with an expression different in form, but nearly coincident in result, when n is even. The practical rule derived from this general theorem may thus be stated. Find from the given observations the probable values of the coefficients pertaining to the formula which is supposed to represent the observations. Calculate from the coefficients a certain number, say n, of percentiles ; thereby dividing the given set into n + 1 sections, any of which, according to calculation, ought to contain say m of the observations, while in fact it contains m'. Put e for m' — m; then x2 = 2e2/m. Professor Pearson has given in an appended table the values of P corresponding to values of n + i up to 20, and values of x2 up to 70. He does not conceal that there is some laxity involved in the circum- stance that the coefficients employed are not known exactly, only inferred with probability.' 156. Here is one of Professor Pearson's illustrations. The table on next page gives the distribution of 1000 shots fired at a line in a target, the hits being arranged in belts drawn on the target parallel to the line. The " normal distribution " is obtained from a normal curve, of which the coefficients are determined from the observations. From the value of x2. viz- 45'8, and of (n + i). viz. II, we deduce, with sufficient accuracy from Professor Pearson's table, or more exactly from the .formula on which the table is based, that P = -ooo,ooi,5' • . "In other words, if shots are distributed on a target according to the normal law, then such a distribution as that cited could only be expected to occur on an average some 15 or 16 times in 10,000,000 times." 157. " Such a distribution " in this argument must be inter- preted as a distribution for which it is claimed that the The observations are all independent of each other. Suppose Criterion that there were only 500 independent observations, the Criticized. remainder being merely duplicates of these 500. Then in the above * Just as the removal of a tax tends to be in the long run beneficial to the consumer, though the benefit on any particular occasion may be masked by fluctuations of price due to other causes. 5 Phil. Mag. (July, 1900). 6 As shown above, par. 103. 7 Loc. cit. p. 166. LAWS OF ERROR] PROBABILITY 401 table the columns for the normal distribution and for the discrepancy e should each be halved ; and accordingly the column for e*/m should be halved. Thus e*jm being reduced to 22-9, P as found from Pro- fessor Pearson's table is between 995 and 629. That is, such a distribution might be expected to occur once on an average some once or twice in a hundred times. If actual duplication of this sort is not common in statistics,1 yet in all such applications of the Observed Normal Belt. Frequency. Distribution. e. &c., k, k2, ki, &c., form each a succession of terms descend- ing in the order of magnitude, when each k, e.g. kt has been divided by the corresponding power, i.e. the power (t-\-2) of the parameter or modulus c = V (2k), which division is secured by the successive differ- entiations of y pn, the range of black balls will lie between o and pn; the resulting frequency-polygon is given by a hypergeometrical series." Further reasons in favour of his construction are given by Professor Pearson in a later paper.4 " The immense majority, if not the total- ity, of frequency distributions in homogeneous material show, when the frequency is indefinitely increased, a tendency to give a smooth curve characterized by the following properties, (i.) The frequency starts from zero, increases slowly or rapidly to a maximum and then falls again to zero — probably at a quite different rate-^-as the charac- ter for which the frequency is measured is steadily increased. This is the almost universal unimodal distribution of the frequency of homogeneous series . . (ii.) In the next place there is generally contact of the frequency-curve at the extremities of the range. These characteristics at once suggest the following of frequency curve, if ySx measure the frequency falling between * and x -\-&x: — dy_y(x+a) Now let us assume that F(x) can be expanded by Maclaurin's theorem. Then our differential equation to the frequency will be J_dy_ x-\-a y dx Experience shows that the form (x) [" keeping ba, b\, by, only "] suffices for certainly the great bulk of frequency distributions." ' 166. The " generalized probability-curve " presents two main forms 6 • — y=yo(i+x/ai)>">i) i-xfai)^,, When oj, , to feed), the long flexible snout of the order of Mammalia called Proboscidea (q.v.), which embraces the elephant and its extinct allies the mammoths and mastodons. The term is also applied to the snout of the tapir and of the " kahan " or proboscis-monkey (Nasalis laroatus), and more particularly to the elongated parts of the mouth of various insects, such as the rostrum or beak of a rhynchophorus beetle, the antlia of Lepidoptera, the sucking mouth of the house-fly, &c. Various worms possess a tubular structure which can be extended at the anterior portion of the body, and some gastropods a sucking tongue, to both of which the name " proboscis " is applied. PROBOSCIS-MONKEY, a large, long-tailed, red Bornean species characterized by the extraordinary prolongation of the nose of the adult male, which hangs, however, down in front of the upper lip and does not stand straight out from the face in the manner commonly represented in pictures. From this feature the species, which is the only representative of its genus, derives its name of Nasalis lanatus. In females and young the nose is much less developed, with a tendency to turn upwards in the latter. This monkey is a leaf-eater, nearly allied to the langurs, as typified by the sacred ape of India. (See PRIMATES.) PROBUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, Roman emperor A.D. 276 to 282, was a native of Sirmium in Pannonia. At an early age he entered the army, where he distinguished himself under the emperors Valerian, Claudius and Aurelian. He was appointed governor of the East by the emperor Tacitus, at whose death he was immediately proclaimed his successor by the soldiers. Florianus, who had claimed to succeed his brother, was put to death by his own troops, and the senate eagerly ratified the choice of the army. The reign of Probus was mainly spent in successful wars by which he re-established the security of all the frontiers, the most important of these operations being directed to clearing Gaul of the Germans. Probus had also put down three usurpers, Saturninus, Proculus and Bonosus. One of his principles was never to allow the soldiers to be idle, and to employ them in time of peace on useful works, such as the planting of vineyards in Gaul, Pannonia and other districts. This increase of duties was naturally unpopular, and while the emperor was urging on the draining of the marshes of his native place he was attacked and slain by his own soldiers. Scarcely any emperor has left behind him so good a reputation; his death was mourned alike by senate and people, and even the soldiers repented and raised a monument in his honour. Life by Vopiscus; Zosimus i. 64; Zonaras xii. 29; Aurelius Victor, Goes, and Epit. 37; H. Schiller, Geschichte der rdmischen Kaiserzeit (1883), vol. i. ; E. Lepaulle, £tude historique stir M. A. Probus d'apres la numismatique (1885); Pauly-Wissowa, Realency- clopadie, ii. 2516 (Henze). PROBUS, MARCUS VALERIUS, of Berytus, Roman gram- marian and critic, flourished during the reign of Nero. He was a student rather than a teacher,, and devoted himself to the criticism and elucidation of the texts of classical authors (especi- ally the most important Roman poets) by means of marginal notes or by signs, after the manner of the Alexandrine gram- marians. In this way he treated Horace, Lucretius, Terence and Persius, the biography of the last-named being probably taken from Probus's introduction to his edition of the poet. With the exception of these texts, he published little, but his lectures were preserved in the notes taken by his pupils. Some of his criticisms on Virgil may be preserved in the commentary on the Bucolics and Georgics which goes under his name. We possess by him part of a treatise De nolis, probably an excerpt from a larger work. It contains a list of abbreviations used in official and historical writings (especially proper names), in laws, legal pleadings and edicts. The following works have been wrongly attributed to him. (i) Catholica Probi, on the declension of nouns, the conjugation of verbs, and the rhythmic endings of sentences. This is now generally regarded as the work of the grammarian Marius Plotius Sacerdos (3rd century). (2) Instituta artium, on the eight parts of speech, also called Ars vaticana from its having been found in a Vatican MS. As mention is made in it of the baths of Diocletian, it cannot be earlier than the r the dry or wet filter, must be absolutely flat as to its surface, and its two sides must be absolutely parallel. In the wet filter the glasses forming the sides of the cell or trough must be parallel to each other. Coloured glass is sometimes used in combination with the tinted collodion, but there is no particular advantage in this, because two glasses are always used in the making of a filter, and each one may, if desired, be coated with different dyes and afterwards cemented together with Canada balsam. The following dyes or their equivalents form a basis for nearly all three-colour filters : — For the red printing negative „ blue „ „ yellow „ „ S Brilliant green. Brilliant yellow. ( Cochineal red. } Brilliant yellow. ( Methyl violet.' ( Naphthol green. The first dye named is the base colour in each case, the second is employed in small proportions to produce the required modification of tint. The theory of the three-colour process is that the same three colours shall be used for the printing of every subject; and there is no doubt that if the filtration were perfect and the printing inks absolutely pure, the theory would work out fairly correctly in practice; but there is room for improvement in both these matters, and it is therefore often found desirable to print special subjects with special pigments, which makes it difficult to print several subjects together. Special care is called for on the part of the printer. There must be the most perfect register of Need of j.ne j^ree subjects, otherwise a blurred effect resu'.ts; Pri , vaiKrjs oKpodcreoos, De physica auscultatione) , and De providenlia et fato, Decem dubitationes circa providentiam, De malorum subsistentia, known only by the Latin translation of William of Moerbeke (archbishop of Corinth, 1277-1281), who also translated the 2Totx««oaipas (De sphaera); IIapd<#>pa(ns fh rrfv IlToXe/miov Terpd/3tj3Xoi', a paraphrase of the difficult passages in Ptolemy's astrological work Tetrabiblus; Eis TO irp&rov T&V EvK\eioov aroixduv, a commentary on the first book of Euclid's Elements; a short treatise on the effect of eclipses {De ejfectibus eclipsium, only in a Latin translation). His grammatical works are: a commentary on the Works and Days of Hesiod (incomplete) ; some scholia on Homer; an elemen- tary treatise on the epistolary style, II«pt «r«rToXi/iishops-elect frequently described themselves by the title of procuratores ecclesiarum. The prior of a dependent religious louse was sometimes styled procurator obedientiae. The official who represented the public interests in the courts of the nquisition was known as the procurator fidei. The administrator of the affairs of a large community was sometimes called the Procurator syndicus, the administrator of goods left to the poor, Procurator pauperum. In monasteries the economus was, and s, sometimes described as procurator. Thus the procurator las still the administration of material affairs in every Domini- can priory. Procurator di San Marco was a title of honour in the republic of Venice. There were nine official procurators and numerous distinguished persons bearing the honorary title. The term procurator (Fr. procureur) is used in those countrie whose codes are based on the Roman civil law for certain officials, having a representative character, in the courts law. Thus under the ancien regime in France the procureurs du roi were the representative of the Crown in all caus (see FRANCE : Law and Institutions) ; and now the procureurs generaux, and under them the procureurs substituts, procureur de la republique and procureurs still represent the ministire public in the courts. In Scotland the procurator is a lav agent who practises in an inferior court. A procurator Scotland has been, since the Law Agents Acts 1873, exactly in the same legal position as other law agents. The procurator- fiscal is a local officer charged with the prosecution of crimes. He is appointed by the sheriff. He also performs the duties of an English coroner by holding inquiries into the circumstances of suspicious deaths. A common English form of procurator is proctor ( to distinguish), the determination or identification of a dis- ease in a particular case from an investigation of its history and symptoms. PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM, in its original use, following that of Gr. irpoypafi^a, a public notice (irpaypafaiv, to make public by writing), now chiefly in the sense of a printed notice containing the items of a musical concert, with the names of the pieces to be performed, the composers and the performers, or of a theatrical performance, with the characters, actors, scenes, &c. In a wider sense the word is used of a syllabus or scheme of study, order of proceedings or the like, or of a cata- logue or schedule containing the chief points in a course of action, and so, politically, in