ENCYCLOPAEDIA JJRITANNICA KIJEVENTH ' 1 •a taHaa •H •. •y- '•&wm THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty . 1801 — 1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853 — 1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF * ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXII POLL to REEVES Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1 AE. •E 3 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. of j: A. Bo.* AUGUSTE BOUDINHON, D.D., D.C.L. Professor of Canon Law at the Catholic University of Paris. Honorary Canon of -J Pope. Paris. Editor of the Canoniste Contemporain. A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHF.R, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, iSj^-iSgs. Gold Medallist, J D«V t;<* Royal Society, 1878. "Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia,\ Salientia and Fishes in the British Museum ; &c. A. C. McG. REV. ARTHUR CUSHMAN MCGIFFERT, M.A., PH.D., D.D. Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of ] D--_V..« / • History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c. Editor of the Historia Ecclesia') " fan)- of Eusebius. A. D. AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D, D.C.L. f ^ Matthe, See the biographical article: DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN. \ n A. de W. F. ARTHUR DE WINT FOOTE. _f Power Transmission: Superintendent of North Star Mining Company, California. ^ Pneumatic. A. E. G.* REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D. Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and J _ , the Board of Philosophy, London University. Author of Studies in the Inner Life \ Predestination. of Jesus ; &c. I A. E. H. A. E. HOUGHTON. Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the \ Quesada y Matheus. Bourbons in Spain. \, A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. 4 Priapuloidea. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgale; •{ Prison. Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. I A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, PH.D. f _ . t . . A See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. /- _ . . Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of -j Primitive Methodist Church; Mysore Educational Service. [_ Priscillian. A. L. ANDREW LANG. J Poltergeist; Prometheus; See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. "^ Psychical Research. A. McA. ALEXANDER McAuLAY, M.A. (" Professor of Mathematics and Physics, University of Tasmania. Author of Utility J. Quaternions (in part), of Quaternions in Physics; &c. A. M. CL AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-author of Source s s Publican!. of Roman History, 133-70 B.C. f Pratincole; Quail; Quezal: A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. ^aU ((n0part\,n See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. Raven; Razorbill; Redshank; Redstart; 1 Redwing. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. V 1991 vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A. SI. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D. f Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water- "j Prostitution. Supply ; Industrial Efficiency ; Drink, Temperance and Legislation. A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. f Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J i>,,fi.0. Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. 1 ^nagoras n part). Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; &c. I A. S. Wo. ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. f Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of i Pterodactyles. the Geological Society of London. L A. T. H. C. T. J. ARTHUR TWINING HADLEY, LL.D. f „ .. See the biographical article: HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING. \ «»«ways: Economics. A. Wi.* ANEURIN WILLIAMS, M.A. Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple. Chairman of Executive, International I _ „, . . Co-operative Alliance. M. P. for Plymouth, 1910. Author of Twenty-eight Years | t-snarmg. of Co-partnership at Guise; &c. A. W. Po. ALFRED WILLIAM POLLARD, M.A. Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Secretary, Bibliographical Society. Editor of Books about Books -j Polyglott. and Bibliographica. Joint-editor of the Library. Chief Editor of the " Globe " Chaucer. A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the-{ Proclamation. Laws of England. I B. B. A. BRAMAN BLANCHARD ADAMS. _f » •• Associate Editor of the Railway Age Gazette, New York. \ Railways: Accident Statistics. C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, D.LiTT. /n,,i,,i,0, See the biographical article : BEMONT, C. \ Quicnerat. C. E. W. C. E. WEBBER, C.B., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.E.E. (1838-1905). f Major-General, Royal Engineers. Served in Indian Mutiny, 1857-1860; Egyptian I Railways: Light Railways (in Expedition, 1882; &c. Founder (with late Sir Francis Bolton) and Past President j tart) of the Institute of Electrical Engineers. L * C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. [" Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, ist City of London (Royal •{ Ravenna: Battle of 1512. Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. [ C. G. Cr. CHARLES GEORGE CRUMP, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office, London. Editor of J Record. Lander's Works; &c. C, Hi. CHARLES HIAIT. Author of Picture Posters; &c. Poster. C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member -! Purgatory, of the American Historical Association. C. H. T.* CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M., LL.D. J _ . _ . . See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL. \ Proverbs, Book of. C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. Polo, Marco (In part); Ptolemy (in part); Pytheas (in part). CHARLES T. JACOBI. f p..inHn(r Managing Partner of the Chiswick Press, London. Author of Printing; &c. \ r D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. J Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional H Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. D. C. B. DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER. Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Gordon ; J Raffles, Sir Thomas. India in the if>th Century ; History of Belgium ; &c. D. D. A. REV. DANIEL DULANY ADDISON, D.D. C Rector of All Saints' Church, Brookline, Mass. Examining Chaplain to Bishop of J n,nt0ctanf Fnicrnml rhurph Massachusetts. Secretary, Cathedral Chapter of Diocese of Massachusetts. Author 1 of The Episcopalians ; &c. I D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The •< Programme MUSIC. Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. t D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, j Priene; Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and ~ 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Vll D. H. D. H. S. D. W. T. E. A. J. E. A. M. E. Ba. E. Br. E. B. E. E. C. B. E. G. E. Ga. E. Gr. E. G. C. E. H. B. » E. J. J. E. O'N. E. Pr. E. Ru. E. R. B. F. C. C. DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. Quiberon, Battle of; Raleigh, Sir Walter. DUKINFIELD HENRY SCOTT, M.A., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. I 'resident of the Linnean Society. Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, -j Pringsheim, Nathanael. London, 1885-1892. Author of Structural Botany; Studies in Fossil Botany; &c. I D'ARCY WENTWORTH THOMPSON, C.B., M.A. Professor of Natural History, University College, Dundee. British Delegate, J Ray John. Bering Sea Fisheries and other Conferences. Author of A Glossary of Creek Birds ; \ &c. I le of Man; Old Silver] Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England ; Illustrated Catalogue^ Quaich. E. ALFRED JONES. Author of Old English Gold Plate ; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man ; Old Silver of Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate ; A Private Catalogue of the Royal Plate at Windsor Castle ; &c. EDWARD ALFRED MINCHIN, M.A., F.Z.S. Professor of Protozoology in the University of London. Formerly Fellow Merton College, Oxford, and Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy University College, London. EDWIN BALE, R.I. Art Director, Cassell & Company, Ltd. Member of the Royal Institute of Painters 4 Process, in Water Colours. Hon. Sec., Artists' Copyright Committee. , f Polyp; 01 4 Protoplasm; [ Protozoa. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer in Fellow and Tutor of Merton (Raymund of Antioch; Raymund of Toulouse; Raymund of Tripoli; »» t J _• r>l_ " *: II Raynald of Chatillon. EDWARD B. ELLINGTON. f Founder and Chief Engineer of the General Hydraulic Power Co., Ltd. Author of J Power Transmission: Contributions to Proceedings of Institutions of Civil Engineers and of Mechanical 1 Hydraulic. Engineers. I RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., Lrrr.D. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius " in Cambridge Texts and Studies. Premonstratensians ; Ranee, Armand de. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND. EMILE GARCKE, M.lNST.E.E. Managing Director of British Electric Traction Co., Electrical Undertakings; &c. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. J Prologue; Prose. Ltd. Author of Manual of . Li&hi *«''«"»yf (in part). Propylaea. ERNEST GEORGE COKER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.(Edin.), M.Sc., M.I.MECH.E. f Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the City and Guilds of London Technical J , College. Author of various papers in Transactions of the Royal Societies of London, I Edinburgh and Canada ; &c. I SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). f Pompeii (in part); M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; •< Ptolemy (in part) ; &c. [ Pytheas (in part). EDMUND JANES JAMES, A.M., PH.D., LL.D. f President of the University of Illinois; President of American Economic Associa- I Protection tion. Author of History of American Tariff Legislation, and Essays and Mono- | graphs on Economic, Financial, Political and Educational subjects. L ELIZABETH O'NEILL, M.A. (Mrs H. O. O'Neill). Formerly University Fellow and Jones Fellow of the University of Manchester. Prebendary; Prelate; Prior; Procurator. EDGAR PRESTAGE. I" Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. J Commendador, Portuguese Order of S Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon 1 Portugal: Literature. Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea ; &c. ERNEST RUTHERFORD, F.R.S. , D.Sc., LL.D., PH.D. f Langworthy Professor of Physics, University of Manchester. Nobel Prize for -I Radio-activity . Chemistry, 1908. Author of Radio-activity; Radio-active Transformations; &c. EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus ; Jerusalem under the High \ Ptolemies. Priests. [ FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. r Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. J purification. Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and"] Morals; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. C. S. S. FERDINAND CANNING SCOTT SCHILLER, M.A., D.Sc. f Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Author of Riddles of the \ Pragmatism. Sphinx ; Studies in Humanism ; &c. F. Dr. FRANCIS M. D. DRUMMOND. \ Precedence (in part). F. D. A. FRANK DAWSON ADAMS, PH.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., F.R.S. f Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science and Logan Professor of Geology, McGill - , . .. University, Montreal; President of Canadian Mining Institute. Author of Papers-! MUBDec (in part); dealing with problems of Metamorphism, &c., also Researches on Experimental Queen Charlotte Islands. Geology; &c. F. E. W. REV. FREDERICK EDWARD WARREN, M.A., F.S.A. Rector of Bardwell, Bury St Edmunds, and Honorary Canon of Ely. Fellow of St John's College, Oxford, 1865-1882. Author of The Old Catholic Ritual done into \ Prayer, Book Of Common. English and compared with the Corresponding Offices in the Roman and Old German Manuals ; The Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church ; &c. F. G. P.* FRANK GEORGE POPE. f p . Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). \ in< F. H. D.* FRANK HAIGH DIXON, PH.D., A.M. Professor of Economics, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N.H. Member of the 4 Kailways: American Railway National Waterways Commission. Author of State Railroad Control. { Legislation. F. J. H. M. HON. FREDERICK JAMES HAMILTON MERRILL, PH.D., F.G.S. (America), M. f AMERICAN INST.M.E., &c. Consulting Geologist and Mining Engineer. State Geologist of New York, "j Quarrying. 1899—1904. Author of Reports of New Jersey and New York Geological Surveys; &c. F. K.* FERNAND KHNOPFF. J See the biographical article: KHNOPFF, F. E. J. M. \ rortaels, J. F. F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Psammetichus' Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial •{ TJQ_ German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis; I Kameses (in fan>- &c. [ F. M. L.* FRANCIS MANLEY LOWE. Major R.A. (retired). Member of the Staff of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., Ltd., Elswick Works. Assistant-Superintendent of Experiments, Shoebury- -i Range-finder, ness, 1898-1903. Author of articles in the Proceedings of the Royal Artillery I Institution; &c. F. P. FRANK PODMORE, M.A. (d. 1910). Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Studies in Psychical Research ; Modern -j prernonition F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. f Portuguese East Africa; Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Rabah Zobeir. F. Wa. FRANCIS WATT, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of Law's Lumber Room. Pound (in part,) F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. r p .. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. J *~"rl' President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. [ Pyrope, F. Y. E. FRANCIS YSIDRO EDGEWORTH, M.A., D.C.L. Professor of Political Economy in the University of Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, and of King's College, London. Editor of the Economic Journal. * Author of Mathematical Psychics, and numerous papers on the Calculus of Proba- I bilities in the Philosophical Magazine; &c. G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.Lrrr. f Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of India, 1898- 1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice- President of the Royal J Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Languages 1 Rajasthani. of India ; &c. G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, Lrrr.D. r Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard J „ . p. Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of New Edition 1 "rieur, Pierre, of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. G. E.* ROBERT GEOFFREY ELLIS. f Peterhouse, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Joint-editor of English J. Privy Council. Reports. Author of Peerage Law and History. G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of The J Ramsay Allan. Days of James I V. ; The Transition Period ; Specimens of Middle Scots ; &c. G. J. A. GEORGE JOHNSTON ALLMAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., D.Sc. (1824-1005). f Ptolemy (in part)- Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Galway, and in Queen's University of -j _ . . /-.,..._L/_.. Ireland, 1853-1893. Author of Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid ; &c. \ Pythagoras. Geometry. G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. f Provision; Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden •{ T, Society. I RaPe' INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix G. Re. SIR GEORGE REID, LL. I). f_ See the biographical article: REID, SIR GEORGE. \ Portraiture. G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. f Quinet; Rabelais; See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. | Racine. G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old -I Rawendis. Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. I H. A. Y. HORATIO ARTHUR YORKE, C.B. f jjaiiu/avc- R,,-/,'C;, /?,;/„,, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. (retired). Chief Inspecting Officer of Railways, Board oH Railways, fin/, j/, Railway Trade. Served in Afghan War, 1879-1880; Nile Expedition, 1884-1885. I Legislation. H. D. W. SIR HENRY DRUMMOND WOLFF, G.C.B., G.C.M.G. (1830-1908). f Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary at Madrid, 1892-1900. M.P. for I .>_!_,„.. i. ._.... Christchurch, 187.1-1880; for Portsmouth, 1880-1885. Author of A Life o/| Napoleon at Elba ; &c. H. Fr. HENRI FRANTZ 5 Puvis de chavannes. Art Critic, Gazette des beaux arts. Pans. (. H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW. F.R.S., PH.D. f Python; Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author^ Ratitae; of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. I Rattlesnake (in part) H. F. P. HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D., D.C.I.. /D«I,,I,I,, See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F. \ PolyblUS (in part). H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO ROSS. f Railways' Inlrntiurtim Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of The Times Engineering i Supplement. Author of British Railways. ( siruction, Rolling Slock. H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.(Edin.), F.R.G.S. Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, } p j g^ Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford University. ] Author of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c. H. 0. HERMANN OELSNER, M.A., PH.D. ( Taylorian Professor of the Romance Languages in the University of Oxford. Mem- I ProvenQal Literature: ber of Council of the Philological Society. Author of A History of Provencal Litera- j Modern. lure; &c. I H. R. L. THE REV. HENRY RICHARDS LUARD, M.A., D.D. (1825-1891). Registrary of the University of Cambridge, 1862-1891. Formerly Fellow, Bursar and Lecturer at Trinity College. Honorary Fellow of King's College, London. -| Person (in part). Editor of the Annales Monastici; the Historia of Matthew Paris and other works for the " Rolls " Series, [ H. Ti. HENRY TIEDEMANN. London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. Author of a Dutch biography, J. Potgieter. and various pamphlets and travel works, including Via Flushing. H. T. A. REV. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS. Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author of " The I Commentary on Acts" in the Westminster New Testament;. Handbook on the]. Presbyter. Apocryphal Books in the " Century " Bible. I H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J Ralph of Coggeshall. 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. f Polo, Marco (in part); "i See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. "i prester John; Ramusio. Proselyte; Qaraites; Qaro; EL BRAHAMS, .. R h R Reader. in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short \ Rabbah „ . I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. R h R in«;pnh Rpn Hama . Bar Nahmani; History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. Rapoport. Samuel; I Rashbam; Rashi. J. A. B. SIR JERVOISE ATHELSTANE BAINES, C.S.I. President, Royal Statistical Society, 1909-1910. Census Commissioner under the Government of India, 1889-1893. Secretary to Royal Commission on Opium, J Population. 1894-1895. Author of Official Reports on Provincial Administration of Indian 1 Census Operations; &c. J. A. BI. JOHN A. BLACK. Press reader of the New Volumes of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (loth ed.). | * J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology. London. Author of J Pre-Cambrian. The Geology of Building Stones. J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. f pontanus Jovianus. See the biographical article: SYMONDS, JOHN A. I J. E. S.* JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., Lirr.D., LL.D. ( Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's College, J pn_nn /,•„ /,.,,.»') Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of A History of Classical 1 Scholarship; &c. L x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lirr.D., F.R.Hisi.S. [ Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. -{ Quevedo V Villegas Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of I Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. 3. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. f Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln "] Pontus. College. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. J. G. F. SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D. f „ , See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING. [ Praefect (in part); J. G. FT. JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Lrrr.p. Praeneste (in part); Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College, •{ Praetor (in part) ; Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough ; &c. Proserpine (in part); [ Province (in part). 3. G. K. JOHN GRAHAM KERR, M.A., F.R.S. Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Demon- strator in Animal Morphology in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Christ's •< Ray (in part) College, Cambridge, 1898-1904. Walsingham Medallist, 1898. Neill Prizeman, ' Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1904. J. G. Sc. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. f Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma ; -i Rangoon. The Upper Burma Gazetteer. 3. Hn. JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of -| Puttkammer. Das Rheinland unter der Franzosische Herrschaft. 3. H. M. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., Lrrr.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South J Raphael. Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. 3. Ja. JOSEPH JACOBS, LITT.D. Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corresponding J Purim. Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c. 3. L.* SIR JOSEPH LARMOR, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in _ ,. ,. _. . the University. Secretary of the Roval Societv. Professor of Natural Philosoohv. J Kaaiauon' Ineory Ot; the University. Secretary of the Royal Society. Professor of Natural Philosophy, Queen's College, Galway, 1880-1885. memoirs on Mathematics and Physics. Queen's College, Galway", 1880^1885. Author of Ether and Matter, and various Radiometer. J. M. SIR JOHN MACDONELL, C.B., LL.D. Master of the Supreme Court. Counsel to the Board of Trade and London Chamber of Commerce. Formerly Quain Professor of Comparative Law, University College, *j Protectorate. London. Editor of State Trials; Civil Judicial Statistics; &c. Author of Survey of Political Economy ; The Land Question ; &c. J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. r D . „. . Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London J romponazzi, t College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. [ Price, Richard. J. P. E. JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. r Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J Prefect; Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droil i Provost (in France). franfais ; &c. J. P. P. JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. r Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. 1 Propertius, SextUS. Editor-in-chief of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum ; &c. J. R.* JOHN RANDALL. r Formerly Secretary of the London Association of Correctors of the Press. Sub- J ppnnf roorfino- (i* ^,,,f\ editor of the Athenaeum and Notes and Queries. \ Pr00lH J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. f Pornhvrv Pnmir Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- f"UI burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby H ryroxemte; Medallist of the Geological Society of London. [ Quartzite; Quartz-Porphyry. J. S. R. JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. r Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, J o . .... Cambridge. Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's 1 yul nan' Academia, De Amicitia; &c. J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. f Poltava (in part); Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical J Pskov (in part) • Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. I i»aJom (•• j. A INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XI J. T. Cr. J. W. J. W.* J. W. G. K. G. J. K. S. L. BI. L. J. S. L. Wr. L. W. V.-H. M. Br. M. Ha. M. M. Bh. M. N. T, M. 0. B. C. N. M. N. W. T. 0. C. W. 0. H. P. A. K. Fellow of Lincoln JAMES TROUBRIDGE CRITCHELL. London Correspondent of the Australasian Pastoralists' Review, North Queensland J QIIO,,nclanH. HV <•<,*., Herald; &c. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Author of Polynesian \ Labour in Queensland ; Guide to Queensland ; &c. JAMES WILLIAMS, D.C.L., LL.D. All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford. College. Author of Wills and Succession; &c. TAMES WARD, LL.D. See the biographical article: WARD, JAMES. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. f Professor of Geology at the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and J _ _„.„_.•. /-. , . Author of The Dead Heart'} Queensland: Geology \ Possession (law); 1 Prescription (in part) I Psychology. Mineralogy at the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904 of A ustralia ; &c. I KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNF,. Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. Editor of the Portfolio cf Musical Archaeology. Orchestra. f Portugal: Geography and Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. -j History Pommer; Portative Organ; Positive Organ; Psaltery; Rackett; Ravanastron; Rebab; Rebec; Recorder (music); Reed Instruments. Author of The Instruments of the . COUNT LUTZOW, Lrrr.D. (Oxon.), D.Pn. (Prague), F.R.G.S. f Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member j of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. -j Prague. Author of Bohemia: a Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester Lecture, Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John IIus; &c. Louis BELL, PH.D. f Consulting Engineer, Boston, U.S.A. Chief Engineer, Electric Power Trans- J Power Transmission: mission Department, General Electric Co., Boston. Formerly Editor of Electrical ] Electrical. World, New York. Author of Electric Power Transmission ; &c. (. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Proustite; Pyrargyrite; Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of j pvrnliicitp- Pvrnmnrnhita- Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineral- } L-vro ogical Magazine. ( Pyrrhotite; Quartz; Realgar. LEWIS WRIGHT. Author of The Practical Poultry Keeper; The New Book of Poultry; &c. L. W. VERNON-HARCOURT (d. 1909). Barrister-at-Law. Author of His Grace the Steward and the Trial of Peers. MARGARET BRYANT. Poultry and Poultry-farming. J Reclamation of Land. •j Pope, Alexander (in part}. Formerly Fellow of 'the Royal in Cambridge Natural History; MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. University of Ireland. Author of " Protozoa " and papers for various scientific journals. SIR MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGGREE, K.C.I.E. Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green, 1895-1906. of History of the Constitution of the East India Company ; &c. Proteomyxa; Radiolaria. | Readymoney, Author Sir cowasji Jehangir. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham University, 1905-1908. NORMAN M'LEAN, M.A. f Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's -j Rabbula. College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. ( Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the_ Soci6t<5 d'Anthropolpgip de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and Marriage in Australia; &c. REV. OWEN CHARLES WHITEHOUSE, M.A., D.D. Senior Theological Tutor and Lecturer in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge. _ Formerly Principal and Professor of Biblical Exegesis and Theology in the Countess " of Huntingdon's College, Cheshunt. Author of Primer of Hebrew Antiquities; &c. OLAUS MAGNUS FRIEDRICH HENRICI, PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical College of the „ City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Vectors and Rotors; Congruent Figures; &c. Pylos. J Poly crates; 1 Punic Wars. Possession (Psychology). Priest (in part); Prophet (in part). PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVTTCH KROPOTKIN. See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. Projection. [ Poltava (in part); < Pskov (in part); [ Radom (in part). INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. f Prvnnp William a* Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England. { tym, John P.O. PERCY GARDNER, LITT.D., LL.D., F.S.A. / Polyelitus; Polygnotus; See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. 1 Praxiteles P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University I Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological 1 Q» "• Society. t P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist A Potter, Paul. Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. P. G. T. PETER GUTHRIE TAIT, LL.D. f Quaternions (in *nrf\ See the biographical article : TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE. \ ( P P. M. PAUL MEYER. / Provencal Language; See the biographical article: MEYER, PAUL HYACINTHE. I ProvenQal Literature (in part). P. McC. PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, F.G.S. Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of Diary of a Working Farmer; -' Reaping. &c. I R. H. K. REV. ROBERT HATCH KENNETT, M.A., D.D. Regius Professor of Hebrew, Cambridge, and Canon of Ely. Formerly Fellow and I Pcalmc Rnnlr nf (;M j, *i\ Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, Queens' College, and University Lecturer in 1 Aramaic. Author of A Short Account of the Hebrew Tenses; In our Tongues; &c. L R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. I Pycnogonida. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. R. J. M. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A. f Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formeriy Editor of the St James's ] Racquets. Gazette, London. L {Porcupine (in part); Porpoise* Primates- Prnhncoirtoa • Prnnir'hiiplr- rroDosciaea, rrongoucK, Rabbit (in part); Rat; Ratel. R. Mo. RAY MORRIS, M.A. ( Raiiwavs. r,pnprni <JM/,V/,V, Formerly Managing Editor, Railway Age Gazette, New York. Author of Railroad \ Administration. ( and «"•*« Organization. R. M. L. ROBERT MURRAY LESLIE, M.A., M.D., M.R.C.P. f Senior Physician, Prince of Wales's General Hospital, London. Lecturer on I Medicine, London Post-Graduate College. Author of Clinical Types of Pneu- 1 Pygniy. mania; &c. R. M. W. R. MORTIMER WHEELER. { Punch. ' Poniatowski, Joseph A.; R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883—1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, inij-ipoo; The First Romanovs, ' 1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from to 1796 ; &c. Potemkin, Prince; Potocki, Ignaty; Potocki, Stanislaw F.; Prokopovich; Pugachev; Rakoczy; Razin. R. Po. RENE POUPARDIN, D.-ES-L. Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque J Provence; Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens ; Recueil~\ Quierzy, Capitulary of. des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c. R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, "j Porch. London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. R. R. M. ROBERT RANULF MARETT, M.A. Reader in Social Anthropology, Oxford University, and Fellow and Tutor of Exeter •! Prayer. * College. Author of The Threshold of Religion. R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. f Pompeii: Oscan Inscriptions; Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. I Praeneste (in •hart)' Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville I _ and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. ltu- St C. VISCOUNT ST CYRES. f Quesnel, Pasquier; See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF. (_ Quietism. S. F. H. SIDNEY FREDERIC HARMER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S. Keeper of Zoology, Natural History Departments, British Museum. Fellow, J Polyzoa; formerly Tutor and Lecturer, King's College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of The | Pterobranchia. Cambridge Natural History. St G. M. ST GEORGE JACKSON MIVART, M.D., F.R.S. / nattiosnakp (;•» See the biographical article: MIVART, ST GEORGE JACKSON. \ K S. R. G. SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER, LL.D., D.C.L. f pjynne William (in parf* See the biographical article: GARDINER, S. R. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo- graphy of the Roman Campagna. Pompeii (in part); Pomposa; Pomptine Marshes; Popilia, Via; Portus; Postumia, Via; Praeneste (in part); Praenestina, Via; Puteoli; Pyrgi; Ravenna (in part). T. A. C. TIMOTHY AUGUSTINE COGHLAN, I.S.O. Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales, QnoontlanH- r»~ J 1886-1905. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society. Author of Wealth \ and Progress of New South Wales; Statistical Account of Australia and New Zealand- StoHatCS. &c. f Post and Postal Service; T.A.I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. J pnllnH I4n A,,,,I. Trinity College, Dublin. T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. . r privateer- Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour. I _. .,,' Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for 1 ""*• War', Blackburn, 1910. { Raid; Rebellion. T. F. D. THOMAS F. DALE, M.A. Queen's College, Oxford. Steward and Member of the Council of the Polo and - Polo. Riding Pony Society. Author of Polo, Past and Present ; &c. T. H. THOMAS HODGKIN, D.C.L., Lirr.D. / R See th2 biographical article: HODGKIN, THOMAS. T. H. H.* SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., ) Q H London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's M Award; India; Tibet. T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., Sc.D. Assistant-Secretary to the Treasury. London. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. I p . Author of Apollonius of Perga; Treatise on Conic Sections; The Thirteen Books of\ '™- Euclid's Elements ; &c. T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, ) „ H University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of 1 ' inry' Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. I T. Wo. THOMAS WOODHOUSE. Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. \ W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of-\ Ragatz; Rambert. the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. W. A. L. WILLIAM ALEXANDER LINDSAY, K.C., M.A., J.P., D.L., F.S.A. Windsor Herald. Bencher of the Middle Temple. Peerage Counsel. Author of The -} Precedence (in part). Royal Household, 1837-1897; &c. W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, -i Pf"106; Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. [Provost (in part). W. Ba. WILHELM BACKER, PH.D. f Professor at the Rabbinical Seminary, Budapest. Knight of the Iron Crown. -< Rabbi. Author of Die Agada der Tannaiten; &c. W. B. P. WILLIAM BARCLAY PARSONS, C.E., LL.D. ,. , _ .. Formerly Chief Engineer, Rapid Transit Commission, New York. Advisory-^ * Engineer, Royal Commission on London Traffic. Author of Track; Turnouts; &c. [ ways. W. E. D. WILLI\M ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and Guilds of London Power Transmission: Inlro- Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Formerly University^ ductorv and Mechanical- Demonstrator in the Engineering Department, Cambridge. Author of The D»ii«,auc. r „, , t> ,„ Balancing of Engines; Valves and Valve-Gear Mechanism; &c. [ Kail ways. Locomotive fo ' xr. W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f ft _ Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, \ Quarter Sessions, Court of, London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (2yA edition). [ Recognizance. W. G. WILLIAM GARNETT, M.A., D.C.L. Educational Adviser to the London County Council. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Principal and Professor of Mathematics, J polytechnic (in part) Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Author of Elementary Dynamics; ' &c. W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f Porcupine (in part); See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. \ Rabbit (in part). W. H. L. WILLIAM H. LANG, M.B., D.Sc. Barker Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, University of Manchester. xiv INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES W. L. G. W. M. W. M. F. P. W. 0. B. W. R. M. W. R. S. W. W. F.* W. Y. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Prince Edward Island; Formerly Beit Lecturer in J n,.-!,-.,. p... Colonial History at Oxford University." Editor of Acts of the Privy Council (Colonial 1 J*1" .' *_,r°mnce (in part) ; Series) ; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration). I yuenec: Lily. WILLIAM MINTO, M.A., LL.D. See the biographical article: MINTO, WILLIAM. WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS PETRIE, F.R.S., D.C.L., LiTT.D. See the biographical article: PETRIE. W. M. F. VEN. WINFRID OLDFIELD BURROWS, M.A. Archdeacon of Birmingham. Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford, 1884- 1891. Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 1891-1900. Author of The Mystery of the Cross. Pope, Alexander (in part). Pyramid. Prayers for the Dead. WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). f Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University I Pushkin of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia; } Slavonic Literature; &c. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. I r Priest (in part) ; I Prophet (in part); 1 Psalms, Book of (in [ Rameses (in part). WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,] Pontitex Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; \ The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c. REV. WILLIAM YOUNG. r Minister, Higher Broughton Presbyterian Church, Manchester, 1877-1901, and -I Presbyterianism. Association Secretary for the Religious Tract Society in the North of England. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Pollination. Polygon. Polyhedron. Polynesia. Pomegranate. Pomerania. Pontoon. Poor Law. Poplar. Porto Rico. Portuguese Guinea. Potassium. Potato. Potentiometer. Prerogative. Press Laws. Primrose. Primulaceae. Princeton University. Principal and Agent. Probate. Procession. Proctor. Prohibition. Protestant. Prussia. Prussie Acid. Public Health. Publishing. Puffin. Pugilism. Pump. Punjab. Pyrazoles. Pyrenees. Pyridine. Pyrones. Quarantine. Quinine. Quinoline. Quinones. Radium. Rainbow. Ranunculaceae. Rare Earths. Raspberry. Rationalism. Ravenna, Exarchate of. Real Property. Red River. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXII POLL, strictly the head, in men or animals. Skeat connects the word with O. Swed. kolle (initial p and k being interchange- able), and considers a Celtic origin probable; cf. Irish coll, Welsh col, peak, summit. " Poll " is chiefly used in various senses derived from that of a unit in an enumeration of persons or things, e.g. poll-tax (q.v.), or " challenge to the polls " in the case of a jury (q.v.). The most familiar derivative uses are those connected with voting at parliamentary or other elections; thus " to poll " is to vote or to secure a number of votes, and " the poll," the voting, the number of votes cast, or the time during which voting takes place. The verb " to poll " also means to clip or shear the top of anything, hence " polled " of hornless cattle, or " deed-poll " (i.e. a deed with smooth or unindented edges, as distinguished from an " indenture "). A tree which has been " polled," or cut back dose in order to induce it to make short bushy growth, is called a " pollard." At the university of Cambridge, a " pass " degree is known as a " poll-degree." This is generally explained as from the Greek oi TToXXoi, the many, the common people. POLLACK (Gadus pollachius), a fish of the family Gadidae, abundant on rocky coasts of northern Europe, and extending as far south as the western parts of the Mediterranean, where, however, it is much scarcer and does not attain to the same size as in its real northern home. • In Scotland and some parts of Ireland it is called lythe. It is distinguished from other species of the genus Gadus by its long pointed snout, which is twice as long as the eye, with projecting lower jaw, and without a barbel at the chin. The vent is below the anterior half of the first dorsal fin. A black spot above the base of the pectoral fin is another distinguishing mark. Although pollack are well- flavoured fish, and smaller individuals (from 12 to 16 in.) excellent eating, they do not form any considerable article of trade, and are not preserved, the majority being consumed by the captors. Specimens of 12 Ib are common, but the species is said to attain occasionally as much as 24 Ib in weight. (See also COALFISH.) POLLAIUOLO, the popular name of the brothers Antonio and Piero di Jacobo Benci, Florentines who contributed much to Italian art in the isth century. They were called Pollaiuolo because their father was a poulterer. The nickname was also extended to Simone, the nephew of Antonio. ANTOXIO (1429-1498) distinguished himself as a sculptor, jeweller, painter and engraver, and did valuable service in perfecting the art of enamelling. His painting exhibits an excess of brutality, of which the characteristics can be studied in the " Saint Sebastian," painted in 1475, and now in the National Gallery, London. A " St Christopher and the Infant Christ " is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. But it was as a sculptor and metal-worker that he achieved his greatest suc- cesses. The exact ascription of his works is doubtful, as his brother Piero did much in collaboration with him. The museum of Florence contains the bronze group " Hercules strangling Cacus " and the terra-cotta bust " The Young Warrior "; and in the South Kensington Museum, London, is a bas-relief representing a contest between naked men. In 1489 Antonio took up his residence in Rome, where he executed the tomb of Sixtus IV. (1493), a composition in which he again manifested the quality of exaggeration in the anatomical features of the figures. In 1496 he went to Florence in order to put the finishing touches to the work already begun in the sacristy of Santo Spirito. He died in 1498, having just finished his mausoleum 'of Inno- cent VTIL, and was buried in the church of San Pietro in Vincula, where a monument was raised to him near that of his brother. PIERO (1443-1496) was a painter, and his principal works were his " Coronation of the Virgin," an altar-piece painted in 1483, in the choir of the cathedral at San Gimignano; his " Three Saints," an altar-piece, and " Prudence " axe both at the Uffizi Gallery. SIMONE (1457-1508), nephew of Antonio Pollaiuolo, a cele- brated architect, was born in Florence and went to Rome in 1484; there he entered his uncle's studio and studied architecture. On his return to Florence he was entrusted with the completion of the Strozzi palace begun by Benedetto de Maiano, and the cornice on the facade has earned him lasting fame. His highly coloured accounts of Rome earned for him the nickname of U Cronaca (chronicler). About 1498 he built the church of San Francesco at Monte and the vestibule of the sacristy of Santo Spirito. In collaboration with Guiliano da Sangallo he designed the great hall in the Palazzo Vecchio. He was a dose friend and adherent of Savonarola. See also Maud Cruttwell, Antonio Pollaiuolo (1907). POLLAN (Coregonus pollan), the name given to a spedes of the Salmonoid genus Coregonus (whitefish) which has been found in the large and deep loughs of Ireland only. A full account of the fish by its first describer, W. Thompson, may be found in his Natural History of Ireland, iv. 168. 