1

I

•

INDIAN NOTES
AND MONOGRAPHS

A SERIES OF PUBLICA-
TIONS RELATING TO THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES

AIMS AND OBJECTS

OF THE

MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN
INDIAN, HEYE FOUNDATION

(THIRD PRINTING)

NEW YORK
MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

HEYE FOUNDATION

1923 S

V

This series of Indian Notes and Mono-
graphs is devoted primarily to the publica-
tion of the result of studies by members of
the staff of the Museum of the American
Indian, Heye Foundation, and is uniform
with Hispanic Notes and Monographs,
published by the Hispanic Society of
.America, with which organization this
Museum is in cordial cooperation.

Only the first ten volumes of Indian
Notes and Monographs are numbered.
The unnumbered parts may readily be deter-
mined by consulting the List of Publications
issued as one of the series.

INDIAN NOTES
AND MONOGRAPHS

Edited by F. W. Hodge

No.

36

A SERIES OF PUBLICA-
TIONS RELATING TO THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES

AIMS AND OBJECTS

OF THE

MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN
INDIAN, HEYE FOUNDATION

(THIRD PRINTING)

NEW YORK

MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

HEYE FOUNDATION

1923

AIMS AND OBJECTS

OF THE

MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN

INDIAN

HEYE FOUNDATION

THIS Museum occupies a unique
position among institutions, in
that its sole aim is to gather and
to preserve for students every-
thing useful in illustrating and elucidating
the anthropology of the aborigines of the
Western Hemisphere, and to disseminate
by means of its publications the knowledge
thereby gained.

The Museum had its inception twenty
years ago, when its present Director, pur-
suing his interest in the material culture of
the American Indians, commenced the sys-
tematic accumulation of objects pertaining
thereto. The first important collection was

Inception

INDIAN NOTES

South
America

AIMS AND OBJECTS

procured in 1903. a representative gathering
of earthenware vessels from prehistoric
Pueblo ruins in Socorro county. New
Mexico; in the following year a similar
collection that had been found in a cave
in eastern Arizona was obtained; and trips
to Porto Rico, to Mexico, and to Costa Rica
and Panama, by associates of Mr Heye.
resulted in other gatherings of important
artifacts. These objects, with those previ-
ously assembled, formed a nucleus to which
accessions have continuously been made
until at the present time the number of
objects illustrating the archeology and
ethnology of the American Indians exceeds
a million.

But the first comprehensive plans for
systematic research among the Indians and
their remains were not fully developed until
1906, in which year Mr Heye became asso-
ciated with Prof. Marshall H. Saville. of
Columbia University, who planned a series
of researches to cover the archeology of the
Andean and coast regions of South America
from southern Ecuador northward to
Darien, thence to the West Indies. In

INDIAN NOTES

AIMS AND OBJECTS

5

the commencement of this research Mr
Heye was fortunate in having the active
interest and aid of his mother, the late
Marie Antoinette Heye, through whose
cooperation Professor Saville's studies were
made possible. In all, nine field seasons
have been spent in the area mentioned.
In 1907 Professor Saville had the assistance
of Mr George H. Pepper, who assumed
immediate charge of the excavations inland
from Manta in the province of Manabi,
Ecuador; in 1910 the aid of Dr Manuel
Gamio, at present Director of Anthropology
and Inspector of Monuments of Mexico;
while in 1908 and 1909 Dr S. A. Barrett,
now of the Milwaukee Public Museum,
carried to completion an ethnologic study
of the almost unknown Cayapa Indians
of northwestern Ecuador, a monograph
pertaining to which will shortly be pub-
lished. The results of Professor Saville's
archeological work in Ecuador and Colombia
have been of great importance, both from
the point of view of knowledge obtained
and of collections gathered, as the culture
of the prehistoric tribes of the regions ex-

AND MONOGRAPHS

\

AIMS AND OBJECTS

West

Indies

plored has for the first time been made
known. One of the immediate :
these studies is the report on The Antiquities
of Manabi, Ecuador, issued in two quarto
volumes in 1907 and 1910. The artifacts
from Ecuador, and later from Colombia,
consist chic: rthenware vessels, some

of them large burial urns, stone objects
(including many massive carved s
and ornaments of gold and platinum.

5 mi after the South American resej
initiated, an archeological surve;
the West Indies was commenced, in 1907.
the Reverend Thomas Huckerby under-
taking that pertaining to St Vincent, subse-
quently extending the reconnaissance to
Tobago. Trinidad. Grenada. Carriacou.
Cannouan. and many smaller islands of
the Lesser Antilles, and of the Windward
Islands, the collections illustrating the cul-
ture of the early West Indians being very
numerous and comprehensive.

The work initiated by Mr Huckerby was
extended in 1912 by the late Theodoor de
Booy. who in that year became attached
to the staff of what had become popularly

INDIAN XOTES

AIMS AND OBJECTS

7

known as the "Heye Museum." Many
journeys were made to the islands by Mr
de Booy in the interest of the Museum, first
to the Bahamas and Caicos, later to Ja-
maica, Santo Domingo, eastern Cuba,
Margarita, Trinidad, the Dutch Indies,
and the Virgin Islands immediately after
their transfer to the United States, during all
of which, extending to the year 1918, he
was notably successful in gaining informa-
tion and objective material. The work
of the Museum in the West Indies has re-
sulted in an accumulation of artifacts that
exceed in number and importance all others
from those islands throughout the world,
many of the objects being unique.

Visits to the West Indies were also made
in the joint interest of the Museum and of
the Smithsonian Institution by Dr J.
Walter Fewkes of the Bureau of American
Ethnology at Washington, who conducted
archeological explorations in St Vincent
and Trinidad. Subsequently Mr M. R.
Harrington, of the Museum staff, follow-
ing Mr de Booy's reconnaissance, proceeded
to eastern Cuba, where archeological studies

AND MONOGRAPHS

8

AIMS AND OBJECTS

United
States

of prime importance were' conducted, result-
ing in the determination of the cultural
sequence of the early aborigines and in
gathering many artifacts of the highest
scientific value.

While these researches were being made
and collections of materials obtained beyond
our immediate borders, work at home was
not neglected; indeed, so extensively were
collections being gathered in the United
States that the Museum was twice com-
pelled to move from limited temporary
quarters. Mr Harrington had long been a
student of the ethnology and archeology of
the Indians of the United States, and had
sojourned among many tribes and in many
localities in behalf of the Museum, com-
mencing in 1908. The results of his field
trips have been most prolific, and through
them the Museum's collections have been
enriched in a manner that seemed impossi-
ble at the time the work was commenced.
Especially noteworthy among the objects
thus procured are a large number of sacred
bundles, or packs, from numerous tribes,
formerly used in connection with scalping.

INDIAN NOTES

AIMS AND OBJECTS

9

war, tattooing, and other ceremonies. Rare
in themselves, these bundles are especially
valuable to ethnology both by reason of the
insight into the esoteric life of the Indians
which they afford, and because they are
usually the repositories of various objects
of the kind often buried with the dead and
thus lost to science.

Many other ethnological expeditions have
been made, and to various localities, notable
among which were the journeys of Mr Alan-
son Skinner to the Menomini Indians of
Wisconsin, and to the Bribri Indians of
Costa Rica; of Mr Donald A. Cadzow to
the Athapascan tribes of the far Northwest;
of Mr E. H. Davis to the tribes of the South-
western deserts, southern California, and
northwestern Mexico; of Mr G. W. Avery
to Lower California and to the Seri of
Tiburon island in the Gulf of California; of
Dr Frank G. Speck among the Montagnais
and Mistassini of Canada, and the Penobscot
and related tribes of Maine; of Messrs Hodge
and Nusbaum to the Havasupai of Cataract
canon, Arizona; of Dr T. T. Waterman
among the Puget Sound Indians, and of Mr

Other
Expe-
ditions

AND MONOGRAPHS

10

AIMS AND OBJECTS

Other

Archeo-

logical

Work

\V. Wildshut among the Crows. Blackfeet,
Shoshoni. and Arapaho, among which tribes
he succeeded in procuring more than 300
medicine bundles, including the sacred pipe
and beaver bundles of the Blackfeet and
the skull bundles of the Crows, thus adding
materially to the already remarkable col-
lection of such objects in the Museum.

Pursuing its archeological work, the Mu-
seum in 1914 explored a Munsee Indian
cemetery at Minisink, near Montague. New
Jersey, revealing its historic occupancy; in
1915 the great Xacoochee mound in Georgia,
a noted Cherokee site, was excavated, like-
wise several mounds in North Carolina;
in 1916 Mr Warren K. Moorehead of
Phillips Academy and Mr Alanson Skinner
of the Museum explored several sites along
the Susquehanna, and Mr Skinner also
conducted excavations at Las Mercedes
Costa Rica. Dr Thomas Gann. in 1916-17,
conducted important archeological studies,
in behalf of the Museum, in British Hon-
duras. More recently much work of the
same general character has been done in
Xew York state, especially at Inwood on

INDIAN NOTES

AIMS AND OBJECTS

11

Manhattan Island, on Long Island, and
in Cayuga and Jefferson counties. Among
the most important of the investigations
in New York City were those conducted
at Throgs Neck and Clasons Point, at sites
that were still inhabited at the coming of
the Dutch in the seventeenth century.
This work was made possible by the liberal-
ity of Samuel Riker, Jr., Esq., a trustee of
the Museum, who has manifested his in-
terest in this and in other ways and who
contributed also the means for the publica-
tion of the interesting results of the Throgs
Neck and Clasons Point field-work.

Productive of important results, both in
the way of information and of collections,
was an expedition to Kane county, Utah,
in the autumn of 1920, by Mr Jesse L.
Nusbaum, where an ancient site of the so-
called Basket-makers was thoroughly ex-
plored. For the important finds there
made the Museum is indebted to General
T. Coleman du Pont, who afforded the
means for conducting the work and of pub-
lishing the results.

The investigations noted have been pro-

AND MONOGRAPHS

12

AIMS AND OBJECTS

ductive of many objects, consisting of
pottery, stone, bone, shell, wood, fabrics,
basketry, etc., such as characterize ancient
Indian culture in different localities and
during various periods, but as the results
have been published in the main, it is
necessary to allude to them only in this
general way. One of the most important
fields of archeological research in the United
States in which the Museum has engaged
was carried on in 1916 and 1917 by Mr Har-
rington in Arkansas, where extended ex-
cavation enabled the identification of the
sites as Caddo. This and subsequent
work in Tennessee was done at the instance
of Clarence B. Moore, Esq., a trustee of
the Museum, whose own investigations of
Indian mounds in the South, covering a
period of many years, have added so much
to our knowledge of the archeology of that
region, and whose recent valued gifts of
archeological specimens, derived from his
own excavations, have added so much to
the Museum's collections.

In 1922-23 a number of rockshelters were
examined along White river in the heart of

INDIAN NOTES

AIMS AND OBJECTS

13

the Ozark region of northwestern Arkansas.
Fortunately many of these shelters were ex-
ceedingly dry, resulting in the preserva-
tion of many articles, usually perishable,
left by the prehistoric occupants, includ-
ing among other things, basketry, textiles,
and wooden objects. Of these the expedi-
tion secured a large collection, as well as
a series of the more ordinary specimens in
stone and bone. The cane basketry re-
sembles the types characteristic of the
tribes once living about the mouth of the
Mississippi, but the presence of coiled
basketry, pieces of feather- and rabbit-skin
robes, the atlatl or spear-thrower with its
darts, the metate, the basketry water-bottle
lined with pitch, the wrapped legging, the
woven sandal, and certain other features
point toward some connection with the
Southwest. Of special interest is the light
shed on the people's agriculture by the
finding of several woven bags contain-
ing seeds, among which were corn, beans,
squashes, gourds, and sunflowers. To-
bacco seed-heads and leaves were also
found. A hoe with its mussel-shell blade

AND MONOGRAPHS

14

AIMS AND OBJECTS

Mexico

and
Central
America

Bene-
factors

still attached to its wooden handle with
thongs of bark, and a .hatchet with a
crudely chipped flint blade set in its original
haft of oak, figure prominently in the
collection.

No aboriginal American culture was de-
veloped so highly as that of the tribes of
Mexico and Central America; hence, as
above alluded to, the earliest plans of the
founder and Director of the Museum in-
cluded the exploitation of those vast and
important fields as soon as the opportunity
was afforded. To this end several expedi-
tions were made to Guatemala, Honduras,
British Honduras, and Costa Rica by Pro-
fessor Saville in 1913 and the years follow-
ing, and the opportunity was further in-
creased soon after the definite establishment
of the Museum of the American Indian,
Heye Foundation, in 1916, and the selection
of its board of trustees. Ever interested in
the advancement of knowledge, James B.
Ford, Esq., one of the trustees, pursued his
policy of aiding scientific endeavor when he
assumed pecuniary responsibility for much
of the research thus far conducted by the

INDIAN NOTES

AIMS AND OBJECTS

15

Museum in the countries to the south, as
well as for rare and important collections
which it has been so fortunate as to procure;
and it was due to his further interest that
the Central American investigations were
now enlarged. These generous gifts, which
have made the Museum preeminent in
many ways, so far as Central America is
concerned, have been augmented by Minor
C. Keith, Esq., also a trustee, through his
liberal donation of the largest collection of
Costa Rican earthenware extant, and by
Harmon W. Hendricks, Esq., likewise a
trustee, who made it possible for the Museum
to acquire, among other treasures, a
marvelous sculptured vase from Guate-
mala—a gem of aboriginal handiwork, a
description of which has been published
in the form of a Leaflet through Mr Hen-
dricks' further generosity. The impor-
tance of the Keith collection has already
been manifested by a specialist who is
using it as the basis of a memoir on the
ceramic art of Costa Rica, to be published
by the Museum.

In the matter of other collections Mr

Other
Bene-
factions

AND MONOGRAPHS

16

AIMS AND OBJECTS

Gifts

by

Trustees

Hendricks has been generous almost beyond
measure. Thousands of priceless ethno-
logical and archeological objects have been
contributed by him from time to time —
objects such as one would scarcely have
believed to exist outside of museums. And
not only this, for Mr Hendricks has made
possible the excavation of the ruins of
Hawikuh, one of the famed "Seven Cities of
Cibola," occupied by the Zuni Indians of
New Mexico from prehistoric time until
1670, a work that has been in progress by
the Hendricks-Hodge Expedition during the
last six field seasons under the continued
charge of Mr F. W. Hodge. In 1923 a
joint expedition by the Museum and Mr
Louis C. G. Clarke, director of the Cam-
bridge University Museum, England, con-
ducted under the immediate supervision of
Dr S. K. Lothrop at Kechipauan, New
Mexico, resulted in shedding additional
light on the early culture of the Zuni tribe.
In this brief summary only a few of the
gifts made by trustees of the Museum,
important as they are, can be mentioned.
As proof of the interest he has always

INDIAN NOTES

AIMS AND OBJECTS

17

manifested, Mr Hendricks has presented,
besides those mentioned, various large col-
lections, including numerous polychrome
vessels from the celebrated Casas Grandes
of Chihuahua; two Penn wampum treaty
belts, procured in London; a large number
of gold ornaments from Colombia; a col-
lection of archeological objects from Ten-
nessee, Virginia, Kentucky, and Pennsyl-
vania; a collection of archeological and
ethnological specimens from the Chokoi
tribe of Panama, and of ethnologic artifacts
from the Plains Indians, gathered at Fort
Laramie, Wyoming, about 1850; a collection
of native woven blankets, belts, etc., from
the Southwest and northern Mexico; and
another illustrating the culture of the
Yurok Indians of northern California.

Of no less importance and scientific value
have been the gifts by Mr Ford, preemi-
nent among which is a collection of seven-
teen mosaic objects consisting of wooden
shields, masks, and an ear-ornament inlaid
with turquois and other stones from Mex-
ico (described and illustrated in a special
volume published by the Museum). Until

♦

AND MONOGRAPHS

18

AIMS AND OBJECTS

recently only twenty-four major examples of
mosaic work had come to light and been
placed on record by printed description and
illustration. Of these, twenty-three are in
Europe. The other specimen, from a cave
in Honduras, is in possession of this Mu-
seum, also a gift from Mr Ford. Other
gifts from this benefactor include extensive
archeological collections from the California
islands; the Lady Blake collection from the
West Indies; many ivory carvings of the
Eskimo; ethnologic objects illustrating the
life of the Cree, and of the Eskimo of
Hudson bay, Bering strait, and the Yukon
territory; collections of antiquities from
Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala, Brazil, and
British Honduras (the latter including a
fine series of painted Maya vases); and an
ancient Inca textile, a marvel of aboriginal
American art.

So extensive and important are the
aboriginal artifacts presented by Messrs
Ford and Hendricks, in addition to their
benefactions in other ways, that it is no
exaggeration to say that the collections
which bear their names would form a worthy

INDIAN NOTES

AIMS AND OBJECTS

19

nucleus for any museum. Another trustee,
F. Kingsbury Curtis, Esq., has given to the
Museum the important G. T. Arms collec-
tion of archeological and ethnological material
from Chile; while to another, Archer M.
Huntington, Esq., the Museum is indebted,
in the way of collections alone, for a series
of original water-color drawings of Indian
subjects by George Catlin, and for other
important accessions.

Indeed, the Museum owes much to the
liberality of its trustees and to their active
interest in its endeavors. Crowded in its
quarters in a loft building, it was Mr Hunt-
ington who made possible the erection of a
fireproof edifice to house its treasures, by the
gift of a tract of land adjacent to The
Hispanic Society of America, The American
Geographical Society, and The American
Numismatic Society, while other trustees,
together with other friends of the Museum
project, contributed liberally to the funds
required for the building and its equipment.

Likewise generous have been those whose
only direct relations with the Museum are
their interest in its aims and objects.

The
Museum
Building

Valued
Contri-
butions

AND MONOGRAPHS

20

AIMS AND OBJECTS

Among these are Mrs Thea Heye, whose
name is not only borne upon hundreds of
valuable objects, including those forming
a collection of Mocoa ethnological material
from Venezuela, but who has met the
expense of an expedition to Santa Catalina
and San Miguel islands, and another to
Santa Barbara, which have been productive
of collections unequaled in their comprehen-
siveness and in their value to the study
of the culture of former aboriginal in-
habitants of California. Among the many
valued gifts from Mrs Heye, special mention
should be made of a collection of California
basketry and of the entire shrunken body
of a man from the Jivaro Indians of Ecuador,
the result of the same process by which the
well-known shrunken heads are produced by
this tribe. Especially noteworthy among
the other benefactors of the Museum are:
the late Miss Edith Hendricks, who pre-
sented collections of ethnological specimens
from the upper Amazon and of antique
material from the Iowa tribe, as well as
other objects; Mrs Charles R. Carr, of War-
ren, Rhode Island, an archeological collection

INDIAN NOTES

AIMS AND OBJECTS

21

from an historic Indian site at Burr's hill,
the result of her husband's excavations; W.
de F. Haynes, Esq., who contributed rare
archeological objects from South Carolina
and from Tennessee and adjacent states;
the late W. J. Mackay, an Iroquois arche-
ological collection from northern New York
and Ontario; Rev. William R. Blackie, his
collection representing the archeology of
Westchester county, New York; Homer E.
Sargent, Esq., and the late Mrs Russell
Sage, notable collections of Indian basketry;
Reginald Pelham Bolton, Esq., who not only
has given various archeological specimens
from New York City and vicinity, but has
contributed of his valued services without
stint in the Museum's field- work;. Rodman
Wanamaker, Esq., twelve sculptured stones
from Guatemala, including a large and
unique slab; Dr George Bird Grinnell, a
valuable collection of ethnological objects
from the Cheyenne and Blackfoot tribes;
Gordon MacCreagh, Esq., numerous arti-
facts illustrating the ethnology of the
Tukano Indians of the Brazil- Colombia
border. Altogether, the specimens pre-

AND MONOGRAPHS

22

AIMS AND OBJECTS

Growth

Study
Collec-
tions

Physical
Anthro-
pology

sented to the Museum since its foundation,
by those connected with it only through
sympathy with its endeavors, number
nearly 30,000.

So greatly and so rapidly have the col-
lections of the Museum increased that they
have already practically outgrown the build-
ing, consequently the objects exhibited are
only a small part of those in the Museum's
possession. Owing to these limitations of
space it has been necessary to present to
the public view only relatively small syn-
optic series of objects illustrating, in an
admittedly meager way, the culture of the
Indians which they represent. But the
main object of the Museum is not to appeal
to the general public, welcome as it will
be to view the exhibits; rather it is the aim
to afford to serious students every facility
for utilizing the collections in their researches.
To this end there are many thousands of
unique specimens in the study series which
will always be available for this purpose
and which indeed have already been thus
extensively used.

Pursuant to the policy of the Director

INDIAN NOTES

AIMS AND OBJECTS

to expand the activities of the Museum as
opportunity afforded, there was established,
under the patronage of Dr James B.
Clemens, a division of physical anthro-
pology, now in immediate charge of Dr
Bruno Oetteking, which has the care and
study of the skeletal material obtained.

Following the issue of the two quarto
volumes on the Antiquities of Manabi,
Ecuador, the publications were confined to
a series of Contributions from the Museum,
consisting largely of articles by members
of the staff, reprinted from scientific jour-
nals. In the spring of 1919, however,
following his liberal patronage especially in
the direction of the physical needs of the
Museum, Mr Huntington contributed the
means for the publication of a series of
Indian Notes and Monographs, which not
only affords an unusual opportunity for
disseminating the results of studies by
members of the staff and by the Museum's
collaborators, but which has greatly stimu-
lated activity in this direction. It is there-
fore due to Mr Huntington's interest that
the Museum, even in the short time during

23

Publi-
cation

AND MONOGRAPHS

24

AIMS AND OBJECTS

which his generous gifts have been avail-
able, has been enabled to issue sixty-nine
works in the series mentioned, ranging in
size from a few to many hundreds of pages
and most of them profusely illustrated. A
list of these and of the other publications
of the Museum will be sent on application.

INDIAN NOTES

INDIAN NOTES
AND MONOGRAPHS

Edited by F. W. Hodge

No.

36

A SERIES OF PUBLICA-
TIONS RELATING TO THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE
MUSEUM OF THE AMERI-
CAN INDIAN, HEYE
FOUNDATION

Fourth Edition

NEW YORK

MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

HEYE FOUNDATION

MARCH, 1924

This series of Indian Notes and Mono-
graphs is devoted primarily to the publica-
tion of the result of studies by members of
the staff of the Museum of the American
Indian, Heye Foundation, and is uniform
with Hispanic Notes and Monographs,
published by the Hispanic Society of
America, with which organization this
Museum is in cordial cooperation.

Museum of the American Indian.

Heye Foundation,

Broadway .at 155th St.,

New tfork City.

INDIAN NOTES
AND MONOGRAPHS

Edited by F. W. Hodge

No.

36

C57

A SERIES OF PUBLICA-
TIONS RELATING TO THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE
MUSEUM OF THE AMERI-
CAN INDIAN, HEYE
FOUNDATION

Fourth Edition

NEW YORK

MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

HEYE FOUNDATION

MARCH, 1924

3

PUBLICATIONS OF THE MUSEUM

OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN,

HEYE FOUNDATION

The George G. Heye Expedition: Contri-
butions to South American
Archeology

Vol. I

The Antiquities of Manabi, Ecuador: A Pre-
liminary Report. By Marshall H. Saville.
1907. $40.00.

Vol. II

The Antiquities of Manabi, Ecuador: Final
Report. By Marshall H. Saville. 1910.
$25.00.

Contributions from the Museum
Vol. I

No. 1: Lucayan Artifacts from the Bahamas.
By Theodoor de Booy. Reprinted from
Amer. Anthropol, Vol. 15, 1913, No. 1. 50c.
(Out of print.)

INDIAN NOTES

PUBLICATIONS

No. 2: Precolumbian Decoration of the Teeth
in Ecuador, with some Account of the Oc-
currence of the Custom in other parts of
North and South America. By Marshall H.
Saville. Reprinted from Amer. Anthropoid
Vol. 15, 1913, No. 3. 50c. (Out of print.)

No. 3: Certain Kitchen-middens in Jamaica.
By Theodoor de Booy. Reprinted from
Amer. AnthropoL, Vol. 15, 1913, No. 3. (Re-
printed, 1919.) 50c.

No. 4: Porto Rican Elbow-stones in the Heye
Museum, with discussion of similar objects
elsewhere. By J. Walter Fewkes. Reprinted
from Amer. AnthropoL, Vol. 15, 1913, No. 3.
50c.

No. 5: Note on the Archeology of Chiriqui.
By George Grant MacCurdy. Reprinted
from Amer. AnthropoL, Vol. 15, 1913, No. 4.
50c.

No. 6: Petroglyphs of Saint Vincent, British
West Indies. By Thomas Huckerby. Re-
printed from Amer. AnthropoL, Vol. 16,
1914, No. 2. 50c.

No. 7: Prehistoric Objects from a Shell-heap
at Erin Bay, Trinidad. By J. Walter Fewkes.
Reprinted from Amer. AnthropoL, Vol. 16.
1914, No. 2. 50c.

No. 8: Relations of Aboriginal Culture and En-
vironment in the Lesser Antilles. By J.
Walter Fewkes. Reprinted from Bull. Amer.
Geogr. Soc, Vol. 46, 1914, No. 9. 50c.

No. 9: Pottery from Certain Caves in Eastern
Santo Domingo, West Indies. By Theo-
door de Booy. Reprinted from Amer. An-
thropoL, Vol. 17, 1915, No. 1. 50c.

INDIAN NOTES

PUBLICATIONS

Vol. II

No. 1 : Exploration of a Munsee Cemetery near
Montague, New Jersey. By George G. Heye
and George H. Pepper. 1915. $1.00.

No. 2: Engraved Celts from the Antilles. By
J. Walter Fewkes. 1915. 50c.

No. 3: Certain West Indian Superstitions Per-
taining to Celts. By Theodoor de Booy.
Reprinted from Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, Vol.
28, No. 107, 1915. 50c.

No. 4: The Nanticoke Community of Dela-
ware. By Frank G. Speck. 1915. $1.00.

No. 5: Notes On the Archeology of Margarita
Island, Venezuela. By Theodoor de Booy.
1916. 50c.

No. 6: Monolithic Axes and their Distribution
in Ancient America. By Marshall H. Saville.
1916. 50c.

Vol. Ill

Physical Anthropology of the Lenape or Dela-
wares, and of the Eastern Indians in Gen-
eral. By Ales Hrdlicka. (Bull. 62, Bur. of
Amer. Ethnol., 1916, with added title-page
and cover.) $1.00.

Vol. IV

No. 1: The Technique of Porcupine-quill
Decoration among the North American
Indians. By William C. Orchard. 1916.
$1.00.