the sense of a list of the principal objects on which a party proposes to base its legislative course of action, as in the " Newcastle Programme " of 1891, drawn up by the Liberal Federation. The spelling " program," now general in America, was that first in use in England, and so continued till the French form " programme " was adopted at the beginning of the igth century. The New English Dictionary considers the earlier and modern American spelling preferable, on the analogy of " diagram," " telegram," " cryptogram " and the like. Scott and Carlyle always used " program." PROGRAMME MUSIC, a musical nickname which has passed into academic currency, denoting instrumental music without words but descriptive of non-musical ideas. Musical sounds lend themselves to descriptive purposes with an ease which is often uncontrollable. A chromatic scale may suggest the whistling of the wind or the cries of cats; reiterated staccato notes may suggest many things, from raindrops to the cackling of hens. Again, though music cannot directly imitate anything PROGRAMME MUSIC 425 in nature except sounds, it has a range of contrast and a power of climax that is profoundly emotional in effect; and the emotions it calls up may resemble those of some dramatic story, or those produced by the contemplation of nature. But chromatic scales, reiterated notes, emotional contrasts and climaxes, are also perfectly normal musical means of expression; and the attempts to read non-musical meanings into them are often merely annoying to composers who have thought only of the music. Some distinguished writers on music have found a difficulty in admitting the possibility of emotional contrasts and climaxes in an art without an external subject-matter. But it is impossible to study the history of music without coming to the conclusion that in all mature periods music has been self-sufficient to this extent, that, whatever stimulus it may receive from external ideas, and however much of these ideas it may have embodied in its structure, nothing has survived as a permanently intelligible classic that has not been musically coherent to a degree which seems to drive the subject-matter into the background, even in cases where that subject-matter is naturally present, as in songs, choral works and operas. In short, since sound as it occurs in nature is not sufficiently highly organized to form the raw material for art, there is no natural tendency in music to include, as a " subject, " any item conceivable apart from its artistic embodiment. Explicit programme music has thus never been a thing of cardinal importance, either in the transitional periods in which it has been most prominent, or in the permanent musical classics. At the same time, artistic creation is not a thing that can be governed by any a priori metaphysical theory; and no great artist has been so ascetic as always to resist the inclination to act on the external ideas that impress him. No composer writes important music for the voice without words; for speech is too ancient a function of the human voice to be ousted by any a priori theory of art; and no really artistic composer, hand- ling a living art-form, has failed to be influenced, sooner or later, by the words which he sets. It matters little if these words be in themselves very poor, for even false sentiment must make some appeal to true experience, and the great composers are quicker to seize the truth than to criticize its verbal presenta- tion or to suspect insincerity. The earliest mature musical art was, then, inevitably descriptive, since it was vocal. So incessant is the minute onomatopoeia of 16th-century music, both in the genuine form of sound-painting (Tonmalerei) and in the spurious forms to which composers were led by the appearance of notes on paper (e.g. quick notes representing " darkness " because they are printed black!) that there is hardly a page in the productions of the "golden age" of music which has not its literary aspect. Programme music, then, may be expected to derive many of its characteristics from ancient times; but it cannot properly be said to exist until the rise of instrumental music, for not until then could music be based upon external ideas that did not arise inevitably from the use of words or dramatic action. The resources of the modern orchestra have enabled recent composers to attain a realism which makes that of earlier descriptive music appear ridiculous; but there is little to choose between classics and moderns in the intellectual childishness of such realism. Thunderstorms, bird-songs and pastoral effects galore have been imitated by musicians great and small from the days of the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book to those of the episode of the flock of sheep in Strauss's Don Quixote. And, while the progress in realism has been so immense that the only step which remains is to drive a real flock of sheep across the concert-platform, the musical progress implied thereby has been that from inexpensive to expensive rubbish. What is really important, in the programme music of Strauss no less than that of the classics, is the representation of characters and feelings. In this respect the classical record is of high interest, though the greatest composers have contributed but little to it. Thus the Bible Sonatas of J. Kuhnau (published in 1 700) and Bach's early Capriccio on the Departure of a Beloved Brother, which is closely modelled on Kuhnau's programme music, show very markedly the tendency on the one hand to illustrate characters and feelings, and on the other hand to extract from their pro- grammes every occasion for something that would be a piece of incidental music if the stories were presented as dramas. Thus, though Kuhnau in his naive explanatory preface to his first Bible sonata seems to be trying, like a child, to frighten him- self into a fit by describing the size and appearance of Goliath, in the music it is only le bravate of Goliath that are portrayed. Thus the best movement in the Goliath sonata is a figured chorale (Aus liefer Noth schrei' ich zu Dir) representing the terror and prayers of the Israelites. And thus the subjects of the other sonatas (Saul cured by David's music; The Marriage of Jacob; Hezekiah; Gideon; and The Funeral of Jacob) are in various quaint ways musical because ethical ; though Kuhnau's conceptions are far better than his execution. In the same way Bach makes his Capriccio descriptive of the feelings of the anxious and sorrowing friends of the departing brother, and his utmost realism takes the form of a lively fugue, very much in Kuhnau's best style, on the themes of the postilion's coachhorn and cracking whip. Even Buxtehude's musical illustrations of the " nature and characters of the planets " are probably not the absurdities they have been hastily taken for by writers to whom their title seems nonsensical; for Buxtehude would, of course, take an astrological rather than an astronomical view of the subject, and so the planets would represent temperaments, and their motions the music of the spheres. Nearly all the harpsichord pieces of Couperin have fantastic titles, and a few of them are descriptive music. His greater contemporary and survivor, Rameau, was an opera composer of real importance, whose harpsichord music contains much that is ingeniously descriptive. La Poule, with its theme inscribed " co-co-co-co-co-co-cocodai, " is one of the best harpsichord pieces outside Bach, and is also one of the most minutely realistic compositions ever written. French music has always been remarkably dependent on external stimulus, and nearly all its classics are either programme music or operas. And the extent to which Rameau's jokes may be regarded as typically French is indicated by the fact that Haydn apologized for his imitation of frogs in The Seasons, saying that this " fran- zosische Quark " had been forced on him by a friend. But throughout the growth of the sonata style, not excepting Haydn's own early work, the tendency towards gratuitously descrip- tive music is very prominent; and the symphonies of Dit- tersdorf on the Metamorphoses of Ovid are excellent examples of the way in which external ideas may suggest much that is valuable to a musician who struggles with new forms, while at the same time they may serve to distract attention from points in which his designs break down. (See SYMPHONIC POEM.) Strict accuracy would forbid us to include in our survey such descriptive music as comes in operatic overtures or other pieces in which the programme is really necessitated by the conditions of the art; but the line cannot be so drawn without cutting off much that is essential. From the time of Gluck onwards there was a natural and steady growth in the descriptive powers of operatic music, which could not fail to react upon purely in- strumental music; but of programme music for its own sake we may say there is no first-rate classic on a large scale before Beethoven, though Beethoven himself could no more surpass Haydn in illustrating an oratorio text (as in the magnificent opening of The Creation) than Haydn could surpass Handel. Mozart's Musikalischer Spass is a solitary example of a special branch of descriptive music; a burlesque of incompetent per- formers and Incompetent composers. The lifelike absurdity of the themes with their caricature of classical formulas; the inevitable processes by which the " howlers " in composition seem to arrive as by natural laws, further complicated by the equally natural laws of the howlers in performance; and the unfailing atmosphere of good nature with which Mozart satirizes, among other things, his own style; all combine to make this work very interesting on paper. The effect in performance is astonishing; so exactly, or rather so ideally, is the squalid effect of bad structure and performance kept at a 426 PROGRAMME MUSIC constant level of comic interest. (In the Leipzig edition of the parts of this work the modern editor has added a new and worthy act to Mozart's glorious farce by correcting and question- ing many of the mistakes!) Mozart's burlesque has remained unapproached, even in dramatic music. Compared with it, Wagner's portrait of Beckmesser in Die Meislersinger seems embittered in conception and disappointing in comic effect. Mendelssohn is said to have had a splendid faculty for ex- temporizing similar musical jokes. His Funeral March of Pyramus and Thisbe in the Midsummer Night's Dream, and Cornelius's operatic trio in which three persons conjugate the verb Ich sterbe den Tod des Verriiters, are among the few ex- amples of a burlesque in which there is enough musical sense to keep the joke alive. Such burlesques have their bearing on programme music, in so far as they involve the musical por- trayal of character and give opportunity for masterly studies of the psychology of failure. Their special resources thus play a large part in the recent development of the symphonic poem by Richard Strauss, whose instrumental works avowedly illustrate his cheerfully pessimistic views on art and life. But into the main classics of programme music this kind of characterization hardly enters at all. Beethoven was three times moved to ascribe some of his pro- foundest music to an external source. In the first instance, that of the Eroica Symphony, he did not really produce anything that can fairly be called programme music. Napoleon, before he became emperor, was his ideal hero; and a triumphant symphony, on a gigantic scale and covering the widest range of emotion expressible by music, seemed to him a tribute due to the liberator of Europe; until the liberator became the tyrant. That the slow movement should be a funeral march was, in relation to the heroic tone of the work, as natural as that a symphony should have a slow movement at all. There is no reason in music why the idea of heroic death and mourning should be the end of the representation of heroic ideals. Hence it is unnecessary, though plausible, to hear, in the lively whisper- ing opening of the scherzo, the babel of the fickle crowd that soon forgets its hero; and the criticism which regards the finale as " an inappropriate concession to sonata form " may be dis- missed as merely unmusical without therefore being literary. Beethoven's next work inspired from without was the Pastoral Symphony: and there he records his theory of programme music on the title-page, by calling it " rather the expression of feeling than tone-painting." There is not a bar of the Pastoral Symphony that would be otherwise if its " programme " had never been thought of either by Beethoven or by earlier com- posers. The nightingale, cuckoo and quail have exactly the same function in the coda of the slow movement as dozens of similar non-thematic episodes at the close of other slow move- ments (e.g. in the violin sonata Op. 24, and the pianoforte sonata in D minor). The " merry meeting of country folk " is a subject that lends itself admirably to Beethoven's form of scherzo (q.v.); and the thunderstorm, which interrupts the last repetition of this scherzo, and forms an introduction to the finale, is none the less purely musical for being, like several of Beethoven's inven- tions, without any formal parallel in other works. Beethoven's Battle Symphony is a clever pot-boiler, which, like most musical representations of such noisy things as battles, may be disregarded in the study of serious programme music. His third great ex- ample is the sonata Les Adieux, I' absence et le retour. Here, again, we have a monument of pure sonata form; and, what- ever light may be thrown upon the musical interpretation of the work by a knowledge of the relation between Beethoven and his friend