5 POLLARD— POLLINATION POLLARD, EDWARD ALBERT (1828-1872), American journalist, was born in Nelson county, Virginia, on the 27th of February 1828. He graduated at the university of Virginia in 1849, studied law at the College of William and Mary, and in Baltimore (where he was admitted to the bar), and was engaged in newspaper work in California until 1855. In 1857-1861 he was clerk of the judiciary committee of the National House of Representatives. By 1859 he had become an outspoken Secessionist, and during the Civil War he was one of the principal editors of the Richmond Examiner, which supported the Con- federacy but was hostile to President Jefferson Davis. In 1864 Pollard sailed for England, but the vessel on which he sailed was captured as a blockade runner, and he was confined in Fort Warren in Boston Harbour from the 29th of May until the i2th of August, when he was paroled. In December he was placed in close confinement at Fort Monroe by order of Secretary Stanton, but was soon again paroled by General B. F. Butler, and in January proceeded to Richmond to be exchanged there for Albert D. Richardson (1833-1869), a well-known corre- spondent of the New York Tribune, who, however, had escaped before Pollard arrived. In 1867-1869 Pollard edited a weekly paper at Richmond, and he conducted the Political Pamphlet there during the presidential campaign of 1868. His publications include Black Diamonds Gathered in the Darkey Homes of the South (1859), in which he advocated a reopening of the slave trade; The Southern History of the War (3 vols. : First Year of the War, with B. M. DeWitt, 1862; Second Year of the War, 1864; Third Year of the War, 1864); Observations in the North: Eight Months in Prison and on Parole (1865) ; Tlie Lost Cause (1866) ; Lee and His Lieutenants (1867); The Lost Cause Regained (1868), a southern view of reconstruction urging the necessity of white supremacy; The Life of Jefferson Davis (1869), an arraignment of the Confederate president; and The Virginia Tourist (1870). POLLENTIA (mod. Pollenzo), an ancient town of Liguria, Italy, 10 m. to the north of Augusta Bagiennorum, on the left bank of the Tanarus (mod. Tanaro). Its position on the road from Augusta Taurinorum to the coast at Vada Sabatia, at the point of divergence of a road to Hasta (Asti) gave it military importance. Decimus Brutus managed to occupy it an hour before Mark Antony in 43 B.C.; and it was here that Stilicho on the 29th of March 403 fought the battle with Alaric which though undecided led the Goths to evacuate Italy. The place was famous for its brown wool, and for its pottery. Considerable remains of ancient buildings, an amphitheatre, a theatre and a temple still exist. The so-called temple of Diana is more probably a tomb. See G. Franchi-Pont in AM dell' accademia di Tornio (1805- 1808), p. 321 sqq. POLLINATION, in botany, the transference of the pollen from the stamen to the receptive surface, or stigma, of the pistil of a flower. The great variety in the form, colour and scent of flowers (see FLOWER) is intimately associated with pollination which is effected by aid of wind, insects and other agencies. Pollen may be transferred to the stigma of the same flower — self-pollination (or autogamy), or to the stigma of another flower on the same plant or another plant of the same species — cross- pollination (or allogamy). Effective pollination may also occur between flowers of different species, or occasionally, as in the case of several orchids, of different genera — this is known as hybridization. The method of pollination is to some extent governed by the distribution of the stamens and pistil. In the case of unisexual flowers, whether monoecious, that is, with staminate and pistillate flowers on one and the same plant, such as many of our native trees — oak, beech, birch, alder, &c., or dioecious with staminate and pistillate flowers on different plants, as in willows and pop- lars, cross pollination only is possible. In bisexual or herma- phrodite flowers, that is, those in which both stamens and pistil are present, though self-pollination might seem the obvious course, this is often prevented or hindered by various arrange- ments which favour cross-pollination. Thus the anthers and stigmas in any given flower are often mature at different times; this condition, which is known as dichogamy and was first pointed out by Sprengel, may be so well marked that the stigma has ceased to be receptive before the anthers open, or the anthers have withered before the stigma becomes receptive, when cross- pollination only is possible, or the stages of maturity in the two organs are not so distinct, when self-pollination becomes possible later on. The flower is termed proteratidrous or proterogynous according as anthers or stigmas mature first. The term homogamy is applied to the simultaneous maturity of stigma and anthers. Spontaneous self-pollination is rendered impossible in some homogamous flowers in consequence of the relative position of the anthers and stigma — this condition has been termed herkogamy. Flowers in which the relative position of the organs allows of spontaneous self-pollination may be all alike as regards length of style and stamens (homomorphy or homostyly), or differ in this respect (heteromorphy) the styles (From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bottmik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) FIG. I. — Long-styled, L, and short-styled, K, flowers of Primula sinensis. G, Level of stigma ; 5, level of anthers ; P, N, pollen grains and stigmatic papillae of long-styled form ; p, n, ditto of short-styled form. and stamens being of different lengths in different flowers (heterostyly) or the stamens only are of different lengths (heter- anthery). Flowers which are closed at the time of maturity of anthers and stigmas are termed cleistogamous. Self-pollination is effected in very various ways. In the simplest case the anthers are close to the stigmas, covering these with pollen when they open; this occurs in a number of small annual plants, also in Narcissus, Crocus, &c. In snowdrop and other pendulous flowers the anthers form a cone around the style and the pollen falls on to the underlying stigmas, or in erect flowers the pollen may fall on to the stigmas which lie directly beneath the opening anthers (e.g. Nafthecium). In very many cases the pollen is carried to the stigma by elongation, curvature or some other movement of the filament, the style or stigma, or corolla or some other part of the ..flower, or by correlated move- ments of two or more parts. For instance, in many flowers the filaments are at first directed outwards so that self-pollina- tion is not possible, but later incline towards the stigmas and pollinate them (e.g. numerous Saxifragaceae, Cruciferae and others), or the style, which first projects beyond the anthers, shortens later on so that the anthers come into contact with the stigmas (e.g. species of Cactaceae), or the style bends so that the stigma is brought within the range of the pollen (e.g. species of Oenothera, Epilobium,most Malvaceae, &c.). In Mirabilis Jalapa and others the filaments and style finally become intertwined, so that pollen is brought in contact with the stigma. Self- pollination frequently becomes possible towards the end of the life of a flower which during its earlier stages has been capable only of cross-pollination. This is associated with the fact, so ably demonstrated by Darwin, that, at any rate in a large number of cases, cross-pollination yields better results, as measured by the number of seeds produced and the strength of the offspring, than self-pollination; the latter is, however, preferable to absence of pollination. In many cases pollen has no effect on the stigma of the same flower, the plants are self- sterile, in other cases external pollen is more effective (pre-potent) than pollen from the same flower; but in a very large number of cases experiment has shown that there is little or no difference POLLINATION between the effects of external pollen and that from the same flower. Cross-pollination may occur between two flowers on the same plant (geitonogamy) or between flowers on distinct plants (xenogamy). The former, which is a somewhat less favourable method than the latter, is effected by air-currents, insect agency, the actual contact between stigmas and anthers in neighbouring flowers, where, as in the family Compositae, flowers are closely crowded, or by the fall of the pollen from a (From Darwin's Different Farms of Flowers by permission.) FIG. 2. — Diagram of the flowers of the three forms of Lythrum salicaria in their natural position, with the petals and calyx removed on the near side. (X 6 times.) The dotted lines with the arrow show the directions in which pollen must be carried to each stigma to ensure full fertility. higher on to the stigmas of a lower flower. Anton Kerner has shown that crowded inflorescences such as those of Compositae and Umbelliferae are especially adapted for geitonogamy. Xenogamy is of course the only possible method in diclinous plants; it is also the usual method in monoclinous plants, owing to the fact that stamens and carpels often mature at different times (dichogamy), the plants being proterandrous or protero- gynous. Even in homogamous flowers cross-pollination is in a large proportion of cases the effective method, at any rate at first, owing to the relative position of anther and stigma or the fact that the plant is self-sterile. The subject of heterostyly was investigated by Darwin (see his Forms of Flowers) and later by Hildebrand. In the case of a dimorphic flower, such as Primula, four modes of pollination are possible, two distinguished by Darwin as legitimate, between anthers and stigmas on corresponding levels, and two so-called illegitimate unions, between anthers and stigmas at different levels (cf. fig. i). In a trimorphic flower such as Lythrum salicaria there are six possible legitimate unions and twelve illegitimate (see fig. 2). Experiment showed that legitimate unions yield a larger quantity of seed than illegitimate. FIG. 3. — Cleistogamous Many plants produce, in addition to ordinary open flowers, so-called cleistogamous flowers, which remain permanently closed but which notwithstanding produce fruit; in these the corolla is inconspicuous or absent and the pollen grows from the anther on to the stigma of the same flower. Species of Viola (see fig. 3), Oxalis acelosella (wood sorrel) and Lamium amplexi- caule are commonly occurring in- stances. The cleistogamous flowers are developed before or after the normal open flowers at seasons less favourable for cross-pollination. In some cases flowers, which open under normal circumstances, remain closed owing to unfavourable circumstances, and self-pollination occurs as in a typical cleistogamous flower — these flower of Viola sylvatica. have been distinguished as pseudo- i, j|« ver X4. cleistogamous. Instances occur in mfgnifieTanTcut open7 water plants, where flowers are un- a, anther; s, pistil; able to reach the surface (e.g. Alisma st, style; v, stigmatic natans, water buttercup, &c.) or surface, where flowers remain closed in dull or cold weather. Systems of classification of flowers according to the agency by which pollination is effected have been proposed by Delpino, H. Mtiller and other workers on the subject. Knuth suggests the following, which is a modification of the systems proposed by Delpino and M tiller. A. Water-pollinated plants, Hydropkilae. A small group which is subdivided thus: — a. Pollinated under the water; e.g. Najas where the pollen grains are rather heavier than water, and sinking down are caught by the stigmas of the extremely simple female flowers. b. Pollination on the surface, a more frequent occurrence than (a). In these the pollen floats on the surface and reaches the stigmas of the female flowers as in Callitriche, Ruppia, Zostera, Elodea. In Vallisneria (fig. 4) the male flowers become detached and float on the surface of the water; . the anthers are thus brought in contact with the stigmas of the female flowers. B. Wind-pollinated plants, Anemophilae. — In these the pollen grains are smooth and light so as to be easily blown about, and are produced in great quantity; the stigmas are brush- like or feathery, and usually long and protruding so as readily to catch the pollen. As no means of attraction are required the flowers are inconspicuous and without scent or nectar. The male inflorescence is often a pendulous catkin, as in hazel and many native English trees (fig. 5) ; or the anthers are loosely fixed on long thread-like filaments as in grasses (fig. 6). B , B FIG. 4. — Vallisneria spiralis. A, female flower; s, stigmas. B, male flowers; I before; 2, after spreading of the petals. A male flower has floated alongside a female and one of its anthers, which have opened to set free the pollen, is in contact with a stigma, a, anther. C. Animal- pollinated plants, Zoidiophilae, are subdivided according to the kind of animal by agency of which pollination is effected, thus: — a. Bat-pollinated, Chiropterophilae. — A Freycinetia, native of Java, and a species of Bauhinia in Trinidad are visited by bats which transfer the pollen. POLLINATION b. Bird-pollinated, Ornithophilae. — Humming-birds and honey- suckers are agents of pollination in certain tropical plants; they visit the generally large and brightly-coloured flowers either for the honey which is secreted in considerable quantity or for the insects which have been attracted by the honey (fig. 7). FIG. FIG. 6. — Grass Flower show- 5. — Catkin of Male ing pendulous anthers and pro- Flowers of Hazel. truding hairy stigmas. Snail or slug-pollinated flowers, Malacophilae. — In small flowers which are crowded at the same level or in flat flowers in which the stigmas and anthers project but little, slugs or snails creeping over their surface may transfer to the stigma the pollen which clings to the slimy foot. Such a transfer has been described in various Aroids, Rohdea japonica (Liliaceae), and other plants. (From a drawing in the Botanical Gallery at the British Museum.) FIG. 7. — Flower of Datura sanguinea visited by humming-bird Docimastes ensi/erus. (About £ nat. size.) d. Insect-pollinated, Entomophilae, a very large class characterized by sticky pollen grains, the surface of which bears spines, warts or other projections (fig. 8) which facilitate adhesion to some part of the insect's body, and a relatively small stigma with a sticky surface. The flowers have an attractive floral envelope, are scented and often contain honey or a large amount of pollen; by these means the insect is enticed to visit it. The form, colour and scent _of the flower vary widely, according to the class of insect whose FIG. 8. — i, anther; 2, pollen grain of Hollyhock (Althaea rosea) enlarged. The pollen grain bears numerous spines, the dark spots indicate thin places in the outer wall. aid is sought, and there are also numerous devices for pro- tecting the pollen and nectar from rain and dew or from the visits of those insects which would not serve the purpose of pollen-transference (unbidden guests).1 The following subdivisions have been suggested A. Pollen Flowers. — These offer only pollen to their visitors, as species of anemone, poppy, rose, tulip, &c. They are simple in structure and regular in form, and the generally abundant pollen is usually freely exposed. B. Nectar Flowers. — These contain nectar and include the following groups: — 1. Flowers with exposed nectar, readily visible and accessible to all visitors. These are very simple, open and gener- ally regular flowers, white, greenish-yellow or yellow in colour and are chiefly visited by insects with a short proboscis, such as short -tongued wasps and flies, also beetles and more rarely bees. Examples are Umbelliferae as a family, saxifrages, holly, Acer, Rhamnus, Euonymus, Euphorbia, &c. 2. Flowers with nectar partly concealed and visible only in bright sunshine. The generally regular flowers are completely open only in bright sunshine, closing up into cups at other times. Such are most Cruciferae, buttercups, king-cup (Caltha), Potenlilla. White and yellow colours predominate and insects with a pro- boscis of medium length are the common pollinating agents, such as short -tongued bees. 3. Flowers with nectar concealed by pouches, hairs, &c. Regular flowers predominate, e.g. Geranium, Cardamine pratensis, mallows, Rubus, Oxalis, Epilobium, &c., but many species show more or less well-marked median symmetry (zygomorphism) as Euphrasia, Orchis, thyme, &c., and red, blue and violet are the usual colours. Long-tongued insects such as the honey-bee are the most frequent visitors. 4. Social flowers, whose nectar is concealed as in (3), but the flowers are grouped in heads which render them strikingly conspicuous, and several flowers can be simul- taneously pollinated. Such are Compositae as a class, also Scabiosa, Armeria (sea-pink) and others. 5. Hymenopterid flowers, which fall into the following groups: Bee-flowers proper, humble-bee flowers requiring a longer proboscis to reach the nectar, wasp-flowers such as fig-wort (Scrophularia nodosa) and ichneumon flowers such as t way-blade (Lislera ovata). The shapes and colours are extremely varied ; bilater- ally symmetrical forms are most frequent with red, blue or violet colours. Such are Papilionaceous flowers, Violaceae, many Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae and others. Many are highly specialized so that pollination can be effected by a few species only. Examples of more special mechanisms are illustrated by Salvia (fig. q). The long connective of the single stamen is hinged to the short filament and has a shorter arm ending in a blunt process and a longer arm bearing a half-anther. A large bee in probing for honey comes in contact with the end of the short arm of the lever and causes the longer arm to descend and the pollen is deposited on the back of the insect (fig. 9, i). In a later stage (fig. 9, 2) the style elongates and the forked stigma occupies the same position as the anther in fig- 9- i- (From Strasburger's Lekrbuck der Bolanik , by FIG. 9. — Pollination 1, Flower visited by a humble- bee, showing the projection of the curved connective bearing the anther from the helmet- shaped upper lip and the depo- sition of the pollen on the back of the humble-bee. 2, Older flower, with connective drawn back, and elongated style. permission of Gustav Fischer.) of Salvia pratensis. 4, The staminal apparatus at rest, with connective enclosed within the upper lip. 3, The same, when disturbed by the entrance of the proboscis of the bee in the direction of the arrow;/, filament; c, connective; s, the obstructing half of the anther. 1 See A. Kerner, Plants and their Unbidden Guests. POLLIO In Broom there is an explosive machanism; the pressure of the insect visitor on the keel of the corolla causes a sudden release of the stamens and the scatter- ing of a cloud of pollen over its body. 6. Lepidopterid flowers, visited chiefly by Lepidoptera, which are able to reach the nectar concealed in deep, narrow tubes or spurs by means of their long slender proboscis. Such are: (a) Butterfly-flowers, usually red in colour, as Dianthus carthusianorum; (b) Moth-flowers, white or whitish, as honeysuckle (Loniceta periclymenum). 7. Fly flowers, chiefly visited by Diptera, and including very different types: — a. Nauseous flowers, dull and yellowish and dark purple in colour and often spotted, with a smell attractive to carrion flies and dung flies, e.g. species of Saxifraga. b. Pitfall flowers such as Asarum, Aristolochia and Arum macu- latum, when the insect is caught and detained until pollination is effected (fig. 10). c. Pinch-trap flowers, as in the family Asclepiadaceae, where the proboscis, claw or bristle of the insect is caught in the clip to which the pairs of pollinia are attached. Bees, wasps and larger insects serve as pollinating agents FIG. 10. — Spadix of Arum maculatum from which the greater part of the spathe has been cut away. p, Pistillate, s, staminate flowers; h, sterile flowers form- ing a circlet of stiff hairs closing the mouth of the chamber formed by the lower part of the spathe. FIG. ii. — Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris). Half nat. size, i, One of the scales which form the coronet in the flower, enlarged. d. Deceptive flowers such as Parnassia, where the conspicuous coronet of glistening yellow balls suggests a plentiful supply of nectar drops (fig. u). e. Hoverfly flowers, small flowers which are beautifully coloured with radiating streaks pointing to a sharply-defined centre in which is the nectar, as in Veronica chamaedrys (fig. 12). LITERATURE. — Joseph Gottlieb Kolreuter1 (d. 1806) was the first to study the pollination of flowers and to draw attention to the necessity of insect visits in many cases; he gave a clear account of cross-pollination by insect aid. He was followed by Christian Konrad Sprengel, whose work Das entdeckte Geheimniss der Natur im Bau und in der Bejruchtung der Blumen (Berlin, 1733), contains a description of floral adaptations to insect visits in nearly 500 species of plants. Sprengel came very near to appreciating the meaning of cross-pollina- tion in the lite of plants when he states that " it seems that Nature is unwilling that any flower should be fertilized by its own pollen." In 1799 an Englishman. (From Vines's Tact Book of Thomas Andrew Knight, after experiments Botany- by t* on the cross-fertilization of cultivated FIG. 12. — Flower of plants, formulated the conclusion that no plant fertilizes itself through many genera- k. Calyx, tions. Sprengel's work, which had been u, u, u, The three lobes almost forgotten, was taken up again by of the lower lip of Charles Darwin, who concluded that no the rotate corolla, organic being can fertilize itself through o, The upper lip. an unlimited number of generations; but s, s, The two stamens, a cross with other individuals is occasion- n, The stigma. ally — perhaps at very long intervals — indis- pensable. Darwin's works on dimorphic flowers and the fertiliza- tion of orchids gave powerful support to this statement. The study of the fertilization, or as it is now generally called " pollina- tion," of flowers, was continued by Darwin and taken up by other workers, notably Friedrich Hildebrand, Federico Delpino and the brothers Fritz and Hermann Miiller. Hermann Muller's work on The Fertilization of Flowers by Insects and their Reciprocal Adapta- tions (1873), followed by subsequent works on the same lines, brought together a great number of observations on floral mechanisms and their relation to insect-visits. Miiller also suggested a modification of the Knight-Darwin law, which had left unexplained the numer- ous instances of continued successful self-pollination, and restated it on these terms: " Whenever offspring resulting from crossing comes into serious conflict with offspring resulting from self- fertilization, the former is victorious. Only where there is no such struggle for existence does self-fertilization often prove satis- factory for many generations." An increasing number of workers in this field of plant biology in England, on the Continent and in America has produced a great mass of observations, which have recently been brought together in Dr Paul Knuth's classic work, Handbook of Flower Pollination, an English translation of which has been published (1908) by the Clarendon Press. POLLIO, GAIUS ASINIUS (76 B.C.-A.D. 5; according to some, 75 B.C.-A.D. 4), Roman orator, poet and historian. In 54 he impeached unsuccessfully C. Porcius Cato, who in his tribunate (56) had acted as the tool of the triumvirs. In the civil war between Caesar and Pompey Pollio sided with Caesar, was present at the battle of Pharsalus (48), and commanded against Sextus Pompeius in Spain, where he was at the time of Caesar's assassination. He subsequently threw in his lot with M. Antonius. In the division of the provinces, Gaul fell to Antony, who entrusted Pollio with the administration of Gallia Trans- padana. In superintending the distribution of the Mantuan territory amongst the veterans, he used his influence to save from confiscation the property of the poet Virgil. In 40 he helped to arrange the peace of Brundisium by which Octavian (Augustus) and Antonius were for a time reconciled. In the same year Pollio entered upon his consulship, which had been promised him in 43. It was at this time that Virgil addressed the famous fourth eclogue to him. Next year Pollio conducted a successful campaign against the Parthini, an Illyrian people who adhered to Brutus, and celebrated a triumph on the 25th of October. The eighth eclogue of Virgil was addressed to Pollio while engaged in this campaign. From the spoils of the war he constructed the first public library at Rome, in the Atrium Libertatis, also erected by him (Pliny, Nat. hist. xxxv. 10), which he adorned with statues of the most celebrated 1 Vorlaufige Nachricht von einigen das Geschlecht der Pflanzen betreffenden Versuchen und Beobachtungen, 3, 4, 6 (Leipzig, 1761). POLLNITZ— POLL-TAX authors, both Greek and Roman. Thenceforward he withdrew from active life and devoted himself to literature. He seems to have maintained to a certain degree an attitude of independence, if not of opposition, towards Augustus. He died in his villa at Tusculum, regretted and esteemed by all. Pollio was a distinguished orator; his speeches showed ingenuity and care, but were marred by an affected archaism (Quintilian, Inst. x. I, 113; Seneca, Ep. loo). He wrote tragedies also, which Virgil (Ed. viii. id) declared to be worthy of Sophocles, and a prose history of the civil wars of his time from the first triumvirate (60) down to the death of Cicero (43) or later. This history, in the composition of which Pollio received assistance from the grammarian Ateius Praetextatus, was used as an authority by Plutarch and Appian (Horace, Odes, ii. I ; Tacitus, Annals, iv. 34). As a literary critic Pollio was very severe. He censured Sallust (Suetonius, Gram. 10) and Cicero (Quintilian, Inst. xii. I, 22) and professed to detect in Livy's style certain provincialisms of his native Padua (Quintilian, i. 5, 56, viii. I, 3); he attacked the Commentaries of Julius Caesar, accusing their author of carelessness and credulity, if not of deliberate falsification (Suet. Caesar, 56). Pollio was the first Roman author who recited his writings to an audience of his friends, a practice which afterwards became common at Rome. The theory that Pollio was the author of the Bellum africanum, one of the supplements to Caesar's Commentarii, has met with little support. All his writings are lost except a few fragments of his speeches (H. Meyer, Oral. rom. frag., 1842), and three letters addressed to Cicero (Ad. Fam. x. 31-33). See Plutarch, Caesar, Pompey; Veil. Pat. ii. 36, 63, 73, 76; Florus iv. 12, II; Dio Cassius xlv. 10, xlviii. 15; Appian, Bell, civ. ; V. Gardthausen, Augustus und seine Zeit (1891), i. ; P. Groebe, in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie (1896), ii. pt. 2 ; Teuffel-Schwaben, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), § 221 ; M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, pt. 2, p. 20 (2nd ed., 1899); Cicero, Letters, ed. Tyrrell and Purser, vi. introd. p. 80. POLLNITZ, KARL LUDWIG, FREIHERR VON (1692-1775), German adventurer and writer, was born at Issum on the 25th of February 1692. His father, Wilhelm Ludwig von Pollnitz (d. 1693), was in the military service of the elector of Branden- burg, and much of his son's youth was passed at the electoral court in Berlin. He was a man of restless and adventurous disposition, unscrupulous even for the age in which he lived, visited many of the European courts, and served as a soldier in Austria, Italy and Spain. Returning to Berlin in 1735 he obtained a position in the household of King Frederick William I. and afterwards in that of Frederick the Great, with whom he appears to have been a great favourite; and he died in Berlin on the 23rd of June 1775. Pollnitz's Memoires (Lie'ge, 1734), which were translated into German (Frankfort, 1735), give interesting glimpses of his life and the people whom he met, but they are very untrustworthy. He also wrote Nouveaux memoires (Amsterdam, 1737); Etat abrege de la cour de Saxe sous le regne d'Auguste III. (Frankfort, 1734; Ger. trans., Breslau, 1736); and Memoires pour servir a I'histoire des guatres derniers souverains de la maison de Brandenbourg, published by F. L. Brunn (Berlin, 1791; Ger. trans., Berlin, 1791). Per- haps his most popular works are La Saxe galante (Amsterdam, 1734), an account of the private life of Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony and king of Poland; and Histoire secrete de la duchesse d'Hanovre, Spouse de Georges I. (London, 1732). There is an English translation of the Memoires (London, 1738—1739). See P. von Pollnitz, Stammtafeln der Familie von Pollnitz (Berlin, 1894); and J. G. Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politik, pt. iv. (Leipzig, 1870). POLLOCK, the name of an English family which has con- tributed many important members to the legal and other profes- sions. David Pollock, who was the son of a Scotsman and built up a prosperous business in London as a saddler, had three distin- guished sons: Sir David Pollock (1780-1847), chief justice of Bombay; Sir Jonathan Frederick Pollock, Bart. (1783-1870), chief baron of the exchequer; and Sir George Pollock, Bart. (1786-1872), field-marshal. Of these the more famous were the two last. Field Marshal Sir George Pollock, who rendered valuable military service in India, and especially in Afghanistan in 1841-1843, ended his days as constable of the Tower of London, and was buried in Westminster Abbey; his baronetcy, created in 1872, descended to his son Frederick (d. 1874), who assumed the name of Montagu- Pollock, and so to his heirs. Chief Baron Sir J. Frederick Pollock, who had been senior wrangler at Cam- bridge, and became F.R.S. in 1816, was raised to the bench in 1844, and created a baronet in 1866. He was twice married and had eight sons and ten daughters, his numerous descendants being prominent in many fields. The chief baron's eldest son, Sir William Frederick Pollock, 2nd Bart. (1815-1888), became a master of the Supreme Court (1846) and queen's remembrancer (1874); his eldest son, Sir Frederick Pollock, 3rd Bart. (b. 1845), being the well-known jurist and legal historian, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Corpus professor of jurisprudence at Oxford (1883-1903), and the second son, Walter Herries Pollock (b. 1850), being a well-known author and editor of the Saturday Review from 1883 to 1894. The chief baron's third son, George Frederick Pollock (b. 1821), became a master of the Supreme Court in 1851, and succeeded his brother as queen's (king's) remembrancer in 1886; among his sons were Dr W. Rivers Pollock (1850-1909), Ernest Murry Pollock, K.C. (b. 1861), and the Rt. Rev. Bertram Pollock (b. 1863), bishop of Norwich, and previously head master of Wellington College from 1893 till 1910. The chief baron's fourth son, Sir Charles Edward Pollock (1823-1897), had a successful career at the bar and in 1873 became a judge, being the last survivor of the old barons of the exchequer; he was thrice married and had issue by each wife. POLLOK, ROBERT (1798-1827), Scottish poet, son of a small farmer, was born at North Moorhouse, Renfrewshire, on the igth of October 1798. He was trained as a cabinet-maker and after- wards worked on his father's farm, but, having prepared himself for the university, he took his degree at Glasgow, and studied for the ministry of the United Secession Church. He published Tales of the Covenanters while he was a divinity student, and planned and completed a strongly Calvinistic poem on the spiri- tual life and.destiny of man. This was the Course of Time (1827), which passed through many editions and became a favourite in serious households in Scotland. It was written in blank verse, in ten books, in the poetic diction of the i8th century, but with abundance of enthusiasm, impassioned elevation of feeling and copious force of words and images. The poem at once became popular, but within six months of its publication, on the i8th of September 1827, its author died of consumption. POLLOKSHAWS, a police burgh and burgh of barony of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the White Cart, now virtually a suburb of Glasgow, with which it is connected by electric tramway and the Glasgow & South-Western and Caledonian railways. Pop. (1901), 11,183. It is named from the shows or woods (and is locally styled " the Shaws ") and the lands of Pollok, which have been held by the Maxwells since the i3th century. The family is now called Stirling-Maxwell, the estate and baronetcy having devolved in 1865 upon Sir William Stirling of Keir, who then assumed the surname of Maxwell. Pollok House adjoins the town on the west. The staple indus- tries are cotton-spinning and weaving, silk-weaving, dyeing, bleaching, calico-printing and the manufacture of chenille and tapestry, besides paper mills, potteries and large engineering works. Pollokshaws was created a burgh of barony in 1813, and is governed by a council and provost. About 2 m. south- west is the thriving town of Thornliebank (pop. 2452), which owes its existence to the cotton-works established towards the end of the i8th century. POLL-TAX, a tax levied on the individual, and not on property or on articles of merchandise, so-called from the old English poll, a head. Raised thus per capita, it is sometimes called a capitation tax. The most famous poll-tax in English history is the one levied in 1380, which led to the revolt of the peasants under Wat Tyler in 1381, but the first instance of the kind was in 1377, when a tax of a groat a head was voted by both clergy and laity. In 1379 the tax was again levied, but on a graduated scale. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, paid ten marks, and the scale descended from him to the peasants, who paid one groat each, every person over sixteen years of age being liable. In 1380 the tax was also graduated, but less steeply. For some years after the rising of 1381 money was only raised in this way from aliens, but in 1513 a general poll tax was imposed. This, however, only produced about £50,000, instead of £160,000 as was expected, but a poll-tax levied in 1641 resulted in a revenue of about £400,600. During the reign of POLLUX, JULIUS— POLO, MARCO Charles II. money was obtained in this way on several occasions, although in 1676-1677 especially there was a good deal of resentment against the tax. For some years after 1688 poll- taxes were a favourite means of raising money for the prosecution of the war with France. Sometimes a single payment was asked for the year; at other times quarterly payments were required. The poll-tax of 1697 included a weekly tax of one penny from all persons not receiving ahns. In 1698 a quarterly poll-tax produced £321,397. Nothing was required from the poor, and those who were liable may be divided roughly into three classes. Persons worth less than £300 paid one shilling; those worth £300, including the gentry and the professional classes, paid twenty shillings; while tradesmen and shopkeepers paid ten shillings. Non-jurors were charged double these rates. Like previous poll-taxes, the tax of 1698 did not produce as much as was anticipated, and it was the last of its kind in England. Many of the states of the United States of America raise money by levying poll-taxes, or, as they are usually called, capitation taxes, the payment of this tax being a necessary preliminary to the exercise of the suffrage. See S. Dowell, History of Taxation and Taxes in England (1888), vol. iii. ; and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History (1896), vol. ii. POLLUX, JULIUS, of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek grammarian and sophist of the 2nd century A.D. He taught at Athens, where, according to Philostratus (Vit. Soph.), he was appointed to the professorship of rhetoric by the emperor Commodus on account of his melodious voice. Suidas gives a list of his rhetorical works, none of which has survived. Philostratus recognizes his natural abilities, but speaks of his rhetoric in very moderate terms. Pollux is probably the person attacked by Lucian in the Lexiphanes and Teacher of Rhetoricians. In the Teacher of Rhetoricians Lucian satirizes a worthless and ignorant person who gains a reputation as an orator by sheer effrontery ; the Lexiphanes, a satire upon the use of obscure and obsolete words, may conceivably have been directed against Pollux as the author of the Onomasticon. This work, which we still possess, is a Greek dictionary in ten books, each dedicated to Commodus, and arranged not alphabetically but according to subject-matter. Though mainly a dictionary of synonyms and phrases, chiefly intended to furnish the reader with the Attic names for indi- vidual things, it supplies much rare and valuable information on many points of classical antiquity. It also contains numerous fragments of writers now lost. The chief authorities used were the lexicological works of Didymus, Tryphon, and Pamphilus; in the second book the extant treatise of Rufus of Ephesus On the Names of the Parts of the Human Body was specially consulted. The chief editions of the Onomasticon are those of W. Dindorf (1824), with the notes of previous commentators, I. Bekker (1846), containing the Greek text only, and Bethe (1900). There are mono- graphs on special portions of the vocabulary; by E. Rohde (on the theatrical terms, 1870), and F. von Stojentin (on constitutional antiquities, 1875). POLLUX, or POLLUCITE, a rare mineral, consisting of hydrous caesium and aluminium silicate, H2Cs4AL((Si03)9. Caesium oxide (Cs2O) is present to the extent of 30-36 %, the amount varying somewhat owing to partial replacement by other alkalis, chiefly sodium. The mineral crystallizes in the cubic system. It is colourless and transparent, and has a vitreous lustre. There is no distinct cleavage and the fracture is conchoidal. The hardness is 6| and the specific gravity 2-90. It occurs sparingly, together with the mineral " castor " (see PETALITE), in cavities in the granite of the island of Elba, and with beryl in pegmatite veins at Rumford and Hebron in Maine. POLO, CASPAR GIL (?i53O-iS9i), Spanish novelist and poet, was born at Valencia about 1530. He is often confused with Gil Polo, professor of Greek at Valencia University between 1566 and 1373; but this professor was not named Caspar. He is also confused with his own son, Caspar Gil Polo, the author of De origins et progressu juris romani (1615) and other legal treatises, who pleaded before the Cortes as late as 1626. A notary by profession, Polo was attached to the treasury commission which visited Valencia in 1571, became coadjutor to the chief accountant in 1572, went on a special mission to Barcelona in 1580, and died there in 1591. Timoneda, in the Sarao de amor (1561), alludes to him as a poet of repute; but of his miscellaneous verses only two conventional, eulogistic sonnets and a song survive. Polo finds a place in the history of the novel as the author of La Diana enamorada, a continuation of Monte- mayor's Diana, and perhaps the most successful continuation ever written by another hand. Cervantes, punning on the writer's name, recommended that " the Diana enamorada should be guarded as carefully as though it were by Apollo himself " ; the hyperbole is not wholly, nor even mainly, ironical. The book is one of the most agreeable of Spanish pastorals; interesting in incident, written in fluent prose, and embellished with melodious poems, it was constantly reprinted, was imitated by Cervantes in the Canto de Caliope, and was translated into English, French, German and Latin. The English version of Bartholomew Young, published in 1598 but current in manu- script fifteen years earlier, is said to have suggested the Felismena episode in the Two Gentlemen of Verona; the Latin version of Caspar Barth, entitled Erotpdidascalus (Hanover, 1625), is a per- formance of uncommon merit as well as a bibliographical curiosity. POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324), the Venetian, greatest of medieval travellers. Venetian genealogies and traditions of uncertain value trace the Polo family to Sebenico in Dalmatia, and before the end of the nth century one Domenico Polo is found in the great council of the republic (1094). But the ascertained line of the traveller begins only with his grandfather. Andrea Polo of S. Felice was the father of three sons, Marco, Nicolo and Maffeo, of whom the second was the father of the subject of this article. They were presumably " noble," i.e. belonging to the families who had seats in the great council, and were enrolled in the Libro d' Oro; for we know that Marco the traveller is officially so styled (nobilis vir). The three brothers were engaged in commerce; the elder Marco, resident apparently in Constantinople and in the Crimea (especially at Sudak), suggests, by his celebrated' will, a long business partnership with Nicolo and Maffeo. About 1260, and even perhaps as early as 1250, we find Nicolo and Maffeo at Constantinople. Nicolo was married and had left his wife there. The two brothers went on a speculation to the Crimea, whence a succession of chances and openings carried them to the court of Barka Khan at Sarai, further north up to Bolghar (Kazan), and eventually across the steppes to Bokhara. Here they fell in with certain envoys who had been on a mission from the great Khan Kublai to his brother Hulagu in Persia, and by them were persuaded to make the journey to Cathay in their company. Under the heading CHINA the circumstances are noticed which in the last half of the I3th century and first half of the I4th threw Asia open to Western travellers to a degree unknown before and since — until the igth century. Thus began the medieval period of intercourse between China and catholic Europe. Kublai, when the Polos reached his court, was either at Cambaluc (Khanbaligh, the Khan's city), i.e. Peking, which he had just rebuilt, or at his summer seat at Shangtu in the country north of the Great Wall. It was the first time that the khan, a man full of energy and intelligence, had fallen in with European gentlemen. He was delighted with the Venetian brothers, listened eagerly to all they had to tell of the Latin world, and decided to send them back as his envoys to the poperwrtirteUers requesting the despatch of a large body of educated men to instruct his people in Christianity and the liberal arts. With Kublai, as with his predecessors, religion was chiefly a political engine. Kublai, the first of his house to rise above the essential barbarism of the Mongols, had perhaps discerned that the Christian Church could afford the aid he desired in taming his countrymen. It was only when Rome had failed to meet his advance that he fell back upon Buddhism as his chief civilizing instrument. The brothers arrived at Acre in April 1269. They learned that Clement IV. had died the year before, and no new pope had yet been chosen. So they took counsel with an eminent church- man, Tedaldo, archdeacon of Liege and papal legate for the 8 POLO, MARCO whole realm of Egypt, and, being advised by him to wait patiently, went home to Venice, where they found that Nicole's wife was dead, but had left a son Marco, now fifteen. The papal in- terregnum was the longest that had been known, at least since the dark ages. After the Polos had spent two years at home there was still no pope, and the brothers resolved on starting again for the East, taking young Marco with them. At Acre they again saw Tedaldo, and were furnished by him with letters to authenticate the causes that had hindered their mission. They had not yet left Lajazzo, Layas, or Ayas on the Cilician coast (then one of the chief points for the arrival and departure of the land trade of Asia), when they heard that Tedaldo had been elected pope. They hastened back to Acre, and at last were able to execute Kublai's mission, and to obtain a papal reply. But, instead of the hundred teachers asked for by the Great Khan, the new pope (styled Gregory X.) could supply but two Dominicans; and these lost heart and turned back, when they had barely taken the first step of their journey. The second start from Acre must have taken place about November 1271; and from a consideration of the indications and succession of chapters in Polo's book, it would seem that the party proceeded from Lajazzo to Sivas and Tabriz, and thence by Yezd and Kirman down to Hormuz (Hurmuz) at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, with the purpose of going on to China by sea ; but that, abandoning their naval plans (perhaps from fear of the flimsy vessels employed on this navigation fronrthr^ttH east- wards), they returned northward through Persia. Traversing Kirman and Khorasan they went on to Balkh and Badakshan, in which last country young Marco recovered from illness. In a passage touching on the climate of the Badakshan hills, Marco breaks into an enthusiasm which he rarely betrays, but which is easily understood by those who have known what it is, with fever in the blood, to escape to the exhilarating mountain air and fragrant pine-groves. They then ascended the upper Oxus through Wakhan to the plateau of Pamir (a name first heard in Marco's book). These regions were hardly described again by any European traveller (save Benedict Goes) till the expedition in 1838 of Lieut. John Wood of the Indian navy, whose narrative abounds in incidental illustratio of Marco Polo. Crossing the Pamir the travellers descend upon Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan (Khutan). These are regions which remained almost absolutely closed to our know- ledge till after 1860, when the temporary overthrow of the Chinese power, and the enterprise of British, Russian and other explorers, again made them known. From Khotan the Polos passed on to the vicinity of Lop-Nor, reached for the first time since Polo's journey by Prjevalsky in 1871. Thence the great desert of Gobi was crossed to Tangut, as the region at the extreme north-west of China, both within and without the Wall, was then called. In his account of the Gobi, or desert of Lop, as he calls it, Polo gives some description of the terrors and superstitions of the waste, a description which strikingly reproduces that of the Chinese pilgrim Suan T'sang, in passing the same desert in the contrary direction six hundred years before. The Venetians, in their further journey, were met and welcomed by the Great Khan's people, and at last reached his presence at Shangtu, in the spring of 1275. Kublai received them with great cordiality, and took kindly to young Marco, by this time about twenty-one years old. The " young bachelor," as the book calls him, applied himself diligently to the acquisi- tion of the divers languages and written characters chiefly in use among the multifarious nationalities subject to the Khan; and Kublai, seeing that he was both clever and discreet, soon began to employ him in the public service. G. Pauthier found in the Chinese annals a record that in the year 1 277 a certain Polo was nominated as a second-class commissioner or agent attached to the imperial council, a passage which we may apply to the young Venetian. Among his public missions was one which carried him through the provinces of Shansi, Shensi, and Szechuen, and the wild country on the borders of Tibet, to the remote province of Yunnan, called by the Mongols Karajang, and into northern Burma (Mien). Marco, during his stay at court, had observed the Khan's delight in hearing of strange countries, of their manners, marvels, and oddities, and had heard his frank expressions of disgust at the stupidity of envoys and commissioners who could tell of nothing but their official business. He took care to store his memory or his note-book with curious facts likely to interest Kublai, which, on his return to court, he related. This south-western journey led him through a country which till about 1860 was almost a terra incognita — though since the middle of the iQth century we have learned much regarding it through the journeys of Cooper, Gamier, Richthofen, Gill, Baber and others. In this region there existed and still exists in the deep valleys of the great rivers, and in the alpine regions which border them, a vast ethnological garden, as it were, of tribes of various origin, and in every stage of semi-civilization or barbarism; these afforded many strange products and eccentric traits to entertain Kublai. Marco rose rapidly in favour and was often employed on distant missions as well as in domestic administration; but we gather few details of his employment. He held for three years the government of the great city of Yangchow; on another occasion he seems to have visited Kangchow, the capital of Tangut, just within the Great Wall, and perhaps Karakorum on the north of the Gobi, the former residence of the Great Khans: again we find him in Ciampa, or southern Cochin-China; and perhaps, once more, on a separate mission to the southern states of India. We are not informed whether his father and uncle shared in such employments, though they are mentioned as having rendered material service to the Khan, in forwarding the capture of Siang-yang (on the Han river) during the war against southern China, by the construction of powerful artillery engines — a story, however, perplexed by chronological difficulties. All the Polos were gathering wealth which they longed to carry back to their home, and after their exile they began to dread what might follow Kublai's death. The Khan, however, was deaf to suggestions of departure and the opportunity only carneby chance. ' _^7 oqfl^-rsrghun, khan of Persia, the grandson of Kublai's brother eft. -Hulagu, lost in 1286 his favourite wife, called by Polo Balgana (i.e. Bulughan or " Sable "). Her dying injunction was that her place should be filled only by a lady of her own Mongol tribe. Ambassadors were despatched to the court of Peking to obtain such a bride. The message was courteously received, and the choice fell on the lady Cocacin (Kukachin), a maiden of seventeen. The overland road from Peking to Tabriz was then imperilled by war, so Arghun's envoys proposed to return by sea. Having made acquaintance with the Venetians, and eager to profit by their experience, especially by that of Marco, who had just returned from a mission to the Indies, they begged the Khan to send the Franks in their company. He consented with reluctance, but fitted out the party nobly for the voyage, charging them with friendly messages to the potentates of Christendom, including the pope, and the kings of France, Spain and England. They sailed from Zaiton or Amoy Harbour in Fukien (a town corresponding either to the modern Changchow or less probably toTswanchoworChinchew),thenoneof the chief Chinese havens for foreign trade, in the beginning of 1292. The voyage in- volved long detention on the coast of Sumatra, and in south India, and two years or more passed before they arrived in Persia. Two of the three envoys and a vast proportion of their suite perished by the way; but the three Venetians survived all perils, and so did the young lady, who had come to look on them with filial regard. Arghun Khan had died even before they quitted China; his brother reigned in his stead; and his son Ghazan succeeded to the lady's hand. The Polos went on (apparently by Tabriz. Trebizond, Constantinople and Negro- pont) to Venice, which they seem to have reached about the end of 1295. The first biographer of Marco Polo was the famous geo- graphical collector John Baptist Ramusio, who wrote more than two centuries after the traveller's death. Facts and dates POLO, MARCO sometimes contradict his statements, but he often adds detail, evidently authentic, of great interest and value, and we need not hesitate to accept as a genuine tradition the substance of his story of the Polos' arrival at their family mansion in St John Chrysostom parish in worn and outlandish garb, of the scornful denial of their identity, and the stratagem by which they secured acknowledgment from Venetian society. We next hear of Marco Polo in a militant capacity. Jealousies had been growing in bitterness between Venice and Genoa thioughout the I3th century. In 1298 the Genoese prepared to strike at their rivals on their own ground, and a powerful fleet under Lamba Doria made for the Adriatic. Venice, on hearing of the Genoese armament, equipped a fleet still more numerous, and placed it under Andrea Dandolo. The crew of a Venetian galley at this time amounted, all told, to 250 men, under a comito or master, but besides this officer each galley carried a sopracomito or gentleman-commander, usually a noble. On one of the galleys of Dandolo's fleet Marco Polo seems to have gone in this last capacity. The hostile fleets met before Curzola Island on the 6th of September, and engaged next morning. The battle ended in a complete victory for Genoa, the details of which may still be read on the facade of St Matthew's church in that city. Sixty-six Venetian galleys were burnt in Curzola Bay, and eighteen were carried to Genoa, with 7000 prisoners, one of whom was Marco Polo. The captivity was of less than a year's duration; by the mediation of Milan peace was made, on honourable terms for both republics, by July 1299; and Marco was probably restored to his family during that or the following month. But his captivity was memorable as the immediate cause of his Book. Up to this time he had doubtless often related his experiences among his friends; and from these stories, and the 'frequent employment in them (as it would seem) of grand numerical expressions, he had acquired the nickname of Marco Millioni. Yet it would seem that he had committed nothing to writing. The narratives not only of Marco Polo but of several other famous medieval travellers (e.g. Ibn Batuta, Friar Odoric, Nicolo Conti) seem to have been extorted from them by a kind of pressure, and committed to paper by other hands. Examples, perhaps, of that intense dislike to the use of pen and ink which still prevails among ordinary respectable folk on the shores of the Mediterranean. In the prison of Genoa Marco Polo fell in with a certain person of writing propensities, Rusticiano or Rustichello of Pisa, also a captive of the Genoese. His name is otherwise known as that of a respectable literary hack, who abridged and recast several of the French romances of the Arthurian cycle, then in fashion. He wrote down Marco's experiences at his dictation. We learn little of Marco Polo's personal or family history after this captivity; but we know that at his death he left a wife, Donata (perhaps of the Loredano family, but this is uncertain), and three daughters, Fantina and Bellela (married, the former to Marco Bragadino), and Moreta (then a spinster, but married at a later date to Ranuzzo Dolfino). One last glimpse of the traveller is gathered from his will, now in St Mark's library. On the gth of January 1324 the traveller, in his seventieth year, sent for a neighbouring priest and notary to make his testament. We do not know the exact time of his death, but it fell almost certainly within the year 1324, for we know from a scanty series of documents, beginning in June 1325, that he had at the latter date been some time dead. He was buried, IrTaccordance with his will, in the Church of St Lorenzo, where the family