No. 2 : Certain Archeological Investigations
in Trinidad, British West Indies. By Theo-

AND MONOGRAPHS

PUBLICATIONS

door de Booy. Reprinted from Amer. An-
thropoid Vol. 19, 1917, No. 4. 50c.
No. 3: The Nacoochee Mound in Georgia. By
George G. Heye, F. W. Hodge, and George
H. Pepper. 1918. $1.50.

Vol. V

Xo. 1 : A Letter of Pedro de Alvarado Relating
to His Expedition to Ecuador [1534], By
Marshall H. Saville. 1917. 50c.

No. 2: The Diegueno Ceremony of the Death-
images. By E. H. Davis. 1919. 50c.

No. 3: Certain Mounds in Haywood County,
North Carolina. By George G. Heye. Re-
printed from Holmes Anniversary Volume,
1916. 1919. 50c.

No. 4: Exploration of Aboriginal Sites at
Throgs Neck and Clasons Point, New York
City. By Alanson Skinner. 1919. $1.00.

Vol. VI

Turquois Mosaic Art in Ancient Mexico. By
Marshall H. Saville. 1922. $6.00.

Vol. VII

No. 1 : Circular Kivas near Hawikuh, New Mex-
ico. (Hendricks-Hodge Expedition.) By F.
W.Hodge. $1.50.

Indian Notes and Monographs

Vol. I

No. 1: Archeology of the Virgin Islands. Bv
Theodoor de Booy. 1919. $1.25.

INDIAN NOTES

PUBLICATIONS

7

No. 2: Santo Domingo Kitchen-midden and

Burial Mound. By Theodoor de Booy.

1919. 50c.
No. 3: Petroglyphs of Grenada and a Recently

Discovered Petroglyph in St. Vincent.

By Thomas Huckerby. 1921. 50c.
No. 4: Certain Objects from St. Vincent. By

Marshall H. Saville. {In preparation.)

Vol. II

No. 1 : The Pre-Iroquoian Algonkian Indians of
Central and Western New York. By Alan-
son Skinner. 1919. 40c.

No. 2: An Ancient Algonkian Fishing Village
at Cayuga, New York. By Alanson Skin-
ner. 1919. 40c.

No. 3 : A Montauk Cemetery at Easthampton,
Long Island. By Foster H. Saville. 1920.
60c.

No. 4: An Antique Tobacco-pouch of the Iro-
quois. By Alanson Skinner. 1920. 15c.

No. 5: An Iroquois Antler Figurine. By
Alanson Skinner. 1920. 15c.

No. 6: Archeological Investigations on Man-
hattan Island, New York City. By Alanson
Skinner. 1920. $1.50.#

No. 7: New York City in Indian Possession.
By Reginald Pelham Bolton. 1920. $2.00.

Vol. Ill

No. 1: Bibliography of Fray Alonso de Bena-
vides. By F. W. Hodge. 1919. 50c.

No. 2: The Age of the Zuni Pueblo of Kechi-
pauan. By F. W- Hodge. 1920. 40c.

AND MONOGRAPHS

8

PUBLICATIONS

No. 3: Hawikuh Bonework. By F. W. Hodge.

1920. $2.00.
No. 4: The Papago Ceremony of Vikita. By

Edward H. Davis. 1921. 65c.

Vol. IV

Medicine Ceremony of the Menomini, Iowa,
and Wahpeton Dakota, with Notes on the
Ceremony among the Ponca, Bungi Ojibwa,
and Potawatomi. By Alanson Skinner.
1920. $3.00.

Vol. V

No. 1 : Archeological Specimens from New Eng-
land. By Marshall H. Saville. 1919. 15c.

No. 2: A Mahican Wooden Cup. By .George
G. Heye. 1921. 20c.

{Other numbers of Vol. V are to follow.)

Vol. VI

No. 1: Bibliographic Notes on Quirigua, Guate-
mala. By Marshall H. Saville. 1919. 25c.

No. 2: The Discovery of Gold in the Graves
of Chiriqui. By S. K. Lothrop. 1919. 20c.

No. 3: Notes on the Bribri of Costa Rica. By
Alanson Skinner. 1920. $1.50.

No. 4: An Image and an Amulet of Nephrite
from Costa Rica. By Alanson Skinner.
1920. 15c.
{Other numbers of Vol. VI are to follow.)

Vol. VII

No. 1: Certain Aboriginal Pottery from South-
ern California. By George G. Heye. 1919.
$1.00.

INDIAN NOTES

PUBLICATIONS

9

No. 2: Morphological and Metrical Variation

in Skulls from San Miguel Island, California.

I. — The Sutura Nasofron talis. By Bruno

Oetteking. 1920. 50c.
No. 3: Early Cremation Ceremonies of the

Luisefio and Dieguefio Indians of Southern

California. By E. H. Davis. 1921. 20c.
No. 4: Certain Aboriginal Artifacts from San

Miguel Island, California. By George G.

Heye, 1921. S4.25.

Vol. VIII

Zuni Breadstuff. By Frank Hamilton Cushing.
1920. $5.00.

Vol. IX

No. 1 : The Earliest Notices Concerning the
Conquest of Mexico by Cortes in 1519. By
Marshall H. Saville. 1920. 35c.

No. 2: Bibliographic Notes on Uxmal, Yucatan.
By Marshall H. Saville. 1921. $1.00.

No. 3 : Reports on the Maya Indians of Yucatan.
By Santiago Mendez, Antonio Garcia y
Cubas, Pedro Sanchez de Aguilar, and Fran-
cisco Hernandez. Edited by Marshall H.
Saville. 1921. 75c.

Vol. X

No. 1: A Stone Effigy Pipe from Kentucky.
By George H. Pepper. 1920. 25c.

No. 2: A Sacred Warclub of the Oto. By M.
R. Harrington. 1920. 15c.

No. 3: An Illinois Quilled Necklace. By Alan-
son Skinner. 1920. 15c.

No. 4: Old Sauk and Fox Beaded Garters.
By M. R. Harrington. 1920. 15c.

AND MONOGRAPHS

10

PUBLICATIONS

Xo. 5: A Bird-quill Belt of the Sauk and Fox.

By M. R. Harrington. 1920. 15c.

Xo. 6: An Archaic Iowa Tomahawk. By M.

R. Harrington. 1920. 15c.

Xo. 7: A Wooden Image from Kentucky. By

George H. Pepper. 1921. 30c.

{Other numbers of Vol. X are to follow.)

Miscellaneous

(1) A Native Copper Celt from Ontario. By

Alanson Skinner. 1920. 15c.

(2) Two Antler Spoons from Ontario. By

Alanson Skinner. 1920. 15c.

(3) Two Lenape Stone Masks from Pennsyl-

vania and New Jersey. By Alanson

Skinner. 1920. 20c.

(4) Sandals and Other Fabrics from Ken-

tucky Caves. By William C. Orchard.

1920. 30c.

(5) Types of Canoes on Puget Sound. By

T. T. Waterman and Geraldine Coffin.

1920. 60c.

(6) How the Makah Obtained Possession of

Cape Flattery. By Albert Irvine.

Translated by Luke Markistun. 1921.
15c.
(7) The Goldsmith's Art in Ancient Mexico.

By MarshaU H. Saville. 1920. $3.25.

(8) Xative Copper Objects of the Copper

Eskimo. By Donald A. Cadzow. 1920.

45c.

(9) Indian Houses of Puget Sound. By T.

T. Waterman and Ruth Greiner. 1921.

70c.

INDIAN NOTES

PUBLICATIONS

11

(10) Certain Caddo Sites in Arkansas. By M.

R. Harrington. 1920. $6.25.

(11) Native Houses of Western North America.

By T. T. Waterman and collaborators,
1921. $1.60.

(12) List of Publications of the Museum of the

American Indian, Heye Foundation.
January, 1921. (Out of print.)

(13) Hunting Charms of the Montagnais and

the Mistassini. By Frank G. Speck and
George G. Heye. 1921. 35c.

(14) Bladed Warclubs from British Guiana.

By Marshall H. Saville. 1921. 25c.

(15) Slate Mirrors of the Tsimshian. By George

T. Emmons. 1921. 35c.

(16) String-records of the Northwest. By J. D.

Leechman and M. R. Harrington. 1921.
75c.

(17) Cuba Before Columbus. Part I. By

M. R. Harrington. (Two vols.) 1921.
$8.00.

(18) Notes on Iroquois Archeology. By Alan-

son Skinner. 1921. $3.25.

(19) Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape.

By M. R. Harrington. 1921. $3.50.

(20) Material Culture of the Menomini. By

Alanson Skinner. 1921. $6.00.

(21) A Golden Breastplate from Cuzco, Peru.

By Marshall H. Saville. 1921. 40c.

(22) Beothuk and Micmac. By Frank G.

Speck. 1921. $3.25.

(23) Indian Paths in the Great Metropolis.

By Reginald Pelham Bolton. 1922.
$4.75.

AND MONOGRAPHS

12

PUBLICATIONS

(24) Cherokee and Earlier Remains on Upper

Tennessee River. By M. R. Harrington.
1922. $4.50.

(25) A Report from Natchitoches, in 1807, by

Dr John Sibley. Edited, with an in-
troduction, by A. H. Abel. 1922. $1.00.

(26) Additional Mounds of Duval and of Clay

Counties, Florida. By Clarence B.
Moore. 1922. 65c.

(27) Aboriginal Pottery of Costa Rica. By

S. K. Lothrop. (In preparation,)

(28) List of Publications of the Museum of the

American Indian, Heye Foundation.
Second Edition. September, 1921. (Out
of print.)

(29) A Basket-maker Cave in Kane County,

Utah. By Jesse L. Nusbaum, with
Notes on the Artifacts by A. V. Kidder
and S. J. Guernsey. 1922. $2.50.

(30) Guide to the Museum. First Floor. 1922.

35c.

(31) Guide to the Museum. Second Floor.

1922. 35c.

(32) Guide to the Collections from the AVest

Indies. 1922. 15c.

(33) Aims and Objects of the Museum of the

American Indian, Heye Foundation.
1922. (Free.)

(34) List of Publications of the Museum of the

American Indian, Heye Foundation.
Third Edition. December, 1922. (Out
of print.)

(35) Jade in British Columbia and Alaska, and

its Use by the Natives. By G. T.
Emmons. 1923. $5.00.

INDIAN NOTES

PUBLICATIONS

13

(36) List of Publications of the Museum of the
American Indian, Heye Foundation.
Fourth Edition. March, 1924. (Free.)

Indian Notes

"Published occasionally in the interest of the
Museum.' ' This little publication will
appear four times a year, but not necessa-
rily at regular intervals. Subscription
price, $1.00 a year, 25c a copy. Speci-
men copy on request.

Leaflets

1. A Sculptured Vase from Guatemala. By

Marshall H. Saville. 1919. $1.50.

2. Turquois Work of Hawikuh, New Mexico.

By F. W. Hodge. 1921. $3.00.

AND MONOGRAPHS

14

IXDEX OF AUTHORS AND TITLES

C = Contributions from the Museum. SA =
Contributions to South American Archeology
ENM = Indian Xotes and Monographs. L
= Leaflet.)

.: . . A. H., editor. A report
from Natchitoches, in 18

by Dr. John Sibley IXM. Mis: 1 :

n San
Miguel island. California

Heye IXM, vn. 4

A be diure and environ-

ment in the Lesser Antilles

Fe-vkes^ C, i, S

see Culture

. from south-
ern California .Heye IXM, vn, 1

of Costa Rica Loth-

rop; ENM, Mi* 21

A': o at Throgs neck

and Clasons point, >

York City ^Skinner C, V, 4

Add. -:ds of Duval

and of Clav counties. Florida

Moore IXM, Misc.(26;

:f the Zuni pueblo of

Kechipauan 'Hodge IXM. :::. 2

:^nd objects of the Mu-
seum '. INM.Misc

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

15

Alaska, jade in (Emmons) INM, Misc. 35

Algonkian fishing village at
Cayuga, New York (Skin-
ner) INM, ii, 2

■

western New York (Skinner) INM, n, 1

Alvarado, Pedro de, letter of

(Saville) C, v, 1

Amulet of nephrite from Costa
Rica (Skinner) # ; . INM, vi, 4

Ancient Algonkian fishing vil-
lage at Cayuga, New York
(Skinner) INM, n, 2

Anthropology, see Physical an-
thropology

Antilles, engraved celts from
(Fewkes) C, n, 2

, see i^esser /iiini/ucs,

West Indian
Antique tobacco-pouch of the

Iroquois (Skinner) INM, n, 4

Antiquities of Manabi, Ecuador

(Saville) SA, i, n

Antler figurine of the Iroquois

(Skinner) INM, n, 5

spoons irom wniano
(Skinner) INM, Misc. (2)

Archaic Iowa tomahawk (Har-
rington) INM, x, 6

Archeological investigations in
Trinidad (de Booy) C, iv, 2

inves Ligations on ivian-
hattan island (Skinner) INM, n, 6

— ■ ■■ specimens from New
England (Saville) INM, v, 1

AND MONOGRAPHS

16

PUBLICATIONS

Archeology, Iroquois, notes on

Skinna IXM, Misc. (18)

of Chiriqui '^lac-
Curdy C. : 5

of Margarita island,

Venezuela (de Booy] C. n, 5

of the Virgin islands

(de Boov IXM, I, 1

znsas, certain Caddo sites
in (Harrington; INM, Misc. (10)

Axes, monolithic, in ancient

America ( Saville) C, n, 6

Bahamas, Lucayan artifacts

from the (de Booy C, i, 1

Basket-maker cavt in Kane
count v. Utah Xusbaum,
Kidder. Guernsey, IXM. Mis:

Beaded garters of the Sauk and

Fox ^Harrington) IXM, x, 4

Belt, bird-quill, of the Sauk and

Fox (Harrington) IXM, x, 5

Benavidc:. Fr:: Alonso de, bib-
liography of (Hodge) IXM, in, 1

uk and Micmac Speck) IXM, Misc. (22)

Bibliographic nates on Quirigua,

Guatemala (SaVflk) IXM. vi, 1

on Uxmal. Yucatan

ville) INM, dc, 2

Bibliography of Fray Alonso de

Benavides | Hodge; IXM, in, 1

Bird-quill belt of the Sauk and

Fox (Harrington] IXM, x. S

Bladed war clubs from British

Guiana (Saville) IXM, Misc. 14

I N D I A N N 0 T E S

INDEX

Bolton, Reginald Pelham, In-
dian paths in the Great Me-
tropolis INM,Misc.(23)

. New York City in In-
dian possession INM, n, 7

Bonework, Hawikuh (Hodge) . INM, in, 3

Booy, Theodoor de, Archeology

. of the Virgin Islands ; . . INM, i, 1

, Certain archeological

investigations in Trinidad. . C, iv, 2

Certain kitchen-
middens in Jamaica C, i, 3

, Certain West Indian

superstitions pertaining to

celts. C, ii, 3

, Lucayan artifacts from

the Bahamas . . C, i, 1

, Notes on the archeol-
ogy of Margarita island,
Venezuela C, n, 5

, Pottery from certain

caves in eastern Santo Do-
mingo C, i, 9

, Santo Domingo kit-
chen-midden and burial
mound INM, I, 2

Breadstuff, Zurii (Cushing) .... INM, vm

Breastplate, golden, from Cuz-

co, Peru (Saville) INM, Misc. (21)

Bribri of Costa Rica (Skinner) INM, vi, 3

British Columbia, jade in (Em-
mons) INM, Misc. 35

British Guiana, bladed war-
clubs from (Saville) INM, Misc. (14)

Bungi Ojibwa, medicine cere-
mony of the (Skinner) INM, iv

17

AND MONOGRAPHS

18

PUBLICATIONS

Burial customs of southern

California (Davis) INM, vn, 3

Burial mound in Santo Do-
mingo (de Booy) INM, i, 2

Caddo sites in Arkansas (Har-
rington) v . INM, Misc.(lO)

Cadzow, Donald A., Native
copper objects of the Copper
Eskimo INM, Misc. (8)

California, aboriginal . objects
from San Miguel island
(Heye) INM, vn, 4

, aboriginal pottery

from (Heye) INM, vn, 1

, early cremation cere-
monies of (Davis) INM, vn, 3

, skulls from San Miguel

island (Oetteking) INM, vn, 2

Canoes, types of, on Puget
sound (Waterman and Cof-
fin) INM, Misc. (5)

Cape Flatterv, how obtained by

^ the Makah (Irvine) INM, Misc. (6)

Cave, Basket-maker, in Utah
(Xusbaum, Kidder, Guern-
sey) IXM, Misc.(29)

Caves, Kentucky, sandals and

other fabrics from (Orchard) INM, Misc. (4)

, pottery from, in Santo

Domingo (de Booy) C, i, 9

Cayuga, New York, ancient
Algonkian fishing village at
(Skinner) . . INM, n, 2

Celt, copper, from Ontario

(Skinner) INM, Misc. (1)

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

Celts, engraved, from the An-
tilles (Fewkes) . . C, n, 2

, West Indian supersti-
tions pertaining to (de Booy) C, n, 3

Cemetery, Montauk, at East-
hampton, Long Island (Fos-
ter H. Saville) . . . . . INM, n, 3

, Munsee, exploration of

(Heye and Pepper) C, n, 1

Ceremonies, religion and, of the
Lenape (Harrington) INM, Misc.(19)

Ceremony, Diegueno, of the

death-images (Davis) C, v, 2

, medicine, of the Me-

nomini (Skinner) INM, iv

, Papago, of Viklta

(Davis).. ; . INM, m, 4

Certain aboriginal artifacts from

San Miguel island (Heye). INM, vn, 4

aboriginal pottery from

southern California (Heye) . INM, vn, 1

archeological investi-
gations in Trinidad (de
Booy) .. ... C, iv, 2

Caddo sites in Arkan-
sas (Harrington) INM, Misc. (10)

kitchen-middens in

Jamaica (de Booy) C, i, 3

mounds in Haywood

county, North Carolina
(Heye)..^ C, v, 3

objects from Saint

Vincent (Saville) INM, i, 4

West Indian supersti-
tions pertaining to celts (de
Booy) C, ii, 3

19

AND MONOGRAPHS

20

PUBLICATIONS

Charms, hunting, of the Mon-
tagnais and the Mistassini
(Speck and Heye) INM, Misc. (13)

Cherokee and earlier remains
on upper Tennessee river
(Harrington) . .^ INM, Misc. (24)

Chiriqui, gold in graves of

(Lothrop) INM, vi, 2

Circular kivas, near Hawikuh,

X. Mex. (Hodge) . . . C, vn, 1

Clasons point, aboriginal sites
at (Skinner) C, v, 4

Coffin, Geraldine, see Water-
man, T. T., and Coffin

Columbus, Cuba before, Part

I. (Harrington) INM, Misc. (17)

Conquest of Mexico, notices

concerning (Saville) INM, ix, 1

Copper celt from Ontario (Skin-
ner) INM, Misc. (1)

objects of the Copper

Eskimo (Cadzow); INM, Misc. (8)

Copper Eskimo, native copper
objects of (Cadzow) . INM, Misc. (8)

Cortes, notices concerning con-
quest of Mexico by (Saville) INM, ix, 1

Costa Rica, aboriginal pottery
of (Lothrop) INM, Misc. (27)

, image and amulet of

nephrite from (Skinner) .... INM, vi, 4

, notes on the Bribri of

(Skinner) > INM vi, 3

Cremation ceremonies of south-
ern California (Davis) INM, vn, 3

Cuba before Columbus, Part
I. (Harrington) INM, Misc. (17)

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

Culture and environment in
the Lesser Antilles (Fewkes) C, I, 8

Culture, material, of the Meno-
mini (Skinner) INM, Misc. (20)

Cup, wooden, of the Mahican

(Heye) # INM, v, 2

Cashing, F. H., Zuni bread-
stuff INM, vm

Cuzco, golden breastplate from

(Saville) INM, Misc.(21)

Dakota, see Wahpeton

Davis, E. H., Early cremation
ceremonies of southern Cali-
fornia INM, vh, 3

,The Diegueno ceremony

of the death-images C, v, 2

, The Papago ceremony

of Vikita INM, m, 4

Death-images, Diegueno cere-
mony of the (Davis) C, v, 2

Decoration of teeth in Ecuador

(Saville) ;•••••.• C> x> 2

, see Porcupine-quill

decoration

Delaware, Nanticoke commu-
nity of (Speck) C, n, 4

Delaware Indians, see Lenape

Diegueno ceremony of the

death-images (Davis) C, v, 2

cremation ceremonies

(Davis) INM, vn, 3

Disco-eery of gold in the graves

of Chiriqui (Lothrop) INM, VI, 2

AND MONOGRAPHS

21

22

PUBLICATIONS

Earliest notices concerning the

conquest of Mexico by Cor-

tes in 1519 (Saville)

INM, ix, 1

Early cremation ceremonies of

southern California (Davis)

INM, vii, 3

Easthampton, Long Island,

Montauk cemetery at (Fos-

ter H. Saville)

INM, ii, 3

Ecuador, antiquities of Man-

abi (Saville)

SA, i, ii

, letter of Pedro de Alva-

rado, relating to his expedi-

tion to (Saville)

C, v, 1

, precolumbian decora-

tion of teeth in (Saville) ....

C,i,2

Effigy pipe from Kentucky

~(Pepper)

INM, x, 1

Elboii'-stones, Porto Rican

(Fewkes)

C,i,4

Emmons, G. T., Jade in British

Columbia and Alaska

INM, Misc.

35

, Slate mirrors of the

Tsimshian

INM, Misc.(l;

Engraved celts from the Antilles

(Fewkes)

C, ii, 2

Environment, relations of abor-

iginal culture and, in the

Lesser Antilles (Fewkes) . . .

C,i,8

Eskimo, see Alaska, Copper

Eskimo

Exploration of aboriginal sites

at Throgs neck and Clasons

point, Xew York City (Skin-

ner)

C, v, 4

of a Munsee cemetery

near Montague, Xew Jersey

(Heye and Pepper)

C, ii, 1

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

23

Exploration, see Archeological

investigations

Fabrics from Kentucky caves

(Orchard)

INM, Misc. (4)

Fewkes, J. W., Engraved celts

from the Antilles

C, ii, 2

"Privfr* T?ir>Tn fOVinw-r

, X UllO XvlCclIl C1UUW"

stones . . . .

C,i,4

"PrpTii^fr^np r>nipptr

, XT 1 Cilia LUi 1U UUJCCto

from a shell-heap at Erin

bay, Trinidad

C,i,7

, Relations of aboriginal

culture and environment in

the Lesser Antilles

Q,i,8

Figurine, antler, of the Iroquois

(Skinner)

INM, ii, 5

Fishing village, Algonkian, at

Cayuga, New York (Skin-

ner)

INM, ii, 2

Florida, mounds of Duval and

of Clay counties (Moore). . .

INM,Misc.(26)

Fox, see Sauk and Fox

Garcia y Cubas, Antonio, The

Maya Indians of Yucatan in

1861

INM. ix, 3

Garters, beaded, of the Sauk

and Fox (Harrington)

INM, x, 4

Georgia, Nacoochee mound in

(Heye, Hodge, Pepper)

C, iv, 3

Gold in graves of Chiriqui

(Lothrop)

INM, vi, 2

Golden breastplate from Cuzco,

Peru (Saville)

INM,Misc.(21)

Goldsmith's art in ancient Mex-

ico (Saville)

INM, Misc. (7)

AND MONOGRAPHS

24

PUBLICATIONS

Graves, discovery of gold in,

of Chiriqui (Lothrop) INM, vi, 2

Greiner, Ruth, see Waterman,

T. T.y and Greiner
Grenada, petroglyphs of (Huck-

erby) _ INM, i, 3

Guatemala, bibliographic notes

on Quirigua (SavHle) INM, vi, 1

, sculptured vase from

(Saville) L, 1

Guernsey, S. /., see Kidder, A.

V., and Guernsey
Guide to the Museum. First

floor INM, Misc. (30)

Guide to the Museum. Second

floor INM, Misc. (31)

Guide to the collections from

the West Indies INM, Misc. (32)

Harrington, M. R., A bird-
quill belt of the Sauk and
Fox INM,x, 5

, A sacred warclub of the

Oto INM,x,2

, An archaic Iowa

tomahawk INM, x, 6

, Certain Caddo sites in

Arkansas INM, Misc. (10)

, Cherokee and earlier

remains on upper Tennessee

river INM, Misc. (24)

, Cuba before Colum-
bus, Part I INM, Misc. (17)

, Old Sauk and Fox

beaded garters INM, x, 4

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

25

Harrington, M.R., Religion and
ceremonies of the Lenape. . . INM, Misc. (19)

0

and Harrington

Hawikuh bonework (Hodge) . . INM, m, 3

, Circular kivas near

(Hodge) C vii, 1

, Turquois work of

(Hodge) L, 2

Hernandez, Francisco, Of the
religious beliefs of the In-
dians of Yucatan in 1545 . . . INM, ix, 3

Heye, George G., A Mahican
wooden cup INM, v, 2

facts from San Miguel island INM, vn, 4

— , certain aDongmai pot-
tery from southern Califor-
nia INM, vii, 1

■ , ^criciiii mounus in

Haywood county, North
Carolina C, v, 3

ploration of a Munsee ceme-
tery near Montague, New
Jersey C, n, 1

Pepper, G. H., The Na-
coochee mound in Georgia. C, iv, 3

- ■ , bLL- OjJLLhv, n ai^h, Li.,

and Heye
Hodge, F. W., Age of the Zuni

pueblo of Kechipauan INM, in, 2

, Bibliography of Fray

Alonso de Benavides INM, in, 1

AND MONOGRAPHS

26

PUBLICATIONS

Hodge, F. W., Circular kivas

near Hawikuh, X. Mex C, vn, 1

, Hawikuh bonework. . . IXM, nr, 3

, Turquois work of Ha-
wikuh L, 2

, see Heye, George G.,

Hodge, F. IT., and Pepper,
G.H.