and patron the Archduke Rudolph and the circum- stances of the archduke's departure from Vienna during the Napoleonic wars, far more light may be thrown upon Beethoven's feelings by the study of the music in itself. This ought ob- viously to be true of all successful programme music; the music ought to illustrate the programme, but we ought not to need to learn or guess at quantities of extraneous information in order to understand the music. No doubt much ingenuity may be spent in tracing external details (the end of the first move- ment of Les Adieux has been compared to the departure of a coach), but the real emotional basis is of a universal and musical kind. The same observations apply to the overtures to Coriolan, Egmont and Leonora; works in which the origin as music for the stage is so far from distracting Beethoven's attention from musical form that the overture which was at first most insepar- ably associated with the stage and most irregular in form (Leonora No. 2) took final shape as the most gigantic formal design ever embodied in a single movement (Leonora No. 3), and so proved to be too large for the final version of the opera for which it was first conceived. Beethoven's numerous recorded assertions, whether as to the " picture " he had hi his mind whenever he composed, or as to the " meaning " of any particular composition, are not things on which it is safe to rely. Many of his friends, especially his first biographer, Schindler, irritated him into putting them off with any nonsense that came into his head. Composers who have much to express cannot spare time for expressing it in other terms than those of their own art. Modern programme music shows many divergent tendencies, the least significant of which is the common habit of giving fan- tastic titles to pieces of instrumental music after they have been composed, as was the case with many of Schumann's pianoforte lyrics. Such a habit may conduce to the immediate popularity of the works, though it is apt to impose on their interpretation limits which might not quite satisfy the composer himself. But there is plenty of genuine programme music in Schumann's case, though, as with Beethoven, the musical sense throws far more light on the programme than the programme throws upon the music. Musical people may profitably study E. T. A. Hoff- mann and Jean Paul Richter in the light of Schumann's Novel- lettes and Kreisleriana; but if they do not already understand Schumann's music, Jean Paul and Hoffmann will help them only to talk about it. The popular love of fantastic titles for music affected even the most abstract and academic composers during the romantic period. No one wrote more programme music than Spohr; and, strange to say, while Spohr's programme constantly interfered with the externals of his form and ruined the latter part of his symphony Die Weihe der Tone, it did not in any way help to broaden his style. Mendelssohn's Scotch and Italian symphonies, and his Hebrides Overture, are cases rather of what may be called local colour than of programme music. His Reformation Symphony, which he himself regarded as a failure, and which was not published until after his death, is a composite production, artistically more successful, though less popular, than Spohr's Weihe der Tone. The overture to the Midsummer Night's Dream is a marvellous musical epitome of Shakespeare's play; and the one point which invites criticism, namely, the comparative slightness and conventionality of its second subject, may be defended as closely corresponding with Shakespeare's equally defensible treatment of the two pairs of lovers. The one composer of the mid-nineteenth century who really lived on programme music was Berlioz, but he shows a characteristic inability to make up his mind as to what he is doing at any given moment. Externals appeal to him with such overwhelming force that, with all the genuine power of his rhetoric, he often loses grasp of the situation he thinks he is portraying. The moonshine and the sentiment of the Scene d'amour, in his Romeo and Juliet symphony, is charming; and the agitated sighing episodes which occasion- ally interrupt its flow, though not musically convincing, are dramatically plain enough to anyone who has once read the balcony scene: but when Berlioz thinks of the nurse knocking or calling at the door his mind is so possessed with the mere incident of the moment that he makes a realistic noise without interrupting the amorous duet. No idea of the emotional tension of the two lovers, of Juliet's artifices for gaining time, and of her agitation at the interruptions of the nurse, seems here to enter into Berlioz's head. Again, if the whole thing is to be expressed in instrumental music, why do we have, before the scene begins, real voices of persons in various PROHIBITION— PROJECTION 427 degrees of conviviality returning home from the ball? The whole design is notoriously full of similar incongruities, of which these are the more significant for being the most plausible. There is luinlly a single work of Berlioz, except the Harold symphony and the Symphonic fantastique, in which the determination to write programme music does not frequently yield to the impulse to make singers get up and explain in words what it is all about. The climax of absurdity is in the Symphonic funebre el triomphale, written for the inauguration of the Bastille Column, and scored for an enormous military band and chorus. The first movement is a funeral march, and is not only one of Berlioz's finest pieces, but probably the greatest work ever written for a military band. The Apotheose chorus is in the form of a triumphal march. Because the occasion was one on which there would be plenty of real speeches, Berlioz must needs write a connecting link called Oraison funebre, consisting of a sermon delivered by a solo trombone; presumably for use in later performances. His naive Gasconade genius prefers this to the use of the chorus! Current modern criticism demands plausibility, though it cares little for intellectual soundness: and while practically the whole of Liszt's work is professedly programme music (where it is not actually vocal) and, though there is much in it which is incomplete without external explanation, Liszt is far too " modern " to betray himself into obvious confusion between different planes of musical realism. With all his unreality of style, Liszt's symphonic poems are remarkable steps towards the attainment of a kind of instrumental music which, whether its form is dictated by a programme or not, is at any rate not that of the classical symphony. The programmes of Liszt's works have not always, perhaps not often, produced a living musical form; a form, that is, in which the rhythms and proportions are neither stiff nor nebulous. Both in breadth of design and in organization and flow, the works of Richard Strauss are as great an advance on Liszt as they are more complex in musical, realistic and autobiographical content. Being, with the exception of the latest French orchestral developments, incomparably the most important works illustrating the present state of musical transition, they have given rise to endless discussions as to the legitimacy of programme music. Such discussions are mere windmill-tilting unless it is constantly borne in mind that no artist who has anything of his own to say will ever be prevented from saying it, in the best art-forms attain- able in his day, by any scruples as to whether the antecedents of his art-forms are legitimate or not. There is only one thing that is artistically legitimate, and that is a perfect work of art. And the only thing demonstrably prejudicial to such legitimacy in a piece of programme music is that even the most cultured of musicians generally understand music better than they under- stand anything else, while the greatest musicians know more of their art than is dreamt of in general culture. (D. F. T.) PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent), a term meaning the action of forbidding or preventing by an order, decree, &c. The word is particularly applied to the forbidding by law of the sale and manufacture of intoxicating liquors (see LIQUOR LAWS and TEMPERANCE). In law, as defined by Blackstone, prohibition is " a writ directed to the judge and parties of a suit in any inferior court, commanding them to cease from the prosecution thereof, upon a surmise either that the cause originally or some collateral matter arising therein does not belong to that jurisdiction, but to the cognizance of some other court." A writ of prohibition is a prerogative writ — that is to say, it does not issue as of course, but is granted only on proper grounds being shown. Before the Judicature Acts prohibition was granted by one of the superior courts at Westminster; it also issued in certain cases from the court of chancery. It is now granted by the High Court of Justice. Up to 1875 the high court of admiralty was for the purposes of prohibition an inferior court. But now by the Judicature Act 1873, s. 24, it is provided that no proceeding in the High Court of Justice or the court of appeal is to be restrained by prohibition, a stay of proceedings taking its place where necessary. The admiralty division being now one of the divisions of the High Court can therefore no longer be restrained by prohibition. The courts to which it has most frequently issued are the ecclesiastical courts, and county and other local courts, such as the lord mayor's court of London, the court of passage of the city of Liverpool and the court of record of the hundred of Salford. In the case of courts of quarter sessions, the same result is generally obtained by certiorari (see WRIT). The extent to which the ecclesiastical courts were restrainable by prohibition led to continual disputes for centuries between the civil and the ecclesiastical authorities. Attempts were made at different times to define the scope of the writ, the most conspicuous instances being the statute Circumspecle Agatis, 13 Edw. I. st. 4; the Articuli cleri, 9 Edw. II. st. i; and the later Artkuli cleri of 3 Jac. -I., consisting of the claims asserted by Archbishop Bancroft and the reply of the judges. The law seems to be undoubted that the spiritual court acting in spiritual matters pro salute animae cannot be restrained. The difficulties arise in the application of the principle to individual cases. Prohibition lies either before or after judgment. In order that proceedings should be restrained after judgment it is neces- sary that want of jurisdiction in the inferior court should appear upon the face of the proceedings, that the party seeking the pro- hibition should have taken his objection in the inferior court, or that he was in ignorance of a material fact. A prohibition goes either for excess of jurisdiction, as if an ecclesiastical court were to try a claim by prescription to a pew, or for transgression of clear laws of procedure, as if such a court were to require two witnesses to prove a payment of tithes. It will not as a rule be awarded on a matter of practice. The remedy in such a case is appeal. Nor will it go, unless in exceptional cases, at the instance of a stranger to the suit. The procedure in prohibition is partly common law, partly statutory. Application for a prohibition is usually made ex parts to a judge in chambers on affidavit. The application may be granted or refused. If granted, a rule to show cause why a writ of prohibition should not issue goes to the inferior judge and the other party. In prohibition to courts other than county courts pleadings in prohibition may be ordered. These pleadings are as far as possible assimilated to pleadings in actions. They are rare in practice, and are only ordered in cases of great difficulty and importance. Much learning on the subject of prohibition will be found in the opinion of Mr Justice Wills delivered to the House of Lords in The Mayor and Aldermen of London v. Cox (1867, L.R. 2 Eng. and Ir. Appeals, 239). In Scots law prohibition is not used in the English sense. The same result is obtained by suspension or reduction. In the United States the Supreme Court has power to issue a prohibition to the district courts when proceeding as courts of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. Most of the states have also their own law upon the subject, generally giving power to the supreme judicial authority in the state to prohibit courts of inferior jurisdiction. PROJECTION, in mathematics. If from a fixed point S in space lines or rays be drawn to different points A, B, C, ... in space, and if these rays are cut by a plane in points A', B', C', . . . the latter are called the projections of the given points on the plane. Instead of the plane another surface may be taken, and then the points are projected to that surface instead of to a plane. In this manner any figure, plane or in space of three dimensions, may be projected to any surface from any point which is called the centre of projection. If the figure projected is in three dimensions then this projection is the same as that used in what is generally known as perspective (q.v.). In modern mathematics the word projection is often taken with a slightly different meaning, supposing that plane figures are projected into plane figures, but three-dimensional ones into three-dimensional figures. Projection in this sense, when treated by co-ordinate geometry, leads in its algebraical aspect to the theory of linear substitution and hence to the theory of invariants and co-variants (see ALGEBRAIC FORMS). In this article projection will be treated from a purely geo- metrical point of view. References like (G. § 87) relate to the article