burying-place was marked by a sarcophagus, erected by his filial care for his father Nicolo, which existed till near the end of the i6th century. On the renewal of the church" in 1592 this seems to have disappeared. The archives of Venice have yielded a few traces of our tra- veller. Besides his own will just alluded to, there are the wills of his uncle Marco and of his younger brother Maffeo; a few legal documents connected with the house property in St John Chrysostom, and other papers of similar character; and two or three entries in the record of the Maggior Con- siglio. We have mentioned the sobriquet of Marco Millioni. Ramusio tells us that he had himself noted the use of this name in the public books of the commonwealth, and this statement has been verified in an entry in the books of the Great Council (dated April 10, 1305), which records as one of the securities in a certain case the " Nobilis vir Marchus Paulo MILION." It is alleged that long after the traveller's death there was always in the Venetian masques one individual who assumed the character of Marco Millioni, and told Munchausen-like stories to divert the vulgar. There is also a record (March 9, 1311) of the judgment of the court of requests (Curia Peti- tionum) upon a suit brought by the " Nobilis vir Marcus Polo " against Paulo Girardo, who had been an agent of his, to recover the value of a certain quantity of musk for which Girardo had not accounted. Another document is a catalogue of certain curiosities and valuables which were collected in the house of Marino Faliero, and this catalogue comprises several objects that Marco Polo had given to one of the Faliero family. The most tangible record of Polo's memory in Venice is a portion of the Ca' Polo — the mansion (there is reason to believe) where the three travellers, after their long absence, were denied entrance. The court in which it stands was known in Ramusio's time as the Corte del millioni, and now is called Corte Sabbionera. That which remains of the ancient edifice is a passage with a decorated archway of Italo-Byzantine character pertaining to the I3th century. No genuine portrait of Marco Polo exists. There is a medallion portrait on the wall of the Sala dello Scudo in the ducal palace, which has become a kind of type; but it is a work of imagination no older than 1761. The oldest professed portrait is one in the gallery of Monsignor Badia at Rome, which is inscribed Marcus Polus venetus lolius orbis et Indie peregrator primus. It is a good picture, but evidently of the i6th century at earliest. The Europeans at Canton have absurdly attached the name of Marco Polo to a figure in a Buddhist temple there containing a gallery of " Arhans " or Buddhist saints, and popularly known as the " temple of the five hundred gods." The Venetian municipality obtained a copy of this on the occasion of the geographical congress at Venice in 1881. The book indited by Rusticiano is in two parts. The first, or prologue, as it is termed, is unfortunately the only part which con- sists of actual personal narrative. It relates in an interesting though extremely brief fashion the circumstances which led the two elder Polos to the Khan's court, together with those of their second journey (when accompanied by Marco), and of the return to the west by the Indian seas and Persia. The second and staple part consists of a series of chapters of unequal length and unsystem- atic structure, descriptive of the different states and provinces of Asia (certain African islands and regions included), with occasional notices of their sights and products, of curious manners and re- markable events, and especially regarding the Emperor Kublai, his court, wars and administration. A series of chapters near __ the close treats of sundry wars that took place between various'' branches of the house of Jenghiz in the latter half of the I3th century. This last series is either omitted or greatly curtailed in all the MS. copies and versions except one (Paris, National Library, Fonds Fr. 1116). It was long doubtful in what language the work was originally written. That this had been some dialect of Italian was a natural presumption, and a contemporary statement could be alleged in its favour. But there is now no doubt that the original was French. This was first indicated by Count Baldelli-Boni, who published an elaborate edition of two of the Italian texts at Florence in 1827, and who found in the oldest of these indisputable signs that it was a translation from the French. The argument has since been followed up by others; and a manuscript in rude and peculiar French, belonging to the National Library of Paris (Fonds Fr. 1116), which was printed by the Socifti de gto^raphie in 1824, is evidently either the original or a close transcript of the original dictation. A variety of its characteristics are strikingly indicative of the unrevised product of dictation, and are such as would necessarily have disappeared either in a translation or in a revised copy. Many illustrations could be adduced of the fact that the use of French was not a circumstance of surprising or unusual nature; for the language had at that time, in some points of view, even a wider diffusion than at present, and examples of its literary em- ployment by writers who were not Frenchmen (like Rusticiano himself, a compiler of French romances) are very numerous. IO POLO, MARCO Eighty-five MSS. of the book are known, and their texts exhibit considerable differences. These fall under four principal types. Of these, type i. is found completely only in that old French codex which has been mentioned (Paris, National Library, Fr. 1116). Type ii. is shown by several valuable MSS. in purer French (Paris, Nat. Libr., Fr. 2810; Fr. 5631; Fr. 5649; Bern, Canton Library, 125), which formed the basis of the edition prepared by the late M. Pauthier in 1865. It exhibits a text condensed and revised from the rude original, but without any exactness, though perhaps under some general direction by Marco Polo himself, for an inscrip- tion prefixed to certain MSS. (Bern, Canton Libr. 125; Paris, Nat. Libr., Fr. 5649) records the presentation of a copy by the tra- veller himself to the Seigneur Thiebault de C6poy, a distinguished Frenchman known to history, at Venice in the year 1306. Type iii. is that of a Latin version prepared in Marco Polo's lifetime, though without any sign of his cognisance, by Francesco Pipino, a Dominican of Bologna, and translated from an Italian copy. In this, condensation and curtailment are carried a good deal further than in type ii. Some of the forms under which this type appears curiously illustrate the effects of absence of effective publication, not only before the invention of the press, but in its early days. Thus the Latin version published by Grynaeus at Basel in the Novus Orbis (1532) is different in its language from Pipino's, and yet is clearly traceable to that as its foundation. In fact it is a retranslation into Latin from some version of Pipino (Marsden thinks the Portuguese printed one of 1502). It introduces changes of its own, and is worthless as a text; yet Andreas Miiller, who in the 1 7th century took so much trouble with Polo, unfortunately chose as his text this fifth-hand version. The French editions published in the middle of the i6th century were translations from Grynaeus's Latin. Hence they complete this curious and vicious circle of transmission — -French, Italian, Pipino's Latin, Portuguese, Grynaeus's Latin, French. Type iv. deviates largely from those already mentioned; its history and true character are involved in obscurity. It is only represented by the Italian version prepared for the press by John Baptist Ramusio, with interesting preliminary dissertations, and published at Venice two years after his death, in the second volume of the Navigation* e viaggi. Its peculiarities are great. Ramusio seems to imply that he made some use of Pipino's Latin, and various passages confirm this. But many new circumstances, and anec- dotes occurring in no other copy, are introduced; many names assume a new shape; the whole style is more copious and literary than that of any other version. While a few of the changes and interpolations seem to carry us farther from the truth, others contain facts of Asiatic nature or history, as well as of Polo's alleged experiences, which it is difficult to ascribe to any hand but the traveller's own. We recognize to a certain extent tampering with the text, as in cases where Polo's proper names have been identified, and more modern forms substituted. In some other cases the editorial spirit has gone astray. Thus the age of young Marco has been altered to correspond with a date which is itself erroneous. Ormuz is described as an island, contrary to the old texts, and to the fact in Polo's time. In speaking of the oil-springs of Caucasus the phrase " camel-loads " has been substituted for " ship-loads," in ignorance that the site was Baku on the Caspian. But, on the other hand, there are a number of new circumstances certainly genuine, which can hardly be ascribed to any one but Polo himself. Such is the account which Ramusio's version gives of the oppressions exercised by Kublai's Mahommedan minister Ahmad, telling how the Cathayans rose against him and murdered him, with the addition that Messer Marco was on the spot when all this happened. Not only is the whole story in substantial accordance with the Chinese annals, even to the name of the chief conspirator (Vanchu in Ramusio, Wangcheu in the Chinese records), but the annals also tell of the frankness of " Polo, assessor of the privy council," in opening Kublai's eyes to the iniquities of his agent. Polo was the first traveller to trace a route across the whole longitude of Asia, naming and describing kingdom after kingdom which he had seen ; the first to speak of the new and brilliant court which had been established at Peking; the first to reveal China in all its wealth and vastness, and to tell of the nations on its borders; the first to tell more of Tibet than its name, to speak of Burma, of Laos, of Siam, of Cochin-China, of Japan, of Java, of Sumatra and of other islands of the archipelago, of the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, of Ceylon and its sacred peak, of India but as a country seen and partially explored; the first in medieval times to give any distinct account of the secluded Christian Empire of Abyssinia, and of the semi-Christian island of Sokotra, and to speak, however dimly, of Zanzibar, and of the vast and distant Madagascar; whilst he carries us also to the remotely opposite region of Siberia and the Arctic shores, to speak of dog-sledges, white bears and reindeer- riding Tunguses. The diffusion of the book was hardly so rapid as has been some- times alleged. We know from Gilles Mallet's catalogue of the books collected in the Louvre by Charles V., dating c. 1370^1375, that five copies of Marco Polo's work were then in the collection ; but on the other hand, the 202 known MSS. and the numerous early printed editions of " Mandeville," with his lying wonders, indicates a much greater popularity. Dante, who lived twenty-three years after the book was dictated, and who touches so many things in the seen and unseen worlds, never alludes to Polo, nor, we believe, to any- thing that can be connected with him; nor can any trace of Polo be discovered in the book of his contemporary, Marino Sanudo the Elder, though this worthy is well acquainted with the work, later by some years, of Haytpn the Armenian, and though many of the subjects on which he writes in his own book (Secrela Fidelium Crucis1) challenge a reference to Polo's experiences. " Mande- ville " himself, who plundered right and left, hardly ever plunders Polo (see one example in Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 323, note). The only literary works we know of the I4th century which show acquaintance with Polo's book or achievements are Pipino's Chronicle, Villani's Florentine History, Pietro d'Abano's Conciliator, the Chronicle of John of Ypres, and the poetical romance of Baudouin de Sebourc, which last borrows themes largely from Polo. Within the traveller's own lifetime we find the earliest examples of the practical and truly scientific coast-charts (Portolani), based upon the experience of pilots, mariners, merchants, &c. In two of the most famous of the I4th century Portolani, we trace Marco Polo's influence — first, very slightly in the Laurentian or Medicean Portolano of 1351 (at Florence), but afterwards with clearness and in remarkable detail in the Catalan Atlas of 1375 (now at Paris). Both of these represent a very advanced stage of medieval knowledge, a careful attempt to represent the known world on the basis of collected fact, and a disregard for theological or pseudo- scientific theory; in the Catalan Atlas, as regards Central and Further Asia, and partially as regards India, Marco Polo's Book is the basis of the map. His names are often much perverted, and it is not always easy to understand the view that the compiler took of his itineraries. Still we have Cathay placed in the true position of China, as a great empire filling the south-east of Asia. The trans-Gangetic peninsula is absent, but that of India proper is, for the first time in the history of geography, represented with a fair approximation to correct form and position. It is curious that, in the following age, owing partly to his un- happy reversion to the fancy of a circular disk, the map of Fra Mauro (1459), one of the greatest map-making enterprises in history, and the result of immense labour in the collection of facts and the endeavour to combine them, gives a much less accurate idea of Asia than the Carta catalana. Columbus possessed a printed copy of the Latin version of Polo's book made by Pipino, and on more than seventy pages of this there are manuscript notes in the admiral's handwriting, testifying, what is sufficiently evident from the whole history of the Columbian voyages, to the immense in- fluence of the work of the Venetian merchant upon the discoverer of the new world. When, in the i6th century, attempts were made to combine new and old knowledge, the results were unhappy. The earliest of such combinations tried to realize Columbus's ideas regarding the identity of his discoveries with the Great Khan's dominions; but even after America had vindicated its independent existence, and the new knowledge of the Portuguese had named China where the Catalan map had spoken of Cathay, the latter country, with the whole of Polo's nomenclature, was shunted to the north, forming a separate system. Henceforward the influence of Polo's work on maps was simply injurious; and when to his names was added a sprinkling of Ptolemy's, as was usual throughout the i6th century, the result was a hotchpotch conveying no approximation to facts (see further MAP). As to the alleged introduction of important inventions into Europe by Polo — although the striking resemblance of early Euro- pean block-books to those of China seems clearly to indicate the derivation of the art from that country, there is no reason for connecting this introduction (any more than that of gunpowder or the mariner's compass) with the name of Marco. In the I4th century not only were missions of the Roman Church established in some of the chief cities of eastern China, but a regular overland trade was carried on between Italy and China, by way of Tana (Azov), Astrakhan, Otrar, Kamul (Hami) and Kanchow. Many a traveller other than Marco Polo might have brought home the block-books, and some might have witnessed the process of making them. This is the less to be ascribed to Polo, because he so curiously omits to speak of the process of printing, when, in describing the block-printed paper-money of China, his subject seems absolutely to challenge a description of the art. See the Recueil of the Paris Geographical Society (1824), vol. i., giving the text of the fundamental MS. (Nat. Libr. Paris, Fr. 1116; see above), as well as that of the oldest Latin version; G. Pauthier's edition, Livre . . . de Marco Polo . . . (Paris, 1865), based mainly upon the three Paris MSS. (Nat. Libr. Fr. 2810; Fr. 5631; Fr. 5649; see above) and accompanied by a commentary of great value; Baldelli-Boni's Italian edition, giving the oldest Italian version (Florence, 1827); Sir Henry Yule's edition, which in its final shape, as revised and augmented by Henri Cordier (. . . Marco Polo . . . London, 1903), is the most complete 1 Printed by Bongars in the collection called Gesla Dei per Francos (1611), ii. 1-281. POLO ii storehouse of Polo learning in existence, embodying the labours of all the best students of the subject, and giving the essence of such works as those of Major P. Molesworth Sykes (Ten Thousand Miles in Persia, &c.) so far as these touch Marco Polo; the Archimandrite Palladius Katharov's " Elucidations of Marco Polo " (from vol. x. of the Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1876), pp. 1-54; F. von Richthofen, Letters to Shangai Chamber of Commerce; E. C. Baber, Travels . . . in Western China; G. Phillips, Identity of . . . Zailun with Chang- chau in T'oung Poo (Oct. 1890), and other studies in T'oung-Pao (Dec. 1895 and July 1896). There are in all 10 French editions of Polo as well as 4 Latin editions, 27 Italian, 9 German, 4 Spanish, i Portuguese, 12 English, 2 Russian, I Dutch, I Bohemian (Chekh), I Danish and I Swedish. See also E. Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources, i. 239, 167; ii. 8, 71, 81-84, 184; Leon Cahun, Introduction a Vhistoire de I'Asie, 339, 386; C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 15-160, 545-547. 554, 556-563. (H. Y!; C. R. B.) POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball), the most ancient of games with stick and ball. Hockey, the Irish national game of hurling (and possibly golf and cricket) are derived from polo. History. Tjje jatter was caued hockey or hurling on horse- back in England and Ireland respectively, but historically hockey and hurling are polo on foot. The earliest records of polo are Persian. From Persia the game spread westward to Constantinople, eastwards through Turkestan to Tibet, China and Japan. From Tibet polo travelled to Gilgit and Chitral, possibly also to Manipur. Polo also flourished in India in the i6th century. Then for 200 years its records in India cease, till in 1854 polo came into Bengal from Manipur by way of Cachar and in 1862 the game was played in the Punjab. There have been twelve varieties of the game during its existence of at least 2000 years, (i) A primitive form consisting of feats of horsemanship and of skill with stick and ball. (2) Early Persian, described in Shahnama, a highly organized game with rules, played four aside. (3) Later Persian, i6th century, the grounds 300 by 1 70 yds. Sir Anthony Shirley says the game resembled the rough football of the same period in England. (4) The game in the lyth century in Persia. A more highly organized game than No. 3, as described by Chardin. (5) The Byzantine form played at Constantinople in the i2th century. A leathern ball the size of an apple and a racquet were used. (6) The Chinese game, about A.D. 600 played with a light wooden ball. The goal was formed by . two posts with a boarding between, in the latter a hole being cut and a net attached to it in the form of a bag. The side which hit the ball into the bag were the winners. Another Chinese form was two teams ranged on opposite sides of the ground, each defending its own goal. The object of the game was to drive the ball through the enemy's goal. (7) The Japanese game, popular in feudal times, still survives under the name of Dakiu, or ball match. The Japanese game has a boarded goal; 5 ft. from the ground is a circular hole i ft. 2 in. in diameter with a bag behind. The balls are of paper with a cover of pebbles or bamboo fibre, diameter 1-7 in., weight ij oz. The sticks are racket shaped. The object is to lift over or carry the ball with the racket and place it in the bag. (8) Called rol, played with a long stick with which the ball was dribbled along the ground. (9) Another ancient Indian form in which the sides ranged up on opposite sides of the ground and the ball was thrown in. This is probably the form of the game which reached India from Persia and is represented at the present day by Manipur and Gilgit polo, though these forms are probably rougher than the old Indian game. (10) Modern English with heavy ball and sticks, played in England and the colonies and wherever polo is played in Europe. Its characteristics are: offside; severe penalties for breach of the rules; close combination; rather short passing; low scoring, and a strong defence, (ii) Indian polo has a lighter ball, no boards to the grounds, which are usually full-sized; a modified offside-rule, but the same system of penalties. It is a quicker game than the English. (12) The American game has no offside and no penalties, in the English sense. The attack is stronger, the passing longer, the pace greater and more sustained. American players are more certain goal-hitters and their scoring is higher. They defeated the English players in 1909 with ease. Polo was first played in England by the loth Hussars in 1869. The game spread rapidly and some good play was seen at Lillie Bridge. But the organization of polo in England dates from its adoption by the Hurlingham Club in 1873. The ground was boarded along the sides, and this device, which was employed as a remedy for the irregular shape of the Hurlingham ground, has become almost universal and has greatly affected the develop- ment of the game. The club committee, in 1874, drew up the first code of rules, which reduced the number of players to five a side and included offside. The next step was the foundation 9f the Champion Cup, in 1877. Then came the rule dividing the game into periods of ten minutes, with intervals of two minutes for changing ponies after each period, and five minutes at half- time. The height of ponies was fixed at 14-2, and a little later an official measurer was appointed, no pony being allowed to play unless registered at Hurlingham. The next change was the present scale of penalties for offside, foul riding or dangerous play. A short time after, the crooking of the adversary's stick, unless in the act of hitting the ball, was forbidden. The game grew faster, partly as the result of these rules. Then the ten minutes' rule was revised. The period did not close until the ball went over the boundary. Thus the period might be ex- tended to twelve or thirteen minutes, and although this time was deducted from the next period the strain of the extra minutes was too great on men and ponies. It was therefore laid down that the ball should go out of play on going out of bounds or striking the board, whichever happened first. In 1910 a polo handicap was established, based on the American system of estimating the number of goals a player was worth to his side. This was modified in the English handicap by assigning to each player a handicap number as at golf. The highest number is ten, the lowest one. The Hurlingham handicap is revised during the winter, again in May, June and July, each handicap coming into force one month after the date of issue. In tournaments under handicap the individual handicap numbers are added together, and the team with the higher aggregate concedes goals to that with the lower, according to the con- ditions of the tournament. The handicap serves to divide second from first class tournaments, for the former teams must not have an aggregate over 25. The size of the polo ground is 300 yds. in length and from 1 60 to 200 yds. in width. The larger size is only found now where boards are not used. The ball is made of willow root, is 3J in. in diameter, weight not over s| oz. The polo stick has no standard size or weight, and square or cigar-shaped heads are used at the discretion of the player. On soft grounds, the former, on hard grounds the latter are the better, but Indian and American players nearly always prefer the cigar shape. The goal posts, now generally made of papier mache, are 8 yds. apart. This is the goal line. Thirty yards from the goal line a line is marked out, nearer than which to the goal no one of a fouled side may be when the side fouling has to hit out, as a penalty from behind the back line, which is the goal line produced. At 50 yds. from each goal there is generally a mark to guide the man who takes a free hit as a penalty. Penalties are awarded by the umpires, who should be two in number, well mounted, and with a good knowledge of the rules of the game. The Hurlingham and Ranelagh clubs appoint official umpires. There should also be a referee in case of disagreement between the umpires, and it is usual to have a man with a flag behind each goal to signal when a goal is scored. The Hurlingham club makes and revises the rules of the game, and its code is, with some local modifications, in force in the United Kingdom, English-speaking colonies, the Argentine Republic, California, and throughout Europe. America and India are governed by their own polo associations. . The American rules have no offside, and their penalties consist of subtracting a goal or the fraction of a goal, according to the offence, from the side which has incurred a penalty for fouling. The differences between the Hurlingham and Indian rules 12 POLONAISE— POLONNARUWA are very slight, and they tend to assimilate more as time goes on. Polo in the army is governed by an army polo committee, which fixes the date of the inter-regimental tournament. The semi-finals and finals are played at Hurlingham. The earlier ties take place at centres arranged by the army polo committee, who are charged by the military authorities with the duty of checking the expenditure of officers on the game. The value of polo as a military exercise is now fully recognized, and with the co-operation of Hurlingham, Ranelagh and Roehampton the expenses of inter-regimental tournaments have been regulated and restrained. The County Polo Association has affiliated to it all the county clubs. It is a powerful body, arranging the conditions of county tournaments, constructing the handicaps for county players, and in conjunction with the Ranelagh club holding a polo week for county players in London. The London clubs are three — Hurlingham, Ranelagh and Roehampton. Except that they use Hurlingham rules the clubs are independent, and arrange the con- ditions and fix the dates of their own tournaments. Ranelagh has four, Roehampton three and Hurlingham two polo grounds. There are about 400 matches played at these clubs, besides members' games from May to July during the London season. At present the Meadowbrook still hold the cup which was won inter- by an English team in 1886. In 1902 an American national team made an attempt to recover it and failed. Polo. They lacked ponies and combination; but they bought the first and learned the second, and tried again successfully in 1909, thus depriving English polo of the championship of the world. Polo in England has passed through several stages. It was always a game of skill. The cavalry regiments in India in early The Game. P°'° days, the 5th, 9th, 1 2th and i7th Lancers, the loth Hussars and the i3th Hussars, had all learned the value of combination. In very early days regimental players had learned the value of the backhanded stroke, placing the ball so as to give opportunities to their own side. The duty of support- ing the other members of the team and riding off opponents so as to clear the way for players on the same side was understood. This combination was made easier when the teams were reduced from five a side to four. Great stress was laid on each man keeping his place, but a more flexible style of play existed from early days in the I7th Lancers and was improved and perfected at the Rugby Club by the late Colonel Gordon Renton and Captain E. D. Miller, who had belonged to that regiment. For a long time the Rugby style of play, with its close combination, short passes and steady defence, was the model on which other teams formed themselves. The secret of the success of Rugby was the close and unselfish combination and the hard work done by every member of the team. After the American victories of 1909 a bolder, harder hitting style was adopted, and the work of the forwards became more important, and longer passes are now the rule. But the main principles are the same. The forwards lead the attack and are supported by the half-back and back when playing towards the adversaries' goal. In defence the forwards hamper the opposing No. 3 and No. 4 and endeavour to clear the way for their own No. 3 and No. 4, who are trying not merely to keep the ball out of their own goal but to turn defence into attack. Each individual player must be a good horseman, able to make a pony gallop, must have a control of the ball, hitting hard and clean and in the direction he wishes it to go. He must keep his eye on the ball and yet know where the goal-posts are, must be careful not to incur penalties and quick to take advantage of an opportunity. Polo gives no time for second thoughts. A polo player must not be in a hurry, but he must never be slow nor dwell on his stroke. He must be able to hit when galloping his best pace on to the ball and able to use the speed of his pony in order to get pace. He must be able to hit a backhander or to meet a ball coming to him, as the tactics of the game require. Polo has given rise to a new type of horse, an animal of 14 hands 2 in. with the power of a hunter, the courage of a racehorse and the docility of a pony. At first the ponies were small, but now each pony must pass the Hurlingham official measurer and be entered on the register. The English The Polo system of measurement is the fairest and most Pony. humane possible. The pony stripped of his clothing is led by an attendant, not his own groom, into a box with a perfectly level floor and shut off from every distraction. A veterinary surgeon examines to see that the pony is neither drugged nor in any way improperly prepared. The pony is allowed to stand easily, and a measuring standard with a spirit-level is then placed on the highest point of the wither, and if the pony measures 14-2 and is five years old it is i cgistered for life. Ponies are of many breeds. There are Arabs, Argentines, Americans, Irish and English ponies, the last two being the best. The Polo and Riding Pony Society, with headquarters at 12 Hanover Square, looks after the interests of the English and Irish pony and encourages their breeders. The English ponies are now bred largely for the game and are a blend of thoroughbred blood (the best are always the race-winning strains) or Arab and of the English native pony. AUTHORITIES. — Polo in England: J. Moray Brown, Riding and Polo, Badminton Library, revised and brought up to date by T. F. Dale (Longmans, 1899) ; Captain Younghusband, Polo in India, (n.d.); J. Moray Brown, Polo (Vinton, 1896); T. F. Dale, The Came of Polo (A. Constable & Co., 1897); Captain Younghusband, Tourna- ment Polo (1897); Captain de Lisle, Durham Light Infantry, Hints to Polo Players in India (1897); T. B. Drybrough, Polo (Vinton, 1898; revised, Longmans, 1906); Captain E. D. Miller, Modern Polo (1903); H. L. Fitzpatrick, Equestrian Polo, in Spalding's Athletic Library (1904) ; Major G. J. Younghusband, Tournament Polo (1904); T. F. Dale " Polo, Past and Present," Country Life; Walter Buckmaster, " Hints on Polo Combination," Library of Sport (George Newnes Ltd., 1905 ; Vinton & Co., 1909) ; Hurlingham Club, Rules of Polo, Register of Ponies; Polo and Riding Pony Society Stud Book (12 vols., 12 Hanover Square). A nnuals: American Polo Association, 143 Liberty Street, New York; Indian Polo Association, Lucknow, N. P.; Captain E. D. Miller, D.S.O., The Polo Players' Guide and Almanack; The Polo Annual, ed. by L. V. L. Simmonds. Monthlies: Bailey's Magazine (Vinton & Co.); The Polo Monthly (Craven House, Kingsway, London). Polo in Persia: Firdousi's Shahnama, translated as Le Livre des rois by J. Mohl, with notes and comm. ; Sir Anthony Shirley, Travels in Persia (1569); Sir John Chardin, Voyages en Perse (1686), ed. aug. de notes, &c. par L. Langles, 181 1 ; Sir William Ouseley, Travels in Various Countries of the East, particularly Persia (1810). There are many allusions to polo in the poets, notably Nizami, . Jam! and Omar Khayyam. Polo in Constantinople; Cinnamus Joannes epitome rerum ab loanne et Alexio Commenis gest. (Bonn, 1836). Polo in India: Ain-i-Akbari (1555); G. F. Vigne, Travels in Kashmir (Ladakh and Iskardo, 1842); Colonel Algernon Durand, The Making of a Frontier (1899). Polo in digit and Chitral: " Polo in Baltistan." The Field (1888); Polo in Manipur, Captain McCulloch, Manipuris and the Adjacent Tribes (1859). (T. F. D.) POLONAISE (i.e. Polish, in French), a stately ceremonious dance, usually written in J time. As a form of musical com- position it has been employed by such ccmposers as Bach, Handel, Beethoven, and above all by Chopin. It is usual to date the origin of the dance from the election (1573) of Henry duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. of France, to the throne of Poland. The ladies of the Polish nobility passed in cere- monial procession before him at Cracow to the sound of stately music. This procession of music became the regular opening ceremony at royal functions, and developed into the dance. The term is also given to a form of skirted bodice, which has been fashionable for ladies at different periods. POLONNARUWA, a ruined city and ancient capital of Ceylon. It first became a royal residence in A.D. 368, when the lake of Topawewa was formed, and succeeded Anuradhapura as the capital in the middle of the 8th century. The principal ruins date chiefly from the time of Prakrama Bahu (A.D. 1153- ii 86). The most imposing pile remaining is the Jetawa- narama temple, a building 170 ft. in length, with walls about 80 ft. high and 12 ft. thick. The city is now entirely deserted, and, as in the case of Anuradhapura, its ruins have only recently been rescued from the jungle. POLOTSK— POLTAVA POLOTSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Vitebsk, at the confluence of the Polota with the Dvina, 62 m. by rail N.W. of the town of Vitebsk. Pop. 20,751. Owing to the continuous wars, of which, from its position on the line of communication between central Russia and the west it was for many centuries the scene, scarcely any of its remarkable anti- quities remain. The upper castle, which stood at the confluence of the rivers and had a stone wall with seven towers, is in ruins, as is the lower castle formerly enclosed with strong walls and connected with the upper castle by a bridge. The cathedral of St Sophia in the upper castle, built in the I2th century, fell to ruins in the i8th century, whereupon the United Greek bishop substituted a modern structure. Upwards of two-thirds of the inhabitants are Jews; the remainder have belonged mostly to the Orthodox Greek Church since 1839, when they were compelled to abandon the United Greek Church. Flax, linseed, corn and timber are the leading articles of commerce. Polotesk or Poltesk is mentioned in 862 as one of the towns given by the Scandinavian Rurik to his men. In 980 it had a prince of its own, Ragvald (Rogvolod or Rognvald), whose daughter is the subject of many legends. It remained an independent principality until the I2th century, resisting the repeated attacks of the princes of Kiev; those of Pskov, Lithu- ania, and the Livonian tCnights, however, proved more effective, and Polotsk fell under Lithuanian rule in 1320. About 1385 its independence was destroyed by the Lithuanian prince Vitovt. It was five times besieged by Moscow in 1500-18, and was taken by Ivan the Terrible in 1563. Recaptured by Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, sixteen years later, it became Polish by the treaty of 1582. It was then a large and populous city, and carried on an active commerce. Pestilences and conflagrations were its ruin; the plague of 1566 wrought great havoc among its inhabitants, and that of 1600 destroyed 15,000. The castles, the town and its walls were burned in 1607 and 1642. The Russians continued their attacks, burning and plundering the town, and twice, in 1633 and 1705, taking possession of it for a few years. It was not definitely annexed, however, to Russia until 1772, after the first dismemberment of Poland. In 1812 its inhabitants resisted the French invasion, and the town was partially destroyed. POLTAVA, a government of south-western Russia, bounded by the government of Chernigov on the N., Kharkov on the E., Ekaterinoslav and Kherson on the S., and Kiev on the W., and having an area of 19,260 sq. m. Its surface is an undulating plain 500 to 600 ft. above sea-level, with a few elevations reach- ing 670 ft. in the north, and gently sloping to 300 and 400 ft. in the south-west. Owing to the deep excavations of the rivers, their banks, especially those on the right, have the aspect of hilly tracts, while low plains stretch to the left. Almost the whole of the surface consists of Tertiary deposits; Cretaceous rocks appear in the north-east, at the bottom of the deeper ravines. The government touches the granitic region of the Dnieper only in the south, below Kremenchug. Limestone with dolerite veins occurs in the isolated hill of Isachek, which rises above the marshes of the Sula. The whole is covered with a layer, 20 to 60 ft. thick, of boulder clay, which again is often mantled with a thick sheet of loess. Sandstone (sometimes suitable for grindstones) and limestone are quarried, and a few beds of gypsum and peat-bog are known within the government. With the exception of some sandy tracts, the soil is on the whole very fertile. Poltava is drained by the Dnieper, which flows along its border, navigable throughout, and by its tributaries the Sula, Psiol, Vorskla, Orel, Trubezh, and several others, none of them navigable, although their courses vary from 150 to 270 m. each in length. Even those which used to be navigated within the historical period, such as the Trubezh and Supoi, are now drying up, while the others are being partially trans- formed into marshes. Deep sand-beds intersected by number- less ravines and old arms of the river stretch along the left bank of the Dnieper, where accordingly the settlements are few. Only 5% of the total area is under forest; timber, wooden wares, and pitch are imported. The estimated population in 1906 was 3,312,400. The great majority are Little Russians. Agriculture is the principal pursuit, 60% of the total area being arable land. The crops chiefly grown are wheat, rye and oats; the sunflower is largely cultivated, especially for oil, and the growing of tobacco, always important, has made a great advance. Kitchen gardening, the cultivation of the plum, and the preparation of preserved fruits are important branches of industry. At Lubny, where an apothecaries' garden is maintained by the Crown, the col- lection and cultivation of medicinal plants are a speciality. The main source of wealth in Poltava always has been, and still is, its live-stock breeding — horses, cattle, sheep, pigs. Some of the wealthier landowners and many peasants rear finer breeds of horses. The land is chiefly owned by the peasants, who possess 52% of the cultivable area; 42% belongs to private persons, and the remainder to the Crown, the clergy, and the municipalities. Among the manufactures distilleries hold the leading place, after which come flour-mills, tobacco factories, machine-making, tanneries, saw-mills, sugar-works and woollen manufactures. In the villages and towns several domestic trades are carried on, such as the preparation of sheepskins, plain woollen cloth, leather, boots and pottery. The fair of Poltava is of great importance for the whole woollen trade of Russia, and leather, cattle, horses, coarse woollen cloth, skins, and various domestic wares are exchanged for manufactures imported from Great Russia. The value of merchandise brought to the fair averages over £2,500,000. Several other fairs, the aggregate returns for which reach more than one-half of the above, are held at Romny (tobacco), Kremenchug '(timber, corn, tallow and salt), and Kobelyaki (sheepskins). Corn is exported to a considerable extent to the west and to Odessa, as also saltpetre, spirits, wool, tallow, skins and woollen cloth. The Dnieper is the principal artery for the exports and for the import — timber. The chief river-ports are Kremenchug and Poltava. Steamers ply between Kiev and Ekaterinoslav; but the navigation is hampered by want of water and becomes active only in the south. Traffic mostly follows the railway. Poltava is divided into fifteen districts, of which the chief towns are Poltava, Gadyach, Khorol, Kobelyaki, Konstantinograd, Kremenchug, Lokhvitsa, Lubny, Mirgorod, Pereyaslavl, Piryatin, Priluki, Romny, Zenkov and Zolotonosha. History. — At the dawn of Russian history the region now occupied by Poltava was inhabited by the Slav tribe of the Syeveryanes. As early as 988 the Russians erected several towns on the Sula and the Trubezh for their protection against the Turkish Petchenegs and Polovtsi, who held the south- eastern steppes. Population extended, and the towns of Pereyaslavl, Lubny, Priluki, Piryatin, Romny, begin to be mentioned in the nth and i2th centuries. The Mongol invasion of 1230-42 destroyed most of them, and for two centuries afterwards they disappear from Russian annals. About 1331 Gedimin, prince of Lithuania, annexed the so-called " Syeversk towns " and on the recognition of the union of Lithuania with Poland they were included in the united kingdom along with the remainder of Little Russia. In 1476 a separate principality of Kiev under Polish rule and Polish institutions was formed out of Little Russia, and remained so until the rising of the Cossack chief Bogdan Chmielnicki in 1654. By the Andrussowo Treaty, the left bank of the Dnieper being ceded to Russia, Poltava became part of the dominions of the Zaporogian Cossacks, and was divided into " regiments," six of which (Poltava, Pereyaslavl, Priluki, Gadyach, Lubny and Mirgorod) lay within the limits of the present government. They lost their independence in 1764. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) POLTAVA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the right bank of the Vorskla, 88 m. by rail W.S.W. of Kharkov. Pop. 53,060. The town is built on a plateau which descends by steep slopes on nearly every side. Several suburbs, inhabited by Cossacks, whose houses are buried amid gardens, and a German colony, surround the town. The oldest buildings are a monastery, erected in 1650, and a wooden POLTERGEIST church visited by Peter the Great after the battle of Poltava. There are a military school for cadets, a theological seminary and two girls' colleges; also flour-mills, tobacco works and a tannery. Poltava is mentioned in Russian annals in 1174, under the name of Ltava, but does not again appear in history until 1430, when, together with Glinsk, it was given by Gedimin, prince of Lithuania, to the Tatar prince Leksada. Under the Cossack chief, Bogdan Chmielnicki, it was the chief town of the Poltava " regiment." Peter the Great of Russia defeated Charles XII. of Sweden in the immediate neighbourhood on the 27th of June 1709, and the victory is commemorated by a column over 50 ft. in height. POLTERGEIST (Ger. for " racketing spirit "), the term applied to certain phenomena of an unexplained nature, such as movements of objects without any traceable cause, and noises equally untraced to their source; but in some 'cases exhibiting intelligence, as when raps answer a question by a code. In the word Poltergeist, the phenomena are attributed to the action of a Geist, or spirit : of old the popular explanation of all residuary phenomena. The hypothesis, in consequence of the diffusion of education, has been superseded by that of "electricity"; while sceptics in all ages and countries have accounted for all the phenomena by the theory of imposture. The last is at least a tier a causa: imposture has often been detected; but it is not so certain that this theory accounts for all the circumstances. To the student of human nature the most interesting point in the character of poltergeist phenomena is their appearance in the earliest known stages of culture, their wide diffusion, and their astonishing uniformity. Almost all the beliefs usually styled " superstitious " are of early occurrence and of wide diffusion: the lowest savages believe in ghosts of the dead and in wraiths of the living. Such beliefs when found thriving in our own civilization might be explained as mere survivals from savagery, memories of all " The superstitions idle-headed eld Received and did deliver to our age." But we have not to deal only with a belief that certain apparently impossible things may occur and have occurred in the past. We are met by the evidence of sane and credible witnesses, often highly educated, who maintain that they themselves have heard and beheld the unexplained sounds and sights. It appears, therefore, that in considering the phenomena of the poltergeist we are engaged with facts of one sort or another; facts produced either by skilled imposture, or resting on hallucinations of the witnesses; or on a mixture of fraud and of hallucination caused by " suggestion." There remains the chance that some agency of an unexplored nature is, at least in certain cases, actually at work. A volume would be needed if we were to attempt to chronicle the phenomena of the poltergeist as believed in by savages and in ancient and medieval times. But among savages they are usually associated with the dead, or with the medicine-men of the tribes. These personages are professional " mediums," and like the mediums of Europe and America, may be said to have do- mesticated the poltergeist. At their seances, savage or civilized, the phenomena are reported to occur — such as rappings and other noises, loud or low, and " movements of objects without physical contact." (See, for a brief account, A. Lang, Cock Lane and Common Sense, " Savage Spiritualism "; and see the Jesuit Lettres edifiantes, North America, 1620-1770, and Kohl's Kitchi Garni.) But ;< induced phenomena," where professional mediums and professional medical men are the agents, need not here be considered. The evidence, unless in the case of Sir William Crookes's experiments with Daniel Dunglas Home, is generally worthless, and the laborious investigations of the Society for Psychical Research resulted only in the detection of fraud as far as " physical " manifestations by paid mediums were concerned. The spontaneous poltergeist, where, at least, no professional is present, and no stance is being held, is much more curious and interesting than the simple tricks played in the dark by impudent charlatans. The phenomena are identical, as reported, literally "from China to Peru.". The Cieza de Leon (1549) tells us that the cacique of Pirza, in Popyan, during his conversion to Christianity, was troubled by stones falling mysteriously through the air (the mysterious point was the question of whence they came, and what force urged them), while Chris- tians saw at his table a glass of liquor raised in the air, by no visible hand, put down empty, and replenished! Mr Dennys (Folk Lore of China, 1876, p. 79) speaks of a Chinese householder who was driven to take refuge in a temple by the usual phenomena — throwing about of crockery and sounds of heavy footfalls — after the decease of an aggrieved monkey. This is only one of several Chinese cases of poltergeist; and the phenomena are described in Jesuit narratives of the i8th century, from Cochin China. In these papers no explanation is suggested. There is a famous example in a nunnery, recorded (1528) by a notable witness, Adrien de Montalembert, almoner to Francis I. The agent was supposed to be the spirit of a sister recently deceased. Among multitudes of old cases, that of the " Drummer of Tedworth " (1662-1663; see Glanvil, Sadducismus triumphatus, 1666); that at Rerrick, recorded by the Rev. Mr Telfer in 1695; that of the Wesley household (1716-1717) chronicled in contemporary letters and diaries of the Wesley family (Southey's Life of John Wesley); tha£ of Cideville (1851), from the records of the court which tried the law-suit arising out of the affair (Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, xviii. 