Houses, Indian, of Puget sound

(Waterman and Greiner) . . . IXM, Misc. (9)

, native, of western

X'orth America (Waterman

and collaborators) IXM, Misc. (11)

How the Makah obtained pos-
session of Cape Flattery
(Irvine) '. IXM, Misc. (6)

Hrdlicka, A., Physical anthro-
pology of the Lenape or Dela-
wares, and of the eastern
Indians in general C, in

Huckerby, Thomas, Petro-
glyphs of Grenada and a
recently discovered petro-
glyph in St. Vincent IXM, I, 3

, Petroglyphs of St Vin-
cent C, i, 6

Hunting charms of the Monta-
gnais and the Mistassini
(Speck and Heye) IXM, Misc. (13)

Illinois quilled necklace (Skin-
ner) IXM, x, 3

Image and amulet of nephrite

from Costa Rica (Skinner). IXM, vi, 4

, wooden, from Ken-
tucky (Pepper) IXM, x, 7

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

27

Image, see Death-images
Indian houses of Puget sound

(Waterman and Greiner) . . . INM, Misc. (9)

Metropolis (Bolton) INM, Misc.(23)

City (Bolton) . . . INM, n, 7

Iowa, archaic tomahawk of the

(Harrington) INM, x, 6

, medicine ceremony of

the (Skinner) INM, iv

Iroquois, antler figurine of the

(Skinner) INM, n, 5

archeology, notes on

(Skinner) INM, Misc.(18)

(Skinner) INM, n, 4

Irvine, Albert, How the Makah
obtained possession of Cape
Flattery INM, Misc. (6)

Jade in British Columbia and

Alaska (Emmons) INM, Misc. 35

Jamaica, kitchen-middens in
' (de Booy) C, i, 3

Kechipauan, age of Zufii pue-
blo of (Hodge) '. INM, m, 2

Xentncky, sandals and other
fabrics from caves in (Or-
chard) INM, Misc. (4)

from (Pepper) INM, x, 1

AND MONOGRAPHS

28

PUBLICATIONS

Kentucky, wooden image from

(Pepper) IXM, x, 7

Kidder, A. T\, and Guernsey, S.
J., Artifacts from Basket-
maker cave in Utah IXM. Misc 2

Kitchen-midden and burial-
mound in Santo Domingo
(de Booy) IXM. I, 2

in Jamaica (de Booy). C, i, 3

Kivas, circular, near Hawikuh,

X. Mex. Hodge) ' C, vn. 1

Leechman, J. D., and Harring-
ton, M. R., String-records of
the Northwest IXM. Misc.;i6;>

Lcnape, physical anthropology
of the (Hrdlicka) '. C, m

, religion and ceremo-
nies of the ^Harrington "> .... IXM, Misc.(19)

, stone masks of the

(Skinner) INM, Misc

Letter of Pedro de Alvarado

(Saville) C, V, 1

Lothrop, S. K., Aboriginal pot-
tery of Costa Rica INM, Mis 2 "

, The discover)' of gold

in the graves of Chiriqui. . . IXM, vi, 2

Luc ay an artifacts from the
Bahamas (de Booy) C, i, 1

Lnisefw cremation ceremonies

(Davis) IXM, vn, 3

MacCurdy, G. G.. Xote on the

archeology of Chiriqui C, i. 5

Ma hi can wooden cup (Heye) . . INM, V, 2

Makah obtained possession of

Cape Flattery (Irvine) INM, Mis

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

29

Manabi, antiquities of (Sa-

ville)

SA, i, ii

Manhattan Island, archeo-

logical investigations on

(Skinner)

IXM, ii, 6

, see New York City

Margarita island, Venezuela,

archeology of (de Booy) ....

C, ii, 5

Markistun, Luke, translator,

How the Makah obtained

possession of Cape Flattery

(Irvine)

IXM, Misc. (6)

Masks, stone, of the Lenape

(Skinner)

INM, Misc. (3)

Material culture of the Meno-

mini (Skinner)

INM, Misc. (20)

Maya Indians of Yucatan (Sa-

ville, ed.)

INM, ix, 3

Medicine ceremony of the Me-

nomini, (Skinner)

INM, iv

Mendez, Santiago, The Maya

Indians of Yucatan in 1861

INM, ix, 3

Menomini, material culture of

the (Skinner)

INM, Misc. (20)

, medicine ceremony of

the (Skinner)

INM, iv

Metrical variation in skulls

from San Miguel island, Cal-

ifornia (Oetteking)

INM, vii, 2

Mexico, ancient, goldsmith's

art in (Saville)

INM, Misc. (7)

, dllLlcIll, lurquois

mosaic art in (Saville)

C, vi

r'Aiinn/icf /"\T i~\ /\4"\ /^oc

, conquest oi, notices

concerning (Saville)

INM, ix, 1

AND MONOGRAPHS

30

PUBLICATIONS

Mexico, see Yucatan

Micmac, Beothuk and (Speck) INM, Misc. (22)

Mirrors , slate, of the Tsim-

shian (Emmons) INM, Misc. (15)

Mistassini, hunting charms of

the (Speck and Heye) ...... INM, Misc. (13)

Monolithic axes and their dis-

tribution in ancient America

(Saville) C, n, 6

Montagnais, hunting charms of

the (Speck and Heye) INM, Misc.(13)

Montauk cemetery at East-

hampton, Long Island (Fos-

ter H. Saville) INM, n, 3

Moore, Clarence B., Additional

mounds of Duval and of Clay

counties, Florida INM, Misc. (26)

Morphological and metrical

variation in skulls from

San Miguel island, Califor-

nia (Oetteking) INM, vn, 2

Mosaic, see Turquois

Mound, Nacoochee, in Georgia

(Heye, Hodge, Pepper) C, iv, 3

, see Burial mound

Mounds in Haywood county,

North Carolina (Heye) C, v, 3

of Duval and of Clay

counties, Florida (Moore).. INM, Misc. (26)

Munsee cemetery, exploration

of (Heye and Pepper) C, it, 1

Nacoochee mound in Georgia

(Heye, Hodge, Pepper) C, iv, 3

Nanticoke community of Dela-

ware (Speck) C, ii, 4

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

Natchitoches, report from, in

1807 (Abel, ed.) INM, Misc. (25)

Native copper celt from Onta-
rio (Skinner) INM, Misc. (1)

copper objects of the

Copper Eskimo (Cadzow) . . INM, Misc. (8)
houses of western North

America (Waterman and

collaborators) INM, Misc. (11)

Necklace, quilled, of the Illi-
nois (Skinner) INM, x, 3

Nephrite, image and amulet of,

from Costa Rica (Skinner) '. INM, vi, 4
New England, archeological

specimens from (Saville) . . . INM, v, 1
Newfoundland, see Beothuk
New Jersey, Lenape stone

masks from (Skinner) INM, Misc. (3)

, Munsee cemetery in

(Heye and Pepper) C, n, 1

New Mexico, see Hawikuh,

Kechipauan, Zuni
New York, ancient Algonkian

fishing village at Cayuga

(Skinner) ^ INM, n, 2

New York City, exploration of

sites in (Skinner) C, v, 4

in Indian possession

(Bolton) INM, ii, 7

, Indian paths in (Bol-
ton) INM, Misc.(23)

, see Manhattan Island,

Throgs neck
North America, western, native

houses of (Waterman and

collaborators) INM, Misc. (11)

31

AND MONOGRAPHS

32

PUBLICATIONS

Xorth Carolina, mounds in
Haywood county Jfeye . . .

Xorth:.-:::. String-records of
the (Xeechman and Harring-
ton) %

see Puget sound

Notes on Iroquois archeology
Skinner]

on the archeology of

Chiriqui (Mac Curdy.

on the archeolo i.-

Margarita island, Venezuela

on the Bribri of Costa

Rica (Skinner

Xusbaum, J. L., Basket-maker

cave in Kane county, Utah. .

:ertain, from St Vin-
cent (Saville.

of copper of the Cop-

per Eskimo (Cadzov
Oetteking, Bruno, Morphologi-
cal and metrical variation
in skulls from San Miguel
island, California. I — The

Sutura nasofrontal

see Bungi Oj:.
luk and Fox beaded -

ters (Harrington}

:o, antler spoons from

(Skinner)

, native copper celt from

C. v. 3
IXM. Mi:

IXM. Mis

C, i. 5

C, IT :

IXM, vi; 3

IXM. Misc. (29)

INM, i, 4

IXM.. Misc. (8)

IXM. vd

IXM, x, 4

IXM, Misc. (2)
ve copper celt from

inner IXM. Misc. (1)

Orchard, IT". C, Sandals and
other fabrics from Kentuckv
caves '. IXM, Misc. (4)

I X D I A X NOTES

INDEX

Orchard, W. C, The technique

of porcupine-quill decoration

among the North American

Indians C, iv, 1

Oto, sacred warclub of the

(Harrington) INM, x, 2

Panama, see Chiriqui
Papago ceremony of Vikita

(Davis)...... INM, in, 4

Paths, Indian, in the Great

Metropolis (Bolton) INM, Misc. (23)

Pennsylvania, Lenape stone

masks from (Skinner) INM, Misc. (3)

Pepper, G. H., A stone effigy

pipe from Kentucky INM, x, 1

, A wooden image from

Kentucky INM, x, 7

, see Heye, George G., and

Pepper, also Heye, George G.,

Hodge, F. W ., and Pepper
Peru, golden breastplate from

Cuzco (Saville) INM, Misc. (21)

Petroglyphs of Grenada and St

Vincent (Huckerby) . , INM, i, 3

of St Vincent (Huck-
erby) C, i, 6

Physical anthropology of the

Lenape or Delawares

(Hrdlicka) C, m

, see Skulls

Picto graphs, see Petroglyphs
Ponca, medicine ceremony of

the (Skinner) INM, iv

33

AND MONOGRAPHS

34

PUBLICATIONS

Porcupine-quill decoration

among the Xorth American

Indians 'Orchard' C. iv, 1

Porto Eicon dbow-ston

Fe - C. i,4

Potaivatomi, medicine cere-
mony of the (Skinner ENM, IV

Pottery, aboriginal, from south-
ern California Heye ENM, vn, 1

, aboriginal, of Costa

Rica\Lothrop; IXM. Misc.(27)

from caves in -

Domingo ^de Boov C, I, 9

: ilumbian decoration of
the teeth in Ecuador (8a-

ville) C: I

Prehistoric objects from Trini-
dad Fe C. :

-Iroquois * - nkian In-

dians of central and western

Skinner i ENM, n, 1

. Indian houses of
-terman and Greiner . . ENM, Misc. (9)
, types of canoes : d Wa-
terman and Comn; IXM. Mis

Quill, see Bird-cu:^. Porcupine-
q:-.

'.ice of the Illinois

dmier) IXM, x, 3

: . bibliographic nc I

IXM, vi, 1

Records, string, of the North-
west Leechman and Har-
rington) IXM. Misc. .16

I X D I A X NOTE-

INDEX

35

Relations of aboriginal cul-
ture and environment in the
Lesser Antilles (Fewkes) .... C, I, 8

Religion and ceremonies of the
Lenape (Harrington) INM, Misc. (19)

Report from Natchitoches, in
1807, by Dr John Sibley
(Abel, ed.) INM, Misc.(25)

Reports on the Maya Indians of
Yucatan (Saville, ed.) INM, IX, 3

Sacred warclub of the Otc

(Harrington) INM, x, 2

Saint Vincent, certain objects

from (Saville) INM, I, 4

, petroglyphs of (Huck-

erby) JC, i, 6

\INM,i, 3

Sanchez de Aguilar, Pedro,

Notes on the superstitions

of the Indians of Yucatan

(1639) INM, ix, 3

Sandals from Kentucky caves

(Orchard) INM, Misc. (4)

San Miguel island, California,

aboriginal artifacts from

(Heye) INM, vn, 4

skulls from (Oetteking) INM, vn, 2

Santo Domingo kitchen-midden

and burial mound (de Booy) INM, i, 2
, pottery from caves in

(de Booy) C. i, 9

Sauk and Fox, beaded garters

of (Harrington) INM, x, 4

AND MONOGRAPHS

36

PUBLICATIONS

Sauk and Fox, bird-quill belt of

(Harrington) INM, x, 5

Saville, Foster H., A Montauk
cemetery at Easthampton,
Long Island INM, n, 3

Saville, Marshall H., A golden

breastplate from Cuzco, Peru INM, Misc. (21)

, A letter of Pedro de

Alvarado, relating to his
expedition to Ecuador C, v, 1

, Antiquities of Manabi,

Ecuador SA, i, n

, Archeological speci-
mens from New England. . INM, v, 1

, A sculptured vase

from Guatemala L, 1

, Bibliographic notes on

Quirigua, Guatemala INM, vi, 1

, Bibliographic notes on

Uxmal, Yucatan INM, ix, 2

, Bladed warclubs from

British Guiana INM, Misc. (14)

, Certain objects from

St Vincent INM, i, 4

, Monolithic axes and

their distribution in ancient
America C, n, 6

, Precolumbian decora-
tion of teeth in Ecuador. ... C, i, 2

, The earliest notices

concerning the conquest of

Mexico by Cortes in 1519. . INM, ix, 1

, The goldsmith's art in

ancient Mexico ; . . INM, Misc. (7)

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX 37

Saville, Marshall H., Turquois
art mosaic in ancient Mexico C, vi

, editor. Reports on the

Maya Indians of Yucatan. . INM, ix, 3

Sculptured vase from Guatemala
(Saville) L, 1

Shell-heap, prehistoric objects
from, in Trinidad (Fewkes) . C, i, 7

Sibley, John, A report from

Natchitoches in 1807 INM, Misc. (25)

Sites y Caddo, in Arkansas (Har-
rington) INM, Misc.(lO)

Skinner, Alanson, A native

copper celt from Ontario. . . INM, Misc. (1)

, An ancient Algonkian

fishing village at Cayuga,

New York INM, n, 2

, An antique tobacco-
pouch of the Iroquois INM, n, 4

, An Illinois quilled

necklace INM, x, 3

, An image and an amu-
let of nephrite from Costa
Rica %. INM, vi, 4

, An Iroquois antler fig-
urine INM, ii, 5

, Archeological investi-
gations on Manhattan Island. INM, n, 6

, Exploration of aborigi-
nal sites at Throgs neck and
Clasons point, New York
City C,v,4

, Material culture of the

Menomini INM, Misc.(20)

AND MONOGRAPHS

38

PUBLICATIONS

Skinner, Alans on, Medicine

ceremony of the Menomini. INM, iv

, Notes on Iroquois

archeology INM, Misc. (18)

, Notes on the Bribri of

Costa Rica IMN, vi, 3

, The pre-Iroquoian A\-

gonkian Indians of central

and western New York INM, n, 1

, Two antler spoons

from Ontario INM, Misc. (2)

, Two Lenape stone

masks from Pennsylvania

and New Jersey INM, Misc. (3)

Skulls from San Miguel island,

California (Oetteking) INM, vn, 2

, see Physical anthropol-
ogy

Slate mirrors of the Tsimshian

(Emmons) INM, Misc. (15)

Speck, Frank G., Beothuk and

Micmac INM, Misc.(22)

The Nanticoke commu-
nity of Delaware C, n, 4

, and Heye, George G.,

Hunting charms of the Mon-

tagnais and the Mistassini. . INM, Misc.(13)

Spoons, antler, from Ontario

(Skinner) . . .^ INM, Misc. (2)

Stone effigy pipe from Ken-
tucky (Pepper) INM, x, 1

■ masks of the Lenape

(Skinner) INM, Misc. (3)

String-records of the Northwest

(Leechmanand Harrington). INM, Misc. (16)

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

39

Superstitions, West Indian,

pertaining to celts (de Booy). C, n, 3

Sutura nasofrontalis (Oette-

king) INM, vn, 2

Technique of porcupine-quill

decoration (Orchard) C, iv, 1

Teeth, decoration of, in Ecua-

dor (Saville) - C, i, 2

Tennessee river, Cherokee and

earlier remains on (Harring-

ton) INM, Misc.(24)

Throgs neck, aboriginal sites at

(Skinner) C, v, 4

Tobacco-pouch of the Iroquois

(Skinner) INM, n, 4

Tomahawk, archaic, of the

Iowa (Harrington) INM, x, 6

Trinidad, archeological inves-

tigations in (de Booy) C, iv, 2

■j prehistoric objects from

a shell-heap in (Fewkes) .... C, i, 7

Tsimshian, slate mirrors of the

(Emmons) INM, Misc.(15)

Turquois mosaic art in ancient

Mexico (Saville) C, vi

work of Hawikuh

(Hodge) L, 2

Types of canoes on Puget

sound (Waterman and Cof-

fin) > INM, Misc. (5)

Utah, Basket-maker cave in

(Nusbaum, Kidder, Guern-

sey) INM, Misc.(29)

AND MONOGRAPHS

40

PUBLICATIONS

Uxmal, bibliographic notes on

(Saville)

IXM, ix, 2

Vase, sculptured, from Guate-

mala (Saville)

L,l

Venezuela, see Margarita island

Vikita, Papago ceremonv of

(Davis)

IXM, in, 4

Virgin islands, archeology of

(de Booy)

IXM, i, 1

Wahpeton, medicine ceremony

of the (Skinner)

IXM, iv

War club , sacred, of the Oto

('Harrington)

IXM,x,2

Ward ubs, bladed, from British

Guiana (Saville)

IXM. Misc. (14)

Washington, see Puget sound

Waterman, T. T., and Coffin,

Gcraldine, Types of canoes

on Puget sound

IXM, Misc. :

and collaborators. Na-

tive houses of western Xorth

America

IXM, Misc. U)

ana \jreiutr , jxiiin, In-

dian houses of Puget sound.

IXM, Misc. 9)

West Indian superstitions per-

taining to celts (de Booy) . .

C, ii, 3

West Indies, see Bahamas, Gre-

nada, Guide, Jamaica, Lesser

Antilles, Saint Vincent, Santo

Domingo, Trinidad, Virgin

islands

Wooden image from Kentucky

(Pepper)

IXM, x, 7

I X D I A X X 0 T E S ■ .

INDEX

41

Yucatan, bibliographic notes
on Uxmal (Saville) „ INM, ix, 2

Maya Indians of (Saville,^.)- INM, ix, 3

Zuni breadstuff (Cushing) INM, vm

pueblo of Kechipauan

(Hodge) INM, III, 2

. see Hawikuh

AND MONOGRAPHS

INDIAN NOTES
AND MONOGRAPHS

Edited by F. W. Hodge

A SERIES OF PUBLICA-
TIONS RELATING TO THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES

GUIDE TO THE MUSEUM

THIRD FLOOR

NEW YORK

MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

HEYE FOUNDATION

1924

This series of Indian Notes and Mono-
graphs is devoted primarily to the publica-
tion of the result of studies by members of
the staff of the Museum of the American
Indian, Heye Foundation, and is uniform
with Hispanic Notes and Monographs,
published by the Hispanic Society of
America, with which organization this
Museum is in cordial cooperation.

Only the first ten volumes of Indian
Notes and Monographs are numbered.
The unnumbered parts may readily be deter-
mined by consulting the List of Publications
issued as one of the series.

GUIDE TO THE COLLECTIONS

FROM

MIDDLE AND SOUTH AMERICA

AND THE WEST INDIES

w

1 I*!"

1

,,

n

1. £ g 1 8 i § §

U mu

to

U" l_i s

373 356 _

-

%

WEST HALL

D

332

I

333

r «L
334 ECU A DO RE AN 354

1 i II

f/,57 ^^^£3 w/|a ^

"i — i ~n

CO CO

8 8

n* i — i °

5

to 335 353

J5

It

u

m

L

i

II"

1

B § S 2 £ jg § fl

PLAN OF THIRD FLOOR

INDIAN NOTES
AND MONOGRAPHS

Edited by F. W. Hodge

No.

38

A SERIES OF PUBLICA-
TIONS RELATING TO THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES

GUIDE TO THE MUSEUM

THIRD FLOOR

NEW YORK

MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

HEYE FOUNDATION

1924

CONTENTS

WEST HALL — ARCHEOLOGY OF MIDDLE AMERICA AND THE

WEST INDIES

PAGE

Archeology of Middle America in General 9

Ancient Mexico. . . : 25

North Mexican Culture 25

Tarascan Culture 25

Nahuan or Mexican Culture 28

Mixtecan-Zapotecan Culture 32

Totonacan Culture 35

Huaxtecan-Mayan Culture 37

Yucatan Peninsula 42

British Honduras 44

Guatemala 44

Honduras 49

Salvador 50

Nicaragua 53

Mosquitia 56

Archeology of the West Indies 57

Native Population * 57

The Taino tribes 59

The Ciboney 62

TheCarib 64

Cuba 65

Jamaica , 68

Bahamas 69

Santo Domingo 70

Porto Rico 71

Virgin Islands 73

5

Other Islands 74

Guadaloupe and Dominica. 74

Martinique 75

Santa Lucia 75

Montserrat 75

Saint Vincent 76

Grenadines 77

Grenada 78

Trinidad 78

Tobago 79

Barbados ' 79

EAST HALL — ARCHEOLOGY OF MIDDLE AMERICA AND
SOUTH AMERICA

Costa Rica 81

Panama 84

Archeology of South America 86

Colombia 86

Andean Region 86

Pacific Coast Region 90

Ecuador - 91

Andean Region 93

Pacific Coast Region 99

Esmeraldas Culture 103

Manabi Culture 106

The Guianas and Venezuela 109

Brazil Ill

Peru 114

Chile 125

Argentine 128

WEST HALL AND STAIRWAY HALL — ETHNOLOGY OF MIDDLE
AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES

Mexico and Guatemala 129

West Indies 133

6

EAST HALL — ETHNOLOGY OE MIDDLE AMERICA AND SOUTH

AMERICA

Costa Rica and Panama 135

Ecuador 146

Venezuela. 161

British Guiana , 164

Dutch Guiana 172

French Guiana 173

Brazil 173

Paraguay 175

Peru 179

Bolivia 181

Patagonia 183

Tierra del Fuego 187

MAPS AND PLAN

Plan of Third Floor 1

Map of Mexico and Central America 9

Map of the West Indies 59

Map of South America * ' 87

Distribution of Aboriginal Cultures in the West Indies

(about 1492) 134

MAP OF MEXICC

!( JTRAL AMERICA

THIRD FLOOR

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY OF MEX-
ICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, THE WEST
INDIES, AND SOUTH AMERICA

WEST HALL— ARCHEOLOGY OF MIDDLE
AMERICA

THE ARCHEOLOGY IN GENERAL

In the West Hall are exhibited antiquities from
Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, and Nicaragua.
Owing to inadequate space in this hall, the antiquities
from Costa Rica and Panama are displayed in the East
Hall. The objects from the ruins of Casas Grandes,
Chihuahua, Mexico, being allied to the Pueblo culture
of southwestern United States, are exhibited in the
East Hall of the Second Floor.

The collections are arranged geographically, but
objects representing the same culture will generally be
found in sequence.

These collections aim to illustrate some of the phases
of the pre-Spanish cultures of Middle America, where in
former times there existed a number of independent collections
cultures representing the highest stage of development
attained by the aborigines of the North American con-
tinent. It is manifestly impossible to present a complete
picture of the ancient life of a people by means of

9

early object-

10 INDIAN NOTES

archeological objects brought together in a museum.
Certain phases only may be presented. This is especially
true of ancient Mexico, for the elaborate costumes and
Disappear- paraphernalia worn by nobility and priests in religious
festivals and dances, described in detail by early writers,
have disappeared, with the exception of fewer than a
score of examples now in European museums. It is
further obvious that architecture, and large stone
sculptures such as monoliths and tablets, must be
studied in situ or by means of casts and the various
illustrated publications treating of the great ruined
cities of the region. Certain other features of Middle
American culture, as. for example, the priceless gold
jewels and feather mosaic-work, are absent from the
collection. The many uses made of native paper, with
the exception of examples of the old records known as
codices, will not be found illustrated in museums.
Nearly all the codices on native paper are preserved in
European museums and libraries, but the majority of
them have been reproduced in facsimile and thus made
available to students. We must content 01;
therefore, with rinding in museum collections only the
more common and less perishable materials, such as
-els. hgurines. and other minor objects of earthen-
ware: small stone sculptures; and objects of bone, shell,
copper, etc.. in the forms of implements and idols.

A word may be said in regard to the origin and rise of
the high cultures of Middle America, for they have an
important bearing on the question of the development of
aboriginal man in America. In the light of present

AND MONOGRAPHS 11

knowledge it is clearlv evident that while the various ,., . .

. . Origins

Middle American stocks, like all the American race,
had a most remote Asiatic origin, they progressed toward
civilization entirely free from contact with, or influence
exerted by, any of the peoples of eastern Asia. The
separation came before either people had advanced from
the nomadic savage state. Had there been such later
contact or influence, we would doubtless find in this region,
where the natives reached their highest degree of culture,
certain inventions commonly used from time immemorial
in China, Korea, and Japan, such as wheeled vehicles,
the plow, the carrying stick, terracotta roof-tiles, the
potter's wheel, and chopsticks, as well as stringed musical
instruments (with the possible exception of the musical
bow), all of which are strangely missing. We may
account in a measure for the absence of wheeled vehicles
and the plow by the fact that draft animals, which have
so profoundly benefited man in other parts of the world
in his strides toward civilization, were unknown in the
New World, if we except the dog and the llama. It
may also be added that glazed pottery, glass, and the
use of iron were not inventions to be credited to the
ancient peoples of Middle America.

The first important remains of the ancient Mexican
culture are found in the middle of that part of Mexico
which lies north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in the
immense structures of La Quemada in the State of NahUai?
Zacatecas. They have been little studied, but probably remains
are the remains of an ancient Nahuan settlement. In
Michoacan the ruins of Tzintzuntzan bear some re-

12 INDIAN NOTES

semblance to those of La Quemada. This Tarascan
region has been explored only to a limited extent, but
the antiquities seem to be related stylistically to those
of the earliest period of the Valley of Mexico. The great
ruins of the Xahuan area include Tula. Teotihuacan.
Xochicalco. Tepoztlan. Cholula. and Tenochtitlan (the
site of the City of Mexico), the ancient capital of the
Aztec, the dominant branch of the Xahua at the time
of the Spanish conquest. Buried beneath the soil of the
capital city lie vast numbers of objects, and also the
bases of temples and other structures; but the imposing
buildings, and most of the sculptures, idols, and books of
the Aztec priests, were destroyed by the Spanish con-
querors.

In the State of Guerrero, on the Pacihc coast, are
numberless ancient ruins, from which many interesting
objects have been recovered, undoubtedly relics of
man people. In this region, there is reason to
believe, originated much of the jade found carved in
many forms and designs.

In the State of Oaxaca. Monte Alban. the ancient
Zapotec capital, is one of the most extensive ruins in
Mexico. The ruined Mitla, in the same district, seems
to have had little in common with the Zapotec structi:
and must be attributed to the Xahua. In the mountains
of the Mixteca. in the same state, the Mixteca, lin-
guistically allied to the Zapotec. had developed a
remarkable culture, as evidenced by the pottery, stone,
and metal objects found in large numbers throughout
the territory; but structural remains have been almost
whollv destroyed.

AND MONOGRAPHS 13

Coming now to the region east of the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec, which must be considered geographically
as the beginning of Central America, we find buried in Maya
the forests of the Mexican states of Chiapas, Tabasco, remams
Campeche, and Yucatan, the remains of hundreds of
cities built by the Maya, the people who had made the
greatest advance toward civilization of any of the ab-
original peoples of either North America or South
America. Their most important ruins are Palenque,
Piedras Negras, Seibal, Yaxchilan, Naranjo, Tikal,
Labna, Kabah, Uxmal, Chichen Itza, Quirigua, and
Copan. Some of these cities are in northern Guatemala,
while Quirigua and Copan are considerably to the south,
the latter (the southernmost of known Mayan cities)
being in northern Honduras.