GEOMETRY, § Projcclive, in vol. ri. 428 PROJECTION § i. Projection of Plane Figures. — Let us suppose we have in space two planes ir and «•'. In the plane ir a figure is given having known properties; then we have the problem to find its projection from some centre S to the plane ir', and to deduce from the known properties of the given figure the properties of the new one. If a point A is given in the plane v we have to join it to the centre S and find the point A' where this ray SA cuts the plane ir'; it is the projection of A. On the other hand if A' is given in the plane ir', then A will be its projection in ir. Hence if one figure in •*•' is the projection of another in ir, then conversely the latter is also the projection of the former. A point and its projection are therefore also called corresponding points, and similarly we speak of corresponding lines and curves, &c. § 2. We at once get the following properties : — The projection of a point is a point, and one point only. The projection of a line (straight line) is a line; for all points in a line are projected by rays which lie in the plane determined by S and the line, and this plane cuts the plane ir in a line which is the projection of the given line. // a point lies in a line its projection lies in the projection of the line. The projection of the line joining two points A, B is the line which joins the projections A', B' of the points A, B. For the projecting plane of the line AB contains the rays SA, SB which project the points A, B. The projection of the point of intersection of two lines a, b is the point of intersection of the projections a', b' of those lines. Similarly we get — The projection of a curve is a curve. The projections of the points of intersection of two curves are the points of intersection of the projections of the given curves. If a line cuts a curve in n points, then the projection of the line cuts the projection of the curve in n points. Or — The order of a curve remains unaltered by projection. The projection of a tangent to a curve is a tangent to the projection of the curve. For the tangent is a line which has two coincident points in common with a curve. The number of tangents that can be drawn from a point to a curve remains unaltered by projection. Or — The class of a curve remains unaltered by projection. § 3. Two figures of which one is a projection of the other ob- tained in the manner described may be moved out of the position in which they are obtained. They are then still said to be one the projection of the other, or to be projective or homographic. But when they are in the position originally considered they are said to be in perspective position, or (shorter) to be perspective. All the properties stated in §§ I, 2 hold for figures which are projective, whether they are perspective or not. There are others which hold only for projective figures when they are in perspective position, which we shall now consider. If two planes ir and ir' are perspective, then their line of inter- section is called the axis of projection. Any point in this line coincides with its projection. Hence — All points in the axis are their own projections. Hence also — Every line meets its projection on the axis. § 4. The property that the lines joining corresponding points all pass through a common point, that any pair of corresponding points and the centre are in a line, is also expressed by saying that the figures are co-linear or co-polar; and the fact that both figures have a line, the axis, in common on which corresponding lines meet is expressed by saying that the figures are co-axal. The connexion between these properties has to be investigated. For this purpose we consider in the plane ir a triangle ABC, and let the lines BC, CA, AB be denoted by a, b, c. The projection will consist of three points A', B', C' and three lines a', 6', c'. These have such a position that the lines AA', BB', CC' meet in a point, viz. at S, and the points of intersection of a and a', b and b', c and c' lie on the axis (by § 2). The two triangles therefore are said to be both co-linear and co-axal. Of these properties either is a consequence of the other, as will now be proved. // two triangles, whether in the same plane or not, are co-linear they are co-axal. Or — // the lines AA', BB', CC' joining the vertices of two triangles meet in a point, then the intersections of the sides BC and B'C', CA and C'A', AB and A'B' are three points in a line. Conversely — // two triangles are co-axal they are co-linear. Or — // the intersection of the sides of two triangles ABC and A'B'C', viz. of BC and B'C', of CA and C'A', and of AB and A'B', lie in a line, then the lines AA , BB', and CC' meet in a point. Proof. — Let us first suppose the triangles to be in different places. By supposition the lines AA', BB', CC' (fig. i) meet in a point S. But three intersecting lines determine three planes, SCB, SCA and SAB. In the first lie the points B, C and also B', C'. Hence the lines BC and B'C' will intersect at some point P, because any two lines in the same plane intersect. Similarly CA and C'A' will intersect at some point Q, and AB and A'B' at some point R. These points P, Q, R lie in the plane of the triangle ABC because they are points on the sides of this triangle, and similarly in the plane of the triangle A'B'C'. Hence they lie in the intersection of two planes — that is, in a line. This line (PQR in fig. i) is called the axis of perspective or homology, and the intersection of AA', BB', CC', i.e. S in the figure, the centre of perspective. I Secondly, if the triangles ABC and A'B'C' lie both in the same plane the above proof does not hold. In this case we may con- sider the plane figure as the pro- jection of the figure in space of which we have just proved the theorem. Let ABC, A'B'C' be the co-linear triangles with S as centre, so that AA', BB', CC' meet at S. Take now any point in space, say your eye E, and from it draw the rays projecting the figure. In the line ES take any point Si, and in EA, EB, EC take points Ai, Bi, Ci respec- tively, but so that Si, Ai, Bi, Ci are not in a plane. In the plane ESA which projects the line SiAi lie then the line SiAi and also EA'; these will therefore meet in FIG. i. a point Ai', of which A' will be the projection. Similarly points BI , Ci' are found. Hence we have now in space two triangles AiBiCi and Ai'Bi'Ci' which are co-linear. They are therefore co- axal, that is, the points Pi, Qi, Rlf where AiBi, &c., meet will lie in a line. _ Their projections therefore lie in a line. But these are the points P, Q, R, which were to be proved to lie in a line. This proves the first part of the theorem. The second part or converse theorem is proved in exactly the same way. For another proof see (G. § 37). § 5. By aid of this theorem we can now prove a fundamental property of two projective planes. Let i be the axis, S the centre, and let A, A' and B, B' be two pairs of corresponding points which we suppose fixed, and C, C' any other pair of corresponding points. Then the triangles ABC and A'B'C are co-axal, and they will remain co-axal if the one plane »' be turned relative to the other about the axis. They will therefore, by Desargue's theorem, remain co-linear, and the centre will be the point S', where AA' meets BB'. Hence the line joining any pair of corresponding points C, C' will pass through the centre S'. The figures are therefore perspective. This will remain true if the planes are turned till they coincide, because Desargue's theorem remains true. // two planes are perspective, then if the one plane be turned about the axis through any angle, especially if the one plane be turned till it coincides with the other, the two planes will remain perspective; corresponding lines will still meet on a line called the axis, and the lines joining corresponding points will still pass through a common centre S situated in the plane. Whilst the one plane is turned this point S will move in a circle whose centre lies in the plane ir, which is kept fixed, and whose plane is perpendicular to the axis. The last part will be proved presently. As the plane ir' may be turned about the 'axis in one or the opposite sense, there will be two perspective positions possible when the planes coincide. § 6. Let (fig. 2) ir, ir' be the planes intersecting in the axis 5 whilst S is the centre of projection. To project a point A in it we join A to S and see where this line cuts ir'. This gives the point A'. But if we draw through S any line parallel to ir, then this line will cut ir' in some point I', and if all lines through S be drawn which are parallel to ir these will form a plane parallel to ir which will cut the plane ir' in a line i' parallel to the axis i. If we say that a line parallel to a plane cuts the latter at an infinite distance, we may say that all points at an infinite distance in *• are projected into points which lie in a straight line FIG. 2. i', and conversely all points in the line are projected to an infinite distance in ir, whilst all other points are projected to finite points. We say therefore that all points in the plane ir at an infinite distance may be considered as lying in a straight line, because their projections lie in a line. Thus we are again led to consider points at infinity in a plane as lying in a line (cf. G. §§ 2-4). Similarly there is a line j in ir which is projected to infinity in ir' ; this projection will be denoted by j' so that i and j' are lines at infinity. § 7. If we suppose through S a plane drawn perpendicular to the axis i cutting it at T, and in this plane the two lines SI parallel to ir and SJ parallel to ir', then the lines through I' and J PROJECTION parallel to the axis will be the lines »' and i. At the same time a parallelogram SJTI'S has been formed. If now the plane *•' be turned about the axis, then the points I' and J will not move in their planes; hence the lengths TJ and TI', and therefore also SI' and SJ, will not change. If the plane r is kept fixed in space the point J will remain fixed, and S describes a circle about J as centre and with SJ as radius. This proves the last part of the theorem in §5- § 8. The plane •*' may be turned either in the sense indicated by the arrow at Z or in the opposite sense till *•' falls into -r. In the first case we get a figure like fig. 3 ; i' and j will be on the same side of the axis, and on this side will also lie the centre S ; and "i T J J i' i' S Fio._3. FIG. 4. SJ. If I'S = SJ, the point S will lie on the axis. It follows that any one of the four points S, T, J, I' is completely determined by the other three: if the axis, the centre, and one of the lines »' or _;' are given the other is determined ; the three lines s, i', j determine the centre ; the centre and the lines i', j determine the axis. § 9. We shall now suppose that the two projective planes •*, r' are perspective and have been made to coincide. // the centre, the axis, and either one pair of corresponding points on a line through the centre or one pair of corresponding lines meeting on the axis are given, then the whole projection is determined. Proof. — If A and A' (fig. i) are given corresponding points, it has to be shown that we can find to every other point B the corre- sponding point B'. Join AB to cut the axis in R. Join RA'; then B' must lie on this line. But it must also lie on the line SB. Where both meet is B'. That the figures thus obtained are really projective can be seen by aid of the theorem of § 4. For, if for any point C the corresponding point C' be found, then the triangles ABC and A'B'C' are, by construction, co-linear, hence co-axal; and s will be the axis, because AB and AC meet their corresponding lines A'B' and A'C' on it. BC and B'C' therefore also meet on s. If on the other hand a, a' are given corresponding lines, then any line through S will cut them in corresponding points A, A' which may be used as above. § 10. Rows and pencils which are projective or perspective have been considered in the article GEOMETRY (G. §§ 12-40). All that has been said there holds, of course, here for any pair of correspond- ing rows or pencils. The centre of perspective for any pair of corresponding rows is at the centre of projection S, whilst the axis contains coincident corresponding elements. Corresponding pencils on the other hand have their axis of perspective on the axis of projection whilst the coincident rays pass through the centre. We mention here a few of those properties which are independent of the perspective position : — The correspondence between two projective rows or pencils is completely determined if to three elements in one the corresponding ones in the other are given. If for instance in two projective rows three pairs of corresponding points are given, then we can find to every other point in either the corresponding point (G. §§ 29-36). // A, B, C, D are four points in a row and A', B', C', D' the corre- 'l™~-',ing points, then their cross-ratios are equal (AB, CD) = (A'B', :'D')— where (AB, CD) =AC/CB:AD/DB. If in particular the point D be at infinity we have (AB, CD) = -AC/CB = AC/BC. If therefore the points D and D' are both at infinity we have AC/BC = AD/BD, and the rows are similar (G. § 39). This can only happen in special cases. For the line joining corresponding points passes through the centre; the latter must therefore lie at infinity if D, D' are different points at infinity. But if D and D' coincide they must lie on the axis, that is, at the point at infinity of the axis unless the axis is altogether at infinity. Hence-^- In two perspective planes every row which is parallel to the axis is similar to its corresponding row, and in general no other row has this