454-463); and the Alresford case, attested by the great admiral, Lord St Vincent, are among the most remarkable. At Tedworth we have the evidence of Glanvil himself, though it does not amount to much; at Rerrick, Telfer was a good chronicler and gives most respectable signed vouchers for all the marvels: Samuel Wesley and his wife were people of sense, they were neither alarmed nor superstitious, merely puzzled; while the court which tried the Cideville case, only decided that " the cause of the events remains unknown." At Alresford, in Hampshire, the phenomena attested by Lord St Vincent and his sister Mrs Ricketts, who occupied the house, were pecu- liarly strange and emphatic: the house was therefore pulled down. At Willington Mill, near Morpeth (1831-1847), the phenomena are attested by the journal of Mr Procter, the occupant, a Quaker, a " tee-totaller," and a man of great resolution. He and his family endured unspeakable things for sixteen years, and could find no explanation of the sights and sounds, among which were phantasms of animals, as at Epworth, in the Wesley case. Of all these cases that of the Wesleys has attracted most critical attention. It was not, in itself, an extreme instance of poltergeist: at Alresford, at the close of the i8th century, and at Willington Mill in the middle of the igth the disturbances were much more violent and persistent than at Epworth, while our evidence is, in all three examples, derived from the contem- porary narratives, letters and journals of educated persons. The Wesleys, however, were people so celebrated and so active in religion that many efforts have been made to explain their " old Jeffrey," as they called the disturbing agency. These attempts at explanation have been fruitless. The poet Coleridge, who said that he knew many cases, explained all by a theory of contagious epidemic hallucination of witnesses. Dr Salmon, of Trinity College, Dublin, set all down to imposture by Hetty Wesley, a vivacious girl (Fortnightly Review, 1866). The documents on which he relied, when closely studied, did not support his charges, for he made several important errors in dates, and on these his argument rested. F. Podmore, in several works (e.g. Studies in Psychical Research), adopted a theory of exaggerative memory in the narrators, as one element, with a dose of imposture and of hallucination begotten of excited expectation. The Wesley letters and journals, written from day to day, do not permit of exaggerative memory, and when the records of 1716-1717 are compared with the remini- scences collected from his family by John Wesley in 1726, the discrepancies are seen to be only such as occur in all human POLTERGEIST evidence about any sort of events, remote by nine or ten years. Thus, in 1726, Mrs Wesley mentioned a visionary badger seen by her. She did not write about it to her son Samuel in 1717, but her husband and her daughter did then describe it to Samuel, as an experience of his mother at that date. The whole family, in 1717, became familiar with the phenomena, and were tired of them and of Samuel's questions. (Mr Podmore's arguments are to be found in the Journal of the Studies of Psychical Research, ix. 40-45. Some dates are mis- printed.) The theory of hallucination cannot account for the uniformity of statements, in many countries and at many dates, to the effect that the objects mysteriously set in motion moved in soft curves and swerves, or " wobbled." Suppose that an adroit impostor is throwing them, suppose that the spectators are excited, why should their excitement every- where produce a uniform hallucination as to the mode of motion? It is better to confess ignorance, and remain in doubt, than to invent such theories. A modern instance may be analysed, as the evidence was given contemporaneously with the events (Podmore, Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, xii. 45-58: " Poltergeists ")• On the 2oth or 2ist of February 1883 a Mrs White, in a cottage at Worksop, was " washing up the tea-things at the table," with two of her children in the room, when " the table tilted up at a considerable angle," to her amazement. On the 26th of February, Mr White being from home, Mrs White extended hospitality to a girl, Eliza Rose, " the child of an imbecile mother." Eliza is later described as " half-witted," but no proof of this is given. On the ist of March, White being from home, at about 11.30 p.m. a number of things " which had been in the kitchen a few minutes before " came tumbling down the kitchen stairs. Only Mrs White and Eliza Rose were then in the kitchen. Later some hot coals made an invasion. On the following night, White being at home in the kitchen, with his wife and Eliza, a miscellaneous throng of objects came in, Mr White made vain research upstairs, where was his brother Tom. On his return to the kitchen " a little china woman left the mantelpiece and flew into the corner." Being replaced, it repeated its flight, and was broken. White sent his brother to fetch a doctor; there also came a policeman, named Higgs; and the doctor and policeman saw, among other things, a basin and cream jug rise up automatically, fall on the floor and break. Next morning, a clock which had been silent for eighteen months struck; a crash was heard, and the clock was found to have leapt over a bed and fallen on the floor. All day many things kept flying about and breaking themselves, and Mr White sent Miss Rose about her business. Peace ensued. Mr Podmore, who visited the scene on the 7th and 8th of April and collected depositions, says (writing in 1883): "It may be stated generally that there was no possibility, in most cases, of the objects having been thrown by hand. . . . More- over it is hard to conceive by what mechanical appliances, under the circumstances described, the movements could have been effected. ... To suppose that these various objects were all moved by mechanical contrivances argues incredible stupidity, amounting almost to imbecility, on the part of all the persons present who were not in the plot," whereas Higgs, Dr Lloyd and a miner named Curass, all " certainly not wanting in intelligence," examined the objects and could find no explana- tion. White attested that fresh invasions of the kitchen by inanimate objects occurred as Eliza was picking up the earlier arrivals; and he saw a salt-cellar fly from the table while Eliza was in another part of the room. The amount of things broken was valued by White at £9. No one was in the room when the clock struck and fell. Higgs saw White shut the cupboard doors, they instantly burst open, and a large glass jar flew into the yard and broke. " The jar could not go in a straight line from the cupboard out of the door; but it certainly did go " (Higgs). The depositions were signed by the witnesses (April 1883). In 1896, Mr Podmore, after thirteen years of experience in examining reports of the poltergeist, produced his explana- tions, (i) The witnesses, though " honest and fairly intelli- gent," were " imperfectly educated, not skilled in accurate observation of any kind." (They described, like many others, in many lands, the " wobbling " movement of objects in flight.) (2) Mr Podmore took the evidence five weeks after date; there was time for exaggerated memories. (Mr Podmore did not consult, it seems, the contemporary evidence of Higgs in the Retford and Gainsborough Times, oth of March 1883. On examination it proves to tally as precisely as possible with the testimonies which he gave to Mr Podmore, except that in March he mentioned one or two miracles which he omitted five weeks later! The evidence is pubh'shed in Lang's The Making oj Religion, 1898, p. 356.) (3) In the evidence given to Mr Podmore five weeks after date, there are discrepancies between Higgs and White as to the sequence of some events, and as to whether one Coulter was present when the clock fell: he asserts, Higgs and White deny it . (There is never evidence of several witnesses, five weeks after an event, without such discrepancies. If there were, the evidence would be suspected as " cooked." Higgs in April gave the same version as in March.) (4) As there are discrepancies, the statements that Eliza was not always present at the abnormal occurrences may be erroneous. " It is perhaps not unreasonable to conjecture that Eliza Rose herself, as the instrument of mysterious agencies, or simply as a half- witted girl gifted with abnormal cunning and love of mischief, may have been directly responsible for all that took place." (How, if, as we have seen, the theory of mechanical appliances is abandoned, " under the circumstances described " ? We need to assume that all the circumstances are wrongly described. Yet events did occur, the breakages were lamentable, and we ask how could the most half-witted of girls damage so much property undetected, under the eyes of the owner, a policeman, a medical practitioner and others ? How could she throw things from above into the room where she was picking up the things as they arrived? Or is that a misdescription ? No evidence of Eliza's half-wittedness and abnormal cunning is adduced. If we call her "the instrument of mysterious agencies," the name of these agencies is — poltergeist! No later attempt to find and examine the abnormal girl is recorded.) The explanations are not ideally satisfactory, out they are the result, in Mr Podmore's mind, of examination of several later cases of poltergeist.1 In one a girl, carefully observed, was detected throwing things, and evidence that the phenomena occurred, in her absence, at another place and time, is discounted. In several other cases, exaggerations of memory, malobservation and trickery combined, are the explanations, and the conclu- sion is that there is " strong ground " for believing in trickery as the true explanation of all these eleven cases, including the Worksop affair. Mr Podmore asserts that, at Worksop, " the witnesses did not give their testimony until some weeks after the event." That is an erroneous statement as far as Higgs goes, the result apparently of malobservation of the local news- paper. More or less of the evidence was printed in the week when the events occurred. Something more than unconscious exaggeration, or malobservation, seems needed to explain the amazing statements made by Mr Newman, a gamekeeper of Lord Portman, on the 23rd of January 1895, at Durmeston in another case. Among other things, he said that on the i8th of December 1894, a boot flew out of a door. " I went and put my foot on the boot and said ' I defy anything to move- this boot.' Just as I stepped off, it rose up behind me and knocked my hat off. There was nobody behind me." Gamekeepers are acute observers, and if the narrative be untrue, malobservation or defect of memory does not explain the fact. In this case, at Durmeston, the rector, Mr Anderson, gave an account of 1 The present writer criticized Mr Podmore's explanation in The Making of Religion. Mr Podmore replied (Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, xiv. 133, 136), pointing out an error in the critic's presentation of his meaning. He, in turn, said that the writer ' champions the supernormal interpretation," which is not exact, as the writer has no theory on the subject, though he is not satisfied that " a naughty little girl " is a uniformly successful solution of the poltergeist problem. i6 POLTERGEIST some of the minor phenomena. He could not explain them, and gave the best character to the Nonconformist mother of the child with whom the events were associated. No trickery was discovered. The phenomena are frequently connected with a person, often a child, suffering from nervous malady or recent nervous shock. No such person appears in the Alresford, Willington, Epworth and Tedworth cases, and it is not stated that Eliza Rose at Worksop was subjected to a medical examination. In a curious case, given by Mrs Crewe, in The Night Side of Nature, the young person was the daughter of a Captain Molesworth. Her own health was bad, and she had been depressed by the death of a sister. Captain Molesworth occupied a semi-detached villa at Trinity, near Edinburgh; his landlord lived next door. The phenomena set in: the captain bored holes in the wall to discover a cause in trickery, and his landlord brought a suit against him in the sheriff's court at Edinburgh. The papers are preserved, but the writer found that to discover them would be a herculean labour. He saw, how- ever, a number of documents in the office of a firm of solicitors employed in the case. They proved the fact of the lawsuit but threw no other light on the matter. We often find that the phenomena occur after a nervous shock to the person who may be called the medium. The shock is frequently consequent on a threat from a supposed witch or wizard. This was the case at Cideville in 1850-1851. (See an abstract of the documents of the trial, Proceedings S.P.R. xviii. 454-463. The entire report was sent to the writer.) In 1901 there was a case at Great Grimsby; the usual flying of stones and other objects occurred. The woman of the house had been threatened by a witch, after that the poltergeist developed. No explanation was forthcoming. In Proc. S.P.R. xvii. 320 the Rev. Mr Deanley gives a curious parallel case with detection of imposture. In Miss O'Neal's Devonshire Idylls is an excellent account of the phenomena which occurred after a Devonshire girl of the best character, well known to Miss O'Neal, had been threatened by a witch. In the famous instance of Christian Shaw of Bargarran (1697) the child had been thrice formally cursed by a woman, who prayed to God that her soul " might be hurled through hell." Christian fell into a state which puzzled the medical faculty (especially when she floated in the air), and doubtless she herself caused, in an hysterical state, many phenomena which, however, were not precisely poltergeistish. A very marked set of phenomena, in the way of movements of objects, recently occurred in the Hudson Bay territory, after a half-breed girl had received a nervous shock from a flash of lightning that struck near her. Heavy weights automatically " tobogganed," as Red Indian spectators said, and there were the usual rappings in tent and wigwam. If we accept trickery as the sufficient explanation, the uniformity of tricks played by hysterical patients is very singular. Still more singular is a long series, continued through several years, of the same occurrences where no hysterical patient is known to exist. In a very curious example, a carpenter's shop being the scene, there was concerned nobody of an hysterical temperament, no young boy or girl, and there was no explanation (Proc. S.P.R. vii- 383-394). The events went on during six weeks. An excellent case of hysterical fraud by a girl in France is given by Dr Grasset, professor of clinical medicine at Montpellier (Proc. S.P.R. xviii. 464-480). But in this instance, though things were found in unusual places, nobody over eight years old saw them flying about ; yet all concerned were deeply superstitious. On the whole, while fraud, especially hysterical fraud, is a vera causa in some cases of poltergeist, it is not certain that the explanation fits all cases, and it is certain that detection of fraud has often been falsely asserted, as at Tedworth and Willington. No good chronic case, as at Alresford, Epworth, Spraiton (Bovet's Pandaemon ium) , Willington, and in other classical instances, has been for months sedulously observed by sceptics. In short-lived cases, as at Worksop, science appears on the scene long enough after date to make the theory of exaggeration of memory plausible. If we ask science to explain how the more remarkable occurrences could be produced by a girl ex hypothese half-witted, the reply is that the occurrences never occurred, they were only " described as occurring " by untrained observers with " patent double magnifying " memo- ries; and with a capacity for being hallucinated in a uniform way all the world over. Yet great quantities of crockery and furniture were broken, before the eyes of observers, in a house near Ballarmina, in North Ireland, in January 1907. The experiment of exhibiting a girl who can break all the crockery without being detected, in the presence of a doctor and a policeman, and who can, at the same time, induce the spectators to believe that the flying objects waver, swerve and " wobble," has not been attempted. An obvious difficulty in the search for" authentic information is the circumstance that the poor and imperfectly educated are much more numerous than the well-to-do and well educated. It is therefore certain that most of the disturbances will occur in the houses of the poor and ill educated, and that their evidence will be rejected as insufficient. When an excellent case occurs in a palace, and is reported by the margravine of Bayreuth, sister of Frederick the Great, in her Memoirs, the objection is that her narrative was written long after the events. When we have contemporary journals and letters, or sworn evidence, as in the affairs of Sir Philip Francis, Cideville and Willington, criticism can probably find some other good reasons for setting these testimonies aside. It is certain that the royal, the rich and the well-educated observers tell, in many cases, precisely the same sort of stories about poltergeist phenomena as do the poor and the imperfectly instructed. On the theory that there exist " mysterious agencies " which now and then produce the phenomena, we may ask what these agencies can possibly be? But no answer worthy of considera- tion has ever been given to this question. The usual reply is that some unknown but intelligent force is disengaged from the personality of the apparent medium. This apparent medium need not be present; he or she may be far away. The High- landers attribute many poltergeist phenomena, inexplicable noises, sounds of viewless feet that pass, and so forth, to taradh, an influence exerted unconsciously by unduly strong wishes on the part of a person at a distance. The phrase falbh air farsaing (" going uncontrolled ") is also used (Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Scottish Highlands, 1902, pp. 144-147). The present writer is well acquainted with cases attributed to taradh, in a house where he has often been a guest. They excite no alarm, their cause being well understood. We may call this kind of thing telethoryby, a racket produced from a distance. A very marked case in Illinois would have been attributed in the Highlands to the taradh of the late owner of the house, a dipsomaniac in another state. On his death the disturbances ceased (first-hand evidence from the disturbed lady of the house, May 1907). It may be worth while to note that the phenomena are often regarded as death-warnings by popular belief. The early incidents at the Wesleys' house were thought to indicate the death of a kinsman; or to announce the approach- ing decease of Mr Wesley pere, who at first saw and heard nothing unusual. At Worksop the doctor was called in, because the phenomena were guessed to be " warnings " of the death of a sick child of the house. The writer has first-hand evidence from a lady and her son (afterwards a priest) of very singular movements of untouched objects in their presence, which did coincide with the death of a relation at a distance. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The literature of the subject is profuse, but scattered. For modern instances the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research may be consulted, especially an essay by F. W. H. Myers, vii. 146-198, also iy. 29-38; with the essay by Podmore, already quoted. Books like Dale Owen's Footfalls on the Boundary of Another World, and Fresnoy's Recueil des dis- sertations sur les apparitions, are stronger in the quantity of anec- dotes than in the quality of evidence. A. Lang's Book of Dreams and Ghosts, contains outlandish and Celtic examples, and Telfair's (Telfer's) A True Relation of an Apparition (1694-1696) shows un- usual regard for securing signed evidence. Kiesewetter's Geschichte des neueren Occultismus and Graham Dalyell's Darker Super- stitions of Scotland, with any collections of trials for witchcraft POLTROON— POLYANTHUS may be consulted, and Bovet's Pandaemonium (1684) is very rich in cases. The literature of the famous drummer of Tedworth (March i662-April 1663) begins with an abstract of the sworn deposition of Mr Mompesson, whose house was the scene of the dis- turbances. The abstract is in the Mercurius publicus of April 1663, the evidence was given in a court of justice on the isth of April. There is also a, ballad, a rhymed news-sheet of 1662 (Anthony \\< « nl's Collection 401 (193). Bodleian Library). Pepys mentions " books " about the affair in his Diary for June 1663. Glanvil's first known version is in his Sadductsmus triumphatus of 1666. Tin- sworn evidence of Mompesson proves at least that he was disturbed in an intolerable manner, certainly beyond any means at the disposal of his two daughters, aged nine and eleven or there- abouts. The agent may have been the taradh of the drummer whom Mompesson offended. Glanvil in 1666 confused the dates, and, save for his own experiences, merely repeats the statements current in 1662-1663. The ballad and Mompesson's deposition iveu in Proc. S.P.R. xvii. 304—336, in a discussion between tin- writer and Mr Podmore. The dated and contemporary narrative of Procter in the Willington Mill case (1835- 1847), is printed in the Journ. S.P.R. (Dec. 1892), with some conu-mporary letters on the subject. Mr Procter endured the disturbances for sixteen years before he retreated from the place. There was no naughty little girl in the affair; no nervous or hysterical patient. The Celtic hypothesis of idradh, exercised by " the spirit of the living," includes visual apparitions, and many a sd-called " ghost " of the dead may be merely the taradh of a living person. (A. L.) POLTROON, a coward, a worthless rogue without courage or spirit. The word comes through Fr. poltron from Ital. poltrone, an idle fellow, one who lolls in a bed or couch (Milanese palter, Venetian poltrona, adapted from Ger. Polster, a pillow; cf. English " bolster"). The old guess that it was from Lat. pollice truncus, maimed in the thumb, and was first applied to those who avoided military service by self-mutilation, gave rise probably to the French application of poltron to a falcon whose talons were cut to prevent its attacking game. POLTROT, JEAN DE (c. 1537-1561.), sieur de Mere or Merey, a nobleman of Angoumois, who murdered Francis, duke of Guise. He had lived some time in Spain, and his knowledge of Spanish, together with his swarthy complexion, which earned him the nickname of the " Espagnolet," procured him employment as a spy in the wars against Spain. Becoming a fanatical Huguenot, he determined to kill the duke of Guise, and gained admission as a deserter to the camp of the Catholics who were besieging Orleans. In the evening of the i8th of February 1563 he hid by the side of a road along which he knew the duke would pass, fired a pistol at him, and fled. But he was captured the next day, and was tried, tortured several times, and sentenced to be drawn and quartered. On the i8th of March 1563 he underwent a frightful punishment. The horses not being able to drag off his limbs, he was hacked to pieces with cutlasses. He had made several contradictory declarations regarding the complicity of Coligny. The admiral protested emphatically against the accusation, which appears to have had no foundation. See Memoires du prince de Conde (London, 1 743) ; T. A. D'Aubign<5, Histoire universelle (ed. by de Ruble, Soc. de I'histoire de France, 1886) ; A. de Ruble, L'Assassinat du due Francois de Lorraine (Paris, 1897). POLYAENUS, a Macedonian, who lived at Rome as a rhetori- cian and pleader in the 2nd century A.D. When the Parthian War (162-5) broke out, Polyaenus, too old to share in the campaign, dedicated to the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus a work, still extant, called Stratcgica or Strategemata, a historical collection of stratagems and maxims of strategy written in Greek and strung together in the form of anecdotes. It is not strictly confined to warlike stratagems, but includes also examples of wisdom, courage and cunning drawn from civil and political life. The work is uncritically written, but is nevertheless important on account of the extracts it has preserved from histories now lost. It is divided into eight books (parts of the sixth and seventh are lost), and originally contained nine hundred anecdotes, of which eight hundred and thirty-three are extant. Polyaenus intended to write a history of the Parthian War, but there is no evidence that he did so. His works on Macedonia, on Thebes, and on tactics (perhaps identical with the Strategical are lost. His Strategica seems to have been highly esteemed by the Roman emperors, and to have been handed down by them as a sort of heirloom. From Rome it passed to Constantinople; at the end of the gth century it was diligently studied by Leo VI., who himself wrote a work on tactics; and in the middle of the loth century Constantino Porphyrogenitus mentioned it as one of the most valuable books in the imperial library. It was used by Stobaeus, Suidas, and the anonymous author of the work n«pt iirlaTiaii (see PALAEPHATUS). It is arranged as follows: bks. i., ii., iii., strata- gems occurring in Greek history; bk. iv., stratagems of the Mace- donian kings and successors of Alexander the Great; bk. v., strata- gems occurring in the history of Sicily and the Greek islands and colonies; bk. vi., stratagems of a whole people (Carthaginians, Lacedaemonians, Argives), together with some individuals (Philopoemen, Pyrrhus, Hannibal); bk. vii., stratagems of the barbarians (Medes, Persians, Egyptians, Thracians, Scythians, Celts); bk. viii., stratagems of Romans- and women. This dis- tribution is not, however, observed very strictly. Of the negligence or haste with which the work was written there are many instances : e.g. he confounds Dionysius the elder and Dionysius the younger, Mithradates satrap of Artaxerxes and Mithradates the Great, Scipio the elder and Scipio the younger, Perseus, king of Macedonia and Perseus the companion of Alexander; he mixes up the strata- gems of Caesar and Pompey; he brings into immediate connexion events which were totally distinct; he narrates some events twice over, with variations according to the different authors from whom he draws. Though he usually abridges, he occasionally amplifies arbitrarily the narratives of his authorities. He never mentions his authorities, but amongst authors still extant he used Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, Frontinus and Suetonius; amongst authors cf whom only fragments now remain he drew upon Ctesias, Ephorus, Timaeus, Phylarchus and Nicolaus Damascenus. His style is clear, but monotonous and inelegant. In the forms of his words he generally follows Attic usage. The best edition of the text is Wolfflin and Melber (Teubner Series, 1887, with bibliography and editio princeps of the Strate- eemata of the emperor Leo) ; annotated editions by Isaac Casaubon (1589) and A. Coraes (1809); I. Melber, Ueber die Quellen tind Werth der Strategemensammlung Polydns (1885); Knott, De fide et fontibus Polyaeni (1883), who largely reduces the number of the authorities consulted by Polyaenus. Eng. trans, by R. Shepherd (1793)- 'POLYANDRY (Gr. iroXtis, many, and &VTIP, man), the system of marriage between one woman and several men, who are her husbands exclusively (see FAMILY). The custom locally legal- izing the marriage of one woman to more than one husband at a time has been variously accounted for as the result of poverty and of life in unfertile lands, where it was essential to check popula- tion as the consequence of female infanticide, or, in the opinion of J. F. McLennan and L. H. Morgan, as a natural phase through which human progress has necessarily passed. Polyandry is to be carefully differentiated from communal marriage, where the woman is the property of any and every member of the tribe. Two distinct kinds of polyandry are practised: one, often called Nair, in which, as among the Nairs of India, the husbands are not related to each other; and the second, the Tibetan or fraternal polyandry, in which the woman is married to all the brothers of one family. Polyandry is practised by the tribes of Tibet, Kashmir and the Himalayan regions, by the Todas, Koorgs, Nairs and other peoples of India, in Ceylon, New Zealand, by some of the Australian aborigines, in parts of Africa, in the Aleutian archipelago, among the Koryaks and on the Orinoco. See McLennan's Primitive Marriage (London, 1885); Studies in Ancient History (London, 1886); "The Levirate and Polyandry," in The Fortnightly Review, new series, vol. xxi. (London, 1877); L. H. Moigan, System of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (Washington, 1869); Lord Avebury, Origin of Civilization; E. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage. POLYANTHUS, one of the oldest of the florists' flowers, is probably derived from P. variabilis, itself a cross between the common primrose and the cowslip; it differs from the primrose in having the umbels of flowers carried up on a stalk. The florists' polyanthus has a golden margin, and is known as the gold-laced polyanthus, the properties being very distinctly laid down and rigidly adhered to. The chief of these are a clear, unshaded, blackish or reddish ground colour, an even margin or lacing of yellow extending round each segment and cutting through its centre down to the ground colour, and a yellow band surrounding the tube of exactly the same hue as the yellow of the lacing. The plants are quite hardy, and grow best in strong, loamy soil tolerably well enriched with well-decayed dung and leaf -mould ; i8 POLYBIUS they should be planted about the end of September or not later than October. Plants for exhibition present a much better and cleaner appearance if kept during winter in a cold well-aired frame. For the flower borders what are called fancy polyanthuses are adopted. These are best raised annually from seed, the young crop each year blooming in succession. The seed should be sown as soon as ripe, the young plants being allowed to stand through the winter in the seed bed. In April or May they are planted out in a bed of rich garden soil, and they will bloom abundantly the following spring. A few of the better " thrum- eyed " sorts (those having the anthers in the eye, and the pistil sunk in the tube) should be allowed to ripen seed; the rest may be thrown away. In some remarkable forms which have been cultivated for centuries the ordinarily green calyx has become petaloid; when this is complete it forms the hose-in-hose prim- rose of gardeners. There are also a few well-known double- flowered varieties. POLYBIUS (c. 204-122 B.C.), Greek historian, was a native of Megalopolis in Arcadia, the youngest of Greek cities (Paus. viii. 9), which, however, played an honourable part in the last days of Greek freedom as a stanch member of the Achaean League (?.».). His father, Lycortas, was the intimate friend of Philopoemen, and on the death of the latter, in 182, succeeded him as leader of the league. The date of Polybius's birth is doubtful. He tells us himself that in 181 he had not yet reached the age (? thirty years, Polyb. xxix. 9) at which an Achaean was legally capable of holding office (xxiv. 6). We learn from Cicero (Ad Fam. v. .12) that he outlived the Numantine War, which ended [in 132, and from Lucian (Macrob. 22) that he died at the age of eighty-two. The majority of authorities therefore place his birth between 214 and 204 B.C. Little is known of his early life. As the son of Lycortas he was naturally brought into close contact with the leading men 'of the Achaean League. With Philopoemen he seems to have been on intimate terms. After Philopoemen's tragic death in Messenia (182) he was entrusted with the honour- able duty of conveying home the urn in which his ashes had been deposited (Plut. Phil. 21). In 181, together with his father, Lycortas and the younger Aratus, he was appointed, in spite of his youth, a member of the embassy which was to visit Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of Egypt, a mission, however, which the sudden death of Ptolemy brought to a premature end (xxv. 7). The next twelve years of his life are a blank, but in 169 he reappears as a trusted adviser of the Achaeans at a difficult crisis in the history of the League. In 1 7 1 war had broken out between Rome and the Macedonian king Perseus, and the Achaean statesmen were divided as to the policy to be pursued; there were good reasons for fearing that the Roman senate would regard neu- trality as indicating a secret leaning towards Macedon. Polybius therefore declared for an open alliance with Rome, and his views were adopted. It was decided to send an Achaean force to co- operate with the Roman general, and Polybius was selected to command the cavalry. The Roman consul declined the proffered assistance, but Poiybius accompanied him throughout the campaign, and thus gained his first insight into the military system of Rome. In the next year (168) both Lycortas and Polybius were on the point of starting at the head of 1200 Achaeans to take service in Egypt against the Syrians, when an intimation from the Roman commander that armed inter- ference was undesirable put a stop to the expedition (xxix. 23). The success of Rome in the war with Perseus was now assured. The final victory was rapidly followed by the arrival in Achaea of Roman commissioners charged with the duty of establishing Roman interests there. Polybius was arrested with 1000 of the principal Achaeans, but, while his companions were con- demned to a tedious incarceration in the country towns of Italy, he obtained permission to reside in Rome. This privilege he owed to the influence of L. Aemilius Paullus and his two sons, Scipio and Fabius (xxxii. 9). Polybius was received into Aemi- lius's house, and became the instructor of his sons. Between Scipio (P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus the younger), the future conqueror of Carthage, and himself a friendship soon sprang up, which ripened into a lifelong intimacy, and was of inestimable service to him throughout his career. It protected him from interference, opened to him the highest circles of Roman society, and enabled him to acquire a personal influence with the leading men, which stood him in good stead when he afterwards came forward to mediate between his countrymen and Rome. It placed within his reach opportunities for a close study of Rome and the Romans such as had fallen to no historian before him, and secured him the requisite leisure for using them, while Scipio's liberality more than once supplied him with the means of conducting difficult and costly historical investigations (Pliny, N.H. v. 9). In 151 the few surviving exiles were allowed to return to Greece. But the stay of Polybius in Achaea was brief. The estimation in which he was held at Rome is clearly shown by the anxiety of the consul Marcus (or Manlius) Manilius (149) to take him as his adviser on his expedition against Carthage. Polybius started to join him, but broke off his journey at Corcyra on learning that the Carthaginians were inclined to yield (xxxvi. 3). But when, in 147, Scipio himself took the command in Africa, Polybius hastened to join him, and was an eye-witness of the siege and destruction of Carthage. During his absence in Africa the Achaeans had made a last desperate attempt to assert their independence of Rome. He returned in 146 to find Corinth in ruins, the fairest cities of Achaea at the mercy of the Roman soldiery, and the famous Achaean League shattered to pieces (see ACHAEAN LEAGUE). All the influence he possessed was freely spent in endeavouring to shield his countrymen from the worst consequences of their rashness. The excesses of the soldiery were checked, and at his special intercession the statues of Aratus and Philopoemen were preserved (xxxix. 14). An even more difficult task was that entrusted to him by the Roman authorities themselves, of persuading the Achaeans to acquiesce in the new regime imposed upon them by their con- querors, and of setting the new machinery in working order. With this work, which he accomplished so as to earn the heartfelt gratitude of his countrymen (xxxix. 16), his public career seems to have closed. The rest of his life was, so far as we know, devoted to the great history which is the lasting monument of his fame. He died, at the age of eighty-two, of a fall from his horse (Lucian, Macrob. 22). The base of a statue erected to him by Elis was found at Olympia in 1877. It bears the inscrip- tion 17 iroXis i? 'HXtiaw IIoXti/3ioj> AuKopra Me7aXo7roXiTT)i'. Of the forty books which made up the history of Polybius, the first five alone have come down to us in a complete form ; of the rest we have only more or less copious fragments. But the general plan and scope of the work are explained by Polybius himself. His intention was to make plain how and why it was that " all the known regions of the civilized world had fallen under the sway of Rome (iii. l). This empire of Rome, unprecedented in its extent and still more so in the rapidity with which it had been ac- quired, was the standing wonder of the age, and " who," he exclaims (l. l), " is so poor-spirited or indolent as not to wish to know by what means, and thanks to what sort of constitution, the Romans subdued the world in something less than fifty-three years? " These fifty-three years are those between 220 (the point at which the work of Aratus ended) and 168 B.C., and extend therefore f-om the outbreak of the Hannibalic War to the defeat of Perseus at Pydna. To this period then the main portion of his history is devoted from the third to the thirtieth book inclusive. But for clearness' sake he prefixes in bks. i. and ii. such a preliminary sketch of the earlier history of Rome, of the First Punic War, and of the contemporary events in Greece and Asia, as will enable his readers more fully to understand what follows. This seems to have been his original plan, but at the opening of bk. iii., written apparently after 146, he explains that he thought it desirable to add some account of the manner in which the Romans exercised the power they had won, of their temperament and policy and of the final catastrophe which destroyed Carthage and for ever broke np the Achaean League (iii. 4, 5). To this appendix, giving the history from 168-146, the last ten books are devoted. Whatever fault may be found with Polybius, there can be no question that he had formed a high conception of the task before him. He lays repeated stress on two qualities as distinguishing his history from the ordinary run of historical compositions. The first of these, its synoptic character, was partly necessitated by the nature of the period. The various states fringing the basin of the Mediterranean had become so inextricably interwoven that it was no longer possible to deal with them m isolation. Polybius therefore claims for his history that it will take a comprehensive POLYBIUS view of the whole course of events in the civilized world, within the limits of the period (i. 4). He thus aims at placing before his readers at each stage a complete survey of the field of action from Spain to Syria and Egypt. This synoptic method proceeds from a true appreciation of what is now called the unity of history, and to Polybius must be given the credit of having first firmly grasped and clearly enforced a lesson which the events of his own time were especially well calculated to teach. It is the great merit of his work that it gives such a picture of the 2nd and 3rd centuries B.C. as no series of special narratives could have supplied. The second quality upon which Polybius insists as distinguishing his history from all others is its " pragmatic " character. It deals, that is, with events and with their causes, and aims at an accurate record and explanation of ascertained facts. This " pragmatic method " (ix. 2) makes history intelligible by explaining the how and the why; and, secondly, it is only when so written that history can perform its true function of instructing and guiding those who study it. For the great use of history, according to Polybius, is to contribute to the right conduct of human life (i. 35). But this it can do only if the historian bears in mind the true nature of his task. He must remember that the historian should not write as the dramatist does to charm or excite his audience for the moment (ii. 56). He will aim simply at exhibiting events in their true light, setting forth " the why and the how " in each case, not confusing causes and occasions, or dragging in old wives' fables, prodigies and marvels (ii. 16, iii. 48). He will omit nothing which can help to explain the events he is dealing with : the genius and temperament of particular peoples, their political and military systems, the characters of the leading men, the geographical features of the country, must all be taken into account. To this conception of history Polybius is on the whole consistently faithful. It is true that his anxiety to instruct leads often to a rather wearisome iteration of his favourite maxims, and that his digressions, such as that on the military art, are occasionally provokmgly long and didactic. But his comments and reflections are for the most part sound and instructive (e.g. those on the lessons to be learnt from the revolt of the mercenaries in Africa, i. 65; from the Celtic raids in Italy, ii. 35 ; and on the Roman character), while among his digres- sions are included such invaluable chapters as those on the Roman constitution (bk. vi), the graphic description of Cisalpine Gaul (bk. ii.) and the account of the rise and constitution of the Achaean League (ii. 38 seq.). To his anxiety again to trace back events to their first causes we owe, not only the careful inquiry (bk. iii.) into the origin of the Second Punic War, but the sketch of early Roman history in bk. i., and of the early treaties between Rome and Carthage in iii. 22 seq. Among the many defects which he censures in previous historians, not the least serious in his eyes are their inattention to the political and geographical surroundings of the history (ii. 16, iii. 36), and their neglect duly to set forth the causes of events (iii. 6). Polybius is equally explicit as regards the personal qualifications necessary for a good historian, and in this respect too his practice is in close agreement with his theory. Without a personal knowledge of affairs a writer will inevitably distort the true relations and im- portance of events (xii. 28). Such experience would have saved accomplished and fluent Greek writers like Timaeus from many of their blunders (xii. 25a), but the shortcomings of Roman soldiers and senators like Q. Fabius Pictor show that it is not enough by itself. Equally indispensable is careful painstaking research. All available evidence must be collected, thoroughly sifted, soberly weighed, and, lastly, the historian must be animated by a sincere love of truth and a calm impartiality. It is important to consider how far Polybius himself comes up to his standard. In his personal acquaintance with affairs, in the variety of his experience, and in his opportunities for forming a correct judgment on events he is without a rival among ancient historians. A great part of the period of which he treats fell within his own lifetime (iv. 2). He may just have remembered the battle of Cynoscephalae (197), and, as we have seen, he was actively engaged in the military and political affairs of the Achaean League. During his exile in Rome he was able to study the Roman constitu- tion, and the peculiarities of the Roman temperament; he made the acquaintance of Roman senators, and became the intimate friend of the greatest Roman of the day. Lastly, he was able to survey with his own eyes the field on which the great struggle between Rome and Hannibal was fought out. He left Rome only to witness the crowning triumph of Roman arms in Africa, and to gain a practical acquaintance with Roman methods of government by assisting in the settlement of Achaea. When, in 146, his public life closed, he completed his preparation of himself for his great work by laborious investigations of archives and monu- ments, and by a careful personal examination of historical- sites and scenes. To all this we must add that he was deeply read in the learning of his day, above all in the writings of earlier historians. Of Polybius's anxiety to get at the truth no better proof can be given than his conscientious investigation of original documents and monuments, and his careful study of geography and topography — both of them points in which his predecessors, as well as his successor Livy, conspicuously failed. Polybius is careful con- stantly to remind us that he writes for those who are lovers of knowledge, with whom truth is the first consideration. He closely studied the bronze tablets in Rome on which were in- scribed the early treaties concluded between Romans and Cartha- ginians. He quotes the actual language of the treaty which ended the First Punic War (i. 62), and of that between Hannibal and Philip of Macedon (vii. 9). In xvi. 15 he refers to a document which he had personally inspected in the archives at Rhodes, and in iii. 33 to the monument on the Lacinian promontory, recording the number of Hannibal's forces. According to Dionysius, i. 17, he got his date for the foundation of Rome from a tablet in the pontifical archives. As instances of his careful attention to geography and topography we have not only the fact of his widely extended travels, from the African coast and the Pillars of Hercules in the west, to the Euxine and the coasts of Asia Minor in the east, but also the geographical and topographical studies scattered throughout his history. Next to the duty of original research, Polybius ranks that of impartiality. Some amount of bias in favour of one's own country may, he thinks, be pardoned as natural (xvi. 14) ; but it is unpardon- able, he says, for the historian to set anything whatever above the truth. And on the whole, Polybius must be allowed here again to have practised what he preached. It is true that his affection for and pride in Arcadia appear in more than one passage (iv. 20, 21). as also does his dislike of the Aetolians (ii. 45, iv. 3, 16). His treatment of Aratus and Philojsoemen, the heroes of the Achaean League, and of Cleomenes of Sparta, its most constant enemy, is perhaps open to severer criticism. Certainly Cleomenes does not receive full justice at his hands. Similarly his views of Rome and the Romans may have been influenced by his firm belief in the necessity of accepting the Roman supremacy as inevitable, and by his intimacy with Scipio. He had a deep admiration for the great republic, for her well-balanced constitution, for her military system, and for the character of her citizens. But just as his patriotism does not blind him to the faults and follies of his country- men (xxxviii. 4, 5, 6), so he does not scruple to criticize Rome. He notices the incipient degeneracy of Rome after 146 (xviii. 35). He endeavours to hold the balance evenly between Rome and Carthage; he strongly condemns the Roman occupation of Sardinia as a breach of faith (iii. 28, 31); and he does full justice to Hannibal. Moreover, there can be no doubt that he sketched the Roman character in a masterly fashion. His interest in the study of character and his skill in its delinea- tion are everywhere noticeable. He believes, indeed, in an over- ruling fortune, which guides the course of events. It is fortune which has fashioned anew the face of the world in his own time (iv. 2), which has brought the whole civilized world into subjection to Rome (i. 4) ; and the Roman Empire itself is the most marvellous of her works (viii. 4). But under fortune not only political and geographical conditions but the characters and temperaments of nations and individuals play their part. The Romans had been fitted by their previous struggles for the conquest of the world (i. 63) ; they were chosen to punish the treachery of Philip of Macedon (xv. 4) ; and the greatest of them, Scipio himself, Polybius regards as the especial favourite of fortune (xxxii. i§; x. 5). In respect of form, Polybius is far the inferior of Livy, partly owing to his very virtues. His laudable desire to present a picture of the whole political situation at each important moment is fatal to the continuity of his narrative. Thus the thrilling story of the Second Punic War is broken in upon by digressions on the con- temporary affairs in Greece and Asia. More serious, however, than this excessive love of synchronism is his almost pedantic anxiety to edify. For grace and elegance of composition, and for the artistic presentation of events, he has a hardly concealed con- tempt. Hence a general and almost studied carelessness of effect, which mars his whole work. On the other hand he is never weary of preaching. His favourite theories of the nature and aims_ of history, of the distinction between the universal and special histories, of the duties of an historian, sound as most of them are in them- selves, are enforced with wearisome iteration; more than once the effect of a graphic picture is spoilt by obtrusive moralizing. Nor, lastly, is Polybius's style itself such as to compensate for these defects. It is, indeed, often impressive from the evident earnest- ness of the writer, and from his sense of the gravity of his subject, and is unspoilt by rhetoric or conceit. It has about it the ring of reality; the language is sometimes pithy and vigorous; and now and then we meet with apt metaphors, such as those borrowed from boxing (i. 57), from cock-fighting (i. 58), from draughts (i. 84). But, in spite of these redeeming features, the prevailing baldness of Polybius's style excludes him Irom the first rank among classical writers; and it is impossible to quarrel with the verdict pronounced by Dionysius of Hahcarnassus, who places him among those authors of later times who neglected the graces of style, and who paid for their neglect by leaving behind them works " which no one was patient enough to read through to the end." It is to the value and variety of his matter, to his critical insight, breadth of view and wide research, and not least to the surpassing importance and interest of the period with which he deals, that Polybius owes his place among the writers of history. What is known as to the fortunes of his histories, and the reputation they enjoyed, fully bears out this conclusion. The silence respecting 20 POLYCARP him maintained by Quintilian and by Lucian may reasonably be taken to imply their agreement with Dionysius as to his merits as a master of style. On the other hand, Cicero (De off. iii. 32) describes him as " bonus auctor in primis"; in the De republica (ii. 14) he praises highly his accuracy in matters of chronology; and Cicero's younger contemporary, Marcus Brutus, was a devoted student of Polybius, and was engaged on the eve of the battle of Pharsalia in compiling an epitome of his histories (Sui'das, s.ii. ; Plutarch, Brut. 4). Livy, however, notwithstanding the extent to which he used his writings (see LIVY), speaks of him in such qualified terms as to suggest the idea that his strong artistic sensi- bilities had been wounded by Polybius's literary defects. He has nothing better to say of him than that he is 'by no means con- temptible " (xxx. 45), and "not an untrustworthy author" (xxxiii. 