In the fine arts the people of Middle America ex-
hibited surprising development along certain lines. In Archi-
architecture, the monumental remains of the Mayan
area, the roofless Mitla temples in Oaxaca, the temples
of Xochicalco and Papantla, and the recently uncovered
Toltec structures at Teotihuacan, are visible evidences
of the outstanding achievements of the Middle American
Indians in this direction. Outside of the Maya area
the ruins of hundreds of buildings may still be examined,
but these edifices of the ancient Middle Americans are
largely shapeless masses, found on excavation to have
only the lower walls intact. The buildings in the Mayan
area are characterized by massive walls of masonry
faced with cut stones and covered with thin plaster,
and having low doorways and triangularly-arched roofs.

14 INDIAN NOTES

In certain cases these are specialized constructions, due
to the character of the stones employed. Some of the
buildings exhibit successive periods of erection, and this
is true of the remains of many edifices beyond the
Mayan area. There are others which stand prominently
as units of designs, such as the "House of the Governor"

Size of the at Uxmal, 324 feet in length and containing 24 chambers.

temples The palace at Labna contained more than 50 rooms and
shows four periods of construction. The Mitla temples
are gems of ancient American architecture, exhibiting
a degree of perfection not seen elsewhere. Their method
of construction is similar to that of the Maya, except
that flat roofs instead of the triangular arch were intro-
duced. The great pyramids of Teotihuacan, Cholula,

Pyramids papantla,Izamal,Uxmal, ChichenItza,Tikal, and others,
are the best examples of this phase of culture; they were
all designed to support temples. The many existing
temples of Yucatan and Chiapas, and the splendid
group at Mitla, are proofs of the mathematical exactness
and ability of their ancient architects. Some of the
burial chambers, such as the subterranean cruciform
tombs at Mitla and the ossuaries of the Oaxaca valley,
are elaborate and beautiful structures.

In the use of stucco these ancients were exceedingly
Stucco skilful, especially at Palenque, in the Mayan area,

ornament where magnificent painted bas-reliefs still remain on the
temple walls, as well as at Labna, Acanceh, and Uxmal.
Many of the pyramids were faced with stucco, as seen at
Cempoalla and in the temple pyramid at Tepoztlan,
whose white cement surfaces still exemplify this form of

AND MONOGRAPHS 15

•embellishment. The pyramids of Cholula and some of
the Teotihuacan structures also belong to this class; but
the pyramids of Xochicalco, Papantla, Chichen Itza,
Uxmal, and Tikal, were faced with stones. The temples
on the summits of these pyramids, some of which rise
to a height of more than 200 feet, were reached by broad,
steep stairways of stone, some of them inclining at an
angle of about sixty degrees. Great ball-courts were
also erected.

Sculptures in stone are found everywhere, ranging in Sculptures
size from small amulets representing deities to such
colossal pieces as the famous Aztec calendar stone, now
in the National Museum in Mexico, and the great
stelae of the ruins of Quirigua, Guatemala, where one of
the monoliths is 35 feet in height.

Carving in stone, bone, shell, and wood was done with carvings
tools of stone, copper, bone, and hardened wood, with
the aid of sand and water. Emeralds, jadeite, turquois,
chalcedony, opal, rock crystal, obsidian, onyx, and ser-
pentine were carved into numberless varieties of personal
ornaments, chiefly in the territory of the Nahua and the
Mixtec-Zapotec of Oaxaca, and by the Maya in the
mountainous parts of Chiapas and in Guatemala,
wherever the desired materials were obtainable. Pearls,
mother-of-pearl, and bright-colored shells were used with
the precious stones in fashioning necklaces, bracelets,
ear-ornaments, and other articles of adornment for the
nobles, as well as for idols.

One of the most interesting and highly developed arts
in prehistoric America was that of incrusting objects for

16

I N 1) I A N N O T I . -

^fo:-aic

and

lurgy

ceremonial purposes with precious and semi-precious
stones. This form of art reached its highest development
among the Nahua, and was practised by the Mixtec-
Zapotec and Tarascans. Excellent examples are known
also from the Pueblo region in Arizona and New Mexico;
but these, together with turquois mosaic objects from
Peru, indicate a somewhat similar though far less per-
fected application of the art. The materials usually
employed were turquois. jadeite, malachite, quartz,
beryl, garnet, obsidian, pyrites, gold, and varicolored
shells, fastened to a base of wood, bone, stone, pottery,
shell, gold, or paper, by mean- of a tenacious vegetal
pitch or gum. or a kind of cement. The best pr-
of these objects are very beautiful, and indeed represent
such a high type of art that they must be classed among
the ran i American archeology, less than

fifty examples being known. The shields and masks in
the West Hall were found in a cave in the Mixteca
region of the State of Puebla. Mexico, and probably had
been preserved by the natives for many generations after
the conquest, revered as precious relics of a lost but not
forgotten culture.

In metallurgy the ancient Tarascans, the Xahuans,
Mixtec-Zapotec, and the Totonac, were very skilful in
the manipulation of copper into axes, tweezers, finger-
rings, rattles, and bells. Some of the objects have
proved on analysis to be true bronze. Beautiful objects
of gold have been found in the Matlaltzincan region in
the Toluca valley, and in the Mixtecan-Zapotecan
areas, representing the very highest achievement of the

AND MONOGRAPHS 17

ancient American goldsmiths. Ear, nose, and lip orna-
ments; beautiful bells, some representing symbolic
faces and heads of animals; beads; circular breast-plates;
forehead bands and crowns; bracelets and anklets, and
even the remains of armor, all fashioned from the
precious metal, have been found in ancient graves.
Unfortunately most of such objects were long ago
consigned to the melting-pot. Gold was used also to
enframe gem stones carved in various forms, and to
adorn shields and fans. A book on the subject of the
" Goldsmith's Art in Ancient Mexico" has been pub-
lished by the Museum.

Another art practised by-theNahuan and Tarascan
peoples was a class of mosaics in which the designs Featker
were made up of tiny bits of colored feathers instead of
stones. This unique art was employed in adorning
objects for personal use, for warfare, or for priestly
ceremonies. The designs were produced by cementing
the tiny bits of feathers either directly on wrood or on
wooden objects covered with skin or with native paper.
From descriptions of feather mosaics by the early
chroniclers, and from a study of the few specimens that
have escaped the ravages of time, it is evident that this
art attained the highest artistic level reached by any
of the aboriginal tribes of America. Such great care
was taken to produce a perfect piece of work that objects
of this class were often mistaken by the Spaniards for
paintings.

In woodcarving the Mexican and Mayan tribes dis- Wood-
played even more skill than in the working of stone. °

18 INDIAN NOTES

The great altar tablet of Tikal. the wooden drums, and
the atlatls, or spear-throwers, splendidly carved with
mythological designs and in some instances covered with
gold-leaf, attest their proficiency in this branch of the
fine arts.

The ceramics are quite distinctive among the several
Potte advanced peoples, hence the provenience of their pottery
objects is determinable with more or less exactness.
The terracotta figures of the Nayarit-Jalisco-Michoacan
district, the earthenware from the vicinity of Cholula
and from various sections of the Valley of Mexico, the
funerary urns from the Oaxaca valley, and the pottery
from different Mayan centers, are characteristic of each
culture area. However, as pointed out in a recent
study of Mexican archeology, there is pressing need of an
accurate classification of Middle American pottery and
of a careful investigation of the various qualities of
clay employed in the several districts. The latter is
particularly important, since it would afford more
conclusive evidence regarding centers of pottery manu-
facture than a mere study of forms. Community of form
really only implies connection, and often merely trade
connection, which may be second, third, or even fourth
hand; but careful investigation of the materials will
often reveal the actual locality of manufacture, and
when this is fixed for a number of centers, the main lines
of trade and the esthetic influence exerted by one
locality upon another may be estimated with more than
a fair degree of accuracy.

Painting was another art which flourished in this part
Painting of the Xew World, as shown bv the mural decorations on

AND MONOGRAPHS 19

cement at Teotihuacan, Mitla, and Chichen Itza, and
those recently discovered at Tuluum, on the eastern
coast of Yucatan, and at Santa Rita in British Honduras.
The art of painting was considerably developed also in
the decoration of pottery, the colors being sometimes
applied to a slip of stucco, but in most of the polychrome
ware they were applied directly to the clay. This type
of ware is found in so many culture areas that the extent
of its production is manifest.

Among the customs of these civilized tribes were Personal
tattooing of the skin, and decoration of the teeth by adornment
filing and inlaying with such materials as jadeite,
turquois, hematite, obsidian, rock crystal, and a kind of
cement. Labrets of obsidian, rock crystal, and a com-
bination of rock crystal and gold, were worn. Small
horseshoe-shape ornaments of obsidian, stone, or shell,
were suspended from the nasal septum, and ornaments
of various kinds of stone and of other materials, often
of wheel-shape, with a flange, were inserted in perfora-
tions in the lobes of the ears. Artificial head-flattening
and trephining were also practised.

Many of the musical instruments are still extant. Musical
In various museums are found examples of the teponaztli, instruments
the horizontal drum made from a log of wood, hollowed
on the under part, and having two tongues cut out on
the upper surface, which were beaten with two rubber-
tipped sticks. The upright drum, called huehuetl,
made from a hollowed log with a head of skin, was beaten
with the hands. These drums were generally elaborately
carved with mythological designs, and the teponaztli

Songs

20 INDIAN NOTES

often was fashioned into the form of a human being or an
animal. Flageolets, whistles, and rattles of clay, and
trumpets and rattles of shell, are of common occurrence.
Bones from the human arm or leg were notched and
rasped with a bone, or a shell, or a wooden baton, to
mark time in native dances. It is almost certain that
the musical bow was used by the ancient Mexicans, and
it still survives among the Maya of Yucatan. This was
the only stringed musical instrument known in ancient
America.

Judged by our standards the ancient Mexicans were
not a musical people; yet no public ceremony was com-
plete without songs and instrumental accompaniments;
they were indispensable in the religious services held in
the temples, for by their aid the sacred and historical
traditions were preserved. Early writers unite in prais-
ing the perfect unison observed by the singers in their
performances. Each temple had a band of trained
singers, who chanted the songs in monotonous tones,
accompanied by the native instruments. The songs were
of many kinds, some chanting the praises of the gods or
invoking their favors, others recounting the history of
former generations; still others were didactic and in-
culcated correct habits of life, while there were songs in
lighter vein that treated of hunting, games, and love.
Many of the sacred songs and hymns that have been
preserved reveal a highly poetic gift of expression, and
their sentiments are of an infinitely higher character than
the quality of the music to which they were set.

The ancient peoples of Middle America had developed
a certain commercial system of trade and barter, the

AND MONOGRAPHS 21

main features of which were: markets in one or more of Commerce
the public squares of every town where food and other
supplies of immediate necessity were daily sold, ordinary
shops being unknown; frequently recurring fairs in each
of the larger towns where the products of agriculture,
manufacture, and the arts from the surrounding country
were displayed before customers and merchants from
home and abroad; and similar fairs, but on a grander
scale, in the great commercial center, where home
products were exchanged for foreign merchandise, or
were sold to merchants from distant regions, who attended
in large number. Itinerant traders continually traversed
the country in companies or caravans. The merchants
of the Valley of Mexico formed a highly important and
greatly honored class. Owing to this system there are
found in ancient graves artifacts from far-distant areas
and pertaining to other cultures.

One of the most important sources of information
for the study of the ancient culture of this part of the
continent is found in the existing pictorial and hiero-
glyphic codices. As is well known, several of the codices
tribes of Middle America had reached a stage of culture
at the time of the Spanish conquest that found ex-
pression in the recording of certain events and of mytho-
logical and astronomical matters, not only on stone bas-
reliefs and in other forms of sculpture, but on material
of a more perishable nature. They made books, gen-
erally called codices, of strips of well-tanned deerskin,
which were folded screen-fashion and covered on both
sides with a stucco sizing, on which the paintings were

22 INDIAN NOTES

applied. They furthermore had invented a kind of
paper, made from various materials, such as the mem-
brane under the bark of a certain tree, and fiber from
leaves of the amate tree and of the maguey plant. This
paper was also sized with a coating of stucco. One of the
things which impressed Cortes, when he came in contact
with the messengers of Montezuma sent out to receive
him, was that some of them were busily employed in
making paintings of the Spaniards — their costumes,
arms, ships, and other objects of interest, giving to each
its appropriate color. These were to convey to Monte-
zuma, in picture-writing, an idea of the appearance of
the conquerors, and are the first notices we have of the
existence of this art in ancient America. In symbolic
and picture writing the Maya were approaching a
phonetic system. Recent progress has been made in
an interpretation of the codices of the Xahuan and
Hieroglyphs ^lixtecan groups, as well as signal success in the de-
cipherment of the hieroglyphic writings of the Maya,
preserved in codices, and on tablets, stelae, and pottery.
Of the Mayan type of inscriptions, certain dates and
methods of computation have been determined, and in
some instances nearly half of the inscriptions have been
successfully deciphered. A correlation of initial dates
on many of the stone monuments has been made with a
high degree of certainty with the years of the Christian
era, so that it is now possible to determine with accuracy
the period of occupancy of many of the old Mayan cities.
To the two known systems of pictographic and hiero-
glyphic inscriptions, recent investigations in Oaxaca have
added a third form among the Zapotec.

AND MONOGRAPHS 23

The complex calendar system of the Tarasco, Nahua,
Mixtec, Zapotec, and Maya, is fundamentally the same,
and is evidence of the remarkably high culture which Calendar
they had attained. But the Maya had a more extended systems
method than the Aztec for the computation of time; in
fact, the Mayan calendar is the highest intellectual
achievement of the American Indians. Recent in-
vestigation of this calendar has revealed various time
periods, elaborate computations, and a knowledge of the
movements of certain planets. It is now possible to
state that, in a number of old Mayan cities the stelae
were erected at intervals of five years. The general
scheme of the calendar proper was the division of the year
into two unequal parts, 360 days being the year, divided
into 18 months of 20 days each; at the end of the last
month 5 nameless days were added to complete the true
solar year. Each of the 20-day periods had its own
name and symbol, but the days were numbered from
1 to 13 instead of from 1 to 20. By this method of
numeration the day bearing the same name and number
did not recur until the 13 periods had elapsed, making a
period of 260 days, called by the Aztecs tonalamatL
It was a year within a year, and was used for divinatory
or religious purposes. There were also many other
intricacies in the Mexican calendar, some of which have
not yet been explained.

The ancient Mexicans believed in a future life, which
was graded according to the manner of death, and among
the Zapotec there were elaborate mortuary ceremonies Religious
and the sacrifice of slaves to assist the shades of impor- beliefs
tant persons on their journey to paradise. They had

24 INDIAN NOTES

greater and lesser deities. The principal Aztec god was
Teotl, who was worshiped as a supreme being; next was
Tezcatlipoca, venerated as the soul of the world, who
rewarded the righteous and punished the wicked. The
great beneficent god was Quetzalcoatl among the Nahua,
called Kukulcan by the Maya, represented by the great
feathered serpent deity, undoubtedly a deified culture
hero. He invented the arts and by his laws taught the
people wisdom. According to his various attributes he
appeared under different guises and names, as do other
gods of the Mexican pantheon. Tlaloc was the god of
rain; and among the Aztec, Huitzilopochtli, the terrible
war god, was their patron and protector. There were
gods of the hunt and the chase, of play, flowers, wine,
merchants, trickery, lust, and so forth, while each trade
and occupation had its own patron deity. The religious
rites were elaborate and were prescribed with minuteness.
The multiplicity of gods required a great number of
1 priests and priestesses, who were almost as highly

venerated as the deities they served. There were degrees
of priesthood and religious orders. Fixed and movable
festivals were common. The great teocallis, or god
houses, were commanding edifices of stone or adobe, built
on high truncated pyramids with annexed buildings.
The idols were many and hideous-, often smeared with
blood from human and animal sacrifices.

In studying Middle American artifacts the student is
confronted by the great number of clever frauds which
have found their way into all museums and private
collections.

Frauds

AND MONOGRAPHS 25

ANCIENT MEXICO

Six different cultures are represented in the collec-
tions from ancient Mexico exhibited in the Museum,
namely:

1. North Mexican 4. Mixtecan-Zapotecan

2. Tarascan 5. Totonacan

3. Nahuan or Mexican 6. Huaxtecan-Mayan

North Mexican Culture
(Case 313 A)

In this area (except the artifacts from Casas Grandes
exhibited on the Second Floor) are included specimens,
largely of stone, from the states of Sonora and Sinaloa,
and from Lower California. Nothing has been dis-
covered in this region to indicate any such degree of
culture as that attained farther south.

Tarascan Culture

(Case 313 A B)

Under this general heading may be included the
antiquities of the states of Nayarit, Colima, Jalisco, and
Michoacan. It is certain that in this extensive region
are the remains of more than one culture, but the arche-
ology is yet too little known to admit of subdivision. It
is apparent that many of the small human figures of
earthenware exhibited closely resemble those of what is
known as the Archaic or Sub-Pedregal culture epoch of
the Valley of Mexico. Generally speaking, the material

26 INDIAN NOTES

is characteristic of the region in which found, and cannot,
be confounded with objects from other culture areas to
the north and south.

The Tara scans appear to have been the people who
attained the highest degree of culture in this section of
Mexico, and their language is still spoken in a restricted
Ranee of Part °*" Michoacan, where formerly nearly the entire area
culture was controlled by this tribe, as shown by geographic
place-names. A few now live in the adjacent states of
Guerrero, Jalisco, and Guanajuato. The Tarascans
were a valiant people, and for the greater part remained
free from Aztec domination at the opening of the six-
teenth century, the period immediately preceding the
advent of the Spaniards. They do not seem to have
been so proficient in architecture or in stone-carving as
their neighbors to the south. Remains of their material
culture, so far as known, are confined largely to ceramic
objects, such as receptacles, and human and animal
figures, and to objects of metal, stone, and shell. They
are reputed to have been skilful in weaving and in the
production of feather mosaics.

As in the case of other peoples of Middle America,
many phases of the Tarascan culture are lost, but a cer-
tain knowledge of their customs and costumes may be
Pottery obtained by a study of the considerable numbers of large
315 ab human figures oi earthenware found in a great variety
of forms in graves and in subterranean vaults throughout
the area once occupied by them. These figures are of
particular interest as showing the styles of dress, the
nose and ear ornaments, the customs of tattooing, head-

AND MONOGRAPHS 27

flattening, and hairdressing, and their weapons, imple-
ments, and musical instruments. These pottery objects
form a class distinctive of the area in the character of the
reddish or brownish terracotta of which they are made.
Animal figures are also found.

A method of decorating pottery vessels and figures
found in widely separated areas of ancient America
was in vogue among the Tarascans. This is called nega-
tive painting, and was achieved by placing on the vessel Negative
or figure the pattern in wax or in other soluble or com-
bustible material, over which a permanent paint was
spread. After firing or immersing in boiling water,
the design appeared in the color of the clay outlined by
a black or red paint. This method of decoration still
exists in Middle America, but is restricted to gourd
vessels.

The most important phase of the ceramic art of this
area was the production of a type of decoration on vessels
commonly called encaustic, or cloisonne. After firing, Encaustic
the vessel was covered with a rather thick coating of a ware
kind of bluish-gray clay or a blackish or greenish pig-
ment, into which were cut designs representing geo-
metric or human figures. The sunken spaces were then
filled with pigments of varying colors, producing a kind
of mosaic decoration. The exact counterpart of this
style of ornamentation is not known elsewhere, but
pottery vessels from the Nahuan region showing some-
what analogous treatment will be noted later. The
encaustic process still persists among the Tarascans in
the embellishment of gourd and wooden plaques — the
so-called lacquer-ware made near Uruapam.

28 INDIAN NOTES

Smoking-pipes of pottery also have been found in this
Pipes region, of a type different from those of the Valley of
310 Mexico, the only other part of Middle America where
they have been encountered in relative abundance.
The Tarascans were proficient in the goldsmith's art,
Metalwork beautiful bells and discs being found in graves, and they
succeeded in beating gold-leaf which they applied to
beads and to vessels of pottery. Some of the objects of
copper fashioned in filigree are among the most skil-
ful art products in this metal to be found in ancient
America.

In the region of the Tarascans is found the only sur-
Atlatls vrval m Middle America of the atlatl, or spear-thrower, a
3i 5 B grooved stick used to propel a spear, employed by the
Indians in catching fish in the lakes.

Nahuax or Mexican Culture

(Cases 310, 312, 313 CD, 314, 315, 320)

The numerous and powerful family of which the Aztec
are the best known branch, extended over a consider-
able part of Mexico from the State of Sinaloa along
Range tne Pacific coast in the northwest, down through the
western part of central Mexico, reaching the Atlantic
coast in the State of Vera Cruz, and crossing the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec into the State of Chiapas. Colonies
settled also along the Pacific coast of Central America,
notably in Guatemala, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa
Rica, and even along the Atlantic coast of northern
Panama, and they even extended their sphere of influ-
ence into the Maya region along the Gulf of Mexico in

AND MONOGRAPHS 29

Tabasco and Yucatan. Linguistically the Aztec or
Nahua are allied to the Shoshonean and Piman tribes
of western and southwestern United States and north-
western Mexico, forming a vast stock which numerically
is the largest and ethnologically the most important in
North America. There are today probably two million
Indians in Mexico speaking the Nahuan or Mexican
language. In the great area formerly occupied by this
people, all kinds of environment are to be found, from
the humid lowlands of the torrid zone, the fertile lands
of the temperate region of the mountains, the wind-
swept almost desert plains of the great interior plateaus,
to the cold country of the forested highlands. This
family reached the highest degree of culture in North
America proper, considering that part of the present
Republic of Mexico east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec
to belong geographically to Central America. Its
development from a state of nomadic savagery to the
relatively high culture observed by the Spaniards at the
beginning of the sixteenth century must have required a
long period of time. Tribe succeeded tribe in waves of
migration in different parts of the country, and ruined
cities are scattered throughout the region.

Sequence of Archeological Periods in the Valley of Mexico

Recent archeological investigations in the Valley of
Mexico have brought to light three well-defined types of
ancient culture. In a number of sites these cultures have
been discovered superimposed, the earliest being in some
instances 15 feet below the present surface. The objects

30 INDIAN NOTES

thus far recognized as being of this earlier epoch are
mainly of pottery — small complete figures and heads in
human form, and sherds of vessels. The style of model-
ing the figures and heads closely resembles that of the
Tarascan area.

There has also been found a transitional type between
that of the earlier and the middle periods.

The types of cultures have been denominated as —
Archaic or Sub-Pedregal Type
Transitional Type
Teotihuacan or Toltecan Type
Aztecan Type

In addition to the more or less stratified remains
beneath the debris of ruined cities, objects of the Archaic
type only have been discovered under a thick and exten-
sive lava-flow known as the Pedregal, a discover}' that
definitely establishes the character of the art of the
Archaic period, as the remains are identical with those
found in the lowest stratum at other sites.

The term Teotihuacan (formerly generally called
Toltecan) has been given to the type of artifacts of the
next chronological period, because of the knowledge
gained from a study of the great mass of material found
at the imposing ruined city bearing that name near the
present City of Mexico. Here also Archaic remains, as
well as numerous specimens of the Aztecan type, are
found, verifying what is known historically regarding the
late Aztec occupancy of this site.

The Aztecan type has been established by the charac-
ter of the material found beneath the City of Mexico,

AND MONOGRAPHS 31

the site of the former Aztec capital, and on or near the
surface in the immediate vicinity.

A collection from the environs of the City of Mexico
and from the ruins of Teotihuacan is displayed (Case
-312), arranged, according to the types established, under
the direction of Dr. Manuel Gamio.

The ceramic art of the Nahuans is fairly well repre-
sented in the collections of the Museum. Painted ware „ ,

Nanuan

predominates in the bowls, plates, ollas, and censers, pottery
found abundantly in the great central plateau region. 310> 313«
Local differences in style of decoration may be noted in
the various groups. Of minor objects small human
figures and heads, used in religious rites, have been found
in great numbers. Artistically engraved spindle-whorls
are common. Personal ornaments were often made of
pottery.

In personal ornaments and other objects and imple-
ments of various kinds of semi-precious stones, may be obiects OI
.gained an idea of the skill of the old Mexican lapidaries. precious
Some of the very small pieces are veritable gems of carv- stones
ing. The varied uses of obsidian, or volcanic glass, are 31°
well displayed by the exhibit, and the employment of
shell and bone in implements and ornaments is also other
shown. The curious use of human leg-bones for musical objects
instruments will be noted.

An interesting series of stone masks and idols are ex-
amples of stone-carving of considerable merit. The ^on*
Nahuans made stone boxes with covers elaborately boxes
carved with mythological designs and dates, these used 315AB
for containing the ear-blood offerings to the god Tezcat-
lipoca. A splendid specimen representing the sun disc,

Mosaic
shields and

32 INDIAN NOTES

Sun-stone over wmcn *s carved a human figure with the head thrown
315 A back as if in supplication or worship, is likewise exhibited,
and has been described in a Museum publication. Like
the boxes, it belongs to the Aztecan period.

The Museum is fortunate in possessing, through the
characteristic interest of Mr. James B. Ford, a remark-
able series of the turquois mosaic-work of the Nahuans.
masks These ceremonial shields and masks of wood incrusted
315 c D ^yith. mosaic-work were found some years ago in a cave
in the mountain region of the Mixteca in the State of
Puebla. Recently illustrated and described in a
Museum publication, they are the only collection of the
kind in any American museum, and the largest series in
existence, seventeen specimens being displayed.

From the same region are the two beautiful ceremonial
atlatls, or spear-throwers, carved with mythological
designs, one of which bears the date 1489 in Aztecan
hieroglyphs. They are among the rarest of objects
from Middle America. Above is exhibited another
type of spear- thrower, a modern survival used by the
Tarascan Indians of Lake Chapala to launch spears
in taking fish.
Native Certain fragments of paper used for wrapping gum
incense for ceremonial offerings are shown.