property. But if the centre or the axis is at infinity then every row is similar to its corresponding row. In either of these two cases the metrical properties are particu- larly simple. If the axis is at infinity the ratio of similitude is the same for all rows and the figures are similar. If the centre is at infinity we get parallel projection; and the ratio of similitude changes from row to row (sec §§ 16, 17). and B corresponding Let C 429 In both cases the mid-points of corresponding segments will be corresponding points. § ii. Involution. — If the planes of two projective figures coin- cide, then every point in their common plane has to be counted twice, once as a point A in the figure •*, once as a point B' in the figure •*'. The points A' and B corresponding to them will in general be different points, but it may happen that they coincide. Here a theorem holds similar to that about rows (G. §§ 76 seq.). // two projective planes coincide, and if to one point in their common plane the same point corresponds, whether we consider the point as belonging to the first or to the second plane, then the same will happen for every other point—that is to say, to every point will correspond the same point in the first as in the second plane. In this case the figures are said to be in involution. Proof. — Let (fig. 5) S be the centre, s the axis of projection, and let a point denoted by A in the first plane and by B' in the second have the property that the points A' and B cot to them again coincide, and D' be the names which some other point has in the two planes. If the line AC cuts the axis in X, then the point where the line XA' cuts SC will be the point C' corresponding to C (§ 9). The line B'D' also cuts the axis in X, and therefore the point D corresponding to D' is the point where XB cuts SD'. But this is the same point as C'. FIG. 5- This point C' might also be got by drawing CB and joining its intersection Y with the axis to B'. Then C' must be the point where B'Y meets SC. This figure, which now forms a complete quadrilateral, shows that in order to get involution the corresponding points A and A' have to be harmonic conjugates with regard to S and the point T where AA' cuts the axis. // two perspective figures be in involution, two corresponding points are harmonic conjugates with regard to the centre and the point where the line joining them cuts the axis. Similarly — Any two corresponding lines are harmonic conjugates with regard to the axis and the line from their point of intersection to the centre. Conversely — // in two perspective planes one pair of corresponding points be harmonic conjugates with regard to the centre and the point where the line joining them cuts the axis, then every pair of corresponding points has this property and the planes are in involution. § 12. Projective Planes which are not in perspective position. — We return to the case that two planes v and «•' are projective but not in perspective position, and state in some of the more important cases the conditions which determine the correspondence between them. Here it is of great advantage to start with another definition which, though at first it may seem to be of far greater generality, is in reality equivalent to the one given before. We call Auo planes projective if to every point in one corresponds a point in the other, to every line a line, and to a point in a line a point in the corresponding line, in such a manner that the cross-ratio of four points in a line, or of four rays in a pencil, is equal to the cross-ratio of the corresponding points or rays. The last part about the equality of cross-ratios can be proved to be a consequence of the first. As space does not allow us to give an exact proof for this we include it in the definition. If one plane is actually projected to another we get a correspond- ence which has the properties required in the new definition. This shows that a correspondence between two planes conform to this definition is possible. That it is also definite we have to show. It follows at once that — Corresponding rows, and likewise corresponding pencils, art pro- jective in the old sense (G. §§ 25, 30). Further — // two planes are projective to a third they are projective to each other. The correspondence between two projective planes T and •*' is deter- mined if we have given either two rows u, v in T and the corresponding rows u , v' in T', the point where u and v meet corresponding to the points where u' and v' meet, or two pencils U, V in r and the corre- sponding pencils U', V in r', the ray UV joining the centres of the pencils in r corresponding to the ray U'V'. It is sufficient to prove the first part. Let any line a cut u, r in the points A and B. To these will correspond points A' and B' in u' and v' which are known. To the line a corresponds then the line A'B'. Thus to every line in the one plane the corre- sponding line in the other can be found, hence also to every point the corresponding point. § 13. // the planes of two projective figures coincide, and if either four points, of which no three lie in a line, or else four lines, of which no three pass through a point, in the one coincide with their corre- sponding points, or lines, in the other, then every point and every line coincides with its corresponding point or line so that the figures are identical. If the four points A, B, C, D coincide with their corresponding points, then every line joining two of these points will coincide witfi 430 its corresponding line. Thus the lines AB and CD, and therefore also their point of intersection E, will coincide with their corre- sponding elements. The row AB has thus three points A, B, E coincident with their corresponding points, and is therefore identical with it (§ 10). As there are six lines which join two and two of the four points A, B, C, D, there are six lines such that each point in either coincides with its corresponding point. Every other line will thus have the six points in which it cuts these, and therefore all points, coincident with their corresponding points. The proof of the second part is exactly the same. It follows — § 14. // two projective figures, which are not identical, lie in the same plane, then not more than three points which are not in a line, or three lines which do not pass through a point, can be coincident with their corresponding points or lines. If the figures are in perspective position, then they have in common one line, the axis, with all points in it, and one point, the centre, with all lines through it. No other point or line can there- fore coincide with its corresponding point or line without the figures becoming identical. It follows also that — The correspondence between two projective planes is completely determined if there are given — either to four points in the one the corresponding four points in the other provided that no three of them lie in a line, or to any four lines the corresponding lines provided that no three of them pass through a point. To show this we observe first that two planes ir, ir' may be made projective in such a manner that four given points A, B, C, D in the one correspond to four given points A', B , C', D' in the other; for to the lines AB, CD will correspond the lines A'B' and C'D', and to the intersection E of the former the point E' where the latter meet. The correspondence between these rows is therefore determined, as we know three pairs of corresponding points. But this determines a correspondence (by § 12). To prove that in this case and also in the case of § 12 there is but one correspondence possible, let us suppose there were two, or that we could have in the plane v' two figures which are each projective to the figure in ir and which have each the points A'B'C'D corresponding to the points ABCD in ir. Then these two figures will themselves be projective and have four corresponding points coincident. They are therefore identical by § 13. Two projective planes will be in perspective if one row coincides with its corresponding row. The line containing these rows will be the axis of projection. As in this case every point on s coincides with its corresponding point, it follows that every row a meets its corresponding row o' on s where corresponding points are united. The two rows a, a' are therefore perspective (G. § 30), and the lines joining corre- sponding points will meet in a point S. If r be any one of these lines cutting a, a' in the points A and A' and the line s at K, then to the line AK corresponds A'K, or the ray r corresponds to itself. The points B, B' in which r cuts another pair b, b' of corresponding rows must therefore be corresponding points. Hence the lines joining corresponding points in b and b' also pass through S. Similarly all lines joining corresponding points in the two planes TT and ir' meet in S; hence the planes are perspective. The following proposition is proved in a similar way: — Two projective planes will be in perspective position if one pencil coincides with its corresponding one. The centre of these pencils will be the centre of perspective. In this case the two planes must of course coincide, whilst in the first case this is not necessary. § 15. We shall now show that two planes which are projective according to definition (§ 12) can be brought into perspective position, hence that the new definition is really equivalent to the old. We use the fcllotving property: If two coincident planes it and ir' are perspective with S as centre, then any two corresponding rows are also perspective with S as centre. This therefore is true for the row j and j' and for i and i', of which i and j' are the lines at infinity in the two planes. If now the plane ir' be made to slide on «• so that each line moves parallel to itself, then the point at infinity in each line, and hence the whole line at infinity in ir' , remains fixed. So does the point at infinity on 7', which thus remains coincident with its corresponding point on f, and therefore the rows j and j' remain perspective, that is to say the rays joining corresponding points in them meet at some point T. Similarly the lines joining corresponding points in i and i' will meet in some point T . These two points T and T' originally coincided with each other and with S. Conversely, if two projective planes are placed one on the other, then as soon as the lines j and i are parallel the two points T and T' can be found by joining corresponding points in j'and j', and also in i and i'. If now a point at infinity is called A as a point in x and B' as a point in ir , then the point A' will lie on i' and B on j, so that the line AA' passes through T' and BB' through T. These two lines are parallel. If then the plane ir' be moved parallel to itself till T' comes to T, then these two lines will coincide with each other, and with them will coincide the lines AB and A'B'. This line and similarly every line through T will thus now coin- cide with its corresponding line. The two planes are therefore according to the last theorem in § 14 in perspective position. PROJECTION It will be noticed that the plane ir' may be placed on ir in two different ways, viz. if we have placed ir' on ir we may take it off and turn it over in space before we bring it back to ir, so that what was its upper becomes now its lower face. For each of these positions we get one pair of centres T, T', and only one pair, because the above process must give every perspective position. It follows — In two projective planes there are in general two and only two pencils in either such that angles in one are equal to their correspond- ing angles in the other. If one of these pencils is made coincident with its corresponding one, then the planes will be perspective. This agrees with the fact that two perspective planes in space can be made coincident by turning one about their axis in two different ways (§ 8). In the reasoning employed it is essential that the lines j and «' are finite. If one lies at infinity, say j, then i and j coincide, hence their corresponding lines i' and j' will coincide ; that is, i' also lies at infinity, so that the lines at infinity in the two planes are corre- sponding lines. If the planes are now made coincident and per- spective, then it may happen that the lines at infinity correspond point for point, or can be made to do so by turning the one plane in itself. In this case the line at infinity is the axis, whilst the centre may be a finite point. This gives similar figures (see § 16). In the other case the line at infinity corresponds to itself without being the axis; the lines joining corresponding points therefore all coin- cide with it, and the centre S lies on it at infinity. The axis will be some finite line. This gives parallel projection (see § 17). For want of space we do not show how to find in these cases the per- spective position, but only remark that in the first case any pair of corresponding points in ir and ir' may be taken as the points T and T , whilst in the other case there is a pencil of parallels in ir such that any one line of these can be made to coincide point for point with its corresponding line in ir', and thus serve as the axis of projection. It will therefore be possible to get the planes in perspective position by first placing any point A' on its correspond- ing point A and then turning ir' about this point till lines joining corresponding points are parallel. § 1 6. Similar Figures. — If the axis is at infinity every line is parallel to its corresponding line. Corresponding angles are there- fore equal. The figures are similar, and (§ 10) the ratio of simili- tude of any two corresponding rows is constant. If similar figures are in perspective position