10). Posidonius and Strabo, both of them Stoics like Polybius himself, are said to have written continuations of his history (Sui'das, s.v. ; Strabo p. 515). Arrian in the early part of the 2nd and Aelian in the 3rd century both speak of him with respect, though with reference mainly to his excellence as an authority on the art of war. In addition to his Histories Polybius was the author of the following smaller works: a life of Philopoemen (Polyb. x. 24), a history of the Numantine War (Cic. Ad Fam. v. 12), a treatise on tactics (Polyb. ix. 20; Arrian, Tactica; Aelian, Tact. i.). The geographical treatise, referred to by Geminus, is possibly identical with the thirty-fourth book of the Histories (Schweighauser, Praef. p. 184. AUTHORITIES. — The complete books (i.-v.) of the Histories were first printed in a Latin translation by Nicholas Perotti in 1473. The date of the first Greek edition, that by Obsopaeus, is 1530. For a full account of these and of later editions, as well as of the extant MSS., see Schweighauser's Preface to his edition of Polybius. Our knowledge of the contents of the fragmentary books is derived partly from quotations in ancient writers, but mainly from two collections of excerpts; one, probably the work of a late Byzantine compiler, was first printed at Basel in 1549 and contains extracts from books vi.-xviii. (wepl irpeafit'uav, vtpl apertjs icai xaxias) ; the other consists of two fragments from the " select passages " from Greek historians compiled by the directions of Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the loth century. To these must be added the Vatican excerpts edited by Angelo Mai in the present century. The following are the more important modern editions of Polybius: Ernest! (3 vols., 1763-1764); Schweighauser (8 vols., 1793, and Oxford, 1823); Bekker (2 vols., 1844); L. Dindorf (4 vols., 1866- 1868, 2nd ed., T. Biittner-Wobst, 5 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1904); Hultsch (4 vols., 1867-1871); J. L. Strachan-Davidson, Selections from Polybius (Oxford, 1888). For the literature of the subject, see Engelmann, Biblioth. script, class.: Script, graeci, pp. 646- 650 (8th ed. Leipzig, 1880). See also W. W. Capes, The History of the Achaean League (London, 1888); F. Susemihl, Gesch. d. griech. Litteratur in d. Alexandrinerzeit, ii. 80—128 (Leipzig, 1891— 1892); O. Cuntz, Polybios und sein Werk (Leipzig, 1902); R. v. Scala, Die Studien des Polybios (Stuttgart, 1890); J. B. Bury, Ancient Greek Historians (1909), " a whole-hearted appreciation of Polybius"; J. L. Strachan-Davidson, in Hellenica, pp. 353- 387 (London, 1898), and in Appendix II. to Selections from Polybius pp. 642-668 (Oxford, 1888). (H. F. P.; X.) POLYCARP (c. 6o-c. 155), bishop of Smyrna and one of the Apostolic Fathers, derives much of his importance from the fact that he links together the apostolic age and that of nascent Catholicism. The sources from which we derive our knowledge of the life and activity of Polycarp are: (i) a few notices in the writings of Irenaeus, (2) the Epistle of Polycarp to the Church at Philippi, (3) the Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp, (4) the Epistle of the Church at Smyrna to the Church at Philomelium, giving an account of the martyrdom of Polycarp. Since these authori- ties have all been more or less called in question and some of them entirely rejected by recent criticism, it is necessary to say a few words about each. i. The Statements of Irenaeus are Sound (a) inh\sAdversus haereses, iii. 3, 4, (6) in the letter to Victor, where Irenaeus gives an account of Polycarp's visit to Rome, (c) in the letter to Florinus — a most important document which describes the intercourse between Irenaeus and Polycarp and Polycarp's relation with St John. No objection has been made against the genuineness of the statements in the Adversus haereses, but the authenticity of the two letters has been stoutly contested in recent times by van Manen.1 The main attack is directed against the Epistle to Florinus, doubtless because of its importance. " The manifest exaggerations," says van Manen, " coupled with the fact that Irenaeus never shows any signs of acquaintance with Florinus . . . enable us to perceive clearly that a writer otherwise unknown is speaking to us here." The criticism of van Manen has, however, found no supporters outside the Dutch school. The epistle is quoted by Eusebius 1 Ency. Bib. iii. 3490. (v. 20), and is accepted as genuine by Harnack2 and Kriiger.* The relevant statements in the letter, moreover, are supported by the references to Polycarp which we find in the body of Irenaeus's great work. 2. 'The Epistle of Polycarp. — Though Irenaeus states that Polycarp wrote many " letters to the neighbouring churches or to certain of the brethren "4 only one has been preserved, viz. the well-known letter to the Philippians. The epistle is largely involved in the Ignatian controversy (see IGNATIUS). The testimony which it affords to the Ignatian Epistles is so striking that those scholars who regard these letters as spurious are bound to reject the Epistle of Polycarp altogether, or at any rate to look upon it as largely interpolated. The former course has been adopted by Schwegler,6 Zeller,6 and Hilgenfeld,7 the latter by Ritschl8 and Lipsius.9 The rehabilitation of the Ignatian letters in modern times has, however, practically destroyed the attack on the Epistles of Polycarp. The external evidence in its favour is of considerable weight. Irenaeus (iii. 3, 4) expressly mentions and commends a " very adequate " (iKa.vwTa.Tri) letter of Polycarp to the Philippians, and we have no reason for doubting the identity of this letter mentioned by Irenaeus with our epistle. Eusebius (iii. 36) quotes extracts from the epistle, and some of the extracts contain the very passages which the critics have marked as interpolations, and Jerome (De Vir. III. xvii.) testifies that in his time the epistle was publicly read in the Asiatic churches. The internal evidence is equally strong. There is absolutely no motive for a forgery in the contents of the epistle. As Harnack says, " There is no trace of any tendency beyond the immediate purpose of maintaining the true Christian life in the church and warning it against covetousness and against an un- brotherly spirit. The occasion of the letter was a case of embezzle- ment, the guilty individual being a presbyter at Philippi. It shows a fine combination of mildness with severity; the language is simple but powerful, and, while there is undoubtedly a lack of original ideas, the author shows remarkable skill in weaving together pregnant sentences and impressive warnings selected from the apostolic epistles and the first Epistle of Clement. In these circum- stances it would never have occurred to any one to doubt the genuineness of the epistle or to suppose that it had been inter- polated, but for the fact that in several passages reference is made to Ignatius and his epistles." The date of the epistle depends upon the date of the Ignatian letters and is now 'generally fixed between 112 and 118. An attempt has been made in some quarters to prove that certain allusions in the epistle imply the rise of the heresy of Marcion and that it cannot therefore be placed earlier than 140. Lightfoot, however, has proved that Polycarp's statements may equally well be directed against Corinthianism or any other form of Docetism, while some of his arguments are absolutely inapplicable to Marcionism. 3. The Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp. — This epistle has of course been subjected to the same criticism as has been directed against the other epistles of Ignatius (see IGNATIUS). Over and above the general criticism, which may now be said to have been completely answered by the investigations of Zahn, Lightfoot and Harnack, one or two special arguments have been brought against the Epistle to Polycarp. Ussher, for instance, while accepting the other six epistles, rejected this on the ground that Jerome says that Ignatius only sent one letter to Smyrna — a mistake due to his misinterpre- tation of Eusebius. Some modern scholars (among whom Harnack was formerly numbered, though he has modified his views on the point) feel a difficulty about the peremptory tone which Ignatius adopts towards Polycarp. There was some force in this argument when the Ignatian Epistles were dated about 140, as in that case Polycarp would have been an old and venerable man at the time. But now that the date is put back to about 112 the difficulty vanishes, since Polycarp was not much over forty when he received the letter. We must remember, too, that Ignatius was writing under the consciousness of impending martyrdom and evidently felt that this gave him the right to criticize the bishops and churches of Asia. 4. The Letter of the Church at Smyrna to the Philomelians is a most important document, because we derive from it all our in- formation with regard to Polycarp's martyrdom. Eusebius has preserved the greater part of this epistle (iv. 15), but we possess it entire with various concluding observations in several Greek MSS., and also in a Latin translation. The epistle gives a minute description of the persecution in Smyrna, of the last days of Polycarp and of his trial and martyrdom; and as it contains many instructive details and professes to have been written not long after the events to which it refers, it has always been regarded as one of the most precious remains of the 2nd century. Certain recent critics, however, have questioned the authenticity of the narrative. 2 Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur, i. 593-594. 3 Early Christian Literature (Eng. trans., 1897), p. 150. 4 Letter to Florinus ap. Euseb. v. 20. 5 Nachapostolisches Zeitalter, ii. 154. e Apostolgeschichte, p. 52. 7 A postolische Vater, p. 272. 8 Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche, p. 584. * Ueber das Verhaltniss, &c., p. 14. POLYCARP 21 Lipsius brings1 the date of the epistle down to about 260, though he admits many of the statements as trustworthy. Keim, too,1 endeavours to show that, although it was based on good information, it could not have been composed till the middle of the 3rd century. A similar position has also been taken up by Schurer,' Holtzmann,' Gebhardt,6 Reville," and van Manen.7 The last named regards the document " as a decorated narrative of the saint's martyrdom framed after the pattern of Jesus' martyrdom," though he thinks that it cannot be put as late as 250, but must fall within the limits of the 2nd century. It cannot be said, however, that the case against the document has been at all substantiated, and the more modi-rate school of modern critics (e.g. Lightfoot,8 Harnack,8 Krugcr)10 is unanimous in regarding it as an authentic document, though it recognizes that here and there a few slight interpolations have been inserted." Besides these we have no other sources for the life of Polycarp; the Vita S. Polycarpi auctore Pionio (published by Duchesne, Paris, 1881, and Lightfoot Ignatius and Polycarp, 1885, ii- 1015-1047) is worthless. Assuming the genuineness of the documents mentioned, we now proceed to collect the scanty information which they afford with regard to Polycarp's career. Very little is known about his early life. He must have been born not later than the year 6g, for on the day of his death (c. 155) he declared that he had served the Lord for eighty-six years (Martyrium, 9). The statement seems to imply that he was of Christian parentage ; he cannot have been older than eighty-six at the time of his martyrdom, since he had paid a visit to Rome almost immediately before. Irenaeus tells us that in early life Polycarp " had been taught by apostles and lived in familiar intercourse with many that had seen Christ " (iii. 3,4). This testimony is expanded in the remarkable words which Irenaeus addresses to Florinus: " I saw thee when I was still a boy (TTGUS in &v) in Lower Asia in company with Polycarp ... I can even now point out the place where the blessed Polycarp used to sit when he discoursed, and describe his goings out and his comings in, his manner of life and his personal appearance and the discourses which he delivered to the people, how he used to speak of his intercourse with John and with the rest of those who had seen the Lord, and how he would relate their words. And everything that he had heard from them about the Lord, about His miracles and about His teaching, Polycarp used to tell us as one who had received it from those who had seen the Word of Life with their own eyes, and all this in perfect harmony with the Scriptures. To these things I used to listen at the time, through the mercy of God vouchsafed to me, noting them down, not on paper but in my heart, and constantly by the grace of God I brood over my accurate recollections." These are priceless words, for they establish a chain of tradition (John-Polycarp-Irenaeus) which is without a parallel in early church history. Polycarp thus becomes the living link between the Apostolic age and the great writers who flourished at the end of the 2nd century. Recent criticism, however, has endeavoured to destroy the force of the words of Irenaeus. Harnack, for instance, attacks this link at both ends.12 (a) The connexion of Irenaeus and Polycarp, he argues, is very weak, because Irenaeus was only a boy (irals) at the time, and his recollections therefore carry very little weight. The fact too that he never shows any signs of having been influ- enced by Polycarp and never once quotes his writings is a further proof that the relation between them was slight, (b) The connexion which Irenaeus tries to establish between Polycarp and John the apostle is probably due to a blunder. Irenaeus has confused John the apostle and John the presbyter. Polycarp was the disciple of the latter, not the former. In this second 1 Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Theol. (1874), p. 200 seq. 2 A us dem Urchristcnth:'.m (1878), p. 90. 8 Zeitschr. f. hist. Theol. (1870), p. 203 seq. 4 Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Theol. (1877). 5 Zeitschr. f. hist. Theol. (1875). 6 De anno Polycarpi (1881). 7 Oud-Christ (1861), and Ency. Bib. iii. 3479. ' Ignatius and Polycarp, i. 589 seq. • Gesch. d. altchrist. Lit. II. i. 341. 10 Early Christian Lit. (Eng. trans., 1897), p. 380. "Amongst these we ought probably to include the expression i) KofloXoci) (KK\ri<Tla. (xvi. ig), <cofloX«6s being here used in the sense of orthodox — a usage which is not foundi elsewhere at so early a date. u Chronologic, i. 325-329. Argument Harnack has the support of a considerable number of nodern scholars who deny the Ephesian residence of John the apostle. But, as Gwatkin " has pointed out, Harnack's argu- ments are by no means decisive, (a) When Irenaeus describes limself as a boy (TTCUS), he need not have meant a very young lad, under thirteen, as Harnack makes out. Lightfoot has cited many nstances which prove that the word could be used of a man )f thirty." Nor does the alternative phrase which Irenaeus uses n iii. 3, 4 ( ov /ecu fiittis tiapoKafitv kv TJ? Trpwrfl iin&v ^Xudp) militate against this interpretation, for elsewhere Irenaeus him- clf distinctly says " triginta annorum.actas prima indoles est uvenis " (ii. 22, 5). It is true that Harnack has adduced argu- nents which cannot be discussed here to prove that Irenaeus was not born till about 140;" but against this we may quote the decision of Lipsius, who puts the date of his birth at i3°,w while ^ightf oot argues for 1 2O.17 The fact that Irenaeus never quotes 3olycarp does not count for much. Polycarp wrote very little, le does not seem to have been a man of great mental capacity. ' His influence was that of saintliness rather than that of ntellect." (b) A discussion of Harnack's second line of argument s impossible here. His theory with regard to the confusion of names is a gratuitous assumption and cannot be proved. The tradition of St John's residence at Ephesus is too strong to 5e easily set aside. In spite therefore of much modern criticism there seems to be no solid reason for rejecting the statements of Irenaeus and regarding Polycarp as the link between the Apostolic age and the first of the Catholic fathers. Though Polycarp must have been bishop of Smyrna for nearly lalf a century we know next to nothing about his career. We get only an occasional glimpse of his activity, and the period 3etween 115 and 155 is practically a blank. The only points of sure information which we possess relate to (i) his relations with Ignatius, (2) his protests against heresy, (3) his visit to Rome in the time of Anicetus, (4) his martyrdom. 1 . His Relations with Ignatius. — Ignatius, while on his way to Rome to suffer martyrdom, halted at Smyrna and received a warm welcome from the church and its bishop. Upon reaching Troas he despatched two letters, one to the church at Smyrna, another addressed personally to Polycarp. In these letters Ignatius charged Polycarp to write to all the churches between Smyrna and Syria (since his hurried departure from Troas made it impossible for him to do so in person) urging them to send letters and delegates to the church at Antioch to congratulate it upon the cessation of the persecution and to establish it in the faith. The letters of Ignatius illustrate the commanding position which Polycarp had already attained in Asia. It was in the discharge of the task which had been laid upon him by Ignatius that Polycarp was brought into correspondence with the Philippians. The Church at Philippi wrote to Polycarp asking him to forward their letters to Antioch. Polycarp replied, promising to carry out their request and enclosing a number of the letters of Ignatius which he had in his possession. 2. Polycarp's Attack on Heresy. — All through his life Polycarp appears to have been an uncompromising opponent of heresy. We find him in his epistle (ch. vii.) uttering a strong protest against certain false teachers (probably the followers of Cerinthus). For every one who shall not confess that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh is antichrist; and whosoever shall not confess the testimony of the Cross is of the devil ; and whosoever shall pervert the oracles of the Lord to his own lusts and say that there is neither resurrection nor judgment, that man is the first-born of Satan. Wherefore let us forsake their vain doing and their false teaching and turn unto the word which was delivered unto us from the beginning." Polycarp lived to see the rise of the Marcionite and Valentinian sects and vigorously opposed them. Irenaeus tells us that on 13 Contemp. Review, February 1897. 14 Ignatius and Polycarp, i. 432, for instance, Constantino (Euseb. V.C. ii. 51) describes himself as Ko/iiijj TOIS, though he must have been over thirty at the time. 15 Chronologic, i. 325-333. 16 See Lightfoot, op. at. i. 432. , 17 Essays on Supernatural Religion, 264, 265. 22 POLYCLITUS one occasion Marcion endeavoured to establish relations with him and accosted him with the words, " Recognize us." But Polycarp displayed the same uncompromising attitude which his master John had shown towards Cerinthus and answered, " I recognize you as the first-born of Satan." The steady progress of the heretical movement in spite of all opposition was a cause of deep sorrow to Polycarp, so that in the last years of his life the words were constantly on his lips, " Oh good God, to what times hast thou spared me, that I must suffer such things!" 3. Polycarp' s Visit to Rome. — It is one of the most interesting and important events in the church history of th'e 2nd century that Polycarp, shortly before his death, when he was considerably over eighty years old, undertook a journey to Rome in order to visit the bishop Anicetus. Irenaeus, to whom we are indebted for this information (Haer. iii. 3, 4; Epist. ad victorem, ap. Euseb. v. 24), gives as the reason for the journey the fact that differences existed between Asia and Rome " with regard to certain things " and especially about the time of the Easter festival. He might easily have told us what these " certain things " were and given us fuller details of the negotiations between the two great bishops, for in all probability he was himself in Rome at the time. But unfortunately all he says is that with regard to the certain things the two bishops speedily came to an understanding, while as to the time of Easter, each adhered to his own custom, without breaking off communion with the other. We learn further that Anicetus as a mark of special honour allowed Polycarp to celebrate the Eucharist in the church, and that many Marcionites and Valentinians were converted by him during his stay in Rome. 4. Polycarp's Martyrdom. — Not many months apparently after Polycarp's return from Rome a persecution broke out in Asia. A great festival was in progress at Smyrna. The pro- consul Statius Quadratus was present on the occasion, and the asiarch Philip of Tralles was presiding over the games. Eleven Christians had been brought, mostly from Philadelphia, to be put to death. The appetite of the populace was inflamed by the spectacle of their martyrdom. A cry was raised " Away with the atheists. Let search be made for Polycarp." Polycarp took refuge in a country farm. His hiding-place, however, was be- trayed and he was arrested and brought back into the city. Attempts were made by the officials to induce him to recant, but without effect. When he came into the theatre the proconsul urged him to " revile Christ, ""and promised, if he would consent to abjure his faith, that he would set him at liberty. To this appeal Polycarp made the memorable answer, " Eighty and six years have I served Him and He hath done me no wrong. How then can I speak evil of my King who saved me? " These words only intensified the fury of the mob. They clamoured for a lion to be let loose upon him there and then. The asiarch however refused, urging as an excuse that the games were over. When they next demanded that their victim should be burned, the proconsul did not interfere. Timber and faggots were hastily collected and Polycarp was placed upon the pyre. With calm dignity and unflinching courage he met his fate and crowned a noble life with an heroic death. The question as to the date of the martyrdom has evoked considerable controversy. Eusebius in his Chronicon gives A.D. 166 as the date of Polycarp's death, and until the year 1867 this statement was never questioned. In that year appeared Waddington's Memoire sur la chronologic de la vie du rheteur Aelius Aristide, in which it was shown from a most acute combin- ation of circumstances that the Quadratus whose name is men- tioned in the Martyrium was proconsul of Asia in 155-156, and that consequently Polycarp was martyred on the 23rd of February 155. Waddington's conclusion has received overwhelming support amongst recent critics. His views have been accepted by (amongst many others) Renan,1 Hilgenfeld,2 Gebhardt,3 Lipsius,4 Harnack,6 Zahn,6 Lightfoot,7 Randell.8 Against this 1 Antichrist (1873), P- 2O7- 2 Zeitschr.f. wiss. Theol. (1874), p. 325. ' Zeilschr. f. hist. Theol. (1875), p. 356. 1 Jahrb. f. prot. Theol. (1883), p. 525. 6 Chronologie, \. 334-356. 'Zeitschr.f. wiss. Theol. (1882), p. 227; (1884), p. 216. 7 Ignatius and Polycarp, i. 629-702. * Studia biblica (1885), i. 175. array of scholars only the following names of importance can be quoted in support of the traditional view — Keim,9 Wieseler10 and Uhlhorn.11 The problem is too complex to admit of treatment here. There seems to be little doubt that the case for the earlier date has been proved. The only point upon which there is division of opinion is as to whether Waddington's date 155, or — as is suggested by Lipsius and supported by C.H. Turner12 — the following year 156 is the more probable. The balance of opinion seems to favour the latter alternative, because it leaves more room for Polycarp's visit to Anicetus, who only became bishop of Rome in 154. Harnack, however, after careful investigation, prefers 155. The significance of Polycarp in the history of the Church is out of all proportion to our knowledge of the facts of his career. The violent attack of the Smyrnaean mob is an eloquent tribute to his influence in Asia. " This is the teacher of Asia," they shouted, " this is the father of the Christians: this is the des- troyer of our gods: this is the man who has taught so many no longer to sacrifice and no longer to pray to the gods."13 And after the execution they refused to deliver up his bones to the Christians for burial on the ground that " the Christians would now forsake the Crucified and worship Polycarp."14 Polycarp was indeed, as Polycrates says,1' " one of the great luminaries " Gue7<xXa 0roix«"0 of the time. It was in no small degree due to his stanch and unwavering leadership that the Church was saved from the peril of being overwhelmed by the rising tide of the pagan revival which swept over Asia during the first half of the 2nd century, and it was his unfaltering allegiance to the Apostolic faith that secured the defeat of the many forms of heresy which threatened to destroy the Church from within. Polycarp had no creative genius. He was a " transmitter, not a maker," but herein lies his greatness. Much occurred between the Apostolic age and the age when the faith of the Church was fixed in the earliest creed and protected by the determination of the canon of the New Testament. This intervening period was the most perilous epoch in the history of the ante-Nicene Church. The Apostolic tradition might have been perverted and corrupted. The purity of the Gospel might have been defiled. The Christian ideal might have been lost. That the danger was so largely averted is to no small extent the result of the faithful witness of Polycarp. As Irenaeus says (iii. 3, 4), " Polycarp does not appear to have possessed qualifications for successfully conducting a controversial discussion with erroneous teachers . . . but he could not help feeling how unlike their speculations were to the doctrines which he had learned from the Apostles, and so he met with indignant reprobation their attempt to supersede Christ's gospel with fictions of their own devising." It is this that constitutes Polycarp's service to the Church, and no greater service has been rendered by any of its leaders in any age. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. B. Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, pt. ii. (2nd ed., 1889). Polycarp is dealt with in i. 417-459, 530-704; ii. 807-1086; G. Volkmar, Epistula Polycarpi Smyrnaei genuina (Zurich, 1885); T. Zahn, Forschungen zur Geschichte des Kanons, &c., iv. 249, 279; J. M. Cotterill, "The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians," Journ. of PhUol. (1891), xix., 241-285; Harnack, Chronologie der altchristlichen Litteratur (1897). See also APO- STOLIC FATHERS. (H. T. A.) POLYCLITUS, the name of two Greek sculptors of the school of Argos; the first belonging to the fifth century, the second to the early part of the fourth. i. The elder and best known Polyclitus was a contemporary of Pheidias, and in the opinion of the Greeks his equal. He made a figure of an Amazon for Ephesus which was regarded as superior to the Amazon of Pheidias made at the same time; and his colossal Hera of gold and ivory which stood in the temple neat Argos was considered as worthy to rank with the Zeus of Pheidias. 8 Aus dem Urchristentum, p. 90. 10 Die Christenverfolgungen der Caesaren (1878), p. 34. 11 Studio, biblica (1890), ii. 105-156. 12 Reakncyk. f. prot. Theol., 2nd ed. xii. 105. 13 Martyrium, ch. 12. 14 Ibid. 17. 16 A p. Euseb. v. 24. POLYCRATES— POLYGAMY It would be hard for a modern critic to rate Polyclitus so high: the reason is that balance, rhythm and the minute perfection of bodily form, which were the great merits of this sculptor, do not appeal to us as they did to the Greeks of the 5th century. He worked mainly in bronze. As regards his chronology we have data in a papyrus pub- lished by Grenfell and Hunt containing lists of athletic victors. From this it appears that he made a statue of Cyniscus, a victori- ous athlete of 464 or 460 B.C., of Pythocles (452) and Aristion (452). He thus can scarcely have been born as late as 480 B.C. His statue of Hera is dated by Pliny to 420 B.C. His artistic activity must thus have been long and prolific. Copies of his spearman (doryphorus) (see GREEK ART, Plate VI. fig. 80), and his victor winding a ribbon round his head (diadu- menus) have long been recognized in our galleries. We see their excellence, but they inspire no enthusiasm, because they are more fleshy than modern figures of athletes, and want charm. They are chiefly valuable as showing us the square forms of body affected by Polyclitus, and the scheme he adopted, throwing the weight of the body (as Pliny says of him) on one leg. We must not, however, judge of a great Greek sculptor by Roman copies of his works. This has been enforced by the discovery at Delos, by the French excavators, of a diadumenus of far more pleasing type and greater finish, which also goes back to Poly- clitus. The excavations at Olympia have also greatly widened our knowledge of the sculptor. Among the bases of statues found on that site were three signed by Polyclitus, still bearing on their surface the marks of attachment of the feet of the statues. This at once gives us their pose; and following up the clue, A. Furtwangler has identified several extant statues as copies of figures of boy athletes victorious at Olympia set up by Polyclitus. Among these the Westmacott athlete in the British Museum is conspicuous. And it is certain that these boys, although the anatomy of their bodies seems to be too mature, yet have a real charm, combining beauty of form with modesty and unaffected simplicity. They enable us better to understand the merit of the sculptor. The Amazon of Polyclitus survives in several copies, among the best of which is one in the British Museum (for its type see GREEK ART, fig. 40). Here again we find a certain heaviness; and the womanly character of the Amazon scarcely appears through her robust limbs. But the Amazon of Pheidias, if rightly identified, is no better. The masterpiece of Polyclitus, his Hera of gold and ivory, has of course totally disappeared. The coins of Argos give us only the general type. Many archaeo- logists have tried to find a copy of the head. The most defen- sible of all these identifications is that of C. Waldstein, who shows that a head of a girl in the British Museum (labelled as Polyclitan) corresponds so nearly with that of Hera on 5th century coins of Argos that we must regard it as a reflex of the head of the great statue. It seems very hard and cold beside such noble heads of the goddess as those in the Ludovisi Gallery (Terme Museum) Rome. American archaeologists have in recent years conducted excavations on the site of the Argive temple of Hera (ARGOS and GREEK ART, fig. 39); but the sculp- tural fragments, heads and torsos, which seem to belong to the temple erected in the time of Polyclitus, have no close stylistic resemblance to other statues recognized as his; and at present their position in the history of art is matter of dispute. The want of variety in the works of Polyclitus was brought as a reproach against him by ancient critics. Varro says that his statues were square and almost of one pattern. We have already observed that there was small variety in their attitudes. Except for the statue of Hera, which was the work of his old age, he produced scarcely any notable statue of a deity. His field was narrowly limited; but in that field he was unsurpassed. 2. The younger Polyclitus was of the same family as the elder, and the works of the two are not easily to be distinguished. Some existing bases, however, bearing the name are inscribed in characters of the 4th century, at which time the elder sculptor cannot have been alive. The most noted work of the younger artist was a statue in marble of Zeus Milichius (the Merciful) set up by the people of Argos after a shameful massacre which took place in 370 B.C. The elder artist is not known to have worked in marble. (P. G.) POLYCRATES, tyrant of Samos (c. 535-515 B.C.). Having won popularity by donations to poorer citizens, he took advan- tage of a festival of Hera, which was being celebrated outside the walls, to make himself master of the city (about 535 B.C.). After getting rid of his brothers Pantagnotus and Syloson, who had at first shared his power, he established a despotism which is of great importance in the history of the island. Realizing clearly the value of sea-power for a Greek state, he equipped a fleet of too ships, and so became master of the Aegean basin. This ascendancy he abused by numerous acts of piracy which made him notorious throughout Greece; but his real purpose in building his navy was to become lord of all the islands of the archipelago and the mainland towns of Jonia. The details of his conquests are uncertain, but it is known that in the Cyclades he maintained an alliance with the tyrant Lygdamis of Naxos, and curried favour with the Delian Apollo by dedi- cating to him the island of Rheneia. He also encountered and heavily defeated a coalition of two great naval powers of the Asiatic coast, Miletus and Lesbos. Doubtless with the object of expanding the flourishing foreign trade of Samos, he entered into alliance with Amasis, king of Egypt, who, according to Herodotus, renounced his ally because he feared that the gods, in envy of Polycrates' excessive good fortune, would bring ruin upon him and his allies. It is more probable that the breach of the compact was due to Polycrates, for when Cambyses of Persia invaded Egypt (525) the Samian tyrant offered to support him with a naval contingent. This squadron never reached Egypt, for the crews, composed as they were of Poly- crates' political enemies, suspecting that Cambyses was under agreement to slay them, put back to Samos and attacked their master. After a defeat by sea, Polycrates repelled an assault upon the walls, and subsequently withstood a siege by a joint armament of Spartans and Corinthians assembled to aid the rebels. He maintained his ascendancy until about 515, when Oroetes, the Persian governor of Lydia, who had been reproached for his failure to reduce Samos by force, lured him to the mainland by false promises of gain and put him to death by crucifixion. Beside the political and commercial pre-eminence which he conferred upon Samos, Polycrates adorned the city with public works on a large scale — an aqueduct, a mole and a temple of Hera (see SAMOS; AQUEDUCTS). The splendour of his palace is attested by the proposal of the Roman emperor Caligula to rebuild it. Foreign artists worked for him at high wages; from Athens he brought Democedes, the greatest physician of the age, at an exceptional salary. He was also a patron of letters: he collected a library and lived on terms of intimate friendship with the poet Anacreon, whose verses were full of references to his patron. The philosopher Pythagoras, however, quitted Samos in order to escape his tyranny. (M. O. B. C.) POLYCRATES, Athenian sophist and rhetorician, flourished in the 4th century B.C. He taught at Athens, and afterwards in Cyprus. He composed declamations on paradoxical themes — an Encomium on Clylaemnestra, an Accusation of Socrates, an Encomium on Busins (a mythical king of Egypt, notorious for his inhumanity); also declamations on mice, pots and counters. His Encomium on Busiris was sharply criticized by Isocrates, in a work still extant, and Dionysius of Hali- carnassus characterizes his style as frigid, vulgar and inelegant. POLYGAMY (Gr. TroXw, many, and y&nos, marriage), or as it is sometimes termed, POLYGYNY (yvrii, woman), the system under which a man is married to several women at the same time. Derivatively it includes the practice of polyandry, but it has become definitely restricted to expressing what has been, and still is, far the commonest type of relations between the sexes (see FAMILY and MARRIAGE). Among Oriental nations plurality of legal wives is customary. Mahommedans are allowed four. A Hindu can have as many as he pleases: the high-caste sometimes having as many as a hundred. Polygamy is the rule among POLYGENISTS— POLYGON African tribes, and is common among those of Australia and Poly- nesia. In China, however, only one wife is lawful. In many polygamous countries the practical obstacle of expense prevents men from taking advantage of their privileges. While poly- gamy was the rule in biblical days among the ancient Jews, and was permitted and even enjoined in certain cases by the Mosaic law, the Christian Church, though it is nowhere forbidden, except for "bishops," in the New Testament, has always set its face against it. There have, however, been divines who dissented from this general disapproval. The Anabaptists insisted on freedom in the matter, and Bernardino Ochino conditionally defended plurality of wives. When in 1 540 Philip the Magnani- mous, the reforming Landgrave of Hesse, determined (with his wife's approval, she being a confirmed invalid) to marry a second wife, Luther and Melanchthon approved "ashis personal friends, though not as doctors of theology"; while Martin Bucer assisted at the marriage. In later times the Mormons (q.v.) in America provide the most notable instance of the revival of polygamy. POLYGENISTS, the term applied to those anthropologists who contend that the several primary races of mankind are separate species of independent origin. (See MONOGENISTS.) POLYGLOTT (Gr. TroXus, many, and 7\o>TTa, tongue), the term for a book which contains side by side versions of the same text in several different languages; the most important polyglotts are editions of the Bible, or its parts, in which the Hebrew and Greek originals are exhibited along with the great historical versions, which are of value for the history of the text and its interpretation. The first enterprise of this kind is the famous Hexapla of Origen in which the Old Testament Scriptures were written in six parallel columns, the first containing the Hebrew text, the second a transliteration of this in Greek letters, the third and fourth the Greek translations by Aquila and Sym- machus, the fifth the Septuagint version as revised by Origen, the sixth the translation by Theodotion. Inasmuch, however, as only two languages, Hebrew and Greek, were employed the work was rather diglott than polyglott in the usual sense. After the invention of printing and the revival of philological studies, polyglotts became a favourite means of advancing the knowledge of Eastern languages (for which no good helps were available) as well as the study of Scripture. The series began with the Complutensian printed by Arnaldus Guilielmus de Brocario at the expense of Cardinal Ximenes at the university at Alcala de Henares (Complutum). The first volume of this, containing the New Testament in Greek and Latin, was completed on the loth of January 1514. In vols. ii.-v. (finished on July 10, 1517) the Hebrew text of the Old Testament was printed in the first column of each page, followed by the Latin Vulgate and then by the Septuagint version with an interlinear Latin trans- lation. Below these stood the Chaldee, again with a Latin translation. The sixth volume containing an appendix is dated 1515, but the work did not receive the papal sanction till March 1520, and was apparently not issued till 1522. The chief editors were Juan de Vergara, Lopez de Zuniga (Stunica), Nunez de Guzman (Pincianus), Antonio de Librixa (Nebrissensis), and Demetrius Ducas. About half a century after the Complu- tensian came the Antwerp Polyglott, printed by Christopher Plantin (1569-1572, in 8 vols. folio). Of this the principal editor was Arias Montanus aided by Guido Fabricius Boderianus, Raphelengius, Masius, Lucas of Bruges and others. This work was under the patronage of Philip II. of Spain; it added a new language to those of the Complutensian by including the Syriac New Testament; and, while the earlier polyglott had only the Targum of Onkelos on the Pentateuch, the Antwerp Bible had also the Targum on the Prophets, and on Esther, Job, Psalms and the Salomonic writings. Next came Le Jay's Paris Poly- glotl (1645), which embraces the first printed texts of the Syriac Old Testament (edited by Gabriel Sionita, a Maronite, but the book of Ruth by Abraham Ecchelensis, also a Maronite) and of the Samaritan Pentateuch and version (by Morinus). It has also an Arabic version, or rather a series of various Arabic versions. The last great polyglott is Brian Walton's (London, 1657), which is much less beautiful than Le Jay's but more complete in various ways, including, among other things, the Syriac of Esther and of several apocryphal books for which it is wanting in the Paris Bible, Persian versions of the Pentateuch and Gospels, and the Psalms and New Testament in Ethiopic. Walton was aided by able scholars, and used much new manuscript material. His prolegomena, too, and collections of various readings mark an important advance in biblical criticism. It was in connexion with this polyglott that E. Castell produced his famous Heptaglott Lexicon (2 vols. folio, London, 1669), an astounding monument of industry and erudition even when allowance is made for the fact that for the Arabic he had the great MS. lexicon compiled and left to the university of Cambridge by the almost forgotten W. Bedwell. The liberality of Cardinal Ximenes, who is said to have spent half a million ducats on it, removed the Complu- tensian polyglott from the risks of commerce. The other three editions all brought their promoters to the verge of ruin. The later polyglotts are of little scientific importance, the best recent texts having been confined to a single language ; but every biblical student still uses Walton and, if he can get it, Le Jay. Of the numerous polyglott editions of parts of the Bible it may suffice to mention the Genoa psalter of 1516, edited by Giustini- ani, bishop of Nebbio. This is in Hebrew, Latin, Greek, Chaldee and Arabic, and is interesting from the character of the Chaldee text, being the first specimen of Western printing in the Arabic character, and from a curious note on Columbus and the dis- covery of America on the margin of Psalm xix. (A. W. Po.) POLYGNOTUS, Greek painter in the middle of the jth century B.C., son of Aglaophon, was a native of Thasos, but was adopted by the Athenians, and admitted to their citizenship. He painted for them in the time of Cimon a picture of the taking of Ilium on the walls of the Stoa Poecile, and another of the marriage of the daughters of Leucippus in the Anaceum. In the hall at the entrance to the Acropolis other works of his were preserved. The most important, however, of his paintings were his frescoes in a building erected at Delphi by the people of Cnidus. The subjects of these were the visit to Hades by Odysseus, and the taking of Ilium. Fortunately the traveller Pausanias has left us a careful description of these paintings, figure by figure (Paus. x. 25-31). The foundations of the building have been recovered in the course of the French excavations at Delphi. From this evidence, some modern archaeologists have tried to reconstruct the paintings, excepting of course the colours of them. The best of these reconstructions is by Carl Robert, who by the help of vase-paintings of the middle of the fifth century has succeeded in recovering both the perspective of Polygnotus and the character of his figures (see GREEK ART, fig. 29). The figures were detached and seldom overlapping, ranged in two or three rows one above another; and the farther were not smaller nor dimmer than the nearer. The designs are repeated in Frazer's Pausanias, v. 360 and 372. It will hence appear that paintings at this time were executed on almost precisely the same plan as contemporary sculptural reliefs. We learn also that Polygnotus employed but few colours, and those simple. Technically his art was primitive. His excellence lay in the beauty of his drawing of individual figures; but especially in the "ethical" and ideal character of his art. The contemporary, and perhaps the teacher, of Pheidias, he had the same grand manner. Simplicity, which was almost childlike, sentiment at once noble and gentle, extreme grace and charm of execution, marked his works, in contrast to the more animated, complicated and technically superior paintings of a later age. (P. G.) POLYGON (Gr. TroXus, many, and yuivla., an angle), in geo- metry, a figure enclosed by any number of lines — the sides — which intersect in pairs at the corners or vertices. If the sides are coplanar, the polygon is said to be "plane"; if not, then it is a "skew" or "gauche" polygon. If the figure lies entirely to one side of each of the bounding lines the figure is " convex"; if not it is " re-entrant " or " concave ." A "regular" polygon has all its sides and angles equal, i.e. it is equilateral and equi- angular; if the sides and angles be not equal the polygon is "irregular." Of polygons inscriptible in a circle an equilateral POLYGON figure is necessarily equiangular, but the converse is only true when the number of sides is odd. The term regular polygon is usually restricted to " convex " polygons; a special class of polygons (regular in the wider sense) has been named " star polygons " on account of their resemblance to star-rays; these are, however, concave. Polygons, especially of the " regular " and " star " types, were extensively studied by the Greek geometers. There are two important corollaries to prop. 32, book i., of Euclid's Elements rrluting to polygons. Having proved that the sum of the angles of a triangle is a straight angle, i.e. two right angles, it is readily seen that the sum of. the internal angles of a polygon (necessarily convex) of n sides is re —2 straight angles (2re —4 right angles), for the on can be divided into n—2 triangles by lines joining one vertex to the other vertices. The second corollary is that the sum of the supplements of the internal angles, measured in the same direction, is 4 right angles, and is thus independent of the number of sides. The systematic discussion of regular polygons with respect to the inscribed and circumscribed circles is given in the fourth book of the Elements. (We may note that the construction of an equilateral triangle and square appear in the first book.) The triangle is dis- cussed in props. 2-6; the square in props. 6-9; the pentagon (5-side) in props. 