Atlatls
315 B D

paper
315 D

Mixtecax-Zapotecax Culture
(Cases 309 A B, 311)

The Mixtecan-Zapotecan people occupied the region
of southern Mexico called Guaxaca in pre-Spanish times,

AND MONOGRAPHS 33

now known as Oaxaca. In the beautiful fertile valleys Culture
and in the mountains, the people of this stock reached a status
high degree of culture, and although their antiquities
reveal both Nahuan and Mayan influences, in the main
the culture retained its individuality. Few cities re-
main to enlighten us concerning their architectural at-
tainments. Their sculptures in stone, such as small
slabs, stones to seal underground tombs, lintels of tombs,
and stelae, are peculiarly local in type. The great
capital city of the Zapotec in the valley of Oaxaca, now
called Monte Alban, undoubtedly the ancient Zachila, is Alban
one of the most extensive and imposing ruins in the New
World, occupying the summits of several hills command-
ing three valleys. The wonderful ruins of Mitla include
a number of beautiful and well-preserved structures, ap-
parently temples, the most remarkable examples of ab-
original American architecture, but indicating strong
Nahuan influence in the region. In the valleys of the
central area are numerous groups of mounds dominated
by a large pyramid or temple mound. Explorations have Mortu^ry
shown that the majority of these were designed for mortu-
ary purposes, as they cover sealed stone vaults — ossu-
aries where the dead were deposited with various per-
sonal ornaments, food vessels, and other objects.
After elaborate ceremonies once a year for four years,
the defleshed bones were often painted red and placed
either on the floor or in niches in the walls of the vault.
The doorway was then sealed with a large stone, often
sculptured with mythological figures, and large funerary
urns, often in series of five, were placed near the cham-
ber to guide the spirits of the deceased on their journey

34 INDIAN NOTES

to the aftenvorld. Terracotta tubing, sometimes ela-
borately decorated, or stone drains, often led from the
front of the tomb outward, probably to prevent water
from entering the chamber while the tomb was left
uncovered, although it has been suggested that perhaps
they may have served as an outlet for the escape of the
souls of the departed. Afterward the vault was covered
with earth, adobe bricks, and stones, and sometimes over
the mound a dome-like covering of white cement was
erected. The innumerable antiquities from the Zapote-
can region have been found largely in tombs of this
description.
Among the most interesting specimens of ceramic art

Funerary [n Mexico are the funerary urns from these ancient tombs.
309 B They represent gods, men, and animals, and are interest-
ing by reason of the personal ornaments which they bear,
modeled in clay, including various forms of ear-orna-
ments, necklaces of stone and shell, beads, breast-
ornaments in the form of human heads, and hieroglyphs.

Personal Where no mask covers the face, the teeth in many in-
stances are tiled, a custom which prevailed extensively
in Mexico and Central America. Garments shown are
capes, skirts, and loin-cloths.

In the working of semi-precious stones and obsidian

into personal ornaments and amulets, the people of this

Objects of region were especially skilful. The many jadeite orna-

pre-ious ments and implements are noteworthy for their beauty.

stones The most striking specimens of carving in this material

311 from the region of Mexico west of the Isthmus of

Tehuantepec are from the State of Oaxaca. The little

AND MONOGRAPHS 35

stone amulets, usually representing rudely carved human
figures, were probably worn as the central feature of a
string of stone beads, in much the same manner as the
Indians of today wear a crucifix. Small carvings in shell ornament~
and bone from the Mixteca and the valley of Oaxaca,
studied in connection with the ornaments and carvings
in stone, reveal high artistic skill not exceeded in any
other part of ancient America. An object of especial
importance is the roughly blocked-out vessel of onyx
representing a death's head. It was in process of manu-
facture and shows the method of excavating the interior Onyx vessel
by means of a hollow drill and breaking off the resultant
cores. The Mixtec and Zapotec were the most profi-
cient goldworkers of Middle America, seme of their orna-
ments found in tombs being masterpieces of the gold-
smith's art. These Indians also employed copper and
bronze in fashioning ornaments and implements. All in
all, the art remains of these people show them to have
been in many respects the most esthetically advanced
tribes of America.

Totonacan Culture
(Case 308 A B)

In the central part of the State of Vera Cruz are found
the remains of the Totonacan culture. Its affiliaticn
with the Nahuan or the Mayan people has not been
definitely determined, but the art of the regicn shows
certain decided influences from both sides. Such meager
investigation has been conducted in this important area

Metalwork

I X D I A X X 0 T E -

that we are ignorant of many phases : what ^

a very high develops: ent : the aboriginal
^llture ;: ancient Mexico. In this region are the ruins
of well-built ontaining in: g pyramidal

inUa structures teocallis). one of which. Papantla. is among
the most imposing fcs kind in Middle America. At
the time of the >rtes, the glistening white walls

-poaUa o: the edihees of Cempoalla. the ca:
profound impression on the Spania: s

In ceramic art the Totonac ^surpassed in the

modeling of expressive human heads and figures, notably
= ailed "laughing faces" which are confined to a
sing d area. Another peculiarly local feature

:heir art is the common use of a black bituminous
paint to represent the mouth and eyes of human heads
: pottery of the archaic type, a feature rarely en-
ntered in other parts of Middle America. Poly-
chrome ware was highly developed.
The well-known stone "colb rs
Mexico apparently emanated from thi^ ry. and

njectures have been advanced regarding their
They have been supposed to have been placed
over the necks of victims to be sa in religious

monies; but there is reason for belief that this type
an idol, probably an earth g
the U-form of the sculpture is the same as that em-
ployed in picture-writings to cultivated
ground. In this sens it may have been intended to
symbolize the God of the Underwork: L'eath. The
other type of caning is palmate or pad' nd it

Palmate
carvings

AND MONOGRAPHS 37

seems to be somewhat closely associated with the yokes.
There is great variation in size and details of sculpture
in the palmate type; but both classes are among the most
beautifully wrought objects of stone known to Middle
America. A few specimens have been found far from
their place of origin, undoubtedly transported during pil-
grimages to the shrines of some great deity.

Huaxtecan-Mayan Culture
(Cases 300-308)

In the great area covered by the Mayan culture the
American Indians reached their intellectual climax.
The Mayans were the only people of the New World who
had invented and perfected a complicated hieroglyphic
system approaching phoneticism, for recording time
periods, dates, and mathematical calculations; indeed system
they were mathematicians of a high order. Their dates
are capable of correlation, with a fair degree of accuracy,
with our own chronology to periods before the beginning
of the Christian era. These records, expressed in pic-
tures and hieroglyphs, were carved on stone, wood, or
terracotta, and use was made of screen-like books, called
codices, of a kind of bark paper coated with a thin lamina
of stucco, the subject-matter of which was graphically
painted in various colors. Only three of these codices
survive, but it is probable that many were buried in
tombs of ancient priests and will be recovered when more
extended archeological work is carried on in the Mayan
territory.

3S INDIAN NOTES

The exact region in which the ancient Mayan culture
Age of the had its inception is still unknown. The earliest date
thus far found is recorded on a small idol of jadeite from
a place outside the Mayan linguistic area, in the moun-
tains of southern Vera Cruz, Mexico. From the char-
acter of its carving this relic probably points the way to
the region where search should be made for the birthplace
of the Mayan culture.

But the Mayan family developed its highest culture in
a region of rich lowlands, where nature was lavish with
it? her gifts and highly organized labor was necessary in
development or(jer £0 control the luxuriant tropical vegetation. In
this area are found nearly all the important ruined cities
with stone buildings, which occupied the greater part of
southern Mexico east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec,
now included in the states of Chiapas, Tabasco, Campe-
che, and Yucatan, and British Honduras on the eastern
coast of the Yucatan peninsula. The Maya influence
extended over Guatemala (with the possible exception of
a narrow strip on the Pacific coast), southward into
northern Honduras, and perhaps over the greater part
of Salvador. Separated from this vast territory by
Aztec-speaking peoples, in the northern part of the State
of Vera Cruz, in the region of Tampico and Tuxpan. there
are found even today a people known as Huaxtec, who
speak practically pure Maya, but whose arts and cus-
toms, as well as antiquities, are remote from those of
the Maya of Yucatan.

In the general area mentioned, the family was divided
into seven branches speaking numerous dialects. Over

AND MONOGRAPHS 39

the entire northern section, the State of Yucatan, pure „ ,

7 ; ^ Range of

Maya is still spoken by several hundred thousand people, the Mayans
In Guatemala the Mayans predominated, but along the
Pacific coast are the remains of another and lower cul-
ture, the little-known Szinca, whose language is appar-
ently related to one of those of the State of Oaxaca, pi -j
and is considered to be that of a people who preceded the
Mayans in this area. Another and later culture is that
of the Pipil, a branch of the Nahuan, who undoubtedly
came into the land at a comparatively recent period, and
settled along the coastlands of Guatemala and Salvador.
They have left in Guatemala interesting large stone
sculptures of a distinctive character.

The culture of the Mayans developed in the southern
and southwestern sections of the country; later the first
of their great cities was abandoned and the people worked ^eats of

. Mayan

their way northward into Yucatan. The earliest dates culture
on the ancient stone monuments thus far discovered in
the so-called "old empire cities" extend to the second
century of our era and reveal a full-fledged civilization,
"the flower of long-continued astronomical observations
expressed in a graphic system of exceeding complexity."
It is probable that, as research progresses, dated monu-
ments may be discovered that will carry back the records
many centuries.

In the magnificence and variety of their massive stone
buildings the Mayans were unrivaled in ancient America.
The architecture of the various districts depended largely BuiIdmgs
on the physical and orographic nature of the land and the
character of the local building materials. On the table-

Cities

40 I X D IAN NOTES

lands of Guatemala and Chiapas the existence of inde-
pendent tribes living in close proximity rendered it
necessary for the cities to be built more compactly, and
in many cases they were fortified. Here architectural
refinements are not found.

It seems clear that the greater number of the cities
were centers of population surrounding the temples of
worship and the residences of the rulers. These cities
were not densely populated except at fixed times, such as
during religious festivals or stated market.-. Artisans,
merchants, priests, those connected with the care of the
temples, and the rulers and their followers, formed the
permanent population of the towns, which were truly
sacerdotal cities. Most of the people lived then, as now,
in simple thatch-roofed huts surrounded by their corn-
fields, and were scattered widely over the country.
The principal edifices were built on artificial terraces

Temples ancj grouped around courts. An ever-present feature is
a large pyramid from which rises the temple. The per-
manent buildings, therefore, may be grouped roughly into
two classes, namely, temples, and so-called palaces which
were probably the habitations of the priests and rulers.
Many of the structures, such as small buildings on lofty

Pyrami s pvramicls< an(] certain circular towers found occasionallv

ind Towers ^j

in various part of the Mayan area, were unquestionably
used for astronomical purposes. The ornamentation of
the stone buildings consists of sculptured facades, dcor
pillars, and lintels, and often the interior walls are elab-
orately carved. Sometimes stucco was lavishly em-
ployed, and in many cases colors were used in decorating

AND MONOGRAPHS 41

the stone or stucco-covered walls. Mythological and Omamen-
historical paintings in various tones have been discovered buikih^s
on the plastered walls of rooms, and in some edifices
elaborately carved wooden lintels and altar tablets have
been found. Massive carved slabs and other monoliths
occur at many of the ancient sites, which from inter-
pretation of their inscriptions seem to have been erected
at intervals of five years.

On the nature of the building-stone found in the dis-
trict, native architecture and sculpture depended. As
the available stone material was less fit for sculpture,
the excellence of the ceramic art increased proportion-
ately, as evidenced by the antiquities of the Alta Vera
Paz highland region of Guatemala, where little good
building-stone existed, hence substantial advance in
architecture became arrested. The polychrome pottery
and sculptured terracotta artifacts here, however, reflect
an artistic skill that was not surpassed by any of the
other Mayan tribes.

Generally speaking, the Mayans were expert potters,
employing a variety of technical processes in the decora-
tion of their earthenware, such as painting, modeling,
engraving, sculpture, and stamping. Some of the most
beautiful examples of the ceramic art of ancient America
have come from Mayan tombs. To the Mayan culture
must also be attributed the so-called glazed ware, charac-
terized by a surface luster forming a semi-vitreous glaze
of varying shades, nearly always with a mottled surface.
This ware probably had its origin among some tribe or
familv of potters of Guatemala, where was found the

42 INDIAN NOTES

clay that possessed ingredients productive of this peculiar
glaze. Specimens have been found at widely scattered
sites from western central Mexico to Salvador, giving-
evidence of the extensive trade connections of the
Mayans.

In considering the Mayan culture one must examine
Unit of c°llectrvely the artifacts from the entire area dominated
culture by it. There is a general similarity in the archeological
objects from eastern Guatemala and from adjacent lands
to the north, in southern Mexico, in the states of Chiapas,
Tabasco, Campeche, and Yucatan, and in British Hon-
duras, as well as to the south in Honduras and Salvador.
Local types of pottery and of other objects are found,
due probably in large measure to differences in time in the
development of the Mayan people. While sculptures
bearing hieroglyphic inscriptions may be placed in their
proper chronological position by an interpretation of
their dates, as well as on stylistic grounds, the minor
objects generally cannot yet be thus classified, as has
been done with the pottery figures and sherds found in
the Valley of Mexico .

YUCATAN PENINSULA
(Case 304

Strictly speaking, the archeology of Yucatan incli
the Mayan antiquities found in the Mexican states
Campeche and Yucatan, the territory of Quintana Roo,
the Colony of British Honduras, and the Department of
Peten in Guatemala, for these are all mcdern political
subdivisions of the Yucatan peninsula.

AND MONOGRAPH- 43

Only a few specimens are exhibited from the State of
Yucatan. The most important of these are the por-
trait heads of stucco from a subterranean chamber in Stucco
the House of the Governor at Uxmal. the finest known head5

304

examples of work in stucco from Middle America. The
copper bells and mass of copal incense were recovered BelIs
from the sacred cenote at Chichen Itza. part of the vast incense
sacrificial offerings cast into the well with human victims. 304

Among the pottery vessels is a noteworthy example of
a sculptured vase made of a beautiful highly polished
paste, exemplifying a class of late Mayan ware peculiar °30iJy
to the Yucatan peninsula. Pottery whistles and rattles
are excellently modeled, and are like those from the
neighboring states of Campeche. Tabasco western

Chiapas. These types, however, are rarely found in
British Honduras. Beads of pottery are exceedingly
common, in contradistinction to these of stone, which are

_ . Ornaments

comparatively rare; tor there is no stone in the peninsula 304, 305 a
well adapted to the making of ornaments,, especially the
prized greenstone, like jadeite, which could have been
transported only from the distant Chiapas mountains.
This scarcity of stone accounts for the great abundance
of personal ornaments of shell of varying shapes and sizes.
nearly always found in the tombs of Yucatan. The
first Spaniards who skirted the coast received from the
Indians of Tabasco many necklaces of gold-covered
earthenware beads.

From Chiapas will be seen two beautifully carved orna-
ments of jadeite. and a remarkable knife chipped from
mahogany obsidian.

Pottery

44 INDIAN NOTES

BRITISH HONDURAS
(Cases 305, 306)

The most important collection of Mayan antiquities
in the Museum is from British Honduras and the ad-
joining Department of Peten in Guatemala. Splendid

305 b* examples of polychrome ware are exhibited, elaborately
306 A B painted with mythological designs. One of the cylin-
drical jars bears the only hieroglyphic inscription known
on a pottery vessel that can be jnterpreted and the date
correlated with our chronology, namely, about 600 a.d.

Figurines Attention is called to the carefully modeled and painted
n ense- eartiienware figurines and large incense-burners charac-

burners ° °

Drums teristic of this part of Mayan territory. Clay drums

306 B which are found also far to the south in the region of

Chiriqui, Panama, occur.

Flint The large series of flint implements, and of small flint

and and obsidian objects of eccentric forms seem to be pecu-

forms ^ar to ^s region; indeed it is probable that the flint used

305 A B in making implements found in Honduras came from

Peisonal British Honduras. Personal ornaments of shell, pottery,

ornaments jadeite, and copper, are plentiful in this region. The

Decorated ancient people had the custom of decorating the teeth

teeth by filing, and by inserting bits of worked hematite in

30o A small circular cavities cut in the enamel.

GUATEMALA

(Cases 300-303, 332)

Present *N many Parts °f tne highlands of Guatemala the popu-
indians lation is almost exclusively aboriginal, hence the Indian

AND MONOGRAPHS 45

tongue is the only one heard. The natives still cling
to many of their ancient customs, and their picturesque
costumes are each characteristic of the locality. In the
native dances, however, many Christian motives have
been introduced, modifying them to some extent. The
native medicine-men are greatly reverenced and feared.
(See page 130.)

The archeological collections frcm Guatemala repre-
sent various phases of Mayan culture, chiefly from the
western highlands, with a few specimens from the ruins

v. OSL3. l^UCct.

of Quirigua in the Atlantic lowlands. From the hitherto pottery
unexplored area of Costa Cuca in the lowlands of the 301
Pacific coast, the Museum obtained by excavation the
collection of pottery vessels exhibited. The culture
represented by these apparently penetrated the highlands
of Quetzaltenango, the region of the Quiche, whence came
the vessels displayed. In the general character of the
earthenware of this Pacific coast and adjacent mountain Quetzal-
area, one observes little in common with that of eastern tenango
Guatemala and the northern area of Mayan culture. P°tte*y
Through this Pacific coast region Nahuan people strayed
in their southward migration, and a colony remained
there, the Pipil dialect of the Nahuan language being
still spoken by a few Indians. Perhaps the receptacles PoUfry
and other pottery objects referred to should be attrib- 300-301
uted to the Nahua , although the Maya-Quiche have now
overspread the western highlands. One of the noticeable
features is the shoe-shape vessels, common in Oaxaca
and very abundant in Nicaragua, but they are hardly
known in other parts of Guatemala.

46 INDIAN NOTES

Especially local in character are the shallow plates,
some of them decorated with spikes, which have been
brought up in large numbers by divers from the bottom
of Lake Amatitlan, a beautiful sheet of water lying
slightly below and to the south of the highlands where
earthenware Guatemala City is situated. This was the seat of the
301 c Pocomamof the Mayan family. From this culture area
have come also the curious tripe d urns with masks,
unique examples of which are displayed.

Mainlv in the regions of the Pocomam and theCakchi-

Pocomam "

and quel are found great numbers of human heads and figures
Cakchiquel of pottery, of archaic type, examples of which are exhib-
ited. The sites where these occur most abundantly are
around Lake Amatitlan, and the highland around Guate-
mala City and Antigua, the ancient capital. In this
region have been found the only known examples of
Mayan hieroglyphic writing in western Guatemala —
Glyphs a monolith near Guatemala City, and the globular stone
301 A pendant which was discovered near Antigua. The worn
glyphs are of the cursive type found in the codices.
In the very center of southern Guatemala was found
Sculptured tne sP^ndid piece of ancient Mayan ceramic ware exhib-
vase ited in a special case, the most beautiful example of abo-
332 riginal earthenware known to the Western Hemisphere.
The excessively rare sculptured decoration is a triumph
of native art of the best period of Mayan development.
It was presented to the Museum by Mr. Harmon W.
Hendricks, and has been described and illustrated in a
special publication. (A reproduction of the design may
be seen by drawing out the slide in the front of the case.)

AND MONOGRAPHS 47

Ornaments of jadeite are often found in this territory,
the raw material probably having been procured not objects
far away. In no other territory of America have been 302 A
found so many cutting tools of chloromelanite, an ex-
tremely hard, greenish-black stone allied to jadeite. The
only other places where this material was abundant
are the Valley of Mexico and the State of Guerrero, the
implements found in the valley having probably been
introduced from the latter place.

Extensive quarries of obsidian occur in various parts

/->. o r ' c Obsidian

•of western Guatemala. Specimens of quarry refuse from objects
near Fiscal, on the line of the railroad from Guatemala to 303 A B
Zacapa, are shown. Obsidian knives and other imple-
ments, such as scrapers and arrowheads, are common
throughout the entire Mayan area, the source of the
material being undoubtedly in the west.

Many rude idols of different kinds of stone and of stone
varying sizes are found. Some of the smaller images were ldols
worn as fetishes with a string of stone beads, recalling 302 A
those of the Zapotec area of Oaxaca. A splendid sculp- 303 A B
ture of unique character, representing a Mayan deity, is
displayed on the wall near Case 301 ; it is from the ruins Scul ture
of the ancient capital of the Quiche, was presented to the 303 D
Museum by Mr. Rodman Wanamaker, and is the sub-
ject of a special description in one of the Museum publi-
cations. Certain curious mushroom-shape stones with
three supporting feet are commonly supposed to be UshaPe

stones

stools, but this interpretation of their use is not alto- 303 c
gether satisfactory. The U-shape stone should be com- 308 b
pared with similar objects from Vera Cruz. These

48 INDIAN NOTES

sculptures undoubtedly had their origin in the state
named, the region of the Totonacans. Similar specimens
w , have been found in Honduras and Salvador.

Metates

302 c D Metates, or mealing-stones, in the form of animals,
with either three or four legs, are peculiar to Nicaragua,
Costa Rica, and Panama. Of rare occurrence in west-
ern Guatemala, they are unknown to the region north-
ward (Mexico). The specimens exhibited, therefore,
are of importance, as only two or three others have been
found.

Club-like Many large perforated stones, like club-heads, are
fones common in this area. The biconical perforations, how-

3 U3 A

ever, appear to be too small to admit a staff of sufficient

diameter to be rigid enough to serve as a handle.

Stone From the famous ruins of Quirigua in the lowlands of

heads eastern Guatemala are exhibited several human heads

carved in stone, which formed part of the decoration of

one of the temples. The reclining human figure, unfor-

Chacmooi tunately lacking the head, at the bottom of the case, is a

type of representation of the Chacmool type of a Mayan deity,

statue

391 c made known by Le Plongeon from the examples un-
covered by him at the rums of Chichen Itza in Yucatan.
The same general type has been found in different parts
of Mexico and in Salvador, and was supposed to have
been a motive introduced into the Mayan region from the
Xahuans of Mexico, but occurrence of this important

Censers specimen at Quirigua controverts this theory. The two
fine censers, likewise from Quirigua, are worthy of study.

AND MONOGRAPHS 49

HONDURAS
(Case 307)

Honduras, one of the most important areas of Middle
America from an archeological point of view, is also one
of the most neglected fields of research. With the
exception of the extreme northwestern portion, where are
the remains of the Mayans and the famous city of
Copan, — probably the southern limit of Mayan culture,
— little is known concerning its antiquities. From
Copan, and the valleys of the Chamelecon and Ulua cuitUre
rivers, has been gathered a wealth of antiquities. From of
the latter region the Museum has an important collec- val"a
tion illustrating the advanced Maya culture, chiefly in
ceramics. Many beautiful examples of polychrome and
other types of pottery vessels are displayed. Among the
unique objects of earthenware exhibited is the large p
" glazed-ware' ' whistling jar, the vent of which is in the 307 A B
back of the head of the effigy. By the movement of the
water when the jar was filled, a clear note was produced.
Pottery whistles, stamps, and small idols from Honduras
are abundant.

Many interesting examples of archaic art will be ob- uman

Jt or- figures

served in the human figures and the heads therefrom, 307 D
made of light-gray clay. As in kindred specimens from copper
other parts, these are not hollow, but solid. One of the bells
most interesting collections is that of the copper bells, m°assaklc
and a turquois mosaic wooden mask from a cave near 307 E
Chamelecon river. Many ornaments of a beautiful jaje
apple-green jadeite have been discovered in this region. 307 F

50 INDIAN NOTES

An important feature is the small collection of marble
Marble veSsels from the Ulua valley, among the most beautiful

vessels

387 b specimens of stone carving from aboriginal America.
The marble was quarried from a known site in the vicin-
ity, and no pieces have been found elsewhere. Stone
vessels of a somewhat similar technic are found to the
southward, in eastern Nicaragua.
Flint Well-shaped implements of flint, similar to those from

implements r> • • i tt 1 i 1 • 1

305 A f Jtmtisn Honduras, are common, and the ancient people
Shell were as fond of beads and other shell ornaments as were
°™am®nts those of the peninsula of Yucatan.

Some of the specimens from Ulua valley, which could
have had their origin only in distant regions, as Costa
Trade Rjca anc[ yera Cruz, afford evidence of the extensive
trade relations of the inhabitants of this small part of
Honduras with those of other territories. Palmate or
paddle-shape stones, like those from Yera Cruz, are the
most significant objects exemplifying this trade.

From the ruins of Copan there are a few interesting

Copan sculptures, the most important being an archaic green-

307 C stone idol found in that part of the ruins where the first

buildings were erected. Potsherds of polychrome ware

from Copan compare in every way with specimens from

Ulua valley and from Salvador.

SALYADOR
(Case 323 A B E F)

Salvador, smallest of Central American republics,
Character is a land contorted by every known form of volcanic ac-
tion and subsequent erosion. Rugged mountains, gradu-

nan

AND MONOGRAPHS 51

ally increasing in height toward the north, enclose fertile
valleys, which for untold centuries have been the seats of
dense habitation. The climate is very hot; the rainfall
is not so heavy as on the north coast of Central America.

The present population is largely of mixed blood, but
perhaps twenty per cent are aborigines belonging to three Indi
linguistic stocks — Pipil, Lenca, and Matagalpa. The population
Pipil dwell in the western part of the country near
Sonsonate and along the Balsam coast, until recently
inaccessible. Formerly their eastern and northern
boundary appears to have been the river Lempa. In
eastern Salvador are a number of villages inhabited by
Lenca Indians, who, unlike the Pipil, have for the
greater part forgotten their native idiom. In addition
two villages in the Lenca district speak a dialect of the
Matagalpa tongue of Nicaragua. Before the Spanish
conquest the Ulua of Nicaragua occupied also a few
towns in Lenca territory, and two Maya dialects, Chorti
and Pocomam, may have been spoken on the north-
western and western frontiers.

The archeological ruins of Salvador consist of mounds
and pyramids of earth and uncut stone. In the Pipil Ruins
area these are often set out in an ordered plan, but in the
east no preconceived form is evident. The largest and
most important sites are La Asuncion, Chalchuapa, Cus-
catlan, Cara Sucia, Tehuacan, Tipa, and Quelepa.

Archeological objects consist chiefly of pottery and
utensils of stone, but in the Pipil region stone idols of stone
considerable size occur. The best known of these are idols
the "Virgen" of Tazumal and a statue of the "Chac-

52 INDIAN NOTES

mool" type. Smaller idols are not uncommon and often
have a curiously hunched back. Axes, pestles, mortars,
metates, and other minor stone objects are found, like-
wise ornaments of jade.

The potters' art was highly developed in Salvador,
Ceramics ^ut *s dominated by the influence of neighboring cul-
tures. The outstanding ceramic group consists of poly-
chrome vessels — bowls and cylindrical jars of Maya
type. The closest relationship is displayed with the
art of Ulua valley in Honduras, rather than with the
nearer (and probably more ancient) forms of the great
city of Copan. A second large group is made up of
figurines and associated effigy bottles which are depend-
ent on the "Archaic" culture of the Valley of Mexico,
which spreads southward across Guatemala to western
Honduras and Salvador. Thirdly, there is a complex
of figurines of sub-Maya type, and bowls and jars, often
set on four legs and sometimes decorated with negative
painting. These are attributed to the Lenca, as practi-
cally all come from Lenca territory. Finally occur
figurines, whistles, and polychrome vessels which are
distinctly related to the Pacific area of Nicaragua and
which may be the handiwork of the Ulua, if not actual
trade pieces from the south.