they are said to be similarly situated, and the centre of projection is called the centre of similitude. To place two similar figures in this position, we observe that their lines at infinity will coincide as soon as both figures are put in the same plane, but the rows on them are not necessarily identical. They are projective, and hence in general not more than two points on one will coincide with their corresponding points in the other (G. § 34). To make them identical it is either sufficient to turn one figure in its plane till three lines in one are parallel to their corresponding lines in the other, or it is necessary before this can be done to turn the one plane over in space. It can be shown that in the former case all lines are, or no line is, parallel to its corresponding line, whilst in the second case there are two directions, at right angles to each other, which have the property that each line in either direction is parallel to its corresponding line. We also see that — If in two similar figures three lines, of which no two are parallel, are parallel respectively to their corresponding lines, then every line has this property and the two figures are similarly situated; or Two similar figures are similarly situated as soon as two corre- sponding triangles are so situated. If two similar figures are perspective without being in the same plane, their planes must be parallel as the axis is at infinity. Hence — Any plane figure is projected from any centre to a parallel plane into a similar figure. If two similar figures are similarly situated, then corresponding points may either be on the same or on different sides of the centre. If, besides, the ratio of similitude is unity, then corresponding points will be equidistant from the centre. In the first case there- fore the two figures will be identical. In the second case they will be identically equal but not coincident. They can be made to coincide by turning one in its plane through two right angles about the centre of similitude S. The figures are in involution, as is seen at once, and they are said to be symmetrical with regard to the point S as centre. If the two figures be considered as part of one, then this is said to have a centre. Thus regular polygons of an even number of sides and parallelograms have each a centre, which is a centre of symmetry. § 17 Parallel Projection. — If, instead of the axis, the centre be moved to infinity, all the projecting rays will be parallel, and we fet what is called parallel projection. In this case the line at in- nity passes through the centre and therefore corresponds to itself — but not point for point as in the case of similar figures. To any point I at infinity corresponds therefore a point I' also at infinity but different from the first. Hence to parallel lines meeting at I correspond parallel lines of another direction meeting at I . Further, in any two corresponding rows the two points at infinity are corresponding points; hence the rows are similar. This gives the principal properties of parallel projection: — To parallel lines correspond parallel lines; or PROJECTION To a parallelogram corresponds a parallelogram. The correspondence of parallel projection is completely determined as soon as for any parallelogram in the one figure the corresponding parallelogram in the other has been selected, as follows from the general case in § 14. [Corresponding rows are similar (§ io).l The ratio of similitude for these rows changes with the direction : // a row is parallel to the axis, its corresponding row, which is also parallel to the axis, will be equal to it, because any two pairs AA' and BB' of corresponding points will form a parallelogram. Another important property is the following: — The areas of corresponding figures have a constant ratio. \Ve prove this first for parallelograms. Let ABCD and EFGH be any two parallelograms in *•, A'B'C'D' and ET'G'H' the corresponding parallelograms in ir'. Then to the parallelo- gram KLMN which lies (fig. 6) between the lines AB, CD and EF, GH will correspond FIG. 6. their areas are as the bases. ABCD AB Hence a parallelogram K'L'M'N' formed in exactly the same manner. As ABCD and KLMN are between the same parallels ™ . . ., . A'B'C'D' A'B' = KL' and similarl>' K'L'M'N' =KT?' But AB/KL = A'B'/K'L', as the rows AB and A'B' are similar. Hence ABCD KLMN EFGH KLMN A'B'C'U' = K'L'M'N' and simllarlv E'F'G'H' 'K'L'M'N' Hence also ABCD A'B'C'D' This proves the theorem for parallelograms and also for their halves, that is, for any triangles. As polygons can be divided into triangles the truth of the theorem follows at once for them, and i> intended (by the method of exhaustion) to areas bounded by curves by inscribing polygons in, and circumscribing polygons about, the curves. Just as (G. § 8) a segment of a line is given a sense, so a sense may be given to an area. This is done as follows. If we go round the boundary of an area, the latter is either to the right or to the left. If we turn round and go in the opposite sense, then the area will be to the left if it was first to the right, and vice versa. If we give the boundary a definite sense, and go round in this sense, then the area is said to be either of the one or of the other sense according as the area is to the right or to the left. The area is generally said to be positive if it is to the left. The sense of the boundary is indicated either by an arrowhead or by the order of the letters which denote points in the boundary. Thus, if A, B, C be the vertices of a triangle, then ABC shall denote the area in magnitude and sense, the sense being fixed by going round the triangle in the order from A to B to C. It will then be seen that ABC and ACB denote the same area but with opposite sense, and generally ABC = BCA = CAB = - ACB = - BAG = - CBA; that is, an inter- change of two letters changes the sense. Also, if A and A' are two points on opposite sides of, and equidistant from, the line BC, then ABC = -A'BC. Taking account of the sense, we may make the following state- ment : — If A, A' are two corresponding points, if the line AA' cuts the axis in B, and if C is any other point in the axis, then the triangles ABC and A'BC are corresponding, and ABC_ AB AB . or The constant ratio of corresponding areas is equal and opposite to the ratio in which the axis divides the segment joining two corre- sponding points. § 18. Several special cases of parallel projection are of interest. Orthographic Projection. — If the two planes jr and tr' have a definite position in space, and if a figure in r is projected to T' by rays perpendicular to this plane, then the projection is said to be orthographic. If in this case the plane i be turned till it coincides with r' so that the figures remain perspective, then the projecting rays will be perpendicular to the axis of projection, because any one of these rays is, and remains during the turning, perpendicular to the axis. The constant ratio of the area of the projection to that of the original figure is, in this case, the cosine of the angle between the two planes » and »•', as will be seen by projecting a rectangle which has its base in the axis. Orthographic projection is of constant use in geometrical drawing. If the centre of projection be taken at infinity on the MS, then the projecting rays are parallel to the axis; hence corre- sponding points will be equidistant from the axis. In this case, therefore, areas of corresponding figures will be equal. 43' If A, A' and B, B' (fig. 7) are two pairs of corresponding points on the same line, parallel to the axis, then, as corresponding seg- ments parallel to the axis are equal, it follows that AB = A*B', hence also AA' = BB'. If these points be joined to any point O on the axis, then AO and A'O will be corre- sponding lines; they will there- fore be cut by any line parallel to the axis in corresponding points. In the figure therefore 0 FIG. 7. t, C' and also 6, D' will be pairs of corresponding points and CC' = DD'. As the ratio CC'/AA' equals the ratio of the distant us of C and A from the axis, therefore — Two corresponding figures may be got one out of the other by moving all points in the one parallel to a fixed line, the axis, through distances which are proportional to their own distances from the axis. Points in a line remain hereby in a line. Such a transformation of a plane figure is produced by a shearing stress in any section of a homogeneous elastic solid. Foi this reason Lord Kelvin gave it the name of shear. A shear of a plane figure is determined if we are given the axis and the distance through which one point has been moved; for in this case the axis, the centre, and a pair of corresponding points are given. § 19. Symmetry and Skew-Symmetry. — If the centre is not on the axis, and if corresponding points are at equal distances from it, they must be on opposite sides of it. The figures will be in involution (§ n). In this case the direction of the projecting rays is said to be conjugate to the axis. The conjugate direction may be perpendicular to the axis. If the line joining two corresponding points A, A' cuts the axis in B, then AB=BA. Therefore, if the plane be folded over along the axis, A will fall on A'. Hence by this folding over every point will coincide with its corresponding point. The figures therefore are identically equal or congruent, and in their original position they are symmetrical with regard to the axis, which itself is called an axis of symmetry. If the two figures are considered as one this one is said to be symmetrical with regard to an axis, and is said to have an axis of symmetry or simply an axis. Every diameter of a circle is thus an axis; also the median line of an isosceles triangle and the diagonals of a rhombus are axes of the figures to which they belong. In the more general case where the projecting rays are not per- pendicular to the axis we have a kind of twisted symmetry which may be called skew-symmetry. It can be got from symmetry by giving the whole figure a shear. It will also be easily seen that we get skew-symmetry if we first form a shear to a given figure and then separate it from its shear by folding it over along the axis of the shear, which thereby becomes an axis of skew-symmetry. Skew-symmetrical and therefore also symmetrical figures have the following properties: — Corresponding areas are equal, but of opposite sense. Any two corresponding lines are harmonic conjugates with regard to the axis and a line in the conjugate direction. If the two figures be again considered as one whole, this is said to be skew-symmetrical and to have an axis of skew-symmetry. Thus the median line of any triangle is an axis of skew-symmetry, the side on which it stands having the conjugate direction, the other sides being conjugate lines. From this it follows, for in- stance, that the three median lines of a triangle meet in a point. For two median lines will be corresponding lines with regard to the third as axis, and must therefore meet on the axis. An axis of skew-symmetry is generally called a diameter. Thus every diameter of a conic is an axis of skew-symmetry, the con- jugate direction being the direction of the chords which it bisects. § 20. We state a few properties of these figures useful in mechanics, but we omit the easy proofs: — // a plane area has an axis of skew-symmetry, then the mass-centre (centre of mean distances or centre of inertia) lies on it. If a figure undergoes a shear, the mass-centre of its area remains the mass-centre ; and generally — In parallel projection the mass-centres of corresponding areas (or of groups of points, but not of curves) are corresponding points. The moment of inertia of a plane figure does not change if the figure undergoes a shear in the direction of the axis with regard to which the moment has been taken. If a figure has an axis of skew-symmetry, then this axis and~the conjugate direction are conjugate diameters of the momental ellipse for every point in the axis. If a figure has an axis of symmetry, then this is an axis of the momental ellipse for every point in it. The truth of the last propositions follows at once from the fact • that the product of inertia for the lines in question vanishes. It is of interest to notice how a great many propositions of Euclid are only special cases of projection. The theorems Euc. I. 35-41 about parallelograms or triangles on equal bases and between the same parallels are examples of shear, whilst I. 43 gives a case of 432 skew-symmetry, hence of involution. Figures which are identi- cally equal are of course projective, and they are perspective when placed so that they have an axis or a centre of symmetry (cf. Henrici, Elementary Geometry, Congruent Figures). In this case again the relation is that of involution. The importance of treat- ing similar figures when in perspective position has long been recognized; we need only mention the well-known proposition about the centres of similitude of circles. Applications to Conies. § 21. Any conic can be projected into any other conic. This may be done in such a manner that three points on one conic and the tangents at two of them are projected to three arbitrarily selected points and the tangents at two of them on the other. If u and u' are any two conies, then we have to prove that we can project u in such a manner that five points on it will be projected to points on u'. As the projection is determined as soon as the projections of any four points or four lines are selected, we cannot project any five points of u to any five arbitrarily selected points on «'. But if A, B, C be any three points on u, and if the tangents at B and C meet at D, if further A', B', C' are any three points