10-14; the hexagon (6-side) in prop. 15; and the quin- decagon in prop. 16. The triangle and square call for no special mention here, other than that any triangle can be inscribed or circumscribed to a circle. The pentagon is of more interest. Euclid bases his construction upon the fact that the isosceles triangle formed by joining the extremities of one side of a regular penta- gon to the opposite vertex has each angle at the base double the angle at the vertex. He constructs this triangle in prop. 10, by dividing a line in medial section, i.e. the square of one part equal to the product of the other part and the whole line (a construction given in book ii. u), and then showing that the greater segment is the base of the required triangle, the remaining sides being each equal to the whole line. The inscription of a pentagon in a circle is effected by inscribing an isosceles triangle similar to that constructed in prop. 10, bisecting the angles at the base and producing the bisec- tors to meet the circle. Euclid then proves that these intersections and the three vertices of the triangle are the vertices of the required pentagon. The circumscription of a pentagon is effected by con- structing an inscribed pentagon, and drawing tangents to the circle at the vertices. This supplies a general method for circumscribing a polygon if the inscribed be given, and conversely. In book xiii., prop. 10, an alternative method for inscribing a pentagon is indicated, for it is there shown that the sum of the squares of the sides of a square and hexagon inscribed in the same circle equals the square of the side of the pentagon. It may be incidentally noticed that Euclid's construction of the isosceles triangle which has its basal angles double the vertical angle solves the problem of quinquesecting a right angle; moreover, the base of the triangle is the side of the regular decagon inscribed in a circle having the vertex as centre and the sides of the triangle as radius. The inscription of a hexagon in a circle (prop. 15) reminds one of the Pythagorean result that six equilateral triangles placed about a common vertex form a plane; hence the bases form a regular hexagon. The side of a hexagon inscribed in a circle obviously equals the radius of the circle. The inscription of the quindecagon in a circle is made to depend upon the fact that the difference of the arcs of a circle intercepted by covertical sides of a regular pentagon and equilateral triangle is $ — i, = j*s> of the whole circumference, and hence the bisection of this intercepted arc (by book iii., 30) gives the side of the quindecagon. The methods of Euclid permit the construction of the following series of inscribed polygons: from the square, the 8-side or octagon, I6-, 32- . . ., or generally 4-2"-side; from the hexagon, the 12-side or dodecagon, 24-, 48- . . ., or generally the 6-2"-side; from the pentagon, the lo-side or decagon, 20-, 40- . . ., or generally 5-2"- side; from the quindecagon, the 30-, 60- . . ., or generally 15-2"- side. It was long supposed that no other inscribed polygons were possible of construction by elementary methods (i.e. by the ruler and compasses); Gauss disproved this by forming the 17-side, and he subsequently generalized his method for the (2n-|-i)-side, when this number is prime. The problem of the construction of an inscribed heptagon, nonagon, or generally of any polygon having an odd number of sides, is readily reduced to the construction of a certain isosceles triangle. Suppose the polygon to have (2n + i) sides. Join the extremities of one side to the opposite vertex, and consider the triangle so formed. It is readily seen that the angle at the base is n times the angle at the vertex. In the heptagon the ratio is 3, in the nonagon 4, and so on. The Arabian geometers of the 9th century showed that the heptagon required the solution of a cubic equation, thus resembling the Pythagorean problems of " duplicating the cube " and " tri- secting an angle." Edmund Halley gave solutions for the heptagon and nonagon by means of the parabola and circle, and by a parabola and hyperbola respectively. Although rigorous methods for inscribing the general polygons in a circle are wanting, many approximate ones have been devised. Two such methods are here given: (i) Divide the diameter of the circle into as many parts as the polygon has sides. On the diameter construct an equilateral triangle; and from its vertex draw a line through the second division along the diameter, measured from an extremity, and produce this Tine to intercept the circle. Then the chord joining this point to the extremity of the diameter is the side of the required polygon. (2) Divide the diameter as before, and draw also the perpendicular diameter. Take points on these diameters beyond the circle and at a dis- tance from the circle equal to one division of the diameter. Join the points so obtained; and draw a line from the point nearest the divided diameter where this line intercepts the circle to the third division from the produced extremity; this line is the required length. The construction of any regular polygon on a given side may be readily performed with a protractor or scale of chords, for it is only necessary to lay off from the extremities of the given side lines equal in length to the given base, at angles equal to the interior angle of the polygon, and repeating the process at each extremity so obtained, the angle being always tak--n on the same side; or lines may be laid off at one half of the interior angles, describing a circle having the meet of these lines as centre and their length as radius, and then measuring the given base around the circumference. Star Polygons. — These figures were studied by the Pythagoreans, and subsequently engaged the attention of many geometers — Boethius, Athelard of Bath, Thomas Bradwardine, archbishop of Canterbury, Johannes Kepler and others. Mystical and magical properties were assigned to them at an early date; the Pythagoreans regarded the pentagram, the star polygon derived from the pentagon, as the symbol of health, the Platonists of well-being, while .others used it to symbolize happiness. Engraven on metal, &c.. it is worn in almost every country as a charm or amulet. The pentagon gives rise to one star polygon, the hexagon gives none, the heptagon two, the octagon one, and the nonagon two. In general, the number of star polygons which can be drawn with the vertices of an n-point regular polygon is the number of numbers which are not factors of n and are less than J». A Pentagrams. Heptagrams. Nonograms. Number of n-point and n-side Polygons. A polygon may be regarded as determined by the joins of points or the meets of lines. The termination -gram is often applied to the figures determined by lines, e.g, pentagram, hexagram. It is of interest to know how many polygons can be formed with n given points as vertices (no three of which are collinear), or with n given lines as sides (no two of which are parallel). Considering the case of points it is obvious that we can join a chosen point with any one cf the remaining (n — i) points; any one of these (re — i) points can be joined to any one of the remaining (n—2), and by proceeding similarly it is seen that we can pass through the re points in (n — i) (n—2) . . . 2-1 or (n — i)! ways. It is obvious that the direction in which we pass is immaterial ; hence we must divide this number by 2, thus obtaining (n — 1)!/2 as the required number. In a similar manner it may be shown that the number of polygons determined by n lines is. (n — 1)!/2. Thus five points or lines determine 12 pentagons, 6 points or lines 60 hexagons, and so on. Mensuration. — In the regular polygons the fact that they can be inscribed and circumscribed to a circle affords convenient expres- sions for their area, &c. In a w-gon, i.e. a polygon with n-sides, each side subtends at the centre the angle 2r/n, i.e. 36o°/n, and each internal angle is (n— 2)ir/n or (n—2) iSo°fn. Calling the length of side a we may derive the following relations: Area Number of sides. Triangle. Square. 5 Pentagon. 6 Hexagon. Heptagon. 8 Octagon. 9 Nonagon. 10 Decagon. ii Undecagon. 12 Dodecagon. a ft A R r 60° 120° 0-43301 0-57735 0-28867 9°°o 90° i 0-70710 o-5 108° 72° 1-72048 0-85065 0-68819 120° 60° 2-59808 i 0-86602 1284" 5if° 3-6339I 1-1523 1-0383 I35°0 45° 4-82843 1-3065 1-2071 140° 40° 6-18182 1-4619 1-3737 144° 36° 7-69421 1-6180 1-5388 H7 A" 3*A° 9-36564 1-7747 1-7028 150° 30° 11-19615 1-9318 1-8660 POLYGONACEAE (A) = J <fn cot (ir/n) ; radius of circum-circle (R) = J a cosec (ir/n) radius of in-circle (r) = %a cot (ir/n). The table at foot of p. 1592 gives the value of the internal angle (a), the angle /3 subtended at the centre by a side, area (A), radius of the circum-circle (R), radius of the inscribed circle (r) for the simpler polygons, the length of the side being taken as unity. POLYGONACEAE, in botany, a natural order of Dicotyledons, containing 30 genera with about 700 species, chiefly in the north temperate zone, and represented in Great Britain by three genera, Polygonum, Rumex (Dock, q.t.) and Oxyria. They are mostly herbs characterized by the union of the stipules into a sheath or ocrea, which protects the younger leaves in the bud stage (fig. i). Some are climbers, as, for instance, the British Polygonum Convolvulus (black bindweed). In Muehlenbeckia platyclada, a native of the Solomon Islands, the stem and branches are flattened, form- ing ribbon-like cladodes jointed at the nodes. The leaves are alter- FIG i.— Leaf of Polygonum, nate simple and generally entire; with part ot stem (?, ocrea). . . . n j L i • iL ' the edges are rolled back m the bud. They are generally smooth, but sometimes, especially in mountain species, woolly. The small regular, generally her- maphrodite flowers are borne in large numbers in compound inflorescences, the branches of which are cymose. The parts of the flower are whorled (cyclic) or acyclic. The former arrange- ment may be derived from a regular trimerous flower with two whorls of perianth leaves, two staminal whorls and a three-sided ovary — such a flower occurs in the Californian genus Pteroslegia (fig. 2). The flower of rhubarb (Rheum) is derived from this by doubling in the outer staminal whorl (fig. 3), and FIG. 2. — Pterostegia. FIG. 3. — Rheum. FIG. 4. — Rumex. that of the dock (Rumex) by doubling in the outer staminal whorl and suppression of the inner (fig. 4). In Koenigia, a tiny annual less than an inch high, native in the arctic and sub-arctic regions and the Himalayas, there is one perianth and one staminal whorl only. Dimerous whorled flowers occur in Oxyria (mountain sorrel), another arctic and alpine genus, the flowers of which resemble those of Rumex but are dimerous (fig. 5). In the acyclic flowers a 5-merous perianth is followed FIG. 6. — Polygonum. FIG. 7. — Dry one-seeded fruit of dock (Rumex) cut vertically (enlarged). ov, Pericarp formed from ovary wall. Seed. Endosperm. Embryo with radicle point- ing upwards and cotyledons downwards. s, e, Pi, by s to 8 stamens as in Polygonum (fig. 6). The perianth leaves are generally uniform and green, white or red in colour. They are free or more or less united, and persist till the fruit is ripe, often playing a part in its distribution, and affording useful characters for distinguishing genera or species. Thus in the docks the three inner leaves enlarge and envelope the fruit as three membranous wings one or more of which bear on the back large fleshy warts. Less often, as in the South American genus Triplaris, the three outer perianth leaves form the agent of distribution, developing into long flat membranous wings, the whole mechanism suggesting a shuttlecock. The number of the carpels is indicated by the three-sided (in dimerous flowers two- sided) ovary, and the number of the styles; the ovary is uni- locular and contains a single erect ovule springing from the top of the floral axis (fig. 7). The fruit is a dry one-seeded nut, two- FIG. 8. Rumex obtusifolius, Common Dock. 1. Upper part of plant, showing the flowers (about J nat. size). 2. Leaf from base of the stem (3 nat. size). 3. Fruit enlarged. 4. Fruit of Rumex Acetosa (sorrel) (enlarged). sided in bicarpellary flowers, as in Oxyria. The straight or curved embryo is embedded in a mealy endosperm. The flowers are wind-pollinated, as in the docks (Rumex), where they are pendulous on long slender stalks and have large hairy stigmas; or insect-pollinated, as in Polygonum or rhubarb (Rheum), where the stigmas are capitate and honey is secreted by glands near the base of the stamens. Insect-pollinated flowers are rendered conspicuous chiefly by their aggregation in large numbers, as for instance in Bistort (Polygonum Bistorta), where the perianth is red and the flowers are crowded in a spike. In buckwheat (q.v., P. Fagopyrum) the numerous flowers have a white or red perianth and are perfumed; they are dimorphic, i.e. there are two forms of flowers, one with long styles and short stamens, the other with short styles and long stamens. In other cases self-pollination is the rule, as in knot-grass (P. aviculare) , where the very small, solitary odourless flowers are very rarely visited by insects and pollinate themselves by the incurving of the three inner stamens on to the styles. Polygonaceae is mainly a north temperate order. A few genera are tropical, e.g. Coccoloba, which has 125 species restricted to tropical and sub-tropical America. Polygonum has a very wide distribution spreading from the limits of vegetation in the northern hemisphere to the mountains of tropical Africa and South Africa,' through the highlands of tropical Asia to Australia, and in America as far south as Chile. Most of the genera have, however, a limited distribution. Of the three which are native in the British Isles, Polygonum has POLYGONAL NUMBERS— POLYHEDRON 27 12 species; Rumex (fig. 8) (11 species) includes the various species of dock (q.v.) and sorrel (R. Acetosa); and Oxyria digyna, an alpine plant (mountain sorrel), takes its generic name (Gr. b#x, sharp) From the acidity of its leaves. Rheum (Rhubarb, q.v.) is central Asiatic. POLYGONAL NUMBERS, in mathematics. Suppose we have a number of equal circular counters, then the number of counters which can be placed on a regular polygon so that the tangents to the outer rows form the regular polygon and all the internal counters are in contact with its neighbours, is a " polygonal number " of the order of the polygon. If the polygon be a triangle then it is readily seen that the numbers are 3, 6, 10, 15 , . . and generally \n (n + i); if a square, 4, 9, 16, . . . and gener- ally «2; if a pentagon, 5, 12, 22. .. and generally wfon-i); if a hexagon, 6, 15, 28, ... and generally n(m— i) ; and similarly for a polygon of r sides, the general expression for the corresponding polygonal number is \n\(n— i) (r— 2) + 2]. Algebraically, polygonal numbers may be regarded as the sums of consecutive terms oi the arithmetical progressions having I for the first term and i, 2, 3, ... for the common differences. Taking unit common difference we have the series I; 1+2=3; 1+2+3 = 6; i + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10; or generally 1+2+3 • • • .+ n = jn(n-|_i) ; these are triangular numbers. With a common difference 2 we have i; 1+3 = 4; 1+3+5=9: i+3 + 5+7 = i6; or generally 1+3+5+ ... -f- (2n-i)=n2; and generally for the polygonal number of the rth order we take the sums of consecu- tive terms of the series I, I + (r-2), 1+2 (r-2), . . . l+n-l.r-2; and hence the nth polygonal number of the rth order is the sum of n terms of this series, i.e., linear = n + Jn.n — i.r— 2. The series i, 2, 3, 4, ... or generally n, are the so-called numbers " (cf. FIGURATE NUMBERS). POLYHEDRAL NUMBERS, in mathematics. These numbers are related to the polyhedra (see POLYHEDRON) in a manner similar to the relation between polygonal numbers (see above) and polygons. Take the case of tetrahedral numbers. Let AB, AC, AD be three covertical edges of a regular tetrahedron. Divide AB, . . . into parts each equal to A I, so that tetrahedra having the common vertex A are obtained, whose linear dimensions increase arithmetically. Imagine that we have a number of spheres (or shot) of a diameter equal to the distance Ai. It is seen that 4 shot having their centres at the vertices of the tetrahedron Ai will form a pyramid. In the case of the tetra- hedron of edge A 2 we require 3 along each side of the base, i.e. 6, 3 along the base of Ai, and i at A, making 10 in all. To add a third layer, we will require 4 along each base, i.e. g, and i in the centre. Hence in the tetrahedron A3 we have 20 shot. The numbers 1,4, 10, 20 are polyhedral numbers, and from their association with the tetrahedron are termed " tetrahedral numbers." This illustration may serve for a definition of polyhedral numbers: a polyhedral number represents the number of equal spheres which can be placed within a polyhedron so that the spheres touch one another or the sides of the polyhedron. In the case of the tetrahedron we have seen the numbers to be I, 4, 10, 20; the general formula for the nth tetrahedral number is Jn(n + i)(n+2). Cubic numbers are i, 8, 27, 64, 125, &c. ; or generally n3. Octahedral numbers are i, 6, 19,44, &c., or generally Jn(2n2 + i). Dodecahedral numbers are i, 20, 84, 220, &c.; or generally Jre(9n2 — 971+2). Icosahedral numbers are I, 12, 48, 124, &c., or generally jn(5re2— 5n+2). POLYHEDRON (Gr. iroXw, many, ifSpa, a base), in geometry, a solid figure contained by plane faces. If the figure be entirely to one side of any face the polyhedron is said to be " convex, " and it is obvious that the faces enwrap the centre once; if, on the other hand, the figure is to both sides of every face it is said to be " concave, " and the centre is multiply enwrapped by the faces. " Regular polyhedra " are such as have their faces all equal regular polygons, and all their solid angles equal; the term is usually restricted to the five forms in which the centre is singly enclosed, viz. the Platonic solids, while the four polyhedra in which the centre is multiply enclosed are referred to as the Keplcr-Poinsot solids, Kepler having discovered three, while Poinsot discovered the fourth. Another group of polyhedra are termed the " Archimedean solids," named after Archimedes, who, according to Pappus, invented them. These have faces which are all regular polygons, but not all of the same kind, while all their solid angles are equal. These figures are often termed " semi-regular solids," but it is more convenient to restrict this term to solids having all their angles, edges and faces equal, the latter, however, not being regular polygons. Platonic Solids. The names of these five solids are: (i) the tetrahedron, enclosed by four equilateral triangles; (2) the cube or hexahedron, enclosed by 6 squares; (3) the octahedron, enclosed by 8 equilateral triangles; (4) the dodecahedron, en- closed by 12 pentagons; (5) the icosahedron, enclosed by 20 equilateral triangles. The first three were certainly known to the Egyptians; and it is probable that the icosahedron and dodecahedron were added by the Greeks. The cube may have originated by placing three equal squares at a common vertex, so as to form a trihedral angle. Two such sets can be placed so that the free edges are brought into- coincidence while the vertices are kept distinct. This solid has therefore 6 faces, 8 vertices and 12 edges. The equi- lateral triangle is the basis of the tetrahedron, octahedron and icosahedron.1 If three equilateral triangles be placed at a common vertex with their covertical sides coincident in pairs, it is seen that the base is an equal equilateral triangle; hence four equal equilateral triangles enclose a space. This solid has 4 faces, 4 vertices and 6 edges. In a similar manner, four covertical equilateral triangles stand on a square base. Two such sets placed base to base form the octahedron, which consequently has 8 faces, 6 vertices and 12 edges. Five equilateral triangles coverti- cally placed would stand on a pentagonal base, and it was found that, by forming several sets of such pyramids, a solid could be obtained which had 20 triangular faces, which met in pairs to form 30 edges, and in fives to form 12 vertices. This is the icosahedron. That the triangle could give rise to no other solid followed from the fact that six covertically placed triangles formed a plane. The pentagon is the basis of the dodecahedron. Three pentagons may be placed at a common vertex to form a solid angle, and by forming several such sets and placing them in juxtaposition a solid is obtained having 12 pentagonal faces, 30 edges, and 20 vertices. These solids played an important part in the geometry of the Pythagoreans, and in their cosmology symbolized the five ele- ments: fire (tetrahedron), air (octahedron), water (icosahedron), earth (cube), universe or ether (dodecahedron). They were also discussed by the Platonists, so much so that they became known as the " Platonic solids." Euclid discusses them in the thirteenth book of his Elements, where he proves that no more regular bodies are possible, and shows how to inscribe them in a sphere. This latter problem received the attention of the Arabian astronomer Abul Wefa (loth century A.D.), who solved it with a single opening of the compasses. Mensuration of the Platonic Solids. — The mensuration of the regular polyhedra is readily investigated by the methods of elementary geometry, the property that these solids may be inscribed in and circumscribed to concentric spheres being especially useful. If F be the number of faces, n the number of edges per face, m the number of faces per vertex, and / the length of an edge, and if we denote the angle between two adjacent faces by I, the area by A, the volume by V, the radius of the circum-sphere by R, and of the in-sphere by r, the following general formulae hold, o being written for 2r/n, and /3 for 2ir/m : — Sin JI =cos /3/sin a; tan JI =cos /3/(sin2 o— cos2 0)J. A = } PnF cot a. V = JrA = jV'n F tan JI cot2 a = £tl*n F cot2 a cos 0/(sin2 o— cos2 0)J. R = J/tan JI tan /3 = J/ sin 0/(sin2 o— cos2 /3)i. r = \l tan JI cot a = J/ cot o cos 0/(sin2 a— cos2 /J)i. 1 In the language of Proclus, the commentator: " The equilateral triangle is the proximate cause of the three elements, ' fire,' ' air ' and ' water '; but the square is annexed to the ' earth.' " POLYHEDRON The following Table gives the values of A. V, R, r for the five Polyhedra: — A. Area. Volume V. Radius of Circum-sphere. R. Radius of In-sphere. r. Tetrahedron P.V3 (1-7321 P). P/6V2 (0-II785/3) /.V6/4 /.V6/I2 Cube 6 I1 l» /.V3/2 */ Octahedron F.2V3 (3.4643*) /3.V2/3 (0-47 140/3) VVa //V6 Dodecahedron .... P.I5VU+2V5) (20-64578 P) /3.5V!(47+2iV5)/4o! (7-6631 19 /') /.iV{(5+3V5)/2| ;.V|(20+uV5)/4o! Icosahedron P.5V3 (8-6605 P) /3.fV!(7+3V5)/2l (2-18169 /3) ».|Vl<5+V5)/al /.H!(7+3V5)/6! Kepler- Poinsot Polyhedra. — These solids have all their faces equal regular polygons, and the angles at the vertices all equal. They bear a relation to the Platonic solids similar to the relation of " star polygons " to ordinary regular polygons, inasmuch as the centre is multiply enclosed in the former and singly in the latter. Four such solids exist: (i) small stellated dodecahedron; (2) great dodecahedron; (3) great stellated dodecahedron; (4) great icosahedron. Louis Poinsot discussed these solids in his memoir, " Sur les polygones et les polyedres " (Journ. £cole poly, [iv.] 1810), three of them having been previously considered by Kepler. They were afterwards treated by A. L. Cauchy (Journ. Ecole poly, [ix.] 1813), who showed that they were derived from the Platonic solids, and that no more than four were possible. A. Cayley treated them in several papers (e.g. Phil. Mag., 1859, 17, p. 123 seq.), considering them by means of their projections on the circumscribing sphere and not, as Cauchy, in solido. The small stellated dodecahedron is formed by stellating the Platonic dodecahedron (by " stellating " is meant developing the faces con- tiguous to a specified base so as to form a regular pyramid). It has 12 pentagonal faces, and 30 edges, which intersect in fives to form 12 vertices. Each vertex is singly enclosed by the five faces; the centre of each face is doubly enclosed by the succession of faces about the face ; and the centre of the solid is doubly enclosed by the faces. The great dodecahedron is determined by the intersections of the twelve planes which intersect the Platonic icosahedron in five of its edges; or each face has the same boundaries as the basal sides of five covertical faces of the icosahedron. It is the reciprocal (see below) of the small stellated dodecahedron. Each vertex is doubly enclosed by the succession of covertical faces, while the centre of the solid is triply enclosed by the faces. The great stellated dodecahedron is formed by stellating the faces of a great dodecahe- dron. It has 12 faces, which meet in 30 edges; these interseet in threes to form 20 vertices. Each vertex is singly enclosed by the succession of faces about it ; and the centre of the solid is quadruply enclosed by the faces. The great icosahedron is the reciprocal of the great stellated dodecahedron. Each of the twenty triangular faces subtend at the centre the same angle as is subtended by four whole and six half faces of the Platonic icosahedron ; in other words, the solid is determined by the twenty planes which can be drawn through the vertices of the three faces contiguous to any face of a Platonic icosahedron. The centre of the solid is. septuply enclosed by the faces. A connexion between the number of faces, vertices and edges of regular polyhedra was discovered by Euler, and the result, which assumes the form E + 2:= F + V, where E, F, V are the number of edges, faces and vertices, is known as Euler's theorem on poly- hedra. This formula only holds for the Platonic solids. Poinsot gave the formula E + 2k — eV + F, in which k is the number of times the projections of the faces from the centre on to the surface of the circumscribing sphere make up the spherical surface, the area of a stellated face being reckoned once, and e is the ratio " angles at a vertex /2ir" as projected on the sphere, E, V, F being the same as before. Cayley gave the formula E + 2D = eV + e'F, where e, E, V, F are the same as before, D is the same as Poinsot's k with the distinction that the area of a stellated face is reckoned as the sum of the triangles having their vertices at the centre of the face and standing on the sides, and «' is the ratio: " the angles subtended at the centre of a face by its sides /2w." The following table gives these constants for the regular poly- hedra ; n denotes the number of sides to a face, n\ the number of faces to a vertex: — F V E n «i e e' D k Tetrahedron Cube 4 6 4 8 6 12 3 4. 3 7 Octahedron Dodecahedron Icosahedron .... 8 12 2O 6 20 12 12 30 30 3 5 3 4 3 5 Small stellated dodecahedron . Great dodecahedron Great stellated dodecahedron . Great icosahedron .... 12 12 12 2O 12 12 2O 12 30 30 30 30 5 5 5 3 5 5 3 5 i 2 I 2 2 I 2 I 3 3 7 7 2 3 4 7 Archimedean Solids. — These solids are characterized by having all their angles equal and all their faces regular polygons, which are not all of the same species. Thirteen such solids exist. 1. The truncated tetrahedron is formed by truncating the vertices of a regular tetrahedron so as to leave the original faces hexagons. (By the truncation of a vertex or edge we mean the cutting 'a way of the vertex or edge by a plane making equal angles with all the faces composing the vertex or with the two faces forming the edge.) It is bounded by 4 triangular and 4 hexagonal faces; there are 1 8 edges, and 12 vertices, at each of which two hexagons and one triangle are covertical. 2. The cuboctahedron is a tesserescae-decahedron (Gr. reaaapes-Kai- Sexa, fourteen) formed by truncating the vertices of a cube so as to leave the original faces squares. It is enclosed by 6 square and 8 triangular faces, the latter belonging to a coaxial octahedron. It is a common crystal form. 3. The truncated cube is formed in the same manner as the cuboctahedron, but the truncation is only carried far enough to leave the original faces octagons. It has 6 octagonal faces (belonging to the original cube), and 8 triangular ones (belonging to the coaxial octahedron). 4. The truncated octahedron is formed by truncating the vertices of an octahedron so as to leave the original faces hexagons; con- sequently it is bounded by 8 hexagonal and 6 square faces. 5. 6. Rhombicuboctahedra. — Two Archimedean solids of 26 faces are derived from the coaxial cube, octahedron and semi- regular (rhombic) dodecahedron (see below). The " small rhombi- cuboctahedron " is bounded by 12 pentagonal, 8 triangular and 6 square faces; the " great rhombicuboctahedra " by 12 decagonal, 8 triangular and 6 square faces. 7. The icosidodecahedron or dyocaetriacontahedron (Gr. Svo-Kal- TpioKovTo, thirty-two), is a 32-faced solid, formed by truncating the vertices of an icosahedron so that the original faces become triangles. It is enclosed by 20 triangular faces belonging to the original icosa- hedron, and 12 pentagonal faces belonging to the coaxial dodecahe- dron. 8. The truncated icosahtdron is formed similarly to the icosidode- cahedron, but the truncation is only carried far enough to leave the original faces hexagons. It is therefore enclosed by 20 hexagonal faces belonging to the icosahedron, and 12 pentagonal faces belonging to the coaxial dodecahedron. 9. The truncated dodecahedron is formed by truncating the vertices of a dodecahedron parallel to the faces of the coaxial icosahedron so as to leave the former decagons. It is enclosed by 20 triangular faces belonging to the icosahedron and 12 decagons belonging to the dodecahedron. 10. The snub cube is a 38-faced solid having at each corner 4 tri- angles and I square; 6 faces belong to a cube, 8 to the coaxial octahedron, and the remaining 24 to no regular solid. 11. 12. The rhombicosidodecahedra. — Two 62-faced solids are derived from the dodecahedron, icosahedron and the semi-regular POLYMETHYLENES 29 triacontahedron. In the " small rhombicosidodecahedron " there are 12 pentagonal faces belonging to the dodecahedron, 20 triangular faces belonging to the icosahedron and 30 square faces belonging to the triacontahedron. In the " great rhombicosidodecahedron the dodecahedral faces are decagons, the icosahedral hexagons and the triacontahedral squares; this solid is sometimes called the " truncated icosidodecahedron." 13. The snub dodecahedron is a Q2-faced solid having 4 triangles and a pentagon at each corner. The pentagons belong to a dodeca- hedron, and 20 triangles to an icosahedron ; the remaining 60 triangles belong to no regular solid. Semi-regular Polyhedra. — Although this term is frequently given to the Archimedean solids, yet it is a convenient de- notation for solids which have all their angles, faces, and edges equal, the faces not being regular polygons. Two such solids exist: (i) the " rhombic dodecahedron, " formed by trun- cating the edges of a cube, is bounded by 12 equal rhombs; it is a common crystal form (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY); and (2) the " semi-regular triacontahedron," which is enclosed by 30 equal rhombs. The interrelations of the pplyhedra enumerated above are con- siderably elucidated by the introduction of the following terms: (i) Correspondence. Two polyhedra correspond when the radii vectores from their centres to the mid-point of the edges, centre of the faces, and to the vertices, can be brought into coincidence. (2) Reciprocal. Two polyhedra are reciprocal when the faces and ver- tices of one correspond to the vertices and faces of the other. (3) Summital or facial. A polyhedron (A) is said to be the summital or facial holohedron of another (B) when the faces or vertices of A correspond to the edges of B, and the vertices or faces of A corre- spond to the vertices and faces together of B. (4) Hemihedral. A polyhedron is said to be the hemihedral form of another poly- hedron when its faces correspond to the alternate faces of the latter or holohedral form; consequently a hemihedral form has half the number of faces of the holohedral form. Hemihedral forms are of special importance in crystallography, to which article the reader is referred for a fuller explanation of these and other modifications of polyhedra (tetartohedral, enantiotropic, &c.). It is readily seen that, the tetrahedron is its own reciprocal, i.e. it is self-reciprocal ; the cube and octahedron, the dodecahedron and icosahedron, the small stellated dodecahedron and great dodeca- hedron, and the great stellated dodecahedron and great icosahedron are examples of reciprocals. We may also note that of the Archime- dean solids: the truncated tetrahedron, truncated cube, and trun- cated dodecahedron, are the reciprocals of the crystal forms triakis- tetrahedron, triakisoctahedron and triakisicosahedron. Since the tetrahedron is the hemihedral form of the octahedron, and the octa- hedron and cube are reciprocal, we may term these two latter solids " reciprocal holohedra " of the tetrahedron. Other examples of reciprocal holohedra are: the rhombic dodecahedron and cubocta- hedron, with regard to the cube and octahedron; and the semi- regular triacontahedron and icosidodecahedron, with regard to the dodecahedron and icosahedron. As examples of facial holohedra we may notice the small rhombicuboctahedron and rhombic dode- cahedron, and the small rhombicosidodecahedron and the semi- regular triacontahedron. The correspondence of the faces of poly- hedra is also of importance, as may be seen from the manner in which one polyhedron may be derived from another. Thus the faces of the cuboctahedron, the truncated cube, and truncated octahe- dron, correspond; likewise with the truncated dodecahedron, trun- cated icosahedron, and icosidodecahedron ; and with the small and great rhombicosidodecahedra. The general theory of polyhedra properly belongs to combinatorial analysis. The determination of the number of different polyhedra of n faces, i.e. n-hedrons, is reducible to the problem: In how many ways can multiplets, i.e. triplets, quadruplets, &c., be made with n symbols, so that (i ) every contiguous pair of symbols in one multiplet are a contiguous pair in some other, the first and last of any mul- tiplet being considered contiguous, and (2) no three symbols in any multiplet shall occur in any other. This problem is treated by the Rev T. P. Kirkman in the Manchester Memoirs (1855, 1857- 1860); and in the Phil. Trans. (1857). See Max Bruckner, Vielecke und Vielflache (1900); V. Eberhard, Zur Morphologic der Polyeder (1891). POLYMETHYLENES, in chemistry, cyclic compounds, the simplest members of which are saturated hydrocarbons of general formula C.Hjn, where n may be i to 9, and known as tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, and hepta-methylene, &c., or cyclo- propane, -butane, -pentane, -hexane, -heptane, &c.: — f TT /"""U f"*U /~*LJ /~*11 f"*U f^U /i_n2, v,ri2>^rij /i^ri2'V,ri2 /v-n2'\~ri2v — 2X .[ II CH< I | CH< >CH2,&c. \CH2, CH2C-H2 \CH2-CH2, \CH2-CH^ Cyc/o-propane, -butane, -pentane, -hexane. The unsaturated members of the series are named on the Geneva system in which the termination -one is replaced by-ene, -diene, -Iriene, according to the number of double linkages in the compound, the position of such double linkages being shown by a numeral immediately following the suffix -ene; for example I. is methyl-cyc/o-hexadiene — i. 3. An alterna- tive method employs A. v. Baeyer's symbol A. Thus A 2-4 indicates the presence of two double bonds in the molecule situated immediately after the carbon atoms 2 and 4; for example II. is A 2-4 dihydrophthalic acid. C(CO.H):CH (6) (5) (6) II. (5) As to the stability of these compounds, most trimethylene derivatives are comparatively unstable, the ring being broken fairly readily; the tetramethylene derivatives are rather more stable and the penta- and hexa-methylene compounds are very stable, showing little tendency to form open chain compounds under ordinary conditions (see CHEMISTRY: Organic). Isomerism. — No isomerism can occur in the monosubstitution derivatives but ordinary position isomerism exists in the di- and poly-substitution compounds. Stereo-isomerism may occur: the simplest examples are the dibasic acids, where a. cis- (maleinoid) form and a trans- (fumaroid) form have been ob- served. These isomers may frequently be distinguished by the facts that the «'s-acids yield anhydrides more readily than the trans-acids, and are generally converted into the trans-adds on heating with hydrochloric acid. O. Aschan (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 3389) depicts these cases by representing the plane of the carbon atoms of the ring as a straight line and denoting the substituted hydrogen atoms by the letters X, Y, Z. Thus for dicarboxylic acids (C02H = X) the possibilities are represented by .A. .A. / • \ -A. /, \ X /¥» (cis), JT (trans), jj (I). The trans compound is perfectly asymmetric and so its mirror image (I) should exist, and, as all the trans compounds syn- thetically prepared are optically inactive, they are presumably racemic compounds (see O. Aschan, Chemie der alicyklischen Verbindungen, p. 346 seq.). General Methods of Formation. — Hydrocarbons may be ob- tained from the dihalogen paraffins by the action of sodium or zinc 'dust, provided that the halogen atoms are not attached to the same or to adjacent carbon atoms (A. Freund, Monats., 1882, 3, p. 625; W. H. Perkin, jun., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1888, 53, p. 213):— CH2-CH2-Br , ... ,vr p , CHz-CHz. CHrCH2-Br+2Na-2NaBr+CHrCH2! by the action of hydriodic acid and phosphorus or of phos- phonium iodide on benzene hydrocarbons (F. Wreden, Ann., 1877, 187, p. 153; A. v. Baeyer, ibid., 1870, 155, p. 266), ben- zene giving methylpentamethylene; by passing the vapour of benzene hydrocarbons over finely divided nickel at 180-250° C. (P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens, Comptes rettdus, 1901, 132, p. 210 seq.); and from hydrazines of the type CnHm-i-NH-NH* by oxidation with alkaline potassium ferricyanide (N. Kijner, Journ. prak. Chem., 1901, 64, p. 113). Unsaturated hydro- carbons of the series may be prepared from the corre- sponding alcohols by the elimination of a molecule of water, using either the xanthogenic ester method of L. Tschugaeff (Ber. 1899, 32, p. 3332): CnH2n_IONa->CBH2n_,O-CS.SNa(R) — >CnH2n-2+COS+R-SH; or simply by dehydrating with anhydrous oxalic acid (N. Zelinsky, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3249); and by eliminating the halogen acid from mono- or di-halogen polymethylene compounds by heating them with quinoline. Alcohols are obtained from the corresponding halogen com- pounds by the action of moist silver oxide, or by warming them with silver acetate and acetic acid; by the reduction of ketones with metallic sodium; by passing the vapours of monohydric phenols and hydrogen over finely divided nickel (P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens, loc. «'/.); by the reduction of cyclic esters with POLYMETHYLENES sodium and alcohol (L. Bouveault and G. Blanc, Comptes rendus, 1903, 136, p. 1676; 137, p. 60); and by the addition of the elements of water to the unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons on boiling with dilute acids. Aldehydes and Ketones. — The aldehydes are prepared in the usual manner from primary alcohols and acids. The ketones are obtained by the dry distillation of the calcium salts of di- basic saturated aliphatic acids (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275, p. 309): [CH2-CH2-CO2]2Ca->[CH2-CH2]2CO; by the action of sodium on the esters of acids of the adipic and pimelic acid series (W. Dieckmann, Ber., 1894, 27, pp. 103, 2475): — CH2-CH2-CH2-CO2R CH2-CH2-CH2. CH2-CH2-CO2R ~*CH2-CH2C-O ' by the action of sodium ethylate on 5-ketonic acids (D. Vor- lander, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2348): — /CH2-CH2v X xCH2-CH2\ CH< >CO; XCO-CH3 \CO-CH2 ' from sodio-malonic ester and a|3-unsaturated ketones or ketonic esters: — /CH2 COV (R02C)2CH2+Ph-CH :CH-CO-CH3-»PhCH< >CH2; \CH(C02R)-CO/ from aceto-acetic ester and esters of a|3-unsaturated acids, followed by elimination of the carboxyl group: — 2x >CHCO2R ; / 2CH8-CO-CH2-CO2R+OHC-R'- CH,; CH3-CO-CH2-CO2R+R'2C:CH-CO2R-»CO< \CH2-CO by the condensation of two molecules of aceto-acetic ester with aldehydes followed by saponification (E. Knoevenagel, Ann., 1894, 281, p. 25; 1896, 288, p. 321; Ber., 1904, 37, p. 4461) :— J"'\ :— co from i-s-diketones which contain a methyl group next the keto-group (W. Kerp, Ann., 1896, 290, p. 123): — /CH2-C(CH3k 3CH,-CO-CHS-»(CH3)2C< >CH; XCH2 CO/ by the condensation of succinic acid with sodium ethylate, fol- lowed by saponification and elimination of carbon dioxide: — CH2-CH2-CO ^CO-CH.i-CHz1 and from the condensation of ethyl oxalate with esters of other dibasic acids in presence of sodium ethylate (W. Dieckmann, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 1470; 1899, 32, p. 1933):— C°2R ___ /CO2R CO-CH* 2C2H4(C02H)2-v +CH2 > COjR NC02R CO- Acids may be prepared by the action of dihalogen paraffins on sodio-malonic ester, or sodio-aceto-acetic ester (W. H. Perkin, jun., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1888, 53, p. 194): — C2H1Br2+2NaCH(C02R)2->(CH2)2C(C02R)2+CH2(CO2R)2; ethyl butane tetracarboxylate is also formed which may be converted into a tetramethylene carboxylic ester by the action of bromine on its disodium derivative (W. H. Perkin and Sinclair, ibid., 1829, 61, p. 36). The esters of the acids may also be obtained by condensing sodio-malonic ester with a-halogen derivatives of unsaturated acids: — /CH-C02R CH3-CH : CBr-CO2R+NaCH(CO2R)2-»CH3-CH/ . | \C(C02R)2 by the action of diazomethane or diazoacetic ester on the esters of unsaturated acids, the pyrazoline carboxylic esters so formed losing nitrogen when heated and yielding acids of the cyclo- propane series (E. Buchner, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 703; Ann., 1895, 284, p. 212; H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 1891): — CH-CO2R N:N-CH-CO2R XCHC02R CH2N2+ II -> 1 I ->H2C< ' ; CH-CO2R H2C— CH-CO2R \CHCO2R and by the Grignard reaction (S. Malmgren, Ber., 1903, 36, pp. 668, 2(122; N. Zelinsky, ibid., 1902, 35, p. 2687). Cydo-propane Group. Trimethylene, C3H6, obtained by A. Freund (Monats., 1882, 3, p. 625) by heating trimethylene bromide with sodium, is a gas, which may be liquefied, the liquid boiling at —35° C. (749 mm.). It dis- solves gradually in concentrated sulphuric acid, forming propyl sulphate. Hydriodic acid converts it into w-propyl iodide. It is decomposed by chlorine in the presence of sunlight, with explosive violence. It is stable to cold potassium permanganate. Cyclo-propane carboxylic acid, C3H5-CO2H, is prepared by heating the i.i-dicarboxylic acid; and by the hydrolysis of its nitrile, formed by heating -y-chlorbutyro-nitrilewith potash (L. Henry and P. Dalle, Chem. Centralblatt, 1901, I, p. 1357; 1902, I, p. 913). .It is a colour- less oil, moderately soluble in water. The I.I dicarboxylic acid is prepared from ethylene dibromide and sodio-malonic ester. The ring is split by sulphuric or hydrobromic acids. The cis 1 .2-cydo-propane dicarboxylic acid is formed by elimi- nating carbon dioxide from cyc/0-propane tricarboxylic acid -1.2.3 (from a/3-dibrompropionic ester and sodio-malonic ester). The trans-acid is produced on heating pyrazolin-4.5-dicarbpxylic ester, or by the action of alcoholic potash on a-bromglutaric ester. It does not yield an anhydride. Cydo-butane Group. Cydo-butane, C4H8, was obtained by R. Willstatter (Ber., 1907, 40, p. 3979) by the reduction of cyclobutene by the Sabatier and Senderens method. It is a colourless liquid which boils at 1 1-12° C., and its vapour burns with a luminous flame. Reduction at 1 80- 200° C. by the above method gives n-butane. Cydo-butene, CiH6, formed by distilling trimethyl-cyc/o-butyl- ammonium hydroxide, boils at 1.5-2.0° C. (see N. Zelinsky, ibid., p. 4744; G. Schweter, ibid., p. 1604). When sodio-malonic ester is condensed with trimethylene bromide the chief product is ethyl pentane tetracarboxylate, tetramethylene i.i-dicarboxylic ester being also formed, and from this the free acid may be obtained on hydrolysis. It melts at 154-156° C., losing carbon dioxide and passing into cycfo-butane carboxylic acid, C4H7CO2H. This basic acid yields a monobrom derivative which, by the action of aqueous potash, gives the corresponding hydroxy- cyc/o-butane carboxylic acid, C4H6(OH)-CO2H. Attempts to elimi- nate water from this acid and so produce an unsaturated acid were unsuccessful; on warming with sulphuric acid, carbon monoxide is eliminated and cyc/o-butanone (keto-tetramethylene) is probably formed. The truxillic acids, CisHieO^ which result by the hydrolytic split- ting of truxilline, Cs8H«N2Os, are phenyl derivatives of cyc/o-butane. Their constitution was determined by C. Liebermann (Ber., 1 888, 21, p. 2342; 1889, 22, p. 124 seq.). They are polymers of cinnamic acid, into which they readily pass on distillation. The a-acid on oxidation yields benzoic acid, whilst the /3-acid yields benzil in addition. The a-acid is diphenyl-2.4-cyc/o-butane dicarboxylic acid -1.3; and the 0-acid diphenyl-34-cyclo-butane dicarboxylic acid -1.2. By alkalis they are transformed into stereo-isomers, the a-acid giving -y-truxillic acid, and the j3-acid 6-truxillic acid. The a-acid was synthesized by C. N. Riiber (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 2411; 1904, 37, p. 2274), by oxidizing diphenyl-2.4-cyc/o-butane-bismethy- lene malonic acid (fron cinnamic aldehyde and malonic acid in the presence of quinoline) with potassium permanganate. Cydo-pentane Group. Derivatives may be prepared in many cases by the breaking down of the benzene ring when it contains an accumulation of negative atoms (T. Zincke, Ber., 1886-1894; A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 2780; 1889, 22, p. 1238), this type of reaction being generally brought about by the action of chlorine on phenols in the presence of alkalis (see CHEMISTRY: Organic). A somewhat related example is seen in the case of croconic acid, which is formed by the action of alkaline oxidizing agents on hexa-oxybenzene : — HO-C-C(OH) : C(OH) HO-C-CO-CO HO-C-Ca .«. I -» .»- !-» A >CO HO-C-C(OH) i C(OH) HO-C-CO-CO HO-C-CO/ Hexa-oxybenzene. Rhodizonic acid. Croconic acid. Cyclo-pentane, C6Hio, is obtained from rycfo-pentanone by reducing it to the corresponding secondary alcohol, converting this into the iodo-compound, which is finally reduced to the hydrocarbon (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275, p. 327). It is a colourless liquid which boils at 50-51° C. Methyl-cydo-pentane, CsHgCHs, first obtained by F. Wreden (Ann., 1877, 187, p. 163) by the action of hydriodic acid and red phosphorus on benzene, and considered to be hexahydro- benzene, is obtained synthetically by the action of sodium on 1-5 dibromhexane ; and by the action of magnesium on acetylbutyl iodide (N. Zelinsky, Ber., 1902, 35, p. 2684). It is a liquid boiling at 72° C. Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-42) oxidizes it to succinic and acetic acids. Cydo-pentene, C6H8, a liquid obtained by the action of alcoholic potash on iodo-cycto-pentane, boils at 45° C. Cyclo- pentadiene, CeHe, is found in the first runnings from crude benzene distillations. It is a liquid which boils at 41° C. It rapidly poly- merizes to di-cyc/o-pentadiene. The -CH2- group is very reactive and behaves in a similar manner to the grouping -CO-CH2-CO- in open chain compounds, e.g. with aldehydes and ketones it gives the POLYMETHYLENES fulvcnes, substances characterized by their intense orange-red colour HC:CH (J. Thiele, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 669). Phenylfulven, \ >C:CHPh, HC-.CH7 obtained from benzaldehyde and cyc/o-pentadiene, forms dark red plates. Diphenylfulven, from benzophenone and cyc/o-pentadienc, crystallizes in deep red prisms. Dimethylfulven is an orange- coloured oil which oxidizes rapidly on exposure. Concentrated sulphuric acid converts it into a deep red tar. Cydo-pentanone, CsHsO, first prepared pure by the distillation of calcium adipate (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275, p. 312), is also ob- tained by the action of sodium on the esters of pimelic acid; by the distillation of calcium succinate; and by hydrolysis of the cyclo- pentanone carboxylic acid, obtained by condensing adipic and oxalic esters in the presence of sodium ethylate. Reduction gives cyc/o-pentanol, CsH9OH. Croconic acid (dioxy-eyc/0-pentene-trione), C6H2O6, is formed when triquinoyl is boiled with water, or by the oxidation of hexa-oxyben- zene or dioxydiquinoyl in alkaline solution (T. Zincke, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 1267). It has the character of a quinone. On oxidation it yields cyc/o-pentane-pentanone (leuconic acid). Derivatives of the cyc/o-pentane group are met with in the break- ing-down products of the terpenes &.».). Campholactone, C9H]4O2, is the lactone of trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o- pentanol-5-carboxylic acid-3. For an isomer, isocampholactone (the lactone of trimethyl-2-2-3-eyc/o-pentanol-3-carboxylic acid-i) see W. H. Perkin, jun., Proc. Ghent. Soc., 1903, 19, p. 61. Lauronolic acid, C,HMO2, is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentene-4-acid-i. Isolauro- nolic acid, C9HuO2, is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentene-3-acid-4. Campholic acid, CioHi8O2, is tetrametnyl-i-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentane acid-3. Camphononic acid, C9Hi4O3, is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/0-penta- none- 1 -carboxylic acid-3. Camphorphorone, C9HuO, is methyl-2- isobuty-lene-5-cycfo-pentanone-l. Isothujone, Ci0Hi6O, is dim- ethyl-i-2-isopropyl-3-cyc/o-pentene-l-one-5. (F. W. Semmler, Ber., I9°o, 33, p. 275.) L. Bouveault and G. Blanc (Comptes rendus, 1903, 136, p. 1460), prepared hydrocarbons of the eyc/o-pentane series from cyclo- hexane compounds by the exhaustive methylation process of A. W. Hofmann (see PYRIDINE). For phenyl derivatives of the cyclo- pentane group see F. R. Japp, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1897, 71, pp. 139, 144; H. Stobbe, Ann., 1901, 314, p. in; 315, p. 219 seq.; 1903, 326, p. 347. Cydo-hexane Group. Hydrocarbons. — Cydo-hexane, or hexahydro benzene, C6Hi2, is obtained by the action of sodium on a boiling alcoholic solution of i •6-dibromhexane, and by passing the vapour of benzene, mixed with hydrogen, over finely divided nickel. It is a liquid with an odour like that of benzene. It boils at 80-81° C. Nitric acid oxidizes it to adipic acid. When heated with bromine in a sealed tube for some days at 150-200° C., it yields i-2-4'5-tetrabrombenzene (N. Zelinsky, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 2803). It is stable towards halogens at ordinary temperature. Benzene hexachloride, CtH6Cls, is formed by the action of chlorine on benzene in sunlight. By recrystallization from hot benzene, the a form is obtained in large prisms which melt at 157° C., and at their boiling-point decompose into hydrochloric acid and trichlorbenzene. The /3 form results by chlorinating boiling benzene in sunlight, and may be separated from the o variety by distillation in a current of steam. It sublimes at about 310° C. Similar varieties of benzene hexabromide are known. Hexahydrocymene (methyl- i-isopropyl-4-cyc/o-hexane), CioH20, is important since it is the parent substance of many terpenes (<?.».). It is obtained by the reduction of I -4 dibrommenthane with sodium (J. de Montgolfier, Ann. chim. phys., 1880 [5], 19, p. 158), or of cymene, limonene, &c., by Sabatier and Senderens's method. It is a colourless liquid which boils at 180° C. Cydo-hexene (tetrahydrobenzene), C«H10, was obtained by A. v. Baeyer by removing the elements of hydriodic acid from iodo- cydo-hexane on boiling it with quinoline. It is a liquid which boils at 82° C. Hypochlorous acid converts it into 2-chlor-cyc/o-hexanol-i, whilst potassium permanganate oxidizes it to cycfc-hexandi-ol. Cydo-hexadiene (dihydrobenzene), C«H8. — Two isomers are pos- sible, namely cyc/o-hexadiene-i-3 and cyc/o-hexadiene-l-4. A. v. Baeyer obtained what was probably a mixture of the two by heating 1-4 dibrom-cycfo-hexane with quinoline. C. Harries (Ann., and oxalic acids. The 1-4 compound also boils at 81-82° C. and on oxidation gives succinic and malonic acids. Alcohols. — Cydo-hexanol, C6HnOH, is produced by the reduction of the corresponding ketone, or of the iodhydrin of quinite. Nitric acid oxidizes it to adipic acid, and chromic acid to cyc/o-hexanone. Quinite (cycJo-hexanediol- 1 -4) is prepared by reducing the correspond- ing ketone with sodium amalgam, cis-, and /rani-modifications being obtained which may be separated by their acetyl derivatives. Phlorogluctte (cyc/o-hexane-triol-l-3-s) is obtained by reducing an aqueous solution of phloroglucin with sodium (W. Wislicenus, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 357). ' Quercite (cydo-hexane-pentol-i-2-3'4-5), isolated from acorns in 1849 by H. Braconnot (Ann. chim. phys. [3], 27, p. 392), crystallizes in colourless prisms which melt at 234° C. When heated in vacua to 240° C. it yields hydroquinone, quinone and pyrogallol. It is dextro-rotatory. A laevo-form occurs in the leaves of Gymnema sylvestre (F. B. Power, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, p. 624). Inosite (cyc/o-hexane-hexol), C6H6(OH),.— The inactive form occurs in the muscles of the heart and in other parts of the human body. The d-form is found as a methyl ether in pinite (from the juice of Pinus lambertina, and of caoutchouc iromMateza roritina of Madagascar), from which it may be obtained by heating with hydriodic acid. The /-form is also found as a methyl ether in quebrachite. By mixing the d- and /- forms, a racemic variety melting at 253° C. is obtained. A dimethyl ether of inactive inosite is dambonite which occurs in caoutchouc from Gabon. Ketones. — Cydo-hexanone, C«H10O, is obtained by the distillation of calcium pimelate, and by the electrolytic reduction of phenol, using an alternating current. It is a colourless liquid, possessing a peppermint odour and boiling at 155° C. Nitric acid oxidizes it to adipic acid. It condenses under the influence of sulphuric acid to form dodecahydrotriphenylene, Cu>H2<1 and a mixture of ketones (C. Mannul, Ber., 1907,40, p. 153). Methyl-i-cydo-hexanone-^, CHj-C«H9O, is prepared by the hydrolysis of pulegone. It is an optically active liquid which boils at 168-169° C. Homologues of menthone may be obtained from the ketone by successive treatment with sodium amide and alkyl halides (A. Haller, Comptes rendus, 1905, 140, p. 127). On oxidation with nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-4) at 60-70° C., a mixture of — and — -methyl adipic acids is obtained (W. Markownikoff, Ann., 1905, 336, p. 299). It can be transformed into the isomeric methyl-i-cydo-hexanone-2 (O. Wallach, Ann., 1904, 329, p. 368). For methyl-i-cydo-hexanone-4, obtained by distilling •y-methyl pimelate with lime, see O. Wallach, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 1492. Cydo-hexane-dione-l-3 (dihydroresorcin), C«H802, was obtained by G. Merling (Ann., 1894, 278, p. 28) by reducing resorcin in hot alcoholic solution with sodium amalgam. Cydo-hexane-dione- 1 -4 is obtained by the hydrolysis of succino-succinic ester. On reduction it yields quinite. It combines with benzaldehyde, in the presence of hydrochloric acid, to form 2-benzyl-hydroquinone. Cyclo- hexane-trione-i-3-5 (phloroglucin) is obtained by the fusion of many resins and of resorcin with caustic alkali. It may be prepared synthetically by fusing its dicarboxylic ester (from malonic ester and sodio malonic ester at 145° C.) with potash (C. W. Moore, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, p. 165). It crystallizes in prisms, which melt at 218° C. With ferric chloride it gives a dark violet coloration. It exhibits tautomerization, since in many of its reactions it shows the properties of a hydroxylic substance. Rhodizonic acid (dioxydiquinoyl), C6H2O6, is probably the enolic form of an pxypentaketo-cycfo-hexane. It is formed by the reduction of triquinoyl by aqueous sulphurous acid, or in the form of its potassium salt by washing potassium hexa-oxybenzene with alcohol (R. Nietzki, Ber., 1885, 18, pp. 513, 1838). Triquinoyl (hexaketp-cyc/o-hexane) CeOe-8H2O, is formed on oxidizing rhodi- zonic acid or hexa-oxybenzene. Stannous chloride reduces it to hexa-oxybenzene, and when boiled with water it yields croconic acid (dioxy-cydo-pentene-trione) . Cydo-hexenones. — Two types of ketones are to be noted in this group, namely the o/3 and jS-y ketones, depending upon the position of the double linkage in the molecule, thus: .CH2:CH ,CH-CH,V H2C< \CO HCf >CO N:H2-CH,/ N:H2-CH/ These two classes show characteristic differences in properties. For example, on reduction with zinc and alcoholic potash, the off compounds give saturated ketones and also bi-molecular compounds, the /S? being unaffected; the 0-y series react with hydroxylamine in a normal manner, the aft yield oxamino-oximes. Melhyl-i-cydo-hexene-i-one-z, CHj-CjHvO, is obtained by condens- ing sodium aceto-acetate with methylene iodide, the ester so formed being then hydrolysed. Isocamphorphorone, C9HuO, is trimethyl i-6-6.-cyc/o-hexene-i-one 6. Isocamphor, Ci0Hi6O, is methyl-l- isopropyl-3-cyc/o-hexene-i-one 6. Acids. — Hexahydrobenzoic acid, C«Hn'CO2H, is obtained by the reduction of benzole acid, or by the condensation of 1-5 dibrompen- tane with disodio-malonic ester. It crystallizes in small plates which melt at 30-31° C. and boil at 232-233° C. (J. C. Lumsden, Journ. Chem. _Soc., 1905, 87, p. 90). The sulphochloride of the acid on reduction with tin and hydrochloric acid gives hexahydrothiophenol, C«HnSH, a colourless oil which boils at 158-160° C. (W. Borsche, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 392). Quinic acid, C«H7(OH)4CO2H (tetra-oxy-cyc/o-hexane carboxylic acid), is found in coffee beans and in quinia bark. It crystallizes in colourless prisms and is optically active. When heated to about 250° C. it is transformed into quinide, probably a lactone, which on heating with baryta water gives an inactive quinic acid. Hexahydrophthalic acids, C«Hio(COsH)2 (cyc/o-hexanedicarboxylic acids). — Three acids of this group are known, containing the Carb- oxyl-groups in the 1-2, 1-3, and 1-4 positions, and each exists in two tereo-isomeric forms (CM- and trans-). The anhydride of theciVi-2 POLYMETHYLENES A2 and A* TETRAHYDRO^- ' I Heat A 1 TETEAHYDRO Hydrobromidf OH reduction HEXAHYDRO acid, obtained by heating the anhydride of the trans-acid, forms prisms which melt at 192° C. When heated with hydrochloric acid it passes into the /rani-variety. The racemic trans-acid is produced by the reduction of the dihydrobromide of A4-tetrahydrophthalic acid or A2'6 dihydrophthalic acid. It is split into its active components by means of its quinine salt (A. Werner and H. E. Conrad, Ber., *899, 32, p. 3046). Hexahydroisophtholic acids (cyc/o-hexane-l'3- dicarboxylic acids) are obtained by the action of methylene iodide on disodio-pentane tetracarboxylic ester (W. H. Perkin, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1891, 59, p. 798); by the action of trimethylene bromide on disodio-propane tetracarboxylic ester ; and by the reduction of isophthalic acid with sodium amalgam, the tetrahydro acids first formed being converted into hydrobromides and further reduced (A. v. Baeyer and V. Villiger, Ann., 1893, 276, p. 255). The cis- and trans- forms can be separated by means of their sodium salts. The (rani-acid is a racemic compound, which on heating with acetyl chloride gives the anhydride of the cii-acid. Hexahydroterephthalic acids (cydo-hexane-l-4-dicarboxylic acids). These acids are obtained by the reduction of the hydrobromides of the di- and tetra-hydroterephthalic acids or by the action of ethylene dibromide on disodio-butane tetracarboxylic acid. An important derivative is succino-succinic acid, C6H6O2(CO2H)2, or cyc/o-hexane- dione-2>5-dicarboxylic acid-1'4, which is obtained as its ester by the action of sodium or sodium ethylate on succinic ester (H. Fehling, Ann., 1844, 49, p. 192; F. Hermann, Ann., 1882, 211, p. 306). It crystallizes in needles or prisms, and dissolves in alcohol to form a bright blue fluorescent liquid, which on the addition of ferric chloride becomes cherry red. The acid on heating loses COa and gives cye/o-hexanedione-1'4. Tetrahydrobenzoic acid (cyc/o-hexene- I -carboxy lie acid- 1 ) , C6H9- COjH . Three structural isomers are possible. The A1 acid results on boiling the A2 acid with alkalis, or on eliminating hydro- bromic acid from i-brom-cyc/o-hexane- carboxylic acid- 1. The A2 acid is formed on the reduction of benzoic acid with sodium amalgam. The A3 acid is obtained by eliminating the elements of water from 4-oxy-cyc/o-hexane-i-carb- oxylic acid (W. H. Perkin, iun., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, p. 431). Shikimic acid (3-4'6-trioxy-A1-tetrahydrobenzoic acid) is found in the fruit of Illicium religiosum. On fusion with alkalis it yields para-oxybenzoic acid, and nas- cent hydrogen reduces it to hydro- shikimicacid. Sedanolic acid, CiaH^Os, which is found along with sedanonic acid, C^HigOa, in the higher boiling fractions of celery oil, is an ortho- oxyamyl-A6-tetrahydrobenzoic acid, sedanonic acid being ortho- valeryl-A'-tetrahydrobenzoic acid(G. Ciamician and P. Silber, Ber., 1897, 30, pp. 492, 501, 1419 seq.). Sedanolic acid readily decom- poses into water and its lactone sedanolid, Ci2Hi8O2, the odorous constituent of celery oil. Telrahydrophthalic acids (cycfo-hexene dicarboxylic acids), C6HS(CO2H)2. Of the ortho-series four acids are known. The A1 acid is obtained as its anhydride by heating the A2 acid to 220° C., or by distilling hydropyromellitic acid. Alkaline potassium permanganate oxidizes it to adipic acid. The A2 acid is formed along with the A4 acid by reducing phthalic acid with sodium amalgam in hot solutions. The A4 acid exists in cis- and trans- forms. The /raws-variety is produced by reducing phthalic acid, and the cis-acid by reducing A2'4 dihydrophthalic acid. In the meta-series, four acids are also known. The A2 acid is formed along with the A4 (cis) acid by reducing isophthalic acid. The trans A4 acid is formed by heating the m-acid with hydrochloric acid under pressure. The A3 acid is formed when the anhydride of tetrahydro rimesic acid is distilled (W. H. Perkin, junr., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, p. 293). In the para-series, three acids are known. The A1 acid is formed by the direct reduction of terephthalic acid; by boiling the A2 acid with caustic soda; and by the reduction (in the heat) of A1'4 dihydro- terephthalic acid. The A2 acid exists in cis- and trans- forms; these are produced simultaneously in the reduction of A1'* or A1'6 dihydro- terephthalic acids by sodium amalgam. There are five possible dihydrobenzoic acids. One was obtained in the form of its amide by the reduction of benzamide in alkaline solution with sodium amalgam (A. Hutchinson, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 177). The A1'* acid is obtained on oxidizing dihydrobenzalde- hyde with silver oxide or by the reduction of meta-trimethyl- aminobenzoic acid (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 1859). Of the dihydrophthalic acids, five are known in the ortho-series, two of which are stereo-isomers of the cis- and trans-type, and a similar number are knbwn in the para-series. The A1'4 acid is obtained as its anhydride by heating A2'4 dihydrophthalic anhydride with acetic anhydride. When boiled with caustic soda it isomerizes to a mixture of the A2'4 and A2's dihydrophthalic acids. The A2'4 acid is obtained by boiling the dihydrobromide of the A2'6 acid with alcoholic potash or by continued boiling of the A2'6 acid with caustic soda. The A2'6 acid is formed when phthalic acid is reduced in the cold by sodium amalgam or by heating the A2'4 and A3'5 acids with caustic soda. The (raws- modification of A3'5 acid is produced when phthalic acid is reduced by sodium amalgam in the presence of acetic acid. When heated for some time with acetic anhydride it changes to the cis-iorm. The trans-acid has been resolved by means of its strychnine salts into two optically active isomerides, both of which readily pass to A2'6 dihydrophthalic acid (A. Neville, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1906, 89, p. 1744). Of the dihydroterephthalic acids, the A1'3 acid is obtained by heat- ing the dibromide of the A2 tetrahydro acid with alcoholic potash. It cannot be prepared by a direct reduction of terephthalic acid. On warming with caustic soda it is converted into the A1'4 acid. TheA1'4 acid is also obtained by the direct reduction of terephthalic acid. It is the most stable of the dihydro acids. The A1 5 acid is obtained by boiling the cis- andirons-A2'6 acids with water, which are obtained on reducing terephthalic acid with sodium amalgam in faintly alka- line solution. The relationships existing between the various hydrophthalic acids may be shown as follows: — Sodium amalgam (hot) Sodium amalgam + acetic acid PHTHALIC ACID Sodium Sodium amalgam (cold) amalgam (hot) • A 2-6 DIHYDRO Alkali Eydrobromide with alcoholic potash A3-5 DIHYDRO (TRANS.) J, Acetic anhydride A3-5 DIHYDRO (cis.) A2'4 DIHYDRO Anhydride with acetic anhydride AH DIHYDRO Isetttmm amalgam Sodium amalgam in faintly alkaline solution Sodium Boil with I A2-6 DlHYDRO amalgam (hot) water ( A 1-5 DlflYDRO 1 Sodium amalgam „ -. , Kan rj A 2 TETRAHYDRO- >A 1 TETRAHYDRO Reduce Dibromide 4- alcoholic potash Remove H Br from I Hydrobromifc on reduction dibromide -HEXAHYDRO Cyclo-heptane Croup. Cyclo-heptane (suberane), C7Hi4, obtained by the reduction of suberyl iodide, is a liquid which boils at 117° C. On treatment with bromine in the presence of aluminium bromide it gives chiefly pentabromtoluene. When heated with hydriodic acid to 230° C. acid thick _ _ reduction of suberyl bromide. Cyc\o-heptene, C^Hu, is obtained by the action of alcoholic potash on suberyl iodide; and from eyc/o-heptane carboxylic acid, the amide of which by the action of sodium hypobromite is converted into cyc/o-heptanamine, which, in its turn, is destructively methylated (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1901, 34, 131). Cyclo-heptadiene 1-3, C7H10, is obtained from cyc/o-heptene (Willstatter, loc. cit.). It is identical with the hydrotropilidine, which results by the destructive methyla- tion of tropane. Euterpene (trimethyl-i-4-4-cyc/o-heptadiene I -5), CioHie is prepared from dihydroeucarveol. By the action of hydrobromic acid (in glacial acetic acid solution) and reduction of the resulting product it yields l-2-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene (A. v. Baeyer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2075). Cyc\o-heptatriene (tropilidine), C7H8, is formed on dis- tilling tropine with baryta; and from cyc/o-heptadiene by forming its addition product with bromine and heating this with quinoline to 150-160° C. (R. Willstatter, loc. cit.). Chromic acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid and benzaldehyde. With bromine it forms a di- bromide, which then heated to IIO° C. decomposes into hydro- bromic acid and benzyl bromide, Cyclo-heptanol, CiHupH, is formed by the reduction of suberone, and by the action of silver nitrite on the hydrochloride of cyclo- hexanamine (N. Demjanow, Centralblatt, 1904, i. p. 1214). Cyc\o-heptanone (suberone), CyH^O, is formed on the dis- tillation of suberic acid with lime, and from o-brom-cyc/o-heptane carboxylic acid by treatment with baryta and subsequent distilla- tion over lead peroxide (R. Willstatter, Ber.. -1898, 31, p. 2507). It is a colourless liquid having a peppermint odour, and boiling at I78'5-I79'5° C. Nitric acid oxidizes it to n-pimelic acid. POLYNESIA 33 Tropilene, CjHioO, is obtained in small quantities by the distillation of a-methyltropine methyl hydroxide, and by the hydrolysis of 0- im-thyltropidine with dilute hydrochloric acid. It is an oily liquid, with an odour resembling that of benzaldehyde. It forms a benzal compound, and gives an oyxmethylene derivative and cannot be oxidized to an acid, reactions which point to it being a ketone con- taining the grouping -CH,-CO-. It is thus to be regarded as a cyc/o-heptene-i-one-7. Cyc\o-heptane carboxylic acid (suberanic acid), CrHuCOjH, is obtained by the reduction of cyc/o-heptene-i-carboxylic acid; from brom-cyc/o-heptane by the Grignard reaction; and by the re- duction of hydrotropilidine carboxylic acid by sodium in alcoholic solution (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2504^. The corresponding oxyacid is obtained by the hydrolysis of the nitrile, which is formed by the addition of hydrocyanic acid to suberone (A. Spiegel, Ann., 1882, 211, p. 117). Four cy«o-heptene carboxylic acids are known. Cyc\o-heptene-i- carboxylic acid-l is prepared from oxysuberanic acid. This acid when heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid to 120-^130° C. yields a chlor-acid, which on warming with alcoholic potash is trans- formed into the cye/o-heptene compound. Cyc\o~heptene-2-carboxylic acid-l is formed by the reduction of cyc/o-heptatriene 2-4-6-carb- oxylic acid-l. On boiling with caustic soda it isomerizes to the corresponding l-acid. Cyc\o-heptatriene carboxylic acids, CiHjCOtH. All four are known. According to F. Buchner (Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2242) they may be represented as follows : — aiWorji. The a-acid (a-isophenylacetic acid) is obtained by the hydrolysis of pseudophenylacetamide, formed by condensing diazoacetic ester with benzene, the resulting pseudophenyl acetic ester being then left in contact with strong ammonia for a long time. 0-Isophenylacetic acid is formed by strongly heating pseudophenylacetic ester in an air-free sealed tube and hydrolysing the resulting 0-isophenyIacetic ester. y-Isophenylacetic acid is obtained by heating the 0 and & acids for a long time with alcoholic potash (A. Einhorn, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 2828; E. Buchner, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2249). d-Isophenyl- acetic acid is obtained by heating the iodmethylate of anhydro- ecgonine ester with dilute caustic soda (A. Einhorn, Ber., 1893, 26, P- 329). Numerous ammo-derivatives of the cyclo-heptane series have been prepared by R. Willstatter in the course of his investigations on the constitution of tropine (g.v.). Amino-cyclo-heptane (suberylamine) is obtained by the reduction of suberone oxime or by the action of sodium hypobromite on the amide of cycloheptane carboxylic acid. Cyc\o-octane Croup. Few members of this group are known. By the distillation of the calcium salt of azelaic acid H. Mayer (Ann., 1893, 275, p. 363) obtained azelain ketone, C8HUO, a liquid of peppermint odour. It boils at 90-91° C. (23 mm.) and is readily oxidized by potassium permanganate to oxysuberic acid. It is apparently cyc/o-octanone (see also W. Miller and A. Tschitschkin, Centralblatt, 1899, 2., p. 181). Pseudopelletierine (methyl granatonine), C8Hi6NO, an alkaloid of the pomegranate, is a derivative of cyc/o-octane, and resembles tropine in that it contains a nitrogen bridge between two carbon atoms. It is an inactive base, and also has ketonic properties. On oxidation it yields methyl granatic ester, which, by the exhaustive methylation process, is converted into homopipcrylene dicarboxvlic ester, HO,C-CH:CH CH, CHa CH:CH-COSH, from which suberic acid may be obtained on reduction. When reduced in alcoholic solution by means of sodium amalgam it yields methyl granatoline, CsHnOH-NCHj; this substance, on oxidation with cold potassium permanganate, is converted into granatoline, C8HuNO, which on listillation over zinc dust yields pyridine. Methyl granatoline on treatment with hydriodic acid and red phosphorus, followed by caustic potash, yields methyl granatinine, C9Hi6N, which when heated with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to 240° C. is converted into methyl granatanine, C8HU.NCH3, and granatanine, C8HUNH. The hydrochloride of the latter base when distilled over zinc dust yields o-propyl pyridine. By the electrolytic reduction of pseudopellet- icrine, W-methyl granatanine is obtained, and this by exhaustive methylation is converted into A Mes-dimethyl granatanine. This Uter compound readily forms an iodmethylate, which on treatment with silver oxide yields the corresponding ammonium hydroxide. The ammonium hydroxide on distillation decomposes into trimethyl- amine, water and cyc/o-octadiene I -3. CH.CH— CH, CH.NMe CO - CH.CH— CH, Pseudopelletierine CH2CH— CH, >CH,NMe CH, CH.-CH— CH, JV-methyl granatanine CH, — CH— CH, -»CH,HO NMe,CH, CH, CH— CH, CH.CH— CH, CH, CH— CH, CH,CH:CH CH, NMe CH,<-CH,HO NMe,CH^-CH, CH CH,CH = CH CH, — CH = CH CH, CH, CH A-4<i«-methyl cyc/o-octadiene granatanine Cyclo-octadiene, C»Hi,, as above prepared, is a strong-smelling oil which decolorizes potassium permanganate solution instantaneously. It readily polymerizes to a di-eyc/o-octadiene and polymer (CgHuJ. (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1905, 38, pp. 1975, 1984; G. Ciamician and P. Silber, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 2750; A. Piccinini, Cazz., 1902, 32, I p. 260). P-cyclo-octadicne has been prepared from methyl granatinine iodmethylate. Cycle-octane, C«H,« is obtained by the reduction of the above unsaturated hydrocarbon by the Sabatier and Senderens's method. It is a liquid which boils at 146-3-148° C. and possesses a strong camphor odour. On oxidation it yields suberic acid (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1907, 40, pp. 957). O. Doebner (Ber., 1902, 35, pp. 2129, 2.538; 1903, 36, p. 4318) obtained compounds, which in all probabi- lity are cyc/o-octadienes, by the distillation of /3-vinylacrylic acid, sorbic acid, and cinnamenyl acrylic acid with anhydrous baryta. Cyclo-nowone Croup. According to N. Zelinsky (Ber., 1907, 40, p. 780) cyclononanone, CjHi.O, a liquid boiling at 95797° C., is formed on distilling sebacic acid with lime, and from this, by reduction to the corresponding; secondary alcohol, conversion of the latter into the iodide, and subsequent reduction of this with zinc, cyclo-nonane, C»H[8, a liquid boiling at 170-172° C. is obtained. POLYNESIA, (Gr. TroXw, many, and wjtros, island), a term sometimes used to cover the whole of the oceanic islands in the central and western Pacific, but properly for the eastern of the three great divisions of these islands. The chief groups thus included are Hawaii, the Ellice, Phoenix, Union, Manihiki and Marquesas groups, Samoa and Tonga, the Cook, Society, Tubuai and Tuamotu groups, and many other lesser islands. (See PACIFIC OCEAN, section on Island, and separate articles on the principal groups, &c.) The Polynesian Race. — For the ethnological problems offered by Polynesia no thoroughly satisfactory solutions have yet been found. By some the term Polynesian has been treated as a synonym for Malayo-Polynesian, and has been made to include all the brown races of Malaysia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. Linguistically, physically and mentally this view is untenable. Whatever be the origin of the Polynesians, they are not Malays, though, themselves of mixed blood, they have probably certain racial elements in common with the latter, who are undoubtedly hybrids. There is every reason to be- lieve that the Polynesians are ethnologically a far older race than the Malays, who, as they now exist, are a comparatively modern people; and thus Friedrich Muller's and D. G. Brinton's theory, that they form a branch of the Malays, fails. Joseph Deniker declares the Polynesians a separate ethnic group of the Indo-Pacific area, and in this view he is followed by A. H. Keane, who suggests that they are a branch of the Caucasic division of mankind who possibly migrated in the Neolithic period from the Asiatic mainland. Of the migration itself no doubt is now felt, but the first entrance of the Polynesians into the Pacific must have been an event so remote that neither by tradition nor otherwise can it be even approximately fixed. The journey of these Caucasians would naturally be in stages. Their earliest halting place was probably the Malay Archi- pelago, where a few of their kin linger in the Mentawi Islands on the west coast of Sumatra. Thence at a date within historic times a migration eastward took place. The absence of San- skrit roots in the Polynesian languages appears to indicate that this migration was in pre-Sanskritic times. Whether anything like a definite date can be fixed for it may well be questioned. Abraham Fornander1 has, however, with great probability, traced back the history of the Hawaiians to the 5th century. He has studied the folk-lore of those islands exhaustively, and from this source comes to the conclusion that the Polynesian migration from the Indian Archipelago may be approximately assigned to the close of the ist or to the 2nd century. The traditions of many of the Polynesian peoples tend to make Savaii, the largest of the Samoan Islands, their ancestral home in the East Pacific, and linguistic and other evidence goes to 1 An Account of the Polynesian Race (1878), i. 168. xxn. 2 34 POLYNESIA support the theory that the first Polynesian settlement in the East Pacific was in Samoa, and that thence the various branches of the race made their way in all directions. Most likely Sarrtoa was the first group permanently occupied by them. Owing to the admixture of the Polynesians with the Papuans in Fiji some authorities have thought the first settlement was in those islands, and that the settlers were eventually driven thence by the Papuan occupiers. We can, however, account for the presence of Polynesian blood in Fiji in another way, viz. by the intercourse that has been kept up between the people of Tonga and Fiji. If the first resting-place of the Polynesians was in that group, there is good reason to believe that Samoa was the first permanent home of the race. It used to be doubted whether these people could have gone from the Indian archipelago so far eastward, because the pre- vailing winds and currents are from the east. But it is now well known that at times there are westerly winds in the region over which they would have to travel, and that there would be no insuperable difficulties in the way of such a voyage. The Poly- nesians are invariably navigators. There is ample evidence that in early times they were much better seamen than they are at present. Indeed their skill in navigation has greatly declined since they have become known to Europeans. They used to construct decked vessels capable of carrying one or two hundred persons, with water and stores sufficient for a voyage of some weeks duration. These vessels were made of planks well fitted and sewn together, the joints being caulked and pitched.1 It is only in recent times that the construction of such vessels has ceased. The people had a knowledge of the stars, of the rising and setting of the constellations at different seasons of the year; by this means they determined the favourable season for making a voyage and directed their course. The Polynesians were by no means a savage people when they entered the Pacific. Indeed their elaborate historical legends show that they possessed a considerable amount of civilization. Those who are familiar with these legends, and have studied native manners and customs, see many unmis- takable proofs that the Polynesians had, at their migration, considerable knowledge and culture, and that the race has greatly deteriorated. The Polynesians are physically a very fine race. On some islands they average 5 ft. 10 in. in height. De Quatrefages, in a table giving the stature of different races of men,2 puts the natives of Samoa and Tonga as the tallest people in the world. He gives 5 ft. 9-92 in. as their average height. They are well developed in proportion to their height. Their colour is a brown, lighter or darker generally according to the amount of their exposure to the sun — being darker on some of the atolls where the people spend much time in fishing, and among fishermen on the volcanic islands, and lighter among women, chiefs and others less exposed than the bulk of the people. Their hair is dark brown or black; smooth and curly, very different from the frizzly mop of the Papuan or the lank straight locks of the Malay. They have very little beard. Their features are gen- erally fairly regular and often beautiful; eyes invariably black, and in some persons oblique; jaws not projecting, except in a few instances; lips of medium thickness; the noses are naturally long, well shaped and arched, but many are artificially flat- tened at the bridge in infancy. Their foreheads are fairly high, but rather narrow. The young of both sexes are good-looking. The men often have more regular features than the women. Formerly the men paid more attention to personal appearance than the women. Polynesians generally are of singularly cleanly habits, love bathing, and have a taste for neatness and order. Their clothing is simple: a loin cloth for the men and for the women a girdle or petticoat of leaves. Sometimes women cover the shoulders, and. on great occasions the men robe themselves in tapa, bark-cloth. The men are usually 1 Coco-nut fibre and the gum which exudes from the bread-fruit tree are generally used for " caulking " and " pitching " canoes. 2 The Human Species (International Scientific Series), pp. 57-60. tattooed in elaborate designs from the navel to the thigh, and often around mouth and eyes. As a race the Polynesians are somewhat apathetic. An enervating climate and lavish natural resources incline them to lead easy lives. On the more barren islands, and on those more distant from the equator, they show more energy. Under certain circumstances they become excitable, and manifest a kind of care-for-nothing spirit. As savages they were strict in their religious observances and religion came into almost every action of life, and they have been, in most instances, easily led to accept Christianity. Their essential trait is their per- ennial cheerfulness, and their fondness for dance and song and every sort of amusement.3 They are shrewd, intelligent and possess much common sense. Where they have from early years enjoyed the advantages of a good education, Polynesian youths have proved themselves to possess intellectual powers of no mean order. They are almost invariably fluent speakers; with many of them oratory seems to be a natural gift; it is also carefully cultivated. An orator will hold the interest of his hearers for hours together at a political gathering, and in his speech he will bring in historical allusions and precedents, and will make apt quotations from ancient legends in a manner which would do credit to the best parliamentary orators. Many of them are very brave, and think little of self-sacrifice for others where duty or family honour is concerned. Polynesian society is divided into the family and the clan. Each clan has a name which is usually borne by one of the oldest members, who is the chief or head for the time being. This clan system no doubt generally prevailed in early times, and was the origin of the principal chieftainships. But changes have been made in most of the islands. In some the head of one clan has become king over several. In many cases large clans have been divided into sections under secondary heads, and have even been subdivided. As a rule near relations do not intermarry. In some islands this rule is rigidly adhered to. There have been exceptions, however, especially in the case of high chiefs; but usually great care is taken to prevent the union of those within the prescribed limits of con- sanguinity. Children generally dwell with their kin on the father's side, but they have : equal rights on the mother's side, and sometimes they take up their abode with their mother's family. The only names used to express particular relationships are father and mother, son and daughter, brother and sister. There is usually no distinction between brothers (or sisters) and cousins, all the children of brothers and sisters speak of each other as brothers and sisters, and they call uncles and aunts fathers and mothers. Above the relationship of parents all are simply ancestors, no term being used for grandfather which would not equally apply to any more remote male ancestor. In the same way there is no distinctive term for grandchild. A man speaks of his grandchild as his son or daughter, or simply as his child.4 Polygamy was often practised, especially by chiefs, and also concubinage. In some places a widow was taken by the brother of her deceased husband, or, failing the brother, by some other relative of the deceased, as an additional wife. Divorce was an easy matter, and of frequent occurrence; but, as a rule, a divorced wife would not marry again without the consent of her former husband. An adulterer was always liable to be killed by the aggrieved husband, or by some member of his clan. If the culprit himself could not be reached, any member of the clan was liable to suffer in his stead. In some islands female virtue was highly regarded. Perhaps of all the groups Samoa stood highest in this respect. There was a special ordeal through which a bride passed to prove her virginity, and a proof of her immorality brought disgrace upon all her relatives. But in other islands there was much freedom in the relations of the sexes. Owing to the almost promis- cuous intercourse which prevailed among a portion of the race, in some groups titles descended through the mother and not through the father. In Hawaii there was a peculiar system of marriage 8 Wrestling and boxing, a kind of hockey and football, canoe and foot races, walking-matches, swimming, archery, cockfighting, fishing-matches and pigeon-catching are among their pastimes. Of indoor games they have a number, many being of a gambling nature. Much time is spent, especially after the evening meal, in asking riddles, in rhyming, &c. The recital of songs and myths is a common amusement, and on special occasions there is dancing. The night-dances were generally accompanied by much indecency and immorality. 4 Dr Lewis H. Morgan, in Ancient Society, pp. 419-423, makes the Polynesians to have distinctive terms for grandfather, grandmother, grandson and granddaughter. In this he is mistaken. It is evident from his own lists that the Hawaiian kupuna means simply an ancestor. In like manner moopuna simply means a descendant of any generation after the first. POLYNESIA 35 relationship," brothers with their wives, and sisters with their InislMiids, possessing each other in common." There also, especially in i In- rase of chiefs and chieftainesses, brothers and sisters some- times intermarried. But these customs did not prevail in other Croups. It is almost certain that they did not prevail in Hawaii in times, hut that they were the result of that deterioration in the which their traditions and many of their customs indicate.1 Women have always occupied a relatively high position among i In Polynesians. In most groups they have great influence and are ire.iieil \viih much respect. In some cases they take hereditary titles and hold high offices. As among their congeners in Mada- ;r, so also in parts of Polynesia, there may be a queen or a chief- ^s in her own right ; and a woman in high position will command as much respect, and will exercise as great authority, as a man would in the same position. Everywhere infanticide prevailed; in some of the smaller islands it was regulated by law in order to prevent population. It was also a very common practice to destroy foetus, but parents were affectionate towards their children. Tlu- practice of adopting children was, and still is, common. Often there is an exchange made between members of the same clan; but sometimes there is adoption from without. Tattooing generally prevailed among the men, different patterns being followed in differ- ent groups of islands. In some a larger portion of the body is tattooed than in others. A youth was considered to be in his minority until he was tattooed, and in former times he would have no chance of marrying until he had, by submitting to this process, proved himself to be a man. Puberty in the other sex was generally marked by feasting, or some other demonstration, among the female friends. Old age is generally honoured. Often an inferior chief will give up his title to a younger man, yet he himself will lose but little by so doing. The neglect of aged persons is extremely rare. Property belonging to a clan is held in common. Each clan usually possesses land, and over this no one member has an exclusive right, but all have an equal right to use it. The chief or recognized head of the clan or section alone can properly dispose of it or assign its use for a time to an outsider; and even he is expected to obtain the consent of the heads of families before he alienates the property. Thus land is handed down through successive generations under the nominal control of the recognized head of the clan. Changes have been made in many islands in this respect; but there can be little reason to doubt that the joint ownership of property in clans was common among the entire race in former times. In early times the head of each clan was supreme among his own people, but in all matters he had associated with him the principal men or heads of families in the clan. Their united authority extended over all the members and the possessions of the clan, and they were independent of every other clan. There are in places vestiges of this primitive state of society still remaining ; the transition to a limited or to a despotic monarchy may be traced by means of the ancient legends in some islands, and in others it is a matter of recent history. One clan being more numerous and stronger than another, and its chief being ambitious, it is easy to see how by conquering a neighbouring clan he increased the import- ance of his clan and extended his own power. In some of the islands this transition process has hardly yet developed into an absolute monarchy. We may even see two or three stages of the progress. In one instance a certain clan has the right to nominate the principal chief over an entire district; though it is known as the ruling clan, its rule is mainly confined to this nomination, and to decision for or against war. In all other respects the district enjoys the privilege of self-government. In another case the nominal king over a dis- trict, or over an entire island, can be elected only from among the members of a certain clan, the monarchy being elective within that alone; but this king has little authority. In other cases a more despotic monarchy has grown up — the prowess of one man leading to the subjugation of other clans. Even in this case the chiefs or 1 Morgan has founded one of his forms of family — the consanguine — on the supposed existence in former times among the Malays and Polynesians of the custom of " intermarriage of brothers and sisters, own and collateral, in a group." All the evidence he finds in support of this is (i) the existence of the custom above mentioned in Hawaii ; and (2) the absence of special terms for the relationship of uncle, aunt and cousin, this indicating, he thinks, that these were regarded as fathers, mothers, brothers and sisters. He admits that " the usages with respect to marriage which prevailed when the system was formed may not prevail at the present time." But he adds, " To sustain the deduction it is not necessary that they should " Ancient Society, p. 408). Morgan has given special terms for grand- father and grandmother, because it would prove too much to show that the people had no grandfathers, &c. But these terms are used for ancestors of any generation. The terms used for grandchildren, in like manner, are used for any generation of descendants. He says (p. 406) the terms of husband and wife are used in common by a group of sisters or brothers, but the fact is that the words used for husband and wife in Hawaii simply mean male and female. In some islands there are terms used for wife in the most strict sense. The word wife is not used more exclusively among us than among some Polynesian people. heads of clans sometimes still hold their property and rule over their own people, only rendering a kind of feudal service and paying tribute to the king. The Polynesians are exceedingly fond of rank and of titles. Much deference is paid to chiefs and to persons of rank; and special terms are generally employed in addressing these. Every part of a chief's body and all his belongings have names different from those employed for common people. The grade of rank which a person occupies will often be indicated by the language in which he is addressed. Thus, in Samoa there are four different terms for to come: sau is for a common man; tnaliu mat is a respectful term for a person without a title; susu mai for a titled chief; and afio mai for a member of the royal family. In addressing chiefs, or others to whom one wishes to be respectful, the singular number of the personal pronoun is rarely used; the dual is employed instead, — the dual of dignity or of respect. Offices and titles are seldom hereditary in our sense of the term, as descending from father to son. They are rather elective within the limits of the clan, or the division of a clan. A common practice is for the holder of a high title to nominate a successor; and his nomination is generally confirmed by the chiefs, or heads of house- holds, with whom the right of election rests. In ancient times the authority of a high chief or king did not usually extend to any details of government. But in Hawaii there are traditions of a wise king who interested himself in promoting the social well-being of the people, and made good laws for their guidance.2 Usually all matters affecting a district or an island were settled by the chiefs of the district, while those of a single village were settled by a council consisting of the chiefs and heads of households in the village. In some islands each clan, or each village, would feel itself at liberty to make war on another clan or village without consulting the views of any higher authority. Indeed the rule was for each clan or dis- trict to settle its own affairs. In the case of offences against individuals, either the person injured, or another member of his clan, would avenge the injury done. For most offences there was some generally recognized punishment — such as death for murder or adultery; but often vengeance would fall upon another person instead of the wrongdoer. In avenging wrong, a member of the village or of the clan to which the offenqer belonged would serve equally well to satisfy their ideas of justice if the culprit himself could not be easily reached. Sometimes all the members of the family, or of a village, to_ which a culprit belonged would flee from their homes and take refuge in another village, or seek the protection of a powerful chief. In some places, in cases of crime, the members of the family or village would convey the culprit bound — sometimes even carrying him like a pig that is to be killed — and place him with apologies before those against whom he had transgressed. The ignominy of such a proceeding was generally considered sufficient atonement for the gravest offences. There were slaves in many islands, either persons conquered in war, or those who had been condemned to lose their personal liberty on account of evil conduct. Pottery was not manufactured by the Polynesians: a fact which, it has been argued, goes far to prove the remoteness of the Poly- nesian migration from the Malay Archipelago, where there is not a single tribe which does not possess the art. It may, however, be that, moving among small coral islands for scores of generations and thus without materials, they lost the art. Those of them who possessed pottery obtained it from the Papuans. In most of their manufactures they were, however, in advance of the Papuans. They made use of the vegetable fibres abounding in the islands, the women manufacturing cToth, chiefly from the bark of the paper mulberry (Morus papyrifera), but also in some islands from the bark of the bread-fruit tree and the hibiscus. This in former times furnished them with most of their clothing. They also made various kinds of mats, baskets and fans from the leaves of the pan- danus, the bark of the hibiscus, from species of bohmeria or other Urticaceous plants. Some of their mats are very beautifully made, and in some islands they are the most valuable property the people possess. The people also use the various fibre-producing plants for the manufacture of ropes, coarse string and fine cord, and for making fishing nets. The nets are often very large, and are netted with a needle and mesh as in hand-netting among ourselves. The Polynesians, who have always been entirely without metals, are clever workers in wood. Canoe and house building are trades usually confined to certain families. The large canoes in which they formerly made long voyages are no longer built, but various kinds of smaller canoes are made, from the commonest, which is simply a hollowed-out tree cut into form, to the finely shaped one built upon a keel, the joints of the various pieces being nicely fitted, and the whole stitched together with cord made from the husk of coco- nuts. Some of the larger canoes are ornamented with rude carving; and in some islands they are somewhat elaborately decorated with inlaid mother-of-pearl. The houses are generally well and elabor- ately made, but nearly all the ornamentation is put on the inside of the roof. They manufacture several wooden utensils for household use, s See a remarkable example in Fornander's Account of the Poly- nesian Race, ii. 89. POLYNESIA such as dishes or deep bowls, head-rests and stools. Having no metal or other vessels in which to boil water, all cooking is done by baking, generally in holes in the ground. They also make wooden gongs, or drums. They used to make wooden fishhooks, clubs, spears and bows. They still make wooden fishspears and carved and inlaid combs. They employ the bamboo for making drums and flutes. Formerly knives were made of bamboo, which is still some- times used for that purpose. In the manufacture of these things they employed adzes made of stone, shell or hard wood, and a wooden drill pointed with stone, shell or bone. They made mother-of-pearl fishhooks, and they still use a part of those old hooks — or artificial bait — in combination with steel hooks, the native-made portion being generally shaped like a small fish. For water-vessels, &c., they employ gourds and large coco-nut shells, in preparing which they pour in water and allow the pulp or the kernel to decay, so that it may be removed without breaking the rind or shell. Their drink- ing cups are made of half a coco-nut shell. Sharks' teeth, shells and bamboo were formerly generally used as cutting instruments for shaving and surgical operations. They employ vegetable dyes for painting their bark-cloth, calabashes, &c. In some islands they also use a red earth for this purpose. Their cloth is generally ornamented with geometrical patterns. Any drawings of animals, &c., which they make are exceedingly inartistic, and no attempt is made at perspective. Their musical instruments are few and rude — consisting of the drums and flutes already mentioned, and shell trumpets. The Polynesians were all polytheists. Without doubt many of their gods are deified men; but it is clear that some are the forces of Nature personified, while others appear to represent human passions which have become identified with particular persons who have an existence in their historical myths.1 But the conception which they had of Tangaloa (Taaroa and Kanaloa in some islands) is of a higher order. Among the Tahitians he was regarded as "the first and principal god, uncreated and existing from the beginning, or from the time he emerged from po, or the world of darkness."2 " He was said to be the father of all the gods, and creator of all things, yet was scarcely reckoned an object of worship."3 Dr Turner says, " the unrestricted, or unconditioned, may fairly be regarded as the name of this Samoan Jupiter."4 The worship of certain of the great gods was common to all the people in a group of islands. Others were gods of villages or of families, while others were gods of individuals. The gods of clans were probably the spirits of the ancestors in their own line. In some islands, when the birth of a child was expected, the aid of the gods of the family was invoked, beginning with the god of the father. The god prayed to at the instant of birth became the god of the child. In other places the name of the child's god was declared when the umbilical cord was severed. The gods were supposed to dwell in various animals, in trees, or even in inanimate objects, as a stone, a shell, &c. In some islands idols bearing more or less resem- blance to the human shape were made. But in all cases the material objects were regarded simply as the abodes of the immaterial spirits of the gods. Their temples were either national, for a single village, or for the god of a family. They were sometimes large stone enclosures (marae), sometimes a grove, or a house. The principal priests were a particular order, the priesthood being hereditary. In some cases, however, the father of a family was priest in his own household and presented offerings and prayers to the family god. In some islands human sacrifices were of frequent occurrence; in others they were offered only on very rare and exceptional occasions, when the demand was made by the priests for something specially valuable. The usual offerings to the gods were food. The system of taboo was connected with their religious rites. There were two ways by which things might become taboo: (i) by contact with anything belonging to the god, as his visible representation or his priest. Probably it was thought that a portion of the sacred essence of the god, or of a sacred person, was directly communicable to objects which they touched. (2) Things were made taboo by being dedicated to the god ; and it is this form of taboo which is still kept up. If, e.g., any one wishes to preserve his coco-nuts from being taken, he will put something upon the trees to indicate that they are sacred or dedicated. They cannot then be used until the taboo is removed. Disease and death were often connected with the violation of taboo, the offended gods thus punishing the offenders. Disease was generally attributed to the anger of the gods. Hence offerings, &c., were made to appease their anger. The first-fruits of a crop were usually dedicated to the gods to prevent them from being angry; and new canoes, fishing-nets, &c., were dedicated by prayers and offerings, in order that the gods might be propitious to their owners in their use. 1 The following books may be consulted on this subject : Rev. W. W. Gill's Myths and Songs from the South Pacific; Dr Turner's Samoa; and Mr Shortland's Maori Religion and Mythology; Sir George Grey, Polynesian Mythology. * Polynesian Researches i. 323. ' Tahitian Dictionary. * Samoa, p. 52. | The Polynesians invariably believe in the existence of the spirit of man after the death of the body. Their traditions on the condi- i tion of the dead vary considerably in different groups; yet there is a general agreement upon main points. Death is caused by the departure of the spirit from the body. The region of the dead is subterranean. When the spirit leaves the body it is conveyed by waiting spirits to the abode of spirits. In most islands the place of descent is known. It is generally towards the west. In some traditions there is a distinction between chief and common people in the spirit world. In others all are much alike in condition. Some traditions indicate a marked distinction between the spirits of warriors and those of others: the former go to a place where they are happy and are immortal, while the latter are devoured by the gods and are annihilated. In some, however, the spirits are said to live again after being eaten. Some speak of the abode of spirits as being in darkness; but usually the condition of things is similar to that which exists upon earth. Amongst all the people it is believed that the spirits of the dead are able to revisit the scenes of their earthly life. The visits are generally made in the night, and are often greatly dreaded, especially when there may be any supposed reason for spite on the part of the dead towards living relatives. Some writers have connected Polynesian cannibalism with religion. In the Cook and Society Islands, when a human being was offered as a sacrifice, the priest presented an eye of the victim to the king, who either ate it or pretended to do so. Probably the earliest human sacrifices were the bodies of enemies slain in battle. As it was supposed by some that the spirits of the dead were eaten by the gods, the bodies of those slain in battle may have been eaten by their victors in triumph. Mr Shortland appears to think that cannibalism among the Maories of New Zealand may have thus originated.6 Among the Polynesians generally it appears to have been the practice at times to eat a portion of a slain enemy to make his degradation the greater. But where cannibalism was practised as a means of subsistence, it probably originated in times of actual want, such as may have occurred during the long voyages of the people. The Polynesian race has been continuously, and in some places rapidly, decreasing since their first contact with Euro- peans. Doubts have been thrown on the current statements regarding the rate of decrease, which some good authorities believe to be not so great as is commonly represented. They hold that former estimates of the number of inhabitants in the various insular groups were mere guesswork. Thus it is pointed out that Cook's estimate of 240,000 for the Society Archipelago (Tahiti) was at the time reduced by his associate, Forster, to 150,000, so that the 300,000 credited by him to the Sandwich Islands should also be heavily discounted. That is probably true, and it may be admitted that, as a rule, the early calcula- tions erred on the side of excess. But when full allowance is made for all such exaggerations, the following facts will show that the decrease has been excessive. The Tahitians, 150,000 in 1774, fell from 17,000 in 1880 to 10,300 in 1899; and in this group, while the pure stock appears to be dying out, there is a small increase amongst the half-breeds. When New Zealand was occupied (1840) the Maori were said to number 120,000, and were doubtfully stated to be still 56,000 in 1857; since then the returns of the 1881 and 1891 censuses gave 44,000 and 40,000 respectively. During the last two decades of the igth century the decrease has been from 30,000 to 17,500 in Tonga; from 11,500 to 8400 in the Cook group; from 8000 to 3600 in Wallis; from 1600 to loo in Manahiki; from 1400 to 1000 in Tubuai; and from 600 to 100 in Easter Island. A general decline seems thus to be placed beyond doubt, though it may be questioned whether it is to be attributed to a decayed vitality, as some hold, or to external causes, as is the more general opinion. The prevalence of elephantiasis and the occurrence of leprosy, for instance, in Hawaii, would seem to point at least in some places to a racial taint, due perhaps to the unbridled licentiousness of past generations. On the other hand, such a decrease as has occurred in Tahiti and Tonga, can be accounted for only by an accumulation of outward causes, such as wars, massacres, and raidings for the Australian and South American labour mar- kets before this traffic was suppressed or regulated. Other destructive agencies were epidemics, such especially as measles and small-pox, which swept away 30,000 Fijians in 1875; the introduction of strong drinks, including, besides vile spirits, a most pernicious concoction brewed in Tahiti from oranges; 6 Maori Religion and Mythology, p. 26. POLYP— POLYPHEMUS 37 the too sudden adoption of European clothing, rendering the body supersensitive to changes of temperature; lastly, the action of over-zealous missionaries in suppressing the dances, merry- making and free joyous life of pagan times, and the preaching of a sombre type of Christianity, with deadening effects on the buoyant temperament of thes» children of Nature. Most of these abuses have been checked or removed, and the results may perhaps be detected in a less accelerated rate of decline, which no longer proceeds in geometric proportion, and seems even almost arrested in some places, as in Samoa and New Zealand. If such be indeed the case, perhaps the noblest of all primitive races may yet be saved from what at one time seemed inevitable extinction; and the Maori, the Samoans, and Tahi- tians may, like the Hawaiians, take their place beside the Europeans as free citizens of the various states of which they are now subjects. AUTHORITIES. — Jean L. A. de Quatrefages, Les Polyntsiens et leur migrations (Paris, 1866) ; G. "Burner, Nineteen Years in Polynesia (London, 1861); Pierre Adolphe Lesson, Les Polynesiens, leur origins, &c. (Paris, 1880-1884); Henri Mager, Le Monde polynesien (Paris, 1902); Maximilien Albert H. A. Le Grand, Au pays des Canaques (Paris, 1893); Sir George Grey, Polynesian Mythology (London, 1855); T. A. Moerenhout, Voyages aux ties du Grand Ocean, &c. (Paris, 1837); Abraham Fornander, An Account of the Polynesian Race (1878). The account given above reproduces the main descriptive passages in the Rev. S. J. Whitmee's article in the 9th ed. of the Ency. Brit. POLYP, the name given by zoologists to the form of animal especially characteristic of the subphylum Cnidaria of the Coelentera (q.v.). In the subdivision Anthozoa, comprising the sea-anemones and corals, the individual is always a polyp; in the Hydrozoa, however, the individual may be either a polyp or a medusa (?.».). A good example of a polyp may be seen in a common sea-anemone or in the well-known fresh-water polyp, Hydra (fig. i). The body may be roughly compared in structure to a sac, the wall of which is composed of two layers of cells. The outer layer is known technically as the ectoderm, the inner layer as the endoderm. Between ectoderm and endoderm is a supporting layer of struc- tureless gelatinous substance termed mesogloea, secreted by the cell-layers of the body-wall; the mesogloea may be a very thin layer, or may reach a fair thickness, and then sometimes contains skeletal elements formed by cells which have migrated into it from the ectoderm. The sac-like body built up in this way is attached usually to some firm object by its blind end, and bears at the upper end the mouth FIG. i. — Hydra viridis, the fresh- surrounded by a circle of water polyp. The animal is attached tentacles. Each tentacle is to the stem of a plant, and is repre- ... , sented with the base of attachment a glove-finger-hke outpush- uppermost; the mouth, not actually ing of the whole wall of the seen in the drawing, is at the lower sac and contains typically :xticmity of the body, surrounded a prolongation of its internal by the circle of tentacles, ov, Ovary; .. te, testis. cavity, so that primarily the tentacles are hollow; but in some cases the tentacle, may become solid by obliteration of its cavity. The tentacles are organs which serve both for the tactile sense and for the capture of food. By means of the stinging nettle-cells or nematocysts with which the tentacles are thickly covered, living organisms of various kinds are firmly held and at the same time paralysed or killed, and by means of longitudinal muscular fibrils formed from the cells of the ectoderm the tentacles are contracted and convey the food to the mouth. By means of circularly disposed muscular fibrils formed from the endoderm the tentacles can be protracted or thrust out after contraction. By muscle-fibres belonging to the same two systems the whole body may be retracted or protruded. We can distinguish therefore in the body of a polyp the column, circular or oval in section, forming the trunk, resting on a base or foot and surmounted by the crown of tentacles, which enclose an area termed the perislome, in the centre of which again is the mouth. As a rule there is no other opening to the body except the mouth, but in some cases excretory pores are known to occur in the foot, and pores may occur at the tips of the tentacles. Thus it is seen that a polyp is an animal of very simple structure. The name polyp was given to these organisms from their supposed resemblance to an octopus (Fr. pottlpe), with its circle of writhing arms round the mouth. This comparison, though far-fetched, is certainly more reasonable than the common name " coral-insects " applied to the polyps which form coral. It cannot be too emphatically stated that a coral-polyp is as far removed in organization from either an octopus or an insect as it is from man himself. The external form of the polyp varies greatly in different cases. In the first place the column may be long and slender, or may be, on the contrary, so short in the vertical direction that the body becomes disk-like. The tentacles may number many hundreds or may be veiy few, in rare cases only one or two, or even absent altogether; they may be long and filamentous, or short and reduced to mere knobs or warts; they may be simple and unbranched, or they may be feathery in pattern. All these types are well illustrated by different species of British sea- anemones. The mouth may be level with the surface of the peristome, or may be projecting and trumpet-shaped. As regards internal structure, polyps exhibit two well-marked types of organization, each characteristic of one of the two classes, Hydrozoa and Anthozoa. It is an almost universal attribute of polyps to possess the power of reproducing themselves non-sexually by the method of budding. This mode of reproduction may be combined with sexual reproductiveness, or may be the sole method by which the polyp produces offspring, in which case the polyp is entirely without sexual organs. In many cases the buds formed do not separate from the parent but remain in con- tinuity with it, thus forming colonies or stocks, which may reach a great size and contain a vast number of individuals. Slight differences in the method of budding produce great varia- tions in the form of the colonies, which may be distinguished in a general way as spreading, massive or arborescent. The reef-building corals are polyp-colonies, strengthened by the formation of a firm skeleton. For further details of colony- formation the reader is referred to the articles ANTHOZOA and HYDROMZDUSAE. For figures of polyps see P. Gosse, A History of the British Sea- Anemones and Corals (London, 1860); A. Andres, " Le Attinie," in Fauna and Flora desColfes von Neapel, ix. I (Leipzig, 1884); G. J. Allman, A Monograph of the Gymnoblastic or Tubularian Hydroids (Ray Society, 1871-1872). (E. A. M.) POLYPERCHON (incorrectly Polysperchon), one of Alex- ander's generals, and the successor of Antipater as regent in Macedonia in 319 B.C. He was driven out by Cassander in 317 B.C. (See PHOCION.) POLYPHEMUS, in Greek mythology, the most famous of the Cyclopes, son of Poseidon and the nymph Thoosa. He dwelt in a cave in the south-west corner of Sicily, and was the owner of large flocks and herds. He was of gigantic stature, with one eye in the middle of his forehead, a consumer of human flesh, without respect for the laws of god or man. Odysseus, having been cast ashore on the coast of Sicily, fell into the hands of Polyphemus, who shut him up with twelve of his companions in his cave, and blocked the entrance with an enormous rock. Odysseus at length succeeded in making the giant drunk, blinded him by plunging a burning stake into his eye while he lay asleep, and with six of his friends (the others having been POLYPODIUM— POLYTECHNIC devoured by Polyphemus) made his escape by clinging to the bellies of the sheep let out to pasture. Euripides in the Cyclops essentially follows the Homeric account. A later story asso- ciates Polyphemus with Galatea (see Acis). Homer, Odyssey, ix. ; Ovid, Melam. xiii. 749; Theocritus xi. See W. Grimm, Die Sage von Polyphem. (1857); G. R. Holland, in Leipziger Studien (1884), vii. 139-312. POLYPODIUM, in botany, a large genus of true ferns (<?.!>.), widely distributed throughout the world, but specially developed in the tropics. The name is derived from Gr. iroXus, many, and irodiov, a little foot, on account of the foot-like appear- ance of the rhizome and its branches. The species differ greatly in size and general appearance and in the character of the frond ; the sori or groups of spore-cases (sporangia) are borne on the back of the leaf, are globose and naked, that is, are not covered with a membrane (indusium) (see fig. i). The common poly- pody (fig. 2) (P. wdgare) is widely diffused in the British Isles, where it is found on walls, banks, trees, &c.; the creep- ing, densely-scaly rootstock bears deeply pinnately cut fronds, the fertile ones bear- ing on the back the bright yellow naked groups of sporangia (sori). It is also known as adder's foot, golden maidenhair and wood-fern, and is the oak- fern of the old herbals. FIG. i. — Portion of a pinna of leaf of Polypodium bearing sori, s, on its back. FIG. 2. — Polypodium vulgare, common polypody (about \ nat. size). i. Group of spore-cases (sorus) on back of leaf (X 4). There are a large number of varieties, differing chiefly in the form and division of the pinnae; var. cambricum (origin- ally found in Wales) has the pinnae themselves deeply cut into narrow segments; var. cornubiense is a very elegant plant with finely-divided fronds; var. cristatum is a handsome variety with fronds forking at the apex and the tips of all the pinnae crested and curled. P. dryopteris, generally known as oak- fern, is a very graceful plant with delicate fronds, 6 to id in. long, the three main branches of which are themselves pinnately divided; it is found in dry, shady places in mountain districts in Great Britain, but is very rare in Ireland. P. phegopteris (beechfern) is a graceful species with a black, slender root-stock, from which the pinnate fronds rise on long stalks, generally about 12 in. long, including the stalk; it is characterized by having the lower pinnae of the frond deflexed; it is generally distributed in Britain, though not common. Many other species from different parts of the world are known in green- house cultivation. POLYPUS, a term signifying a tumour which is attached by a narrow neck to the walls of a cavity lined with mucous membrane. A polypus or polypoid tumour may belong to any variety of tumour, either simple or malignant. The most com- mon variety is a polypus of the nose of simple character and easily removed. Polypi are also met with in the ear, larynx, uterus, bladder, vagina, and rectum. (See TUMOUR.) POLYTECHNIC (Gr. iroX6s, many, and T«X»"?, an art), a term which may be held to designate any institution formed with a view to encourage or to illustrate various arts and sciences. It has, however, been used with different applications in several European countries. In France the first ecole polylcchnique was founded by the National Convention at the end of the i8th century, as a practical protest against the almost exclusive devotion to literary and abstract studies in the places of higher learning. The institution is described as one " ou Ton instruit les jeunes gens, destines a entrer dans les ecoles speciales d'artillerie, du genie, des mines, des ponts et chaussees, cree en 1794 sous le nom d'ecole centrale des travaux publiques, et en 1795 sous celui qu'elle porte aujourd'hui " (Litlre). In Ger- many there are nine technical colleges which, in like manner, have a special and industrial, rather than a general educational purpose. In Switzerland the principal educational institution, which is not maintained or administered by the communal authorities, but is non-local and provided by the Federal govern- ment, is the Polytechnikum at Zurich. In all the important towns of the Federation there are trade and technical schools of a more or less special character, adapted to the local indus- tries; e.g. schools for silk-weaving, wood-carving, watchmaking, or agriculture. But the Zurich Polytechnikum has a wider and more comprehensive range of work. It is a college designed to give instruction and practical training in those sciences which stand in the closest relation to manufactures and commerce and to skilled industry in general and its work is of university rank. To the English public the word polytechnic has only recently become familiar, in connexion with some London institutions of an exceptional character. In the reign of William The First IV. there was an institution in London called after Poiyiechaks the name of his consort— " The Adelaide Gallery " >* England. — and devoted rather to the display of new scientific inven- tions and curiosities than to research or to the teaching of science. It enjoyed an ephemeral popularity, and was soon imitated by an institution called the Polytechnic in Regent Street, with a somewhat more pretentious programme, a diving- bell, electrical and mechanical apparatus, besides occasional illustrated lectures of a popular and more or less recreative character. In the popular mind this institution is inseparably associated with " Professor " Pepper, the author of The Boy's Playbook of Science and of Pepper's Ghost. Both of these institutions, after a few years of success, failed financially; and in 1880 Mr Quintin Hogg, an active and generous philan- thropist, purchased the disused building in Regent Street, and reopened it on an altered basis, though still retaining the name of Polytechnic, to which, however, he gave a new significance. He had during sixteen years been singularly successful in gathering -together young shopmen and artisans in London in the evenings and on Sunday for religious and social intercourse, and in acquiring their confidence. But by rapid degrees his enterprise, which began as an evangelistic effort, developed into an educational institution of a novel and comprehensive char- acter, with classes for the serious study of science, art, and literature, a gymnasium, library, reading circles, laboratories for physics and chemistry, conversation and debating clubs, organized country excursions, swimming, rowing, and natural history societies, a savings bank, and choral singing, besides religious services, open to all the members, though not obli- gatory for any. The founder, who from the first took the closest personal interest in the students, well describes his own aims: " What we wanted to develop our institute into was a place which should recognize that God had given man more than one side to his character, and where we could gratify any reason- able taste, whether athletic, intellectual, spiritual or social. The success of this effort was remarkable. In the first winter POLYTECHNIC 39 6800 members joined, paying fees of 35. per term, or IDS. 6d. per year; and the members steadily increased, until in 1900 they reached a total of 15,000 The average daily attendance is 4000; six hundred classes in different grades and subjects are held weekly; and upwards of forty clubs and societies have been formed in connexion with the recreative and social departments. The precedent thus established by private initiative has since :en followed in the formation of the public institutions which, under the name of " Polytechnics," have become "ti'tutioas so prominent and have exercised such beneficent this influence among the working population of London. The principal resources for the foundation and .tenance of these institutions have been derived from two nds — that administered under the City Parochial Charities .ct of 1883, and that furnished by the London County Council, first under the terms of the Local Taxation (Customs and ;cise) Act of 1890, and the Technical Instruction Act 1889, ,t since the ist of May 1904 under the Education Act 1902, as applied to London by the act of 1903. More detailed refer- ence to these two acts seems to be necessary in this place. The royal commission of inquiry into the parochial char- ities of London was appointed in 1878, mainly at the instance TheCHy °^ ^r James Bryce, and under the presidency of Parochial the Duke of Northumberland. Its report appeared Charities in iggo, giving particulars of the income of the parishes, and revealing the fact that the funds had largely outgrown the original purposes of the endowments, which were ill adapted to the modern needs of the class for ;vhose benefit they were intended. The act of parliament of 1883 was designed to give effect to the recommendations of the commissioners. It provided that while five of the largest parishes were to retain the management of their own charitable funds, the endowments of the remaining 107 parishes in the city should be administered by a corporate body, to be en- titled " the Trustees of the London Parochial Charities" (other- wise known in relation to the polytechnics as " the Central Governing Body" ), this body to include five nominees of the Crown and four of the corporation of London. The remaining members were to be chosen under a subsequent scheme of the charity commission, which added four nominees of the Lon- don County Council, two of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, and one each appointed by the university of London, Univer- sity College, King's College, the City and Guilds institute, and the governing bodies of the Bishopsgate and the Cripplegate foundations. For the purpose of framing the scheme, a special commissioner, Mr James Anstie, Q.C., was temporarily attached to the charity commission, and it thus became the duty of the commission to prepare a statement of the charity property possessed by the 107 parishes, distinguishing between the secular and the ecclesiastical parts of the endowments. The annual income derived from the ecclesiastical fund was £35,000, and that from the secular portion of the fund £50,000. The scheme assigned capital grants amounting to £155,000 to the provision of open spaces, and £149,500 to various institutions, including free libraries in Bishopsgate and Cripplegate, the People's Palace, the Regent Street and Northampton Institutes, and the Victoria Hall. A capital sum of £49,355 out of the ecclesiastical fund was devoted to the repair of city churches; and the balance of the annual income of this fund, after allowances for certain vested interests, was directed to be paid to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners. This balance has varied by slight increases from year to year, and amounted in 1906 to £20,875. The remaining fund thus set free for secular purposes was by the scheme largely devoted to the erection and main- tenance of polytechnic institutions, or " industrial institutes," as they were at first called. It was the opinion of Mr Anstie and his fellow-commissioners that in this way it would be possible to meet one of the most urgent of the intellectual needs of the metropolis, and to render service nearly akin to the original purposes of the obsolete charitable endowments. For the year 1906-1907 the grants made to the polytechnics and kindred institutions (the Working Men's College, College for Working Women, &c.) by the Central Governing Body amounted to £39,140, and the total amount contributed by the Central Governing Body since its creation amounts to £543,000. The general scope and aims of the institutions thus con- templated by the commissioners are defined hi the A Typlcal " general regulations for the management of an indus- Scheme trial institute," which are appended as a schedule to uaaertbe the several schemes, and which run as follows: — Act' The object of this institution is the promotion of the industrial skill, general knowledge, health and well-being of young men and women belonging to the poorer classes by the following means: — _ i. Instruction in — a. The general rules and principles of the arts and sciences applicable to any handicraft, trade or business. b. The practical application of such general rules and principles in any handicraft, trade or business. c. Branches or details of any handicraft, trade or business, facilities for acquiring the knowledge of which cannot usually be obtained in the workshop or other place of business. The classes and lectures shall not be designed or arranged so as to be in substitution for the practical experience of the workshop or place of business, but so as to be supplementary thereto. u. Instruction suitable for persons intending to emigrate. iii. Instruction in such other branches and subjects of art, science, language, literature and general knowledge as may be approved by the governing body. iv. Public lectures or courses of lectures, musical and other entertainments and exhibitions. v. Instruction and practice in gymnastics, drill, swimming and other bodily exercises. vi. Facilities for the formation and meeting of clubs and societies. vii. A library, museum and reading room or rooms. Within the limits prescribed, the governing body may from time to time, out of the funds at their disposal, provide and maintain buildings and grounds, including workshops and laboratories suit- able for all the purposes herein specified, and the necessary furniture, fittings, apparatus, models and books, and may provide or receive by gift or on loan works of art or scientific construction, or objects of interest .and curiosity, for the purpose of the institute, and for the purpose of temporary exhibition. Other provisions in the scheme require: (i) that the educa- tional benefits of the institute shall be available for both sexes equally, but that common rooms, refreshment rooms, gymnasia and swimming-baths may be established separately, under such suitable arrangements as may be approved by the governing body; (2) that the fees and subscriptions shall be so fixed as to place the benefits of the institute within the reach of the poorer classes; (3) that no intoxicating liquors, smoking or gambling shall be allowed in any part of the building; (4) that the build- ings, ground and premises shall not be used for any political, denominational or sectarian purpose, although this rule shall not be deemed to prohibit the discussion of political subjects in any debating society approved by the governing body; (5) that no person under the age of sixteen or above twenty-five shall be admitted to membership except on special grounds, and that the number thus specially admitted shall not exceed 5 % of the total number of members. These and the like provisions have formed the common basis for all the metropolitan polytechnics. In 1890 a large sum was placed by the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act at the disposal of the county and county borough councils for the general purposes of tech-o/<Ae nical education, and in 1893 the London County London Council determined to devote a considerable portion of this revenue to the further development and sus- tentation of polytechnics. While the funds granted by the Central Governing Body may be employed in aid of the social and recreative as well as the educational purposes of the various institutes, it is a statutory obligation that the sums contributed by the London County Council should be applied to educational work only. Dr William Garnett, the educational adviser of the London County Council, has, in a published lecture delivered before the international congress on technical education in June 1897, thus described the conditions under which the council offers financial help to the London polytechnics: — 4o POLYTECHNIC The objects which the technical education board has had in view in its dealings with the polytechnics have been : — 1. To allow to the several governing bodies the greatest possible freedom in the conduct of social, recreative and even religious work within the provisions of the schemes of the Charity Com- missioners. 2. To secure to each polytechnic the services of an educational principal, who should be responsible to his governing body for the organization and conduct of the whole of the work of the institution. 3. To provide in each polytechnic a permanent staff of teachers, who should be heads of their respective departments and give their whole time to the work of the institution, and thus to establish a corporate or collegiate life in the polytechnic. 4. To ensure that all branches of experimental science are taught experimentally, and that the students have the opportunity of carrying out practical laboratory work, at an inclusive fee not exceeding ten shillings for any one subject. 5. To provide efficient workshop instruction in all practical trade subjects. 6. To secure that the number of students under the charge of any one teacher in laboratory or workshop classes, or in other classes in which personal supervision is of paramount importance, shall not exceed a stated limit (fifteen in the workshop, or twenty in the laboratory). 7. To exclude from classes students who, for want of preliminary training, are incapable of profiting by the instruction provided; and to this end to restrict the attendance at workshop classes to those who are actually engaged in the trades concerned, and have thus opportunities of acquiring the necessary manual dexterity in the performance of their daily duties. 8. To furnish an adequate fixed stipend for all teachers, in place of a contingent interest in fees and grants. 9. To encourage private subscriptions and donations. 10. To establish an efficient system of inspection. 1 1. To facilitate the advertisement of polytechnic classes, and especially to invite the co-operation of trade societies in supporting their respective classes. 12. To encourage the higher development of some special branch of study in each polytechnic. 13. To utilize the polytechnic buildings as far as possible in the daytime by the establishment of technical day schools, or otherwise. 14. To secure uniformity in the keeping of accounts. The regulations under which the council has attempted to secure its objects by means of grants have been changed from time to time as the work of the polytechnics has developed, but they provide that the council's aid should be partly in the form of a fixed grant to each institution, partly a share of the salaries of the principal and the permanent teachers, partly a grant on attendance, the scale depending on the subject and character of the instruction, and partly a subsidy (15%) on voluntary contri- butions. In addition to the annual grants for maintenance, substantial grants for building and equipment are made from time to time. The scale of grants adopted by the council for the session 1907-1908 was the following : — i. A fixed grant assigned to each polytechnic. ii. Three-fourths of the salary of the principal (subject to certain conditions). iii. Fifty per cent, of the salaries of heads of approved departments. iv. Ten per cent, of the salaries of other teachers. v. Fifteen per cent, on (voluntary) annual subscriptions or donations. vi. Attendance grants on evening classes varying from id. to 6d. per student-hour (subject to certain conditions of minimum attendance, eligibility, &c.). vii. Special grants not exceeding £50 for courses of lectures on particular subjects required or approved by the council. viii. Special grants towards any departments which the council may desire to see established or maintained. ix. Equipment grants and building grants in accordance with the special requirements of the institutions. The above grants are independent of any contributions which the council may make towards secondary day schools or day schools of domestic economy or training colleges of domestic economy in the polytechnics. With a view to a due division of labour, and also to the co- operation of the public bodies concerned, the "London Poly- technic Council" was created in 1894. It was composed of representatives of the Central Governing Body, the technical education board of the London County Council, and the City and Guilds of London Institute, and its duty was to consult as to the appropriation of funds, the organiza- London 'tion of teaching, the holding of needful examina- Polytechnic tions, and the supervision of the work generally. CouncU' After ten years of work the London polytechnic council was dissolved in the summer of 1904 in consequence of the abolition of the technical education board of the London County Council, when the council became responsible for all grades of education. A statement below shows the number and names of the several institutions, and the extent to which they have been severally aided by the Central Governing Body and the London County Council. The " People's Palace" owes its origin in part to the popu- larity of a novel by Sir Walter Besant, entitled All Sorts and Conditions of Men, in which the writer pointed out The the sore need of the inhabitants of East London People's for social improvement and healthy recreation, Palace- and set forth an imaginary picture of a " Palace of Delight," wherein this need might be partly satisfied. Much public interest was awakened, large subscriptions were given, and the Central Governing Body aided the project; but the munificence of the drapers' company in setting aside £7000 a year for its permanent maintenance released the London County Council from any obligation to make a grant. Apart from the social and recreative side of this popular institution, the edu- cational section, under the name of the East London Technical College, steadily increased in numbers and influence under the fostering care of the drapers' company and has now been re- cognized as a "school" of the university of London under the title of " The East London College" and is being utilized by the London County Council in the same way as other " schools of the university." Grants to the London Polytechnics during the Session 1906-1907. Central Governing Body. London County Council. Under Voluntary Buildings Main- Scheme. Grants. Equipment. tenance. Battersea Polytechnic 2,500 1,701 i,545 4,760 Birkbeck College .... 1,000 1,005 445 3,45° Borough Road Polytechnic . City of London College . 2,500 1,000 1,563 901 820 515 5,285 3,725 East London College 3,5oo 224 nil nil Northampton Institute . 3.350 1,555 3.415 4,525 Northern Polytechnic 1,500 2,183 2,660 4,145 Regent Street Polytechnic . 3.500 3,916 965 7,665 South- Western Polytechnic . 1,500 2,091 1.275 6,265 Woolwich Polytechnic . nil 1,000 2.525 5,495 Sir John Cass's Institute . nil 50 Sio 2,400 Total .... £ 20,350 16,189 H-675 47,715 In the above table the grants are given to the nearest pound. Up to July 1907 the total expenditure of the council upon the polytechnics, apart from the day schools, training colleges, &c., conducted in them, was about £525,000, almost exactly the same as that of the Central Governing Body. The voluntary grants from the central governing body include a contribution towards a compassionate fund, and a pension fund based on endowment assurances for all permanent officers of the poly- technics in receipt of salaries of not less than £100 a year. The grants received from the board of education amount to about £30,000 a year, while the fees of students and members produce about £45,000. Voluntary subscriptions, including those from city companies and other sources of income, pro- duce about £30,000 in addition, so that out of a total expendi- ture of about £200,000 a year the council now contributes 30%, the Central Governing Body 18%, fees 22^%, the board of education 15% and city companies and other subscribers 15% POLYTECHNIC The Goldsmiths' Institute at New Cross owed its existence and its annual maintenance to the generous initiative of the ancient city gild whose name it bore. It was therefore entirely independent oi pecuniary subsidy from any other public body. In the year 1900 the number of class entries to this institute was 7574. In 1004 the goldsmiths' company presented the premises, together with an annual subsidy, to the university of London for the purposes of a training college for teachers, so that from that date it ceased to be one of the London poly- technics, although, pending the provision of other premises, many of the technical evening classes have been continued under the London County Council by permission of the university with the approval of the company. The clothworkers' com- pany has also contributed £18,000 to the Northern Polytechnic at Holloway. In all these institutions the general aims have been practically the same, although special features have been differentiated Aims and in order to meet the local needs and the wishes of Methods, the inhabitants. In all there are laboratories and lecture rooms, trade classes, art studios, gymnasia, provision for manual training and domestic economy and applied science. In nearly all, at first, mechanical and manual instruction were the prominent objects in view, partly owing to the conditions under which grants were made by the science and art department. But of late increased attention has been paid year by year to literary and humaner studies, and to general mental cultivation, pursued pari passu with technical and scientific training. The aid of the London organization for university extension, now a department of the university, has been especially serviceable in providing courses of lectures and classes in literary subjects at nearly all the polytechnics. As subsidiary to their main work, some of them have estab- lished junior continuation schools, with a view to provide suitable instruction for scholars who have left the public ele- mentary schools and are not yet prepared to enter the technical and trade classes. Although the workshops and the classes for artisans are used chiefly in the evenings, there is an increasing number of day students : e.g. at the Northampton Polytechnic Institute in Clerkenwell there is a very important day school of engineering conducted on the "sandwich system, " the students entering engineering works for the summer months and returning to the polytechnic for the winter session; at the Battersea Polytechnic there is a very important training col- lege for teachers of domestic economy; at Regent Street there are day schools in engineering, architecture, photo-process and carriage-building; at the South- Western Polytechnic there are important schools of mechanical and electrical engineering and a training college for women teachers of physical exercises; at the Northern Polytechnic, as at Battersea, there is a training college for teachers of domestic economy, and there are departments of commerce and of physics and chemistry, while the Woolwich Polytechnic receives in the daytime, by special arrangement with the war office, a large number of engineering apprentices employed in the arsenal. In short, the schemes of the several institutions are so elastic that the governing bodies are at liberty to open any classes or to try any educational or recreative experiment for which they can find a genuine local demand. The total number of scholars in the polytechnics and their branch institutions is variously estimated at from 40,000 to 50,000, and the total number of regular scholars in the evening schools of the council does not exceed 100,000. These figures may be usefully compared with the census returns, which show that within the metropolitan area there are 704,414 persons between the ages of thirteen and twenty- one. It is a noteworthy fact that, whereas in the population statistics for the whole of England and Wales the number at each year of age is regularly diminished by death from eight years onwards, there is a steady increase in London, year by year, from fourteen up to the age of thirty. This fact is owing to the constant immigration of young men and women from the provinces to the metropolis. The census commis- sioners in their report for 1001 (p. 15) computed that more than one-third of the population of London were not natives. They show also that, if all England and Wales be taken together, the number of persons between twenty and twenty-one is less by 12-8% than the number between thirteen and fourteen; but that, taking London alone, the number of persons between twenty and twenty-one is greater by 14-4% than the number between thirteen and fourteen. Hence, the proportion of the inhabitants who are of an age to benefit by polytechnics and continuation schools is in London exceptionally large. It would not be right for Londoners to complain that there is thus cast upon them the duty of providing suitable instruction for so many immigrants, for if the great city drains the rural districts of some of their best brain and muscle, she gains much from their industry and productive power. The figures, however, point to the necessity for taking every means possible to raise the standard, both physical and intellectual, of the London boy. The immigration into London of youths and young men means to a great extent the substitution of the provincially trained improver or artisan for the less fit London boy, who consequently falls into the ranks of the unskilled, then of the unemployed and ultimately of the unemployable. But it follows from the particulars thus given that neither the supply of suitable provision for mental improvement and rational recreation for the wage-earning classes, nor the demand for such provision on the part of the workers themselves is commensurate with the moral and intellectual needs of a com- munity of nearly seven millions of people (four and a half millions within the administrative county). The provision in evening schools, institutes, classes and polytechnics is still in some respects far inferior to that which is to be found in most German and Swiss towns, and needs to be greatly increased. In matters relating to the higher life, demand does not always precede supply; it is simply which is needed not only to satisfy the public demand, but to create it. As new and well-devised opportunities for mental culture are placed within reach, they will be more and more appreciated, new and healthier appetites will be stimulated, the art of employing leisure wisely and happily will be more systematically studied, and the polytechnics will become still more important centres of civilizing and educating influence than they have hitherto been. In particular, the reconstituted university of London has been placed in new and most helpful relation to the best of the polytechnics. By the statutes the senate of the university is empowered to include in the list of " schools of the university " all institutions which are duly equipped and able to furnish suitable instruction of an advanced and scholarly type; and also to recognize all thoroughly qualified professors in their several faculties and subjects as " teachers of the university," although some of their' classes may meet in the evening only, and no student is to be prevented from taking a degree as an internal student of the university solely because he can attend classes only in the evening. There is thus a way open for the due recognition of the polytechnics as part of the teaching machinery of the university, and for the admission of the best students as undergraduates, with all the rights of internal students. The great possibilities of the metropolitan univer- sity under its new conditions were at first hardly revealed or accurately foreseen. But there were during the session 1906-1907 no less than eighty-six recognized " teachers of the university " on the staffs of the London polytechnics and more than 750 students who were working for London University degrees in the polytechnic classes. There is no reason to fear that the recreative, social, manual and industrial training, to which at first the special attention of the founder of the Regent Street Polytechnic was directed, will suffer from a fuller expansion of the academic and literary side of " polytechnic " life. Rather it may be hoped that the due co-ordination of the practical with the purely intellectual purposes of these institutions will serve to give to all the students, whatever their future destination may be, a truer and broader conception of the value of mental culture for its own sake. POLYXENA— POLYZOA See also a paper by Mr Sidney Webb, The London Polytechnic Institutes, in the second volume of special reports on educational subjects (1898) issued by the Education Department; the Report of the Central Governing Body of the London Parochial Charities; the Annual Reports of the London County Council; the Polytechnic Magazine, published from time to time at the institute in Regent Street; and various memoirs and papers contained in the Proceed- ings of the International Congress on Technical Education (1897), especially two — that by Mr Quintin Hogg, detailing his own early experience in founding the first polytechnic, and that of Dr William Garnett, then secretary of the Technical Education Board. (J.G.F.-.W.G.) POLYXENA, in Greek legend, daughter of Priam, king of Troy, and Hecuba. She had been betrothed to Achilles, who was slain by Paris in the temple of Apollo Thymbraeus, where the marriage was to have been celebrated (Hyginus, Fab. no). The shade of Achilles afterwards appeared to the returning Greeks in the Thracian Chersonese and demanded the sacrifice of Polyxena, who was put to death by Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, on his father's grave (Ovid, Metam. xiii. 440 sqq.). The tragic story is the subject of the Hecuba of Euripides, the Troades of Seneca and the Polyxena of Sophocles, of which only a few fragments remain. According to Philostratus (Heroica, 20, 18), Polyxena fled to the Greeks after the murder of Achilles and committed suicide on his tomb. POLYZOA, in zoology, a term (introduced by J. V. Thompson, 1830) synonymous with Bryozoa (Ehrenberg, 1831) for a group commonly included with the Brachiopoda in the Molluscoidea (Milne Edwards, 1843). The correctness of this association is questionable, and the Polyzoa are here treated as a primary division or phylum of the animal kingdom. They may be denned as aquatic animals, forming colonies by budding; with ciliated retractile tentacles and a U-shaped alimentary canal. The phylum is subdivided as follows. Class I. ENTOPROCTA (Nitsche). Lophopbore circular, in- cluding both mouth and anus. Tentacles infolded, during retraction, into a vestibule which can be closed by a sphincter. Body-wall not calcified, body-cavity absent. Definite excretory organs present. Reproductive organs with ducts leading to the vesti- bule. Zooids possessing a high degree of individuality. Loxosoma Pedicellina (fig. i), Ur.iatella. Class II. ECTOPROCTA (Nitsche). Lophophore circular or horseshoe shaped, including the mouth but not the anus. Tentacles retractile into an introvert (" tentacle-sheath "). Body- wall membranous or calcified, body- cavity distinct. Specific excretory organs absent, with the doubtful excep- tion of the Phylactolaemata. Repro- ductive organs not continuous with ducts. Zooids usually connected laterally with their neighbours. Order i. GYMNOLAEMATA (Allman). — (After van Beneden.) Lophophore circular, with no epistome. FIG. I. — Part of the Body-cavities of zooids not continuous creeping stolon, with with one another. Body-wall not muscular, zooids, of Pedicellina Sub-order i. TREPOSTOMATA (Ulrich); belgica. Fossil. — Zooecia, long and coherent, pris- a c, Stalks of zooids matic or cylindrical, with terminal orifices, of 'different ages; b, their wall thin and simple in structure bud ' proximally, thickened and complicated distally. Cavity of the zooecium subdivided by transverse diaphragms, most numerous in the distal portion. Orifices of the zooecia often separated by pores (mesopores). Sub-order 2. CRYPTOSTOMATA (Vine); Fossil. — Zooecia usually short. Orifice concealed at the bottom of a vestibular shaft, sur- rounded by a solid or vesicular calcareous deposit. Sub-order 3. CYCLOSTOMATA (Busk). — Zooecia prismatic or cylindrical, with terminal, typically circular orifice, not protected by any special organ. The ovicells are modified zooecia, and contain numerous embryos which in the cases so far investigated arise