Such are the major divisions, but other and rarer
ceramic types are known. Among these is Plumbate
wares ware> m examples of which the Museum collection is
unusually rich. This kind of pottery is distinguished by
its semi- vitreous surface and lead or orange tone. Its
distribution is from central Mexico to Panama, but it is

AND MONOGRAPHS 53

everywhere rare. Although manufactured as early as
the sixth century A.D., its focus and archeological sig-
nificance are unsolved problems. Another small group
includes vessels of Aztec type; among these are jars with
faces of the rain god Tlaloc in low relief. Other minor
wares, from our present state of knowledge, are of local
importance and will not be discussed here.

In spite of the small size of the country, no carefully
recorded excavation has been carried out, and the solu-
tion of general problems awaits more exact data. How-
ever, as a result of the Museum expedition of 1924 and a
study of distribution of types, it is clear that almost all
the Maya polychrome pottery falls in the Pipil area, and
little else is found. From this it is deduced that the
Pipil, eleventh-century immigrants from Mexico, con-
quered and absorbed the culture of the Mayan inhabi-
tants. In eastern Salvador the dominant type is the
" Archaic " of Mexico. The presence of intermediate
forms shows blending with the pottery group here defined
as Lenca. Aztec types are limited to several sites at
which settled the Mexican allies of the Spanish
conquerors.

NICARAGUA
(Case 331 A B E F)

Nicaragua is the largest of the Central American
republics. The Pacific side of the country is dominated Geography
by a chain of active volcanoes and geologically recently
uplifted land which has impounded the waters of two
great lakes. To the east of the lakes lie the older moun-

54 INDIAN NOTES

tains forming the continental backbone, which is cut
by the overflow from the lakes. To the north is a series
of plateaus embraced by the mountains. The Atlantic
littoral consists of broad flood-plains cut by many rivers
and sloping down to a series of lagoons and swamps.
This region, known as the Mosquito coast, or Mosquitia,
will be discussed in the following section.

In ancient times the population centered, as it still
Population centers, around the fertile basin of the great lakes. The
earliest inhabitants were Chorotegans, who extended from
the Gulf of Fonseca to the Gulf of Nicoya. The Choro-
tegan tongue is spoken also by two groups in southern
Mexico. A second and smaller linguistic group, the
Subtiaba, also is related to a Mexican tongue. A third
element was formed by Nahua who had migrated from
the Mexican plateau in the eleventh century and settled
in Nicaragua about 1420 a.d.

On the east side of the lake lived tribes known to
the ancient writers as Ulua or Chontal. They are said to
have had a much lower culture than their neighbors, and
a few of their descendants still live in great simplicity
in the jungles today.

Historical accounts of the aborigines of Nicaragua show
that while they lived on a plane below the great Indian
civilizations, yet they had a well-ordered social system
and elaborate regulation of their markets, laws, wars,
marriages, religious festivals, etc. The land is extremely
productive, and was described by the first Europeans
who saw it as a Mahomet's paradise.

AND MONOGRAPHS 55

Large stone statues, attaining as great a height as 12
feet, are the outstanding feature of the archeology of the statues
Pacific half of Nicaragua. Representing human forms
in various attitudes, often with associated mythological
animals, large numbers of these statues have been re-
corded near the great lakes. It has been possible to
assign dates as early as the fifth century B.C. to some of
these figures, and a study of their distribution shows that
their makers, the Chorotega, once occupied a large part
of Honduras.

Other objects of stone include elaborate metates, or Other
mealing-stones, often of considerable size and abundantly stone
decorated. Stone axes, bark-beaters, spear-thrower
pegs, etc., are other finds.

Pottery is exceedingly common. Most spectacular,
perhaps, are the large urns in which the bodies or the
bones of the dead were placed, together with the custom-
ary funerary accompaniments. Great cemeteries of
these, placed side by side like eggs in a nest, have been
uncovered near the lakes. Other ceramic types include
a brilliant polychrome ware, and also a kind, known as
Luna ware, marked by extreme delicacy of the designs.
Also should be mentioned large incense-burners, usually
capped by figures of mythological animals.

Archeological sites are exceedingly common and chance
finds are frequent. The sites are often marked by
mounds which served as foundations for the houses or
were erected over burials.

56 IX D 1 AX X OTES

MOSQUITIA

Case 331 H

Almost nothing is known oi the antiquities oi the

Mosquitia coast of Honduras and Nicaragua. For the
greater part their makers were Indians oi low culture
who dwelt along the eoast or near the banks of the
numerous rivers that drain this low territory of Central

America. Even today the country is almost uninhabited
by white men. and the small Indian population is widely

scattered.

Four sculptures from this region are exhibited. The
large stone tripod vessel is similar to some reported from
the eastern slopes of the mountains to the westward,
and they have been found also on the Bay islands o(i
the coast. The three-legged met ate is of the Pacific coast
type. An interesting sculpture is that representing an
armadillo. The monolithic axe points to influence from
farther south. It seems probable that the makers of
these objects borrowed many features of their culture
from the Pacific coast tribes. So far we now know,
there is nothing of Mayan origin in this region, although
Mayan and the Mosquitia people were in close proximity.

Columbus discovered the coast of the Mosquitia on
his fourth and last voyage to the New World in 1504.
:ig from Honduras, where he first reached the main-
land, eastward and southward as far as Panama. He
reported people oi a relatively high culture along the
shores of the southern section of Mosquitia. but as yet no
archeological investigations have been made in this part
of Central America.

AND MONOGRAPHS 57

ARCHEOLOGY OF THE WEST INDIES
(Cases 316-319, 321, 322, 324^330)

NATIVE POPULATION

The Indians of the Antilles possess an especial if
melancholy interest in view of the fact that they were
the first of the American aborigines to meet the white Eayly
invader from overseas, and the first to lose their lands
and to suffer virtual extermination at his hands.
Columbus, and the early explorers following in his wake,
found the Bahamas and the Greater Antilles (Cuba,
Haiti, Porto Rico, and Jamaica) inhabited for the larger
part by a number of peaceable agricultural tribes speak-
ing similar dialects of the Arawak language, now grouped
by students under the name of Taino. In the large
islands of Cuba and Haiti were also found a very primi-
tive group of Indians, in Cuba called Ciboney, which,
although apparently at one period occupying large
areas — the whole of Cuba, for instance, — by the time of
the discovery survived only in certain isolated districts.
These savages lived largely in caves, subsisting on
natural products, without knowledge of agriculture,
and were able to manufacture objects of only the simplest
and crudest kinds. (See map, page 134.)

The Lesser Antilles were found to be occupied by a
third group, the Carib, a fierce and bloodthirsty people
whose continual piratical raids and notorious canni-
balism struck terror to the hearts of their more peaceable
neighbors. In spite of this, they seem to have practised
agriculture, and were nearly as far advanced in the arts
as the Taino tribes.

58 INDIAN NOTES

The origin of the Ciboney, apparently the earliest
inhabitants of Cuba, Haiti (Santo Domingo), and
perhaps of other islands, is lost in the mists of the past.
As yet there is no evidence to connect them with the
tribes of North, Central, or South America. There is
every reason for believing, however, that both the
Arawak and the Carib migrated to the islands from
South America, where many tribes speaking related
dialects are still found. The Arawak evidently left
South America first, and gradually spread northward
and westward, first through the Lesser Antilles, then the
Greater, displacing the earlier inhabitants where such
existed, and confining them to limited areas, as in Cuba.
In the Greater Antilles they developed the culture we
know as Taino; then a wave of Carib migration started
from South America and spread through the Lesser
Antilles. The Carib seem to have exterminated the
Arawak bodily on some of these islands, while on others
they killed the men and captured the women. When the
caravels of Columbus first sighted the New World, the
Carib had occupied all of the Lesser Antilles and were
already raiding Porto Rico and Haiti, while the Taino
were fast overrunning Cuba, driving the Ciboney to the
western tip of the island and to the outlying keys.

The remains of the Taino-Arawak and of the Ciboney
have been studied and their principal characteristics
established; which has not, unfortunately, been done
with any degree of completeness for the Carib. How-
ever, archeology reveals the presence of three great
cultures, and only three, and Columbus and his sue-

85

flea

25

^Gr Guano Cay
Gr Bahama • {fGr. Abaco

toyalb.

Andres I.

fei

rovdenc^

&euthe)ra /.

0

te1/

5"/" Exwrp^

Samana I
^Croc/red A
>Tj ~E Plana

SAck/in / ^3:

Pro-

ifiatlinysl

THE WE

\ir.Ca/cos
*Turkh.

ia Tortue

6j0

25

Sao/73

20

Q An eg 'a a 'a I.
'•tTertoia' ^Anguilia

Th°m%.M3rtfn -St. Bartholomew

r Croix **•*'&**>*"+*
Nevis • <b Antigua
$Montserrat

r£2* Guadelo jpe
V. ^ Marie Gathnte

Do m in ice

Qruba

^# ^.BuenAyre
'Curacao

^ Domii

^\Mart/n\que

§ St. Luc "3

QSt.Vincen
Bequfa -^ i>

Cannouan Batrrpat
Union t::rDal,ceaL

<Q Grenada

Barbados

£>rob<yo
(Tr/nids d

(UNDIES

THE WEST INDIES

AND MONOGRAPHS 59

cessors found three kinds of Indians inhabiting the West
Indies. Now, two of the archeological cultures have
already been identified as belonging to two of the groups,
the Taino and the Ciboney, respectively, so we can not
go far wrong in attributing the third culture to the
third group, the Carib, especially as the distribution of
that culture in the Antilles corresponds exactly with the
Carib habitat as described by the early explorers.
Indeed the results of archeological research in all the
West Indies, so far as it has progressed, bear out to a
remarkable degree our historical knowledge of the dis-
tribution of the peoples in the region. Thus in Cuba we
find abundant remains of the Ciboney and the Taino,
while relics of the culture attributed to the Carib are
rare indeed; the Bahamas, Haiti (or Santo Domingo),
and Jamaica have yielded many Taino specimens, and a
few of Carib origin, while future examination may
reveal the crude remains of the Ciboney, whose presence
in Haiti is suggested by historical evidence. Porto Rico
yields mainly Taino artifacts, but Carib traces are fairly
abundant; and the Lesser Antilles yield both Arawak
and Carib objects — sometimes one, sometimes the other
predominating, but mainly the latter. Much more
information will be found in "Cuba Before Columbus,"
published by the Museum.

THE TAINO TRIBES

The term Taino has been adopted by archeologists as
a general designation for the Arawak tribes of the Greater
Antilles which had developed a peculiar culture of their

Meaning

Food

60 INDIAN NOTES

own. The name is derived from their own language,
and means "good or peaceable men," as contrasted with
the warlike and cannibalistic Carib. They made their
living largely by raising corn or maize, cassava, and
other native plants, and by fishing; but hunting, on
account of the scarcity and the small size of most of the
land animals, did not attain great importance. Most of
their fishing was accomplished with nets, while clubs, or
s macanas, and javelins were the favorite weapons for
hunting and for war. The bow and arrow, though
existing in some localities, seem to have been little used
by these people. The canoes which furnished them
transportation were dug out from single logs and were

Canoes often well made and large. These were propelled with
pointed paddles.

Their houses were circular or square in ground-plan,

Houses neatly made of poles thatched with palm-leaves and

Utensils walled with thin sheets of bark-like material from
certain palm trees; their beds were hammocks slung
from the rafters. Very characteristic were the stools
or seats of wood, known as dulios, often beautifully
carved in human or animal form and inlaid with shell,
and their handsomely decorated food vessels of wood
and of pottery. The boiling of food was done in earthen
pots set directly over the fire, and baskets of various
forms and sizes, hung from the rafters, contained surplus
provisions, trinkets, and the like.

Peculiar graters made by driving innumerable bits of

Cassava flint or other hard stone into the surface of a slab of
wood were used for grating cassava-root into meal,

AND MONOGRAPHS 61

while for squeezing out the poisonous juices from the
grated root to fit it for human food a basket press was
employed. Both grater and press are still used by the
related tribes in South America, while the presses are
still remembered by surviving Cuban Indians, who have
employed also the ancient type of grater until recently.
After grating and pressing, the meal was made into thin
loaves or cakes and baked on a flat circular griddle,
made of pottery or stone, fragments of which are still
abundant on the sites of the ancient villages.

For wood-cutting and similar purposes these tribes
used hatchet-blades or "celts" of stone, some of them, . s,,tone

implements

especially the petaloid type, of unusual beauty in
form and finish, mounted in club-like wooden handles;
while fine cutting and carving of wood, bone, and shell
were accomplished with knives, scrapers, and crude
drills, rudely made from flakes of flint, their knowledge
of flint- working falling far behind that of other arts.
Gritty stones were used for smoothing the work when
finished.

Clothing was little used, both men and women going
practically naked but for tiny apron-like garments, such Dress
as are still worn by their relatives in South America; but and
a profusion of ornaments was employed, including beads 0rnament
and pendants of stone, shell, and bone, and circular
earplugs of shell. Doubtless suitable seeds and nuts,
and the feathers of tropical birds of brilliant plumage
were also widely employed as personal ornaments, as
in South America.

The esthetic sense of the Taino was best expressed
in their carvings, especially in wood and shell, the Art

62 INDIAN NOTES

delicacy and symmetry of the work in some cases being
unsurpassed in ancient America. The carvings in bone
and stone are cruder, but still show a high degree of
skill, as does much of the pottery. Objects may be
decorated with purely geometric patterns, usually ovals
or intricate scroll-like designs, or with effigies represent-
ing, in conventional form, men, animals, and supernatural
beings, the latter especially being grotesque to the last
degree.

Little of Taino religion or mythology is known, but
Religion there is historical evidence that these had reached a
considerable stage of development, and that masks,
images, and the like were widely used. Doubtless the
stone "collars" and three-pointed zemis from Porto Rico,
and the grotesque images and amulets found on other
Taino islands, represent only a small part of their cere-
monial equipment, the rest, of perishable materials,
having been lost through decay.

THE CIBONEY

From historical and archeolcgical evidence, the
Ciboney, apparently the earliest inhabitants of Cuba,
and probably existing on the neighboring islands as
well, subsisted solely on natural products without any
00 knowledge of agriculture. Various fruits were eaten
in season, and palm-nuts stored away for times of short-
age, while land-crabs and shellfish formed a great part
of the everyday diet. Fish and the flesh of the jutia and
other small animals were also eaten; and there is some
evidence that the now extinct megalocnus, a huge

AND MONOGRAPHS 63

.ground sloth, may have formed part of Ciboney diet in
ancient times.

There is no definite knowledge of their weapons, but
it is very probable that the bow and arrow were numbered
among them. They seem to have made dugout canoes ! ° e
of ruder construction than those of the Taino. They ufe
occupied caves and rock-shelters wherever possible, and
in such places their remains are frequently found; but
also on occasion lived in camps in the open — probably
in shelters of the rudest kind. Most of their deposits
show no trace of pottery, but they seem to have had a
little after contact with the Taino. However this may
be, they made bowls of wood with the aid of fire, using Utensils
gouges made of conch-shell to scrape away the char-
coal as the work progressed, and turned conch-shells
into serviceable bowls and dippers by pecking out the
interior whorls and the core. The stone mortars and
pitted hammerstones employed by the Ciboney were
similar to those found throughout eastern North America,
but their work in flint was very crude, consisting mainly stone
of flake knives and rough scrapers. Axes or celts of tools
stone and shell occur, but are rare and differ in form
from Taino types.

We know nothing of their dress, or lack of it. Their
ornaments were disc beads fashioned of shell or of fish 0™aments
vertebrae, and pendants made from waterworn bits of
shell or stone, and of sharks' teeth, perforated for sus-
pension.

The only specimen known that may possibly illus-
trate the decorative art of the Ciboney is a carved

64 INDIAN NOTES

wooden baton found in the mud of the bottom of a lake
in western Cuba. The design consists entirely of dots
Art and incised intersecting straight lines, and although
neatly made, cannot be compared with the products
of Taino art. It may have been used in ceremonies.
Nothing else relating to their ceremonial or religious
life has apparently survived, unless the Ciboney may
have been responsible for the exceedingly rude faces
pecked on stalagmites in certain Cuban caves.

THE CARIB

As before stated, the Carib culture has not yet been
fully worked out and defined, but we can be fairly cer-
tain that in general features (excepting always their
piratical raids and their cannibalism, both character-
istically Carib) their mode of life, dwellings, hammock-
beds, use of cassava, and the like, were quite similar
to those of the Taino.

The Carib were expert bowmen, however, which can
not be said of the Taino, and the archeologist observes
Character that they were much more given to painting their pottery
than were the Taino, especially in red, black, and white;
that the forms were somewhat different, and that the
effigies used as handles and decorations for the earthen-
Stone ware vessels have a fat, bloated look not seen in Taino
tools ware Tne Carib, moreover, preferred celts of ordinary
type, or notched or grooved stone axes, or axes of fan-
ciful form, to the petaloid celt-axe characteristic of the
Taino; in fact, when petaloid celts are found on Carib
islands they are probably either relics of the original

Ornaments

AND MONOGRAPHS 65

Arawak occupancy or were brought home as trophies
by Carib raiders from Taino territory.

Carved wooden stools, idols of stone or wood, carved
wooden platters, and stone collars, all familiar Taino
artifacts, do not seem to have been made by the Carib,
and are seldom seen in the Lesser Antilles, although the
three-pointed zemis may have been occasionally imitated
by them.

So few beads, amulets, and other articles of personal
adornment appear in our collections from most of the
Carib islands that one would naturally infer the Carib
used few such articles, or that they made them of perish-
able materials. However, a collection recently obtained
from the island of Montserrat seems to disprove this
theory, for it includes many beads of semi-precious
stones such as amethyst and carnelian, and pendants
made of hard, jade-like materials. It is possible, there-
fore, that either collectors have overlooked such things on
other Carib islands, or that Montserrat, in Indian days,
was a special trade center for gems.

CUBA
(Cases 316 B C, 317 A-C)

In Cuba exploration by expeditions from the Museum
thus far has revealed two principal cultures: (1) that
of the primitive cave-dwelling Ciboney who were appar-
ently the earliest inhabitants and lived in early times ciboney
from one end of the island to the other; (2) that of the Taino
more advanced Taino who were long established only

^-

66 INDIAN NOTES '

in the eastern end of the island, although just before the
conquest they had overrun most of it. Thus it happens
that although crude Ciboney specimens may be found
in almost any part of Cuba, the remains of the Taino
may be encountered in quantity only in the eastern
portion.

Most of our Ciboney specimens were found buried in
the floors of the caves where these people once lived, al-
though some were discovered in the refuse-heaps mark-
ing their camp-sites. On the other hand, most of the
Taino material was exhumed from village-sites, and
only occasional specimens — usually fine objects hidden
for safekeeping — were found in caves.

Two full case panels and parts of two more are devoted
Pottery to one of the most characteristic products of the Taino —
their pottery. The range of form and design used by
the Cuban bands is well illustrated, especially the al-
most endless variety of grotesque heads and figures used
as handles for the vessels.

Equally characteristic of the Taino are the beautiful
petaloid celts, of which a representative series is dis-
Stone plaved. besides celts of forms which might have originated
objects anywhere, and various forms of hammerstones, pestles,
and other stone implements. The making of celts is
illustrated by a series showing them in all stages of manu-
facture, together with the hammerstones used to batter
and grind them into shape. The use of such celts as
axes (hafted like the specimen from North Caicos,
Case 319 B) is illustrated by a cut stick forming part of
a rack in a burial cave. Also of stone are various fetishes.

AND MONOGRAPHS ' 67 ■

amulets, and beads, some of them beautifully made,
and a few pitted stones, mortars, cassava griddles,
weights, and the like.

Another characteristic Taino art is illustrated by
specimens of woodcarving, including a paddle, part of
an effigy representing a cayman or crocodile, and a beauti-
fully carved platter, all found hidden in caves for safe- Wo°d-
keeping. The last two of these have evidently been in-
laid at some time with mother-of-pearl.

The shell carving of the Taino was often excellent,
as may be seen by the amulets and ornaments in the Sheilwork
exhibit, while a series of tools and unfinished objects
show how the work was done..

Objects of bone are not so abundant, but in the collec-
tion exhibited some of the pieces (especially the part of Bone
a bone platter and the fragments of spoons and swallow-
sticks) exhibit considerable skill.

The coming of the Spaniards and the beginning of the
written historical period in general are illustrated by Spanish
two specimens only — a rusty iron spear-head and a ° jects
crumpled piece of sheet-copper.

The shell vessels, shell gouges, mortars, and pitted
hammers tones, characteristic of the primitive Ciboney
from both ends of the island, may be seen in the last
panel, together with their beads and simple orna- Vanous

i • i *. i -, r -. . Ciboney

ments, their rude flints, and a few examples of their artifacts
woodwork. Of the last, the baton with a carved handle
is especially worthy of notice, as perhaps the only
surviving example of Ciboney decorative art. This,
with several other wooden objects, was found in the muck
in the bottom of a lake in Pinar del Rio.

6S I X D I A X X O T E S

A small number of potsherds exhibited in this section,
found in a few Cibonev caves, mav indicate that in later

Pottery

days the primitive Cibonev people acquired some knowl-
edge of the potter's art. perhaps from the invading
Taino.
. ct_ Of unknown origin are the crude faces and figures on
on exhibition found carved on stalagmites in certain caves,
stalagmites They were probably used ceremonially, but whether
the Cibonev or the Taino made them is impossible to
say. although their rudeness would suggest the former.

JAMAICA
Case 319 A~D,

The upper two shelves of Case 319 and the space under
it are devoted to a collection from Jamaica, all of which,
Various except perhaps several large stone mortars, and the
objects three-legged grinding stone or seat, seems to be easily
identified as Taino. This seat may have been imported
from the mainland; the mortars are of unusually large
size, but they resemble some Cuban Cibonev mortars
in form.

An examination of the pottery reveals the fact that
it bears a strong similarity to Cuban Taino ware, al-
and Stone though somewhat simpler and cruder, on the whole, in
form and design; the hatchets and ornaments are clearly
similar to corresponding objects in Cuba.

Perhaps the slight inferiority noticeable in Jamai-
Dinerence can Taino remains, as compared with those of the other
in artifacts islands, may be due to the fact that Jamaica is somewhat

AND MONOGRAPHS 69

isolated, and was not in continual touch with the special-
ized development of Taino culture in Cuba, Haiti
(Santo Domingo), Porto Rico, and the Bahamas.

The explorations by the Museum expedition to this
island have been described in " Certain Kitchen-middens
in Jamaica."

BAHAMAS
(Case 319 A B)

A glance at the collection from the various islands of
the great Bahama group lying north of Cuba, the names Taino
of which may be found on the accompanying map, culture
shows that their culture was indistinguishable from that
of the Cuban Taino.

Here we have the typical Taino petaloid celts, decora-

/i , -, i i Character

tion on pottery, and amulets, some of the latter better 0f
than any we have from Cuba, and an excellent series of objects
typical wooden seats, or duhos, two of them adorned
with heads and one with intricate carvings like those
of the Cuban wooden platter.

Best of all is a fine petaloid celt with its wooden handle . ,

still intact, found in a cave on North Caicos island, handle
That this was a usual method of hafting these stone
axes may be seen from a monolithic hatchet from Grand
Caicos carved from a single piece of stone to represent
a petaloid stone celt in a similar wooden handle. A
similar but ruder one was found in Providenciales.

Suggesting the presence of the Ciboney in the Bahamas
are several shell gouges; and perhaps further investi-
gation will establish the fact of their presence in these

Pottery

70 INDIAN NOTES

Ciboney islands before the coming of the Taino. The existence
influence 0j a third and as yet unknown culture is suggested by
the finding, in the Caicos group, of some extraordinary
shell-tempered potsherds, highly decorated with incised
straight lines and angles, unlike anything found else-
where in the West Indies.

SANTO DOMINGO
Cases 318 A~D, 321 A)

The island of Santo Domingo, anciently called Haiti,
Character and dow occupied by the republics of Santo Domingo
of objects ancj jjaiti, although only partially explored, has yielded
a large collection consisting, for the greater part, of
pottery and stonework, both to a large degree obviously
of Taino origin and similar to the specimens found in
Cuba and the Bahamas.
Some of the pottery is better made than the average
Pottery Cuban ware, and there is an even greater variety in
form, yet the resemblance is very strong indeed. Special
attention is called to the heart-shape water-bottles, a
type not seen in Cuba at all, and the hollow human
figures of earthenware, perhaps used as idols, of which
only fragments were found in Cuba. Stamps for apply-
ing paint, made of earthenware, and in one case of stone,
are abundant on this island.

In stonework we have the little figurines or amulets.

the beads, the pestles, and the petaloid celts characteristic

of the Taino culture in Cuba, but in addition we find

Stonework zemiSi or "three-pointed fetishes." in the form of the

AND MONOGRAPHS

71

human breast, which are thought to represent the God
of Food or of Fertility; and the curious massive objects of
stone, shaped like horse-collars, also thought to be
fetishes. These last two classes of objects are especially
characteristic of the Taino bands of Porto Rico.

Other noteworthy specimens in stone are a unique
dagger or club, a carving representing a monkey, once
apparently attached to a staff or handle of wood, a
large flint implement, and two T-shape stones of un-
known use.

Exhibited also are a few objects of shell and bone
suggesting those of Cuba, and a small but interesting
wooden idol, all typically Taino.

Carib culture is represented in the collection from this
island only by a few axe-heads and perhaps the T-shape
stones, and the Ciboney not at all; but further explora-
tion will probably supply specimens of both, especially
the latter.

The results of two expeditions to this island have been
published by the Museum.

Shell, Bone,
Wood

Carib
objects

PORTO RICO
(Cases 321 B, 322 A)

In the Porto Rico exhibit are seen the massive stone
collars and the mammiform zemis, before mentioned Collars an
as being the most characteristic of Taino products for
this island, although found occasionally in Santo
Domingo, and, rarely, in the Lesser Antilles.

As before stated, the zemis, or three-pointed stones,
most of them made in the form of the human breast.

Three-
pointed
stones

72 INDIAN NOTES

probably represent the God of Food or of Fertility, or
maybe Mother Earth from whom the tribes of men
draw their sustenance as the infant does from its mother's
breast. They seem to have been considered powerful
in producing large crops of yuca or cassava.

It is thought that the curious objects of stone resem-
bling horse-collars, like the tri-pointed stones, were zemis
or fetishes used in tree-worship, and that the earliest
forms were of wood, made by bending a root or a pole into
the form of an oval hoop and fastening the ends together.
A more highly developed form was apparently compound,
combining a wooden hoop with a so-called "elbow-
stone," of which some specimens are exhibited, while
the final stage was the collar, made entirely of stone,
but still showing in many cases an attempt to represent
characteristics of the wooden original.