on u', and if the tangents at B' and C' meet at D', then the plane of u may be projected to the plane of u' in such a manner that the points A, B, C, D are projected to A', B', C', D'. This determines the correspondence (§ 14). The conic u will be projected into a conic, the points A, B, C and the tangents BD and CD to the points A', B', C' and the lines B'D' and C'D', which are tangents to «' at B' and C'. The projection of u must therefore (G. § 52) coincide with u', because it is a conic which has three points and the tangents at two of them in common with «'. Similarly we might have taken three tangents and the points of contact of two of them as corresponding to similar elements on the other. If the one conic be a circle which cuts the line j, the projection will cut the line at infinity in two points; hence it will be a hyper- bola. Similarly, if the circle touches j, the projection will be a parabola; and, if the circle has no point in common with j, the projection will be an ellipse. These curves appear thus as sections of a circular cone, for in case that the two planes of projection are separated the rays projecting the circle form such a cone. Any conic may be projected into itself. If we take any point S in the plane of a conic as centre, the polar of this point as axis of projection, and any two points in which a line through S cuts the conic as corresponding points, then these will be harmonic conjugates with regard to the centre and the axis. We therefore have involution (§ n), and every point is projected into its harmonic conjugate with regard to the centre and the axis — hence every point A on the conic into that point A' on the conic in which the line SA' cuts the conic again, as follows from the harmonic properties of pole and polar (G. § 62 seq.). Two conies which cut the line at infinity in the same two points are similar figures and similarly situated — the centre of similitude being in general some finite point. To prove this, we take the line at infinity and the asymptotes of one as corresponding to the line at infinity and the asymptotes of the other, and besides a tangent to the first as corresponding to a parallel tangent to the other. The line at infinity will then correspond to itself point for point ; hence the figures will be similar and similarly situated. § 22. Areas of Parabolic Segments. — One parabola may always be considered as a parallel projection of another in such a manner that any two points A, B on the one correspond to any two points A', B' on the other; that is, the points A, B and the point at infinity on the one may be made to correspond respectively to the points A', B' and the point at infinity on the other, whilst the tangents at A and at infinity of the one correspond to the tangents at B' and at infinity of the other. This completely determines the correspondence, and it is parallel projection because the line at infinity corresponds to the line at infinity. Let the tangents at A and B meet at C, and those at A', B' at C'; then C, C°will correspond, and so will the triangles ABC and A'B'C' as well as the parabolic segments cut off by the chords AB and A'B'. If (AB) denotes the area of the segment cut off by the chord AB we have therefore (AB)/ABC = (A'B')/A'B'C'; or The area of a segment of a parabola stands in a constant ratio to the area of the triangle formed by the chord of the segment and the tangents at the end points of the chord. If then (fig. 8) we join the point C to the mid-point M of AB, then this line / will be bisected at D by the parabola (G. § 74), and the tangent at D will be parallel to AB. Let this tangent cut AC in E and CB in F, then by the last theorem (AB) (AD) (BD) ABC~ADE~BFD~WI where m is some number to be determined. The figure gives (AB)=ABD+(AD) + (BD). PROJECTION FIG. 8. Combining both equations, we have ABD=m (ABC-ADE-BFD;. But we have also ABD = J ABC, and ADE = BFD = J ABC hence iABC=»«(i-l-|)ABC1or»« = J. The area of a parabolic segment equals two-thirds of the area of the triangle formed by the chord and the tangents at the end points of the chord. § 23. Elliptic Areas. — To consider one ellipse a parallel projection of another we may establish the correspondence as follows. If AC, BD are any pair of conjugate diameters of the one and A'C, B'D' any pair of conjugate diameters of the other, then these may be made to correspond to each other, and the correspondence will be completely determined if the parallelogram formed by the tangents at A, B, C, D is made to correspond to that formed by the tangents at A', B', C', D' (§§ 17 and 21). As the projection of the first conic has the four points A', B', C', D' and the tangents at these points in common with the second, the two ellipses are pro- jected one into the other. Their areas will correspond, and so do those of the parallelograms ABCD and A'B'C'D'. Hence — The area of an ellipse has a constant ratio to the area of any inscribed parallelogram whose diagonals are conjugate diameters, and also to every circumscribed parallelogram whose sides are parallel to conjugate diameters. It follows at once that — All parallelograms inscribed in an ellipse whose diagonals are conjugate diameters are equal in area ; and All parallelograms circumscribed about an ellipse whose sides are parallel to conjugate diameters are equal in area. If a, b are the length of the semi-axes of the ellipse, then the area of the circumscribed parallelogram will be 406 and of the inscribed one 2ab. For the circle of radius r the inscribed parallelogram becomes the square of area 2r2 and the circle has the area rV; the constant ratio of an ellipse to the inscribed parallelogram has therefore also the value JTT. Hence — The area of an ellipse equals abir. § 24. Projective Properties. — The properties of the projection of a figure depend partly on the relative position of the planes of the figures and the centre of projection, but principally on the properties of the given figure. Points in a line are projected into points in a line, harmonic points into harmonic points, a conic into a conic; but parallel lines are not projected into parallel lines nor right angles into right angles, neither are the projections of equal segments or angles again equal. There are then some pro- perties which remain unaltered by projection, whilst others change. The former are called projective or descriptive, the latter metrical properties of figures, because the latter all depend on measurement. To a triangle and its median lines correspond a triangle and three lines which meet in a point, but which as a rule are not median lines. In this case, if we take the triangle together with the line at infinity, we get as the projection a triangle ABC, and some other line j which cuts the sides a, b, c of the triangle in the points Ai, BI, Ci. If we now take on BC the harmonic conjugate Aa to Ai and similarly on CA and AB the harmonic conjugates to BI and Ci respectively, then the lines AA2, BB2, CC2 will be the projections of the median lines in the given figure. Hence these lines must meet in a point. As the triangle and the fourth line we may take any four given lines, because any four lines may be projected into any four given lines (§ 14). This gives a theorem: — // each vertex of a triangle be joined to that point in the opposite side which is, with regard to the vertices, the harmonic conjugate of the point in which the side is cut by a given line, then the three lines thus obtained meet in a point. We get thus out of the special theorem about the median lines of a triangle a more general one. But before this could be done we had to add the line at infinity to the lines in the given figure. In a similar manner a great many theorems relating to metrical properties can be generalized by taking the line at infinity or points at infinity as forming part of the original figure. Conversely special cases relating to measurement are obtained by projecting some line in a figure of known properties to infinity. This is true for all properties relating to parallel lines or to bisection of seg- ments, but not immediately for angles. It is, however, possible to establish for every metrical relation the corresponding projective property. To do this it is necessary to consider imaginary elements. These have originally been introduced into geometry by aid of co-ordinate geometry, where imaginary quantities constantly occur as roots of equations. Their introduction into pure geometry is due principally to Poncelet, who by the publication of his great work Traite des Proprietes Projectives des Figures became the founder of projective geometry in its widest sense. Mpnge had considered parallel projection and had already distinguished between permanent and accidental properties of figures, the latter being those which de- pended merely on the accidental position of one part to another. Thus in projecting two circles which lie in different planes it PROJECTION depends on the accidental position of the centre of projection whether the projections be two conies which do or do not meet. Poncelet introduced the principle of continuity in order to make theorems general and independent of those accidental positions which depend analytically on the fact that the equations used have real or imaginary roots. But the correctness of this principle remained without a proof. Von Staudt has, however, shown how it -il)lf to introduce imaginary elements by purely geometrical nooning, and we shall now try to give the reader some idea of his theory. § 25. Imaginary Elements. — If a line cuts a curve and if the line be moved, turned for instance about a point in it, it may happen that two of the points of intersection approach each other till they coincide. The line then becomes a tangent. If the line is still further moved in the same manner it separates from the curve and two points of intersection are lost. Thus in considering the rela- tion of a line to a conic we have to distinguish three cases — the line cuts the conic in two points, touches it, or has no point in common with it. This is quite analogous to the fact that a quadratic equa- tion with one unknown quantity has either two, one, or no roots. But in algebra it has long been found convenient to express this differently by saying a quadratic equation has always two roots, but these may be either both real and different, or equal, or they may be imaginary. In geometry a similar mode of expressing the fact above stated is not less convenient. We say therefore a line has always two points in common with a conic, but these are either distinct, or coincident, or invisible. The word imaginary is generally used instead of invisible; but, as the points have nothing to do with imagination, we prefer the word " invisible " recommended originally by Clifford. Invisible points occur in pairs of conjugate points, for a line loses always two visible points of intersection with a curve simultane- ously. This is analogous to the fact that an algebraical equation with real coefficients has imaginary roots in pairs. Only one real line can be drawn through an invisible point, for two real lines meet in a real or visible point. The real line through an invisible point contains also its conjugate. Similarly there are invisible lines — tangents, for instance, from a point within a conic — which occur in pairs of conjugates, two conjugates having a real point in common. The introduction of invisible points would be nothing but a play upon words unless there is a real geometrical property indicated which can be used in geometrical constructions — that it has a definite meaning, for instance, to say that two conies cut a line in the same two invisible points, or that we can draw one conic through three real points and the two invisible ones which another conic has in common with a line that does not actually cut it. We have in fact to give a geometrical definition of invisible points. This is done by aid of the theory of involution (G. § 76 seq.). An involution of points on a line has (according to G. § 77 [2]) either two or one or no foci. Instead of this we now say it has always two foci which may be distinct, coincident or invisible. These foci are determined by the involution, but they also determine the involution. If the foci are real this follows from the fact that conjugate points are harmonic conjugates with regard to the foci. That it is also the case for invisible foci will presently appear. If we take this at present for granted we may replace a pair of real, coincident or invisible points by the involution of which they are the foci. Now any two pairs of conjugate points determine an involution (G. § 77 [6]). Hence any point-pair, whether real or invisible, is completely determined by any two pairs of conjugate points of the involution which has given the point-pair as foci and may therefore be replaced by them. Two pairs of invisible points are thus said to be identical if, and only if, they are the foci of the same involution. We know (G. § 82) that a conic determines on every line an in- volution in which conjugate points are conjugate poles with regard to the conic — that is, that either lies on the polar of the other. This holds whether the line cuts the conic or not. Furthermore, in the former case the points common to the line and the conic are the foci of the involution. Hence we now say that this is always the case, and that the invisible points common to a line and a conic are the invisible foci of the involution in question. If then we state the problem of drawing a conic which passes through two points given as the intersection of a conic and a line as that of drawing a conic which determines a given involution on the line, we have it in a form in which it is independent of the accidental circumstance of the intersections being real or invisible. So is the solution of the problem, as we shall now show. § 26. We have_seen (§ 21) that a conic may always be projected into itself by taking any point S as centre and its polar i as axis of projection, corresponding points being those in which a line through S cuts the conic. If then (fig. 9) A, A' and B, B' are pairs of corresponding points so that the lines AA' and BB' pass through S, then the lines AB and A'B', as corresponding lines, will meet at a point R on the axis, and the lines AB' and A'B will meet at another point _R' on the axis. These points R, R' are conjugate points in the involution which the conic determines on the line s, 433 because the triangle RSR' is a polar triangle (G. § 62), so that R' lies on the polar of R. This gives a simple means of determining for any point Q on the line s its conjugate point Q'. We take any two points A, A' on the conic which lie on a line through S, join Q to A by a line cutting the conic again in C, and join C to A'. This line will cut * in the point Q' required. To a.raw some conic which shall determine on a line s a given involution. We have here to reconstruct the fig. 9, having given on the line s an involution. Let Q, Q' and R, R' (fig. 9) be two pairs of conjugate points in this involution. We take any point B and join it to R and R', and another point C to 6 and Q'. Let BR and CQ meet at A, and BR' and CQ- at A'. If now a point P be moved along s its conjugate point P' will also move and the two points will describe projective rows The two rays AP and A'P' will Q FIG. 9. therefore describe projective pencils, and the intersection of corre- sponding rays will lie on a conic which passes through A, A', B and C. This conic determines on .s the given involution. Of these four points not only B and C but also the point A may be taken arbitrarily, for if A, B, C are given, the line AB will cut i in some point R. As the involution is supposed known, we can find the point R' conjugate to R, which we join to B. In the same way the line CA will cut s in some point Q. Its conjugate point Q' we join to C. The line CQ' will cut BR' in a point A', and then AA' will pass through the pole S (cf. fig. 9). We may now interchange A and B and find the point B'. Then BB' will also pass through S, which is thus found. At the same time five points A, B, C, A', B' on the conic have been found, so that the conic is completely known which determines on the line i the given involution. Hence — Through three points we can always draw one conic, and only one, which determines on a given line a given involution, all the same whether the involution has real, coincident or invisible foci. In the last case the theorem may now also be stated thus: — It is always possible to draw a conic which passes through three given real points and through two invisible points which any other conic has in common with a line. § 27. The above theory of invisible points gives rise to a great number of interesting consequences, of which we state a few. The theorem at the end of § 21 may now be stated: — Any two conies are similar and similarly situated if they cut the line at infinity in the same two points — real, coincident or invisible. It follows that Any two parabolas are similar; and they are similarly situated as soon as their axes are parallel. The involution which a circle determines at its centre is circular (G. § 79); that is, every line is perpendicular to its conjugate line. This will be cut by the line at infinity in an involution which has the following property: The lines which join any finite point to two conjugate points in the involution are at right angles to each other. Hence all circular involutions in a plane determine the same involution on the line at infinity. The latter is therefore called the circular involution on the line at infinity; and the involu- tion which a circle determines at its centre is called the circular involution at that point. All circles determine thus on the line at infinity the same involution; in other words, they have the same two invisible points in common with the line at infinity. All circles may be considered as passing through the same two points at infinity. These points are called the circular points at infinity, and by Professor Cayley the absolute in the plane. They are the foci of the circular involution in the line at infinity. Conversely — Every conic which passes through the circular points is a circle; because the involution at its centre is circular, hence conjugate diameters are at right angles, and this property only circles possess. We now see why we can draw always one and only one circle through any three points; these three points together with the circular points at infinity are five points through which one conic only can be drawn. Any two circles^ are similar and similarly situated because they have the same points at infinity (§ 21). Any two concentric circles may be considered as having double contact at infinity, because the lines joining the common centre to the circular points at infinity are tangents to both circles at the circular points, as the line at infinity is the polar of the centre. A ny two lines at right angles to one another are harmonic conjugates with regard to the rays joining their intersection to the circular points, because these rays are the focal rays of the circular involution at the intersection of the given lines. To bisect an angle with the vertex A means (G. § 23) to find two rays through A which are harmonic conjugates with regard to the 434 PROKOP— PROLOGUE limits of the angle and perpendicular to each other. These rays are therefore harmonic with regard to the limits of the given angle and with regard to the rays through the circular points. Thus perpendicularity and bisection of an angle have been stated in a projective form. It must not be forgotten that the circular points do not exist at all; but to introduce them gives us a short way of making a statement which would otherwise be long and cumbrous. We can now generalize any theorem relating to metrical pro- perties. For instance, the simple fact that the chord of a circle is touched by a concentric circle at its mid point proves the theorem: — // two conies have double contact, then the points where any tangent to one of them cuts the other are harmonic with regard to the point of contact and the point where the tangent cuts the chord of contact. (O. H.) PROKOP, the name of two of the most prominent Hussite generals 1. PROKOP, surnamed " Veliky " (the great) or " Holy " (the bald), was a married utraquist priest who belonged to an eminent family of citizens of Prague. Though a priest and continuing to officiate as such, he became the most prominent leader of the advanced Hussite or Taborite forces during the latter part of the Hussite wars. He was not indeed the immediate successor of 2izka as leader of the Taborites, as has been fre- quently stated, but he commanded the forces of Tabor when they obtained their great victories over the Germans and Romanists at Usti nad Labam (Aussig) in 1426 and Domazlice (Tauss) in 1431. He also acted as leader of the Taborites during their frequent incursions into Hungary and Germany, particularly when in 1429 a vast Bohemian army invaded Saxony and the territory of Nuremberg. The Hussites, however, made no attempt permanently to conquer German territory, and on the 6th of February 1430 Prokop concluded at Kulmbach a treaty with Frederick of Brandenburg, burgrave of Nuremberg, by which the Hussites engaged themselves to leave Germany. When the Bohemians entered into negotiations with Sigismund and the Council of Basel and, after prolonged discussions, resolved to send an embassy to the council, Prokop the Great was the most prominent member of this embassy, which reached Basel on the 4th of January 1433. When the negotiations there for a time proved resultless Prokop with the other envoys returned to Bohemia, where new internal troubles broke out. A Taborite army led by Prokop the Great besieged Plzen, which was then in the hands of the Romanists. The discipline in the Hussite camp had, however, slackened in the course of pro- longed warfare, and the Taborites encamped before Plzen revolted against Prokop, who therefore returned to Prague. Probably encouraged by these dissensions among the men of Tabor, the Bohemian nobility, both Romanist and utraquist, formed a league for the purpose of opposing democracy, which through the victories of Tabor had acquired great strength in the Bohemian towns. The struggle began at Prague. Aided by the nobles, the citizens of the old town took possession of the more democratic new town, which Prokop unsuccessfully attempted to defend. Prokop now called to his aid Prokop " the Lesser," who had succeeded him in the command of the Taborite army before Plzen. They jointly retreated eastward from Prague, and their forces, known as the army of the towns, met at Lipan, between Kourim and Kolin, the army of the nobles (May 30, 1434). The Taborites were decisively defeated, and Prokop the Great perished in this battle. 2. PROKOP " the Lesser," or PROKUPEK (the Bohemian diminutive of the word Prokop) , was one of the greatest Hussite generals. Little is known of his early life. He took part in all the later campaigns of Prokop the Great in Germany, and suc- ceeded him as commander of the Taborite army that besieged Plzen. After the formation of the confederacy of the nobles he was recalled by Prokop the Great, with whom he shared the command of the army of the towns at the fateful battle of Lipan, in which he also perished. See Count Lutzow, Bohemia : A Historical Sketch ; Palacky, History of Bohemia; Toman, Husitske Valecnictvi (Hussite Warfare). PROKOPOVICH, THEOFAN (1681-1736), Russian archbishop and statesman, one of the ablest coadjutors of Peter the Great, was sprung from a merchant family. He brilliantly distinguished himself at the Orthodox academy of Kiev, subsequently com- pleting his education in Poland (for which purpose he turned Uniate), and at Rome in the College of the Propaganda. Primed with all the knowledge of the West, he returned home to seek his fortune, and, as the Orthodox monk, became one of the pro- fessors at, and subsequently rector of, the academy of Kiev. He entirely reformed the teaching of theology there, substituting the historical method of the German theologians for the anti- quated Orthodox scholastic system. In 1709 Peter the Great, while passing through Kiev, was struck by the eloquence of Prokopovich in a sermon on " the most glorious victory," i.e. Poltava, and in 1716 summoned him to Petersburg. From henceforth it was Theofan's duty and pleasure to explain the new ideas and justify the most alarming innovations from the pulpit. So invaluable, indeed, did he become to the civil power, that, despite the determined opposition of the Russian clergy, who regarded " the Light of Kiev " as an interloper and semi-heretic, he was rapidly promoted, becoming, in 1718, bishop of Pskov, and finally, in 1724, archbishop of Novgorod. As the author of " the spiritual regulation " for the reform of the Russian Church, Theofan must, indeed, be regarded as the creator of " the spiritual department " superseding the patri- archate, and better known by its later name of " the holy synod," of which he was made the vice-president. Penetrated by the conviction that ignorance was the worst of the inveterate evils of old Russia, a pitiless enemy of superstition of every sort, a reformer by nature, overflowing with energy and resource, and with a singularly lucid mind armed at all points by a far- reaching erudition, Prokopovich was the soul of the reforming party after the death of Peter the Great. To him also belongs the great merit of liberating Russian preaching from the fetters of Polish turgidity and affectation by introducing popular themes and a simple style into Orthodox pulpit eloquence. See I. Chistovitch, Theofan Prokopovich and his Times (Rus.; Petersburg, 1868); P. Morozov, Theophan Prokopovich as a Writer (Rus.; Petersburg, 1880). (R. N. B.) PROLEGOMENON (Gr. for " that which is said beforehand," wpoXtyeiv, to speak, say before), a preface or introduction to a book, especially a preliminary introductory essay to a learned work, or a treatise which serves as a general survey or intro- duction to the study of some subject or as a special survey of the subject. The word is more often used in the plural. PROLETARIAT, or PROLETARIATE, a term borrowed from the French and used collectively of those classes of a political community who depend for their livelihood on their daily labour, the wage-earning, operative class as opposed to the capital- owning class. It is of frequent use by those social reformers who base their theories on the supposed antagonism of capital and labour. The Latin prolctarius, from which the word was formed, was the name given to the body of citizens possessed of no property and who therefore served the state with their children (proles, offspring). This division of the members of the state was traditionally ascribed to Servius Tullius. PROLOCUTOR, one who speaks for others (Lat. pro, for, and loqui, to speak); specifically the chairman of the lower house of convocation in the two provinces of the Church of England, who presides in that house and acts as representative and spokesman in the upper house. He is elected by the lower house, subject to the approval of the metropolitan. (See CONVOCATION.) PROLOGUE (from Gr. irpb, before, and \ayos, a word), a prefatory piece of writing, usually composed to introduce a drama. The Greeks use a word Tp6X