Much of the pottery is thoroughly Taino in character

Pottery ancj might have come from Santo Domingo or Cuba,

but Carib influence is seen in the red-painted ware and

in the forms of some of the grotesque heads used as

handles for vessels.

Most of the stone axes in the collection from this island

Stone are either typical Taino petaloid celts or celts of more

b widely distributed forms; the stone beads and the like

resemble those of Cuba. Especially worthy of note is the

Wooden didio, or wooden seat, the back of which is higher than

seat usual, and a tiny duho of stone made to represent the

wooden type.

Xo trace of the Ciboney culture is seen in the collec-
tion, unless the few rude celt-like implements of shell
.mav be attributed to it.

AND MONOGRAPHS 73

VIRGIN ISLANDS
(Cases 322 B, 324 B)

The Virgin Islands of the United States, including
St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. John, and Tortola, have yielded „ M

7 J Canb and

to a Museum expedition a collection illustrating both Arawak
the Arawak and the Carib cultures, the former doubtless
representing the earlier occupancy, as the Carib seem
to have been in full possession at the time of the Dis-
covery. The rather crude character of the Arawak
pottery would indicate this, too — it seems to represent
a period before the Taino culture had attained the height
of its development. Much of the pottery found on these Pottery
islands is so plain, however, that it lacks distinguishing
features serving to determine its origin. The distinctly
Carib ware is recognizable as usual by its decoration in
red or in red and white, and by the form of the grotesque
heads. Especially interesting are several massive
Carib bowls showing painted decoration on the inside.

One Taino stone collar was collected on St. Croix
island, but this was probably a trophy from Porto Rico
brought home by Carib raiders; and there are also two Stonework
small rude mammiform zemis of Taino style. The
stone axes show both the grooved and the notched
forms of the Carib, the fine petaloid celts of the Arawak,
and a number whose origin is doubtful.

There are several objects of bone in the collection
also — one of them the handle, carved in the form of a
man, of some implement, probably a "swallow-stick,"
such as was thrust down the throat in certain ceremonies.

74 INDIAN NOTES

This has inlaid shell eyes and mouth, and is an excellent
specimen of Taino art.

The Ciboney are not represented in the collection,
unless it may be that they made the shell celts displayed.
It will take further exploration and study to determine
whether this was the case, or whether the implements
in question were the work of the Arawak or the Carib.
It seems probable, however, in view of their increase in
number as we pass down through the islands, that they
are of Carib origin.

Further information may be found in ''Archeology of
the Virgin Islands/' published by the Museum.

OTHER ISLANDS
(Case 324 A B)

From Anguilla and St.Eustatius the collection is small
and has little character. From St. Kitts and Nevis most
of the axes and pestles have a Carib appearance. On
the other hand, we see two decidedly Arawak petaloid
celts in the Antigua collection, and the four objects from
St. Martin include one fine Taino zcmi.

GUADALOUPE AND DOMINICA
(Case 324 A)

The larger collection from Guadaloupe, mainly stone
axes, consists on the whole of distinctly Carib types;
and here we first note the ornate forms of stone axe-
heads so highly developed farther south; and the same
may be said of the Dominica collection. In this the

AND MONOGRAPHS 75

only object suggesting the possibility of Arawak origin
is a solitary three-pointed object resembling in a general "
way a Taino zemi. This, however, is provided with the
groove around the base which characterizes most ob-
jects of the kind found on Carib islands, and probably
represents a Carib variant of the zemi idea.

MARTINIQUE

(Case 324 B)

The small collection from this island shows the
Arawak petaloid celt and the Carib grooved or notched
axe side by side.

SANTA LUCIA

(Case 325 B)

From Santa Lucia the collection consists mainly
of stone axes, and ornate stone forms of unknown use.
These are mainly pure Carib in type, except a few fine
petaloid celts which might have, and probably did, come
from Santo Domingo or Cuba, captured by Carib
raiders.

MONTSERRAT

(Case 326)

The collection from the island of Montserrat is re-
markable for its beads and ornaments of semi-precious
stones, such as amethyst, jade, carnelian, turquois, and
rock crystal, of especial interest being the jade amulets
in the form of frogs, and the pendant carved of cannel

Orruments

76 INDIAN NOTES

coal to represent a human head. While most of the
materials do not occur naturally on Montserrat, it is
plain that at least a part of these articles were made on
the island, for they are found in all stages of manufacture.
How the Carib could have drilled such slender holes
through such hard materials as amethyst, with the tools
available to them in pre-colonial times, remains a
mystery; but that they, and not some more advanced
people from South America, did the work seems probable
from the fact that nearly all the other archeological
specimens found on Montserrat, both pottery and stone-
work, are typically Carib in style.

ST. VINCENT
(Cases 325 A B, 326, 327)

It is not until we reach St. Vincent that the remains of
Carib culture at its highest stage of development are

culture f°und. Here we find the typical massive though
usually well-made pottery, the bloated appearance
of the grotesque heads used as handles for the vessels,

Pottery the extensive use of red, white, and black paint in
decorating — in fact, all the distinguishing characteristics
of Carib ware.

The stone implements, mainly axes, are equally typical
of Carib culture, for the greater part notched or grooved,
tonework an(j some 0f them ornamented with decorative pro-
tuberances of varying forms. One especially ornate
specimen, doubtless intended for ceremonial use, shows
a carved openwork decoration on the poll, and others,
effective designs on the blades. A handsome decorated
dish of stone also figures in the collection.

AND MONOGRAPHS 77

There are also a number of crescent-shape, hook-like,
and fanciful forms of stone to which no practical use
can be assigned, although they are made of material
hard enough to stand service as implements. Also
exhibited (Case 326) are fanciful forms in stone too soft
to have been of practical service for any purpose. Some
of these represent the well-known axe-forms of the island,
some the stone dishes, while others are entirely fanciful.
They were found for the greater part in a single locality,
and, it is thought, formed part of a ceremonial deposit
of some sort.

Before leaving the subject of stone objects attention
is called to the large mortars and grinding slabs, and the
huge axe-heads too large for practical use, all exhibited
beneath Case 327; also to the beads and amulets of
stone which in most cases differ markedly from those
of the Taino.

The only objects suggesting Taino styles in the col-
lection are a few fine petaloid celts, perhaps brought
home as war trophies. Some small three-pointed
zemis show the groove around the base, characteristic of
Carib objects of this class.

GRENADINES

(Case 328)

The collection from the Grenadine islands, including
Baliceaux, Cannouan, Mustique, Bequia, Carriacou, Carib
Union I., and Little Martinique, shows practically the culture
same culture as St. Vincent, for the greater part typically

78 INDIANUOTES

Carib. Some of the three-pointed semis have a Taino
look, however, and there are a few petaloid celts.

The island of Cannouan, moreover, has yielded some
exceedingly rude axe-like implements that suggest the
presence of another and very primitive culture winch
should be further investigated.

Special attention is called to the curiously grotesque
water-bottle of pottery from the island of Carriacou.
Shell celts seem quite numerous in these islands, but their
origin is as yet uncertain.

GRENADA

Case 329 A B

In Grenada the Carib culture is found still in its
most exuberant form, with axes and pottery, and three-
pointed stones with a basal groove, exactly as in St.
Vincent; and here too are found abundant shell celts
and occasional highly polished Taino petaloids. As in
Cannouan, there are a few exceedingly crude axe-like
implements suggesting a former primitive culture.

Another noticeable feature is the presence of several
true adze-blades of stone with one flat and one convex-
side, an implement seen only occasionally on other Carib
islands and not at all in the Taino district.

TRINIDAD

(Case 330 A B

In Trinidad, the last of the chain of islands and nearest
the South American coast, we still find Carib pottery

Carib

AND MONOGRAPHS 79

at its highest point of development, but our collection
contains fewer of the typical Carib axes, and a new form,
but rarely seen in the other Carib islands, appears here —
an axe with two sharply cut notches near the poll — a
type characteristic of Venezuela and the Guianas. At-
tention is called to the excellent series of complete or
nearly complete Carib pottery vessels, especially a unique
bird-shape water-bottle.

The results of two expeditions to this island have
been published by the Museum.

TOBAGO
(Case 329 C)

One would expect the island of Tobago, lying fairly
near to Trinidad, to yield a full series of Carib arti-
facts, but such is not the case. The collection, on the Stone
contrary, comprises a large number of celts, including
the petaloid, with very few axes, and one grooved three-
pointed stone, recognized as Carib, and no pottery at all,
while a plummet-like stone implement, not seen elsewhere
in the islands, appears.

BARBADOS
(Case 329 C)

The outlying island of Barbados, lying considerably
to the eastward of the main archipelago of the Lesser
Antilles, has yielded an unusually large collection of Carib and
shell celts and gouges, some crude pottery, most of which Arawak
is Carib, but few pieces of which appear to be Arawak,

\ \ \

four celts, all of whic ight K nly

origin. o. therefore.

both Carib and A: ied the island at different

periods, bu tndotlM
logi, g deal of further

and studv will be needed.

EAST HALL

R]

Ca , I D 135 ABDE G L, I

M I B

B
g -

intrywa

g g
ragua. In < R

g

for .'
of t.K

the 'he

ant tr: t. and

.ra-
gua. ;

g
ther g; meager. Their

D frame

82 INDIAN NOTES

thatch. The Chibchan tribes lived in large circular
houses which were occupied by several families, hence
a small village might consist of only one house with
thirty or forty occupants. The Chorotegan tribes had
larger rectangular houses surrounding a plaza, on the
sides of which were the temples and the residence of the
chief. Agriculture was practised everywhere, and early
accounts speak of plantations of maize, cotton, and cacao
on land which today is dense jungle except for the
United Fruit Company's clearings. Domestic animals
included the dog, turkey, and tapir, the last being raised
and perhaps bred in captivity on the Atlantic coast.
Hunting supplied such animals as the peccary, deer,
rabbit, armadillo, pisote. tepisquintli. and others.

The dress of the Chorotega is described as a breech-
cloth or skirt, and a sleeveless jacket made of cotton.
The Chibchan tribes wore similar garments made
either of cotton or of bark cloth. Examples of these,
made recently by Talamancan Indians, are dis-
played. The Guetar women seen by Columbus wore
their hair short, while the men had a long braid bound
Hairdress about the head. The Chorotega had long braids of
hair hanging over the ears, except the warriors who had
defeated an enemy in single combat; these wore merely
a short tuft on the top of the head.

The chief manufactures were cotton cloth, gold

Manu ornaments, mealing-stones, and pottery. Cotton cloth

factures appears to have been well made in all parts of the

country, but that from the Gulf of Xicoya was es-

Cotton pecially prized by both the natives and the Spaniards,

owing to the dve extracted from a shellfish (Purpura

AND MONOGRAPHS 83

patula), which resulted in. a rich, soft color like Tyrian Dyeing
purple. The goldwork is practically indistinguishable Gokiwork
from that of Chiriqui, exhibited in the West Hall. 331 c

The collections from Costa Rica were formed by Minor
C. Keith, Esq., who generously presented to the Museum
the bulk of his large gatherings, and the objects gathered
by Mr. Alanson Skinner from the excavation of several Bribri
sites in the Atlantic highland region. Only a small part °bjeAct*

336 A d

of the total is displayed. For the specimens illustrating
the relatively simple culture of the Bribri, see page 137.

The archeological objects in the other cases devoted to
Costa Rica were obtained chiefly from tombs. The
Guetar tombs are rectangular stone enclosures covered
with flat slabs. Burial accompaniments include the Tombs
personal ornaments of the departed and such household
utensils as pottery vessels, mealing-stones, etc. Inter-
ments were made under the house floors, and their
presence today is often marked by circles of fallen
stones against what remains of house walls. At some of
the larger sites are rectangular or circular mounds which Mounds
doubtless served for religious ceremonies, as the large
stone idols exhibited were placed on the edges of their idols
flat summits. The Chorotegan grave is usually not 334 A c
surrounded by a tomb, but is marked by a small super-
ficial heap of stones. Urn burial, commonly found on
the Pacific coast of Nicaragua, was practised in parts of
the peninsula of Nicoya.

Some of the larger forms of stone objects recovered
from graves are shown. On the top shelves of the case Objects118
are metates or mealing-stones, and stools which they 334 A-C
closely resemble. In general, the circular or four-legged

84 INDIAN NOTES

forms are from the Atlantic coast, while the three-legged
variety is from the Pacific area. Small stone statues and
stone heads are common.

Objects of jade and greenstone are found in northern
335 B. I C°sta Rica> especially in Nicoya. These pieces are
sometimes of great beauty and exhibit high technical
skill in their making.

Pottery is exceedingly abundant everywhere. The
Pottery types in the northwest are related to those of Nicaragua.

337 A-c In tne central highlands the Guetar graves contain a

338 A B polychrome ware, several types decorated with patterns

painted in a single color, and a large group embellished
with ribbons and buttons of clay. Southern Costa
Rica produces ceramic types scarcely distinguishable
from those of Chiriqui in Panama.

Such, then, is the archeology of Costa Rica. For the
Costa Rkan lavman its main attraction lies in the jade and in the
ait more exotic objects of stone and pottery. For students,
however, the chief interest centers in the fact that Costa
Rica exhibits the transition from purely Central Ameri-
can culture to purely South American culture. The
Costa Rican Indians, indeed, created no outstanding art
of their own, but were content to borrow from their
more civilized neighbors to the north and south.

PANAMA

(Cases 335 C F G, 339 B C, East Hall ; 331 , West Hall)

The province of Chiriqui in the Republic of Panama,
Chiriqui geographically a part of the North American continent.

art

is particularly rich in objects of ancient art, derived

AND MONOGRAPHS 85

almost exclusively from graves and appearing to have
been manufactured largely for mortuary purposes.
These objects show that the ancient people were skilful in
the manipulation of clay, stone, copper, and gold. It is
apparent that in many respects the culture may be
connected with that of the adjacent regions to the north
in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, yet in other features it is
remarkable for its individuality.

Ornaments of stone were seldom used, but those of
gold and copper were common. The gold objects were Metalwork
probably not mere personal ornaments, but were of a 331 c
fetishistic nature. No weapons or utensils of metal
have been found. The ornaments of metal were cast
in molds, and gilding, or at least plating, was practised.
The process of alloying also seems to have been under-
stood. Only a few specimens of a large collection of
gold objects are exhibited.

In ceramic art the ancient people of Chiriqui reached a
high plane of excellence, their pottery vessels being noted Pottery
for perfection in technic, high specialization in form, and
the conventional use of a wide range of decorative
motives. The ornamentation applied in color, model-
ing, or incising, originated in life forms of animals
(among which the armadillo, alligator, and octopus are
prominent), which gradually were modified into con-
ventional decorative devices, such as the meander,
scroll, fret, etc. It has been possible to classify the
ware into well-defined groups, each characterized by a
typical form of decoration. The three main groups
consist of unpainted, painted, and incised wares, the
first two being divided respectively into four and ten

86 IXDIAX NOTES

Biscuit sub-groups. Of the unpainted group, the "biscuit"
ware or armadillo ware is the most numerous and interesting,

339 C . . . . . ., . , r

and m some respects it is almost it not quite the finest

ware produced in aboriginal America. In the painted

Lost-color group the lost-color or negative-painting ware is the

ware

339 c most numerous and important, and suggests contact with

South America, as this process was widely employed in

the inter-Andean region of Colombia and Ecuador.

The characteristic decoration was produced by first

covering the vessel or object with a red or a cream slip,

or both; then the design was painted over the slip with

wax, and the entire surface covered with black pigment;

the vessel was then heated, by which process the black

was removed from and with the waxed portion, and the

design came out as a negative painting on the ground

color.

In stonework the elaborately carved objects in the

form of pumas exemplifv a high degree of skill in fashion-
Stonework . , ** _ „ , ■ ,
335 c in£ what have been usually classed as metates or mealing-

stones; but the researches of the Museum have shown

that these stones closely approach the wooden seats, or

duhos, still used in some parts of South America.

ARCHEOLOGY OF SOUTH AMERICA

COLOMBIA

Andean Region

(Cases 339 A DF, East Hall; 331 C D, West Hall)

Ph sical Among the many tribes inhabiting Colombia when
features the Spaniards arrived in the sixteenth century, there

MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA

AND MONOGRAPHS 87

may be distinguished several groups which had attained
a considerable degree of culture. The great geograph-
ical diversity of the northwestern part of South
America has resulted in a variety of climatic conditions,
and consequently in differences of native development
due to environment. The Andes here is split into three
parallel ranges, creating two extensive river systems,
the Cauca and the Magdalena, flowing northward and
uniting before reaching the Atlantic. In northeastern
Colombia is the great highland region of Cundinamarca
extending eastward toward Venezuela, and northward
is the snow-clad coastal range of the Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta, close to and paralleling the sea from near
the mouth of the Magdalena eastward over the penin-
sula of Goajira. The diversified slopes of the western
range of the Andes extending to the Pacific are fringed
for the greater part with mangrove swamps, while
the slopes of the eastern range, covered with dense
forests, fall away toward the great Amazon drainage
basin. As complex as the physical features of the
country is the problem of the great number of tribes
speaking different languages and of varying degrees
of culture, found by the Spaniards in the sixteenth
century.

In the Cauca valley, and the northwestern part
of the republic throughout the Department of Antio-
quia, numerous ancient settlements are encountered,
and from the well-like graves, called huacas, immense
quantities of pottery vessels and gold ornaments have
been taken. Indeed, so much worked gold, in a great
variety of forms, has been unearthed that search for

88 INDIAN NOTES

Indian graves by the natives has long been an industry
in the Cauca valley and in other parts of the country.
Yet, although the general character of the ceramic and
goldsmith's arts, due to this activity, is fairly well
established, the great field still remains to be inves-
tigated archeologically.

The pottery vessels and human figures exhibited
Quimbaya are from the Department of Caldas, Cauca valley,
cu ture and are now definitely known to have been the work
of the extinct Quimbaya tribes, whose goldsmiths
Potteiy were the most skilful of all the ancient peoples of Colom-
339 A D-F kja taking rank with the Mexicans and the Peruvians
in their product. They fashioned large vessels and
Gold work canisters, and hollow human figures of beautiful work-
331 c D manship in almost pure gold. Their pottery is of a
distinctly local type; deeply incised or cut designs are
common, and the presence of lost-color or negative
painting in the decoration of many of the receptacles
and figures suggests influence or contact from both
Panama and Ecuador, and even the Peruvian coast.
The modeling of the clay figures, some of which, made
solid, were used as idols, and others hollow to serve as
receptacles, does not equal that of their vessels and
figures in gold; in fact, as a rule they are decidedly
crude. Spindle-whorls of pottery and of stone have
been found abundantly in various parts of Colombia,
their beautifully engraved designs being characteristic
of the respective localities. Some of the whorls served
also as rattles. Stamps and roulettes of various shapes
for ornamenting pottery occur.

AND MONOGRAPHS 89

1

A unique specimen is a stone bark-beater with handle,
the only one from South America that has come to Bark-beare
our notice. Such implements are found in Middle
America, and many have been discovered in Oaxaca,
Mexico. As the custom of making bark cloth pre-
vailed in many parts of South America, it is probable
that the beaters were generally made of wood, and
hence have disappeared through decay.

Another region of Colombia once thickly inhabited
is that of the valley of the Rio Sinu in the Department Sinu
of Bolivar, in the extreme northwestern part, near va ey
the Isthmus of Panama. From the time of the con-
quest to the present, vast quantities of gold objects
have been found in the ancient graves, some of the
pieces being very large. It seems probable that more
worked gold has been found here than in any other
part of aboriginal America.

From the extensive region occupied by the Chibcha
of the highlands of Cundinamarca the Museum has no Chibcha
adequate material, other than gold ornaments, to
illustrate one of the reputed highest cultures in South
America.

In the upper Magdalena valley, near the village of
San Agustin, are the remains of a culture which seems
to have been confined to this restricted area. The
antiquities are characterized by many massive stone °?f?°rk

J (Middle

sculptures of a type not found elsewhere. This isolated 0f hall)
development of stone-carving marks one of the five
small areas yet known in South America where that art
flourished, namely, Manabi, Ecuador (represented in
the Museum by the unique collection in the middle

90 INDIAN NOTES

of the hall), Chavin in northern Peru, Yilcashuaman
in southern Peru, and Tiahuanaco in Bolivia.

In the Santa Marta region, from the mountains to
the Atlantic coast, the Tayrona, now practically ex-
Tayrona tinct, formerly held sway. Some authorities assert
culture that they were related to the Chibcha, while others
include them as members of the Carib stock. Little
is known of Tayrona culture, but from the few antiq-
uities available it is certain that they were among the
most accomplished workers in clay of ancient Colombia.
Some whistles and figures with a peculiarly local type
of engraved ornamentation are interesting products
of their art. In this district have also been found
large numbers of nicely-shaped beads, small idols, and
various personal ornaments of carnelian and quartz
crystal. The large jars on the top of the case were
used for burial of the dead.

Pacific Coast Region

The ancient remains so abundant on the Pacific
Narino coast of Colombia have been investigated by two ex-
cuiture petitions sent by the Museum to the southern Depart-

346 A B ^ i. -*x — t. i t i i .

347 A-c ment of Nanno. For the reason that the culture is

intimately related to that of Esmeraldas, Ecuador,
the material is exhibited with that of the collections
from the Ecuadorean coastlands, referred to on page 99.

Environ-
ment

AND MONOGRAPHS 91

ECUADOR
(Cases 340-345, 347 D-F, 348, 349 B C, 350 B, 353)

For its greater part Ecuador is ridged with lofty
mountains, the Andean system extending from north
to south through the length of the republic. The
series of long, rather narrow, inter-Andean valleys are
separated one from another by cross-ranges running
approximately east-west between the two great en-
closing western and eastern ranges. These ridges are
in reality great highland plateaus known as paramos,
with elevations of from 12,000 to 15,000 feet, while the
highest snow-covered volcanic peaks of the great eastern
and western barriers, such as Chimborazo, Cotopaxi,
and Cayambe, are even more lofty. From the western
range lower mountains slope gradually to within a
short distance of the Pacific coastal plain. Few rivers
of importance in this region flow into the Pacific, but
it is watered by numerous small streams. East of the
eastern sierra, in the great territory known as the
Oriente, is a considerable series of ranges of lesser height,
on the slopes of which innumerable streams have their
source, all ultimately reaching the Amazon. The
physical character of Ecuador had marked influence
on the development and the migration of its ancient
inhabitants.

In Ecuador there are three great zones, not climatic
but cultural, for every variety of climate prevails. Culture
These culture zones are those of (1) the inter-Andean
valleys, (2) the Pacific coast, and (3) the Oriente of the

zones

92 INDIAN NOTES

Amazon basin. The ethnology of the Oriente must
be considered apart from that of the mountains, for
the people seem to have had close affiliation with those
of the great forest area of the upper Amazon (see page
147). Little or no archeological material has thus far
been found in this enormous and almost unexplored
territory.

The archeology of the mountain region and of the
coast appears to indicate two perhaps independent
movements of people from Middle America, profoundly
influenced by the widely different environment.

In the field of Ecuadorean archeology the Museum
stands preeminent, owing to the field researches of the
Marie Antoinette Heye Expedition, on the results of
which the Museum has published two quarto volumes.
By the excavations and collecting conducted by the
expedition during a number of years, numerous arti-
facts have been assembled to illustrate the material
culture of Ecuador, with the exception of the southern
inter-Andean and coast regions adjoining the Peruvian
frontier. On the coast extended excavations were
made in mounds, locally known as tolas, and in graves
and village-sites. The extensive and unique collec-
tions thus gathered are only partly displayed, the
remainder being reserved for purposes of study. As
a result of these investigations it is now possible to
determine something of the character of the ancient
culture of this part of South America.

AND MONOGRAPHS 93

Inter-Andean Region
(Cases 340-345, 350 B)

The archeology of the Andean region will first be
considered. The rich collections from the interior are
arranged geographically, beginning with the material
from the northern province of Carchi on the Colombian
frontier, and extending southward to the province of
Loja adjoining Peru.

The aboriginal use of jadeite in Ecuador was un-
known until the recent finding of an ornament, dull- jadeite
green in color, resembling in this respect the nephrite 340 B
of Brazil. Subsequently, from the province of Canar,
numerous small objects of this material, as well as a
rough block with the characteristic marks made by
severing small pieces for amulet-making, have been
discovered.

Examination of the geographical groups of earth-
enware clearly reveals the styles of vessels developed Pottery
in the various culture areas in pre-Inca times. Today Ecuador3
all vestiges of the earlier aboriginal languages have cases)
disappeared, save where they survive in a comparatively
few place-names, having been superseded by the
Quichua language of the Inca, undoubtedly to a consider- influence
able extent since the Spanish occupancy of the country
in the sixteenth century. In fact, the Inca entered the
highlands of Ecuador only a generation or so before the
advent of the Spaniards, or about the year 1450, ex-
tending their colonies and influence to a little north of
the present city of Quito. Pottery of Inca origin is
easily recognizable, being quite unlike that of the

94 INDIAN XOTES

earlier tribes either in form or in decoration. It is
found extensively in the southern and central parts of
the highlands, but gradually disappears as one proceeds
northward. The Inca pottery from Ecuador has been
segregated and is exhibited with objects illustrating
the culture of ancient Peru and Bolivia.
Although numerous local cultures are represented

Interior in the interior, for general consideration we may dis-
tinguish three great culture areas in which the remains
indicate a more or less centralized development, namely.
(1) the area included in the three northern provinces of
Carchi. Imbabura. and Pichincha: (2) the region near
the volcanoes of Tunguragua and Chimborazo in the
provinces of Tunguragua. Chimborazo. and Bolivar;
(3) the southern area, in the provinces of Canar, Azuay,
and Loja.

The most noteworthy feature of the ceramic art of
the province of Carchi is the long, slender vessels pecu-

Pottery nar to that area, found in large numbers in the deep,
from well-like tombs at Angel and vicinity. Associated with
341 342 tnese are bowls painted with many motives of great
interest in the study of aboriginal decorative art. Geo-
metric patterns predominate, but the swastika, and
bird and animal figures, also are found. Small, well-
modeled olla-shape vessels, sometimes with fluted
bodies, having birds, monkeys, frogs, and human
figures facing each other from opposite sides of the rim.
and often perforated for the insertion of carrying cords,
are peculiar to the provinces of Carchi and Imbabura.
Human figures sometimes on seats occur in this area,
recalling the pottery figures of the coast province of

:ra

AND MONOGRAPHS 95

Manabi. Triple vessels with handles, tripod bowls,
duck-shape receptacles, and others with a double
spout, are occasionally encountered. Negative paint-
ing is common. Curious pottery trumpets and whistles
in the form of sea-shells are peculiar to this region.

In many respects the earthenware from the next
province, Imbabura, is related to that of Carchi, but Pottery
certain types, such as the slender vases and painted imbabui
bowls, are rarely found in Imbabura, hence the con- 343 B c
jecture that the examples which occasionally have
been taken from tombs in that province were intro-
duced by trade. Certain other types, such as tripod
vessels, duck-shape ollas with tripods, and a form of
-duck-shape vessel with two projecting stub handles in
front and one behind, are found in such abundance
that, if encountered elsewhere, their place of origin may
be ascribed to this culture area. Small beautifully
modeled and decorated receptacles are relatively com- Gold figures
mon, and certain solid crudely modeled human figures
are likewise found.

From Pichincha province the antiquities reveal a pottery
lesser degree of advancement in ceramic art, but for from
.general classification the region may be included with Plchmcha
Carchi and Imbabura, although it is far less rich in 344 B
forms, while influence of the Inca is shown by the rela- 350 b
five abundance of their pottery.

The same is true of the province of Leon, where Leon
nearly all of the pottery gathered by the expedition ^(?b
is of Inca origin.

Southward, in the province of Tunguragua, one
enters another distinct culture area, so far as mav be

96 INDIAN NOTES

judged by the pottery. To a certain extent it is re-

Pottery lated to that of Chimborazo. but here is found a dis-

„ tinct local development in ceramic art, characterized

Tunguragua _ ^ m

343 A F by vessels with thin walls, ornamented with straight
or wavy parallel lines, often with a human face on the
rim and rudely shaped arms raised below, but with no
other part of the body represented. Such ware is
found in great abundance within a limited area, but it
is so rare in the adjoining provinces that it must have
been introduced by trade. Another type is character-
ized by negative painting. A remarkable vessel rep-
resenting an animal with massive stub legs and with
a small olla on its back is displayed.

Chimborazo. including the region of the city of
Riobamba, is now reached. There was not the esthetic

Irom

chimborazo development in form and ornament found in the Carchi

\ bef region< yet by reason of the great quantities of pottery

beneath the surface, and the fact that excavations

have revealed stratified culture sequence in the vicinity

of Riobamba and around Ambato in the province of

Tunguragua, the Chimborazo culture area is the most

important of all the ancient centers of the Andes. A

small collection illustrating the characteristic features

of the ceramic art of these culture epochs is displayed.

The earliest period, which lies at the bottom of the

stratum, has been called Proto-Panzaleo I; its art is

Panzaleo I characterized by a profound influence from Central

period America. Tripod vessels appear, and the decoration

consists almost wholly of engraved geometric patterns

in parallel lines made with a comb-like instrument.

Panzaleo U
period

Tuncahuan

AND MONOGRAPHS 97

The next period, Proto-Panzaleo II, represents a
development and continuation of the first period, the Proto-
difference in style being not more marked than in the
Transition Period between the Archaic and Teoti-
huacan of the Valley of Mexico. Marked traces of
a new influence exerted from the north are shown,
manifested in the appearance of negative painting
(so common in Chiriqui, Panama) in the decoration of
vases imitating melons, the employment of dragon-
like figures, and the stylistic figures of bats on the rims
of vessels.

The third period is that of Tuncahuan. Not only
is this epoch represented in the province of Chimborazo,
but it extended throughout almost the entire inter- period
Andean region of Ecuador. Its culture, so far as the
pottery is concerned, is characterized by (1) the dis-
appearance of tripod vessels; (2) the relative abundance
of negative painting in decoration, in which the octopus
motive recently recognized in Chiriqui is found; and (2)
the use of white in pottery ornamentation, which now
first came into vogue. This third period seems to
have been of short duration, and the immediate [Middle
American influence on the art of the ancient Ecuado-
rans ends wTith this epoch. Objects of copper, absent
from the first two periods, were introduced during the
Tuncahuan epoch.

The fourth Chimborazo epoch, that of San Sebastian,
had many forms of pottery vessels common to the San
preceding periods; but new types appear, such as vases
or cups with human faces in low relief on the sides,
and plates with handles. During this period a slight

Sebastian
period

period
345 A B F

98 INDIAN NOTES

influence was probably exerted from the Tiahuanaco
region far to the south, but there seems also to have
been an intimate relationship with the culture of Cauca
valley in Colombia. Progress was made also in archi-
tecture, as shown by ruins near Guano.

The art of the Chimborazo region reached its highest
Elen-pata development during the fifth culture epoch, that of
Elen-pata. Negative and positive painting of earthen-
ware flourished, and jars with conventional human
faces and arms, placed in low relief on the necks and
upper body parts of the vessels, are characteristic.
Pottery of this type has been found in great quantities
in this restricted region, but thus far no examples have
been discovered beyond. In many of the vessels human
bones and innumerable small shell beads have been
found, while in many others a mass of yellow powder
revealed the sediment of chicha, showing that they had
been filled with liquid for the refreshment of the de-
parted with whom the receptacles were buried. Copper
ornaments in large numbers are found.

The art of this period was developed exclusively
in the territory of the provinces of Chimborazo, Tungu-
ragua, and Bolivar, and seems unquestionably to
belong to the Puruha, who lived there at the time of
the conquest. It was the outstanding culture epoch
of this part of South America. The major portion of
the collections from Chimborazo belong to this period.

The last pre-Inca period was that of Huavalac, the
material culture of which does not display wide dif-
ferences from that of Elen-pata, although the two are
distinguished stratigraphically. Lost-color ware is
characteristic of the Huavalac period.

Huavalac
period

AND MONOGRAPHS 99

In the southern culture area, that of Canar-Azuay
and the province of Loja, the Museum has little to Culture of
show the characteristic archeological features of a anar~

Azusy

highly important region. Recent excavations have and Loja
resulted in a wealth of material revealing a high degree 345 D
of culture, showing marked Middle American influence.
Here, as in no other part of Ecuador, architecture
reached a high plane, as the ruins of splendid fortresses
and edifices of stone attest. There was a very active
Inca settlement of this area, the cities, notably Tome-
bamba, being among the most important of the 15th
and the early part of the 16th centuries. A wealth of
gold ornaments and implements have been found in
tombs at Chordeleg and Sigsig, but the Museum col- Goidwork
lection of these objects from the latter site are not yet
exhibited. Among the pieces are a massive gold crown
with bangled golden plumes, a bracelet with bangles,
"seals," breast ornaments, and several tips for ceremo-
nial spear- throwers. Pan-pipes and other important
objects found in Sigsig tombs were early assigned to
the melting-pot.

Pacific Coast Region

The climatic conditions of the Pacific coast of Colom-
bia and Ecuador are entirely different from those of
the inter-Andean region. From the Rio Guapi in the
department of Narifio, Colombia, to the mouth of Rio ph sjcal
Santiago in the province of Esmeraldas, Ecuador, there features
is a broad stretch of low country extending westward
from the foothills of the Andes, covered bv a dense

100 INDIAN NOTES

tropical forest and drained by many rivers. This area
is bordered by a wide fringe of mangrove swamps crossed
in all directions by innumerable small estuaries which
conceal many islets. It is possible to travel by canoe
practically the entire distance of several hundred miles
between the Guapi and the Santiago, by way of this
intricate system of natural canals, only occasionally
skirting the ocean for short stretches.

On all the islands investigated are mounds and
deposits, and along the banks of the streams are found
the same conditions, telling the story of a continuous
line of habitations in former times along the coast.
Not knowing the name or names of its ancient inhabi-
tants, this region is designated the area of the Esmeral-
das culture; but this culture seems to have extended
southward for a distance of at least 150 miles, -where
somewhat different geographic conditions are found.
Beginning at the Rio Santiago, the coastal swamps
disappear, the shore-line presenting a series of high
bluffs alternating with or separated by plains, the
bank along the beaches averaging 6 to 8 feet above
highwater. In these banks occur numerous deposits
of human artifacts.

In the province of Manabi the humid region extends
southward to the region of the Bay of Caraques. From
this area, only a few miles south of the equator, to
Cape San Lorenzo, an arid belt is entered, the lowlands
being desert-like, but the hills are clothed with tropical
verdure. Southward from Cape San Lorenzo is another
humid stretch, extending to 2° S. lat., \vhere another
arid zone reaches to the northern boundarv of the Gulf

AND MONOGRAPHS 101

of Guayaquil; here another humid zone is met, only to
reach, in turn, the typical coast desert region at the
Peruvian frontier. These strange alternating climatic
conditions have an important bearing on the archeo-
logical problems that have arisen during the course of
the Museum's explorations in the coastal region of
Ecuador, problems that may be solved only through
long-continued research. It seems probable that we
must deal with two distinct peoples whose occupancy
extended over a considerable period and whose highest
development seemingly was reached long before the
coming of the Spaniards. At present we have only
glimpses of the comparatively high local attainments
by the early inhabitants of the two culture areas.

The collections from the Pacific coast indicate the
former existence of two cultures differing widely from
those represented by the artifacts from the highlands ^ulture^
of Ecuador, where at least three major cultures may be
distinguished, especially in the types of pottery found
in the Andean valleys.

The northern coast culture, in the province of Es-
meraldas, merges into the culture of the south Colom-
bian coast region. The culture found in Manabi, in
the vicinity of the equator, possessed individual charac-
teristics indicating an intensive local development;
but throughout the Ecuadorean coast there are traces
of influence exerted from Central America, chiefly
from the field of Mayan culture. Some evidences of
contact with the pre-Inca people of the Peruvian coast
are found, but there appears to have been slight con-
nection between the coast peoples of Nariiio, Esmeraldas,

102 INDIAN NOTES

and Manabf, and those of the interior of Ecuador, so
far as we may judge from the artifacts. If there
connection with the inter-Andean cultures, it was with
the people of the interior of southern Colombia. The
culture of the two coastal areas developed, as indicated.
under widely different climatic conditions. In Xarino
and Ksmeraldas an exceedingly humid climate is found,
with accompanying tropical vegetation: but in Manabi,
for the greater part, the region is desert, except for
tropical oases on the hilltops.

The collections from the Department of Xarino
in Colombia, to which allusion has been made (page 90 .
represent the results of excavations made in the mound
group on El Mono island near Tumaco. and in the
deposits at Mataje on the Rio Mataje on the Ecuador
frontier. Archeological material was found in abun-
dance also along all of the numerous streams visited
in this section, notably the Rosario, Caunupi, and
Mexicano. Stone axes of various types are numerous,
and deep, massive stone metates are characteristic
of this culture area. Common also are deposits of
broken vessels, the ware showing traces of having been
painted red. The- shapes of the vessels approach
closely the forms found in Esmeraldas, the main dif-
ference being in the quality of the day. Some of the
human pottery figures arc strikingly like those of the
Quimbaya culture area in Cauca valley, but they lack
the negative painting often found there. However.
Tactically all of the pottery from the coast has been
badly affected by the extreme dampness of the soil,
it is possible such negative painting may have dis-

AND MONOGRAPHS 103

appeared. Some of the human effigy vessels and figures
are of unquestioned Central American style, and might
have been made within the area of Mayan culture.
Several double-spout water vessels, on the contrary,
must have originally drifted up the coast through trade
with people having contact with Peruvian coast people.
From the Mataje river deposits is a broken pottery
slab, the direct prototype of the stone slabs from the
Kcuadorean province of Manabi, the upper enframing
section being identical. Such slabs are restricted to
the Manabf culture area, the only exception being the
Mataje specimen in clay. These will be described
later. The single specimen of painted pottery vessel
belongs to a unique class, so far as the decoration is
concerned, although in form it is identical with vessels
of a group from the provinces of Carchi and lmbabura
in the interior of Ecuador. Other types of artifacts
will be mentioned in treating the culture of Esmeraldas.
where more abundant material was obtained.

ESMERALDAS CULTURE

(Cases 347 D-F, 353, 356 I-K)

In many respects the most interesting culture in
Ecuador is that found on the shores of Esmeraldas and
extending northward for a hundred miles. Remains
of this culture are found also well up the numerous
rivers that thus far have been investigated. The only
researches, however, that have been conducted in this
important region are those of this Museum, and doubt-
less scores of important sites still remain unknown.

104 INDIAN NOTES

The half-dozen expeditions of the Museum in this
region have brought to light, by excavation and col-
lecting, a most interesting aboriginal culture hitherto
unknown.

Prominent features of the Esmeraldas culture are
the surprising advancement made in modeling human
Goldwork anc[ animal figures in clay, and the remarkable achieve-
West Hall ment m tne goldsmith's art. Not only was gold worked
into a variety of beautiful jewelry, but a dominant
feature of the art is the almost microscopic character
of many of the objects fashioned in filigree; and a still
more striking feature of the skill of the workers in the
precious metals is the occurrence of jewels made of
pure platinum or of platinum and gold filigree. In
some examples objects were made of gold on one side
and platinum on the other, while some little gold jewels
are embellished with semi-precious stones as settings.
Gold was employed also for decorating the teeth in
various ways, notably by the insertion of small discs
in perforations cut in the surface of the upper incisors,
or by replacing the enamel cut from their outer faces
with thin bands of gold. The art of inlaying points to
Central American influence. Among the objects made
of gold may be mentioned finger-rings (some of them
set with semi-precious stones), nose-rings, earrings,
bracelets, lip-ornaments, tacks or studs of gold of
varying forms used to place in incisions in the face
for decoration, fish-hooks, awls, and needles. Many of
the innumerable small thin plates of gold with tiny holes
were doubtless sewed on gala garments.

AND MONOGRAPHS 105

The great number of human and animals figures in
the forms of idols or effigies of solid pottery, or hollow Pottery
to serve as whistles, are generally of a type more Cen-
tral American than South American in character.
Most of the earthenware receptacles are simple in
form, but many are ornamented with applique designs
of a highly esthetic nature. These vessels, as well as
the effigies, whistles, smoking-pipes, and other objects,
may all have been painted red, but owing to (he damp-
ness of the ground in which they were buried, only a
few examples showing the paint have survived.

Exhibited is a collection from the islet of La Tolita,
explored by the Museum expedition during several sum- La Tolita
mers. Over a large part of the island ancient deposits 353AIKL
to a depth of six or more feet are encountered, and above
ground an extensive group of mounds exist. Innumer-
able artifacts of gold, stone, and pottery have been
exposed here in the process of recovering gold and
platinum by the placer method. With the exception of
slight excavations in two of them, the mounds have not
yet been explored. In one, a remarkable treasure of
gold was found in a clay chest, and in the other,
among the specimens in a grave was a golden egg with
a small emerald inside. The collection shown is only a
small part of the material procured. The clay figures of
human beings and birds and animals show a wide range
of types, and customs and costumes of the ancient people
are depicted by the specimens, [n the human heads
and faces are found all styles of treat men I, from the
archaic of Middle America to the most advanced and
accurate modeling. Many of the pieces are so closely

106 INDIAN NOTES

allied to Mayan artifacts as to be almost indistinguish-
able. Examples of the gold objects are exhibited in
Case 331 of the West Hall. A single specimen of
wooden human figure was found here; but as the ob-
jects thus far recovered were in swampy soil, great
deterioration has resulted. There does not appear to
be any culture stratification on the island, objects of
all types being mixed indiscriminately.

In some parts of Esmeraldas enormous pottery tubes
Pottery were superimposed over large ollas for burial purposes.
tubes jn this manner many interments were made, recalling
the well-like tombs of the Peruvian coast, the interior
of Ecuador and Colombia, and the region of Chiriqui
in Panama. All burials were not thus made, however,
as the numerous tolas, or mounds, were used also for
sepulture.

It is believed that the Esmeraldas culture area is
one of the most important in South America for the
study of the southward migrations of Middle American
peoples, the type of culture found being intermediate
between the Mayan and that of the Peruvian coast.

MANABI CULTURE

(Cases 348, 349 A-C)

An outstanding feature of the Manabi culture is the
development of sculpture in stone, for such is almost
' pture unknown in the interior, and is entirely absent in
Esmeraldas. The Manabi sculptures have been found
in association with the ruins of houses in hilltop cities
and in a few sites in the arid plains.

AND MONOGRAPHS 107

Of first interest and importance are the seats, of
which the Museum has a large collection (exhibited on Stone seats
the pyramid in the middle of the hall) . They were
gathered from a number of hilltop cities, and have
never been found beyond a restricted area of about
20 miles in diameter. From their occurrence in num-
bers at dwelling sites, it is believed that these seats
were used ceremonially in household sanctuaries, and
that they represent the transition of the utilitarian
wooden seats into stone seats having a religious sig-
nificance. Of next importance are the sculptured slabs
found in connection with the seats (displayed on the Sculptured
columns at the north side of the hall). It is apparent
that these bas-reliefs were not nearly so numerous as
the seats, but the motives may be divided into a number
of clearly distinct groups, prominent among which
are the representations of female deities, a complex
animal figure with octopus-like characters (a kind of
sea-monster), and a combination of disc and crescent
motives. Stone columns recalling those of Costa Rica,
animals on columns, representations of birds and ani-
mals, and human figures, round out a group of sculp-
tures unique in South America. A curious feature of
the archeology of the Manabi region, where sculpture stone
in stone was so highly developed, is the scarcity of implements
stone implements, for axes and celts are almost never
seen, although hammerstones are abundant. On the
contrary, in Esmeraldas, especially in the interior,
where practically no sculptures are found, innumerable
tools of this character and in an infinite variety of
forms are encountered. Another noteworthy feature

108 INDIAN NOTES

is the entire absence of arrowpoints and spearpoints
in the culture areas of Manabi and Esmeraldas, indi-
cating the use of the blowgun with bone-tipped darts.
The peculiar stone hooks for spear-throwers, so common
in the interior, are not found on the coast.

At the house sites numerous flat slabs and handstones
used in grinding have been found; indeed the natives
today use these stones which they recover from the
ruins. None with legs, like whose of the Central
American metates, have been discovered.

An interesting exhibit consists of engraved stones
from the island of La Plata, off the Manabi coast.
These are supposed to be record stones.

In ceramics the explorations by the Museum have
brought to light an important array of vessels, effigies
348°349fi C °^ numan figures on seats, small figures, whistles of
many forms and sizes, stamps, molds, and thousands
of engraved spindle-whorls, all indicating a peculiarly
local culture, but pointing clearly to northern rather
than to southern influence. Undoubtedly wood was
extensively used in various ways for making seats, idols,
Other and household furniture, but products of the art of
arti acts WOodcarving as well as of weaving have entirely disap-
peared.

A few pieces of copper and some ornaments of gilded
copper are the only examples that have been discovered
thus far to show the metalwork of the ancients of Manabi.
Objects of bone and shell are comparatively rare.
Burial -^n tne nm<toP cities, as well as in those of the arid
customs plains, the dead were deposited in bottle-shape tombs cut
into the solid rock, as well as in the tolas, or mounds.

AND MONOGRAPHS 109

THE GUIANAS AND VENEZUELA

(Case 373)

Less definite information is available concerning the
archeology of French, Dutch, and British Guiana, and ph sical
of Venezuela, than of any other portion of South America, features
The climate and topography of Venezuela are as varied
as those of Colombia, of which it is geographically an
extension. The Guianas are crossed from south to north
by a great network of rivers; the country is low and the
climate humid. In the interior are highlands and many
grassy plains or savannas, great portions of which are
unexplored, and of which next to nothing is known
concerning the archeology and ethnology.

Probably Chibcha influence extended into western
Venezuela, but over large tracts the Arawak and Carib Arawak
held swav at the coming of the whites. The latter and

Carib

tribes were also the two known peoples of the Guianas,
and the impress of their migration into the West Indies
was indelibly made in those islands.

In the vicinity of Merida, in the Venezuelan Andes,
were the Timote, a tribe apparently independent of the
other stocks of northern South America, so far as known,
although it has been asserted that they were related to
the Chibcha. As in many other parts of the continent,
the language has disappeared, and only by comparative
archeological research and a study of skeletal remains
will it be possible to determine affiliations. The Timote
had attained a considerable degree of culture, seemingly
the most advanced in Venezuela, judging by the meager
archeological material available.

110 INDIAN NOTES

The most abundant ancient remains are found in
numerous small mounds and burial places in the vicinity
of Lake Valencia in the Aragua valley, southwest of
Caracas. This region has been placed within the Carib
area, but as no trace of the language of the people has
survived, their connections can be determined only by
archeological study.

A collection from this region, mainly of pottery, stone,
Pottery and shell, is exhibited. The heads of the numerous
stone human figures of pottery recall the archaic art of the
Valley of Mexico. Animal heads adorn the rims of
vessels, often projecting above the edge, showing dis-
tinct connection with the people of the West Indies,
either Arawak or Carib. The art generally is rather
crude, and is characteristic of this northern area of
South America, extending through the Guianas to the
mouth of the Amazon.

From the island of Margarita are exhibited the gather-
. ings from excavations conducted bv a Museum expedi-

Marganta ° - r

island tion, the only scientific work of the kind thus far carried
on in Venezuelan territory, a report on which has been
published. Carib influence is clearly shown in the
pottery, some pieces being identical with earthenware
from Trinidad and other Antillean islands. Large
breast-ornaments cut from the lips of conch-shells
resemble specimens of stone, some quite large, of a form
peculiar to the Venezuelan Andes. Free use of shell
for ornaments is a common aboriginal feature of this
region, which in many respects is the most important
unworked field in South American archeology, for from
this area the West Indies was unquestionably peopled.

AND MONOGRAPHS 111

BRAZIL

(Case 356)

The territory forming the Republic of Brazil is
somewhat larger in area than the United States, ex-
clusive of Alaska, for it occupies nearly half of the land
area of the Southern continent. At the time of its
discovery in 1500, this region was inhabited by numerous
Indian tribes, but from its extended seacoast the Indian
population has now either almost disappeared or has
become practically merged with the blacks whose
ancestors were brought from Africa as slaves. A con-
siderable Indian population still lives in the great
remote interior parts of the republic, preserving the
aboriginal habits, customs, and ceremonies of ancient
times.

Two principal groups of aborigines have been dis-
tinguished in central and southern Brazil. The Taouya, „ .

° tr j 7 Various

or Ges, who are supposed to be the more primitive of the tribes
early inhabitants, buried their dead in large earthenware
urns, called igacaras, with inverted bowl covers. They
excelled in flaking stone implements. The present
Botocudo belong to the same stock, although they are
said to be of lower culture than the other group. Certain
skulls found in Lagoa Santa are attributed to them.
The Tupi-Guarani occupied a far greater part of the
area under consideration. From the region of the
Amazon valley northward to the boundaries of the
Guianas and Venezuela were the Carib and Arawak, who
extended also through the Antilles. The Carib are now
known to have come originally from western Brazil.

112 INDIAN NOTES

while the Arawak are believed to have had their first
settlements in the region a little to the north of the
Carib. In the area occupied by one or the other of these
tribes it is probable that the native manioc, one of the
great food-roots of ancient America, was first cultivated.

For reasons which cannot be presented here, it seems
highly probable that the greater part of the vast region
under consideration, specifically its southern part, was
not occupied for so long a time as the Pacific coast and
the inter-Andean valleys. Indeed it is reasonable to
conjecture that the southern Brazilian area and portions
of the Argentine Republic were the latest parts of the
continent to be permanently settled, if it is considered
that the logical route of early migration southward from
Migration Central America was probably along the Pacific coast,
or through the Andean valleys, or both. There seems to
have been, at the time of the earliest aboriginal invasion
of South America, a movement eastward from Panama,
along the northern coast of the continent, through
Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas. which reached
the mouth of the Amazon and ascended that stream;
and there may also have been a contemporaneous filtra-
tion of people southward by way of the numerous
waterways which drain into the Caribbean sea.

With such a paucity of information concerning the
native Brazilian tribes and their former migrations, it
seems almost hopeless to connect with either the Tapuya
or the Tupi-Guarani, in any certain degree, the meager
relics of antiquity, for the linguistic map of the region
exhibits a perplexing intermingling of tribes. The
entire region from the mouth of the Amazon southward

AND MONOGRAPHS 113

to the frontiers of Uruguay, Argentine, and Paraguay,
and westward to Bolivia, is less known archeologically
than any portion of the Western Hemisphere.

The only archeological collection in the United States
from southern Brazil is here exhibited. It is mainly from Various
the states of Santa Catharina, Minas Geraes, and Matto objects
Grosso, but there are also specimens from other southern
Brazilian states. Pottery is excessively rare; one speci-
men of the coiled variety recalls the ware of the Pueblo
region of the United States. Stone axes and celts are
very common; many of these are of flbrolite, a material
not used elsewhere in South America, but it was em-
ployed for implement-making in Arizona and New
Mexico. Long T-shape lip-ornaments, called tembetas,
some of them made of quartz crystal and beryl, are
characteristic of the Brazilian culture areas. Artifacts
of nephrite are rather common in Brazil; the only known
locality where this material occurs in situ is near Amar-
goza in the state of Bahia, about the central part of the
coast region. With the single exception of a small idol
from northern Ecuador, no objects of jadeite or of
nephrite have been reported from any other part of
South America, the nearest place of occurrence being
Costa Rica. A nephrite celt from Minas Geraes is exhib-
ited. Mortars of zoomorphic forms are peculiar to certain
sections of southern Brazil, and pestles are rather
numerous. Skilfully chipped arrow- and spear-heads
of quartz crystal are among the most highly finished
objects of this class from South America. Although
limited in number, the artifacts prove that the ancient
Brazilians were not exceeded by any of the more, ad-

114 JLJNDJLAW NOTE^

vanced people of the continent in the making of imple-
ments and ornaments of stone.

The only region of Brazil in which antiquities are
found in abundance is that of the lower reaches of the
Amazon, especially on the island of Marajo near its
mouth. Here an enormous number of painted and
incised pottery vessels, as well as effigies, stools, and
other objects, have been discovered in burial mounds and
Pottery 0n village-sites. These artifacts, of a peculiarly local
type, are evidently the product of a people which
achieved the highest culture of any of the South Ameri-
can Indians east of the Andes. Resemblances are
traceable between the art of this region and that of the
natives of British Guiana, the island of Trinidad, and
the Lesser Antilles, probably because it represents the
work of an Arawak-speaking people. One of the large
burial jars from Marajo island is exhibited on the
pyramid in the center of the hall. Certain traces of the
decorative art of this culture area are seen in the pottery
made today by some of the tribes of the upper Amazon,
such as the Conebo, and even in the Oriente region of
Ecuador and the interior of the Guianas.

PERU

(Cases 349 A D-F, 350 A B, 351, 354)

The diversified geographical features of Colombia and

Ecuador are repeated in Peru. The great western

General cordiHera 0f the Andes, however, extends close to the

features . .

sea, leaving a coastal plain across which are many narrow
valleys, through which small rivers flow to the Pacific.

AND MONOGRAPHS 115

This entire stretch of coast, except for the narrow strips
watered by the streams, is a parched and rainless region.
In it are numberless ancient cemeteries, in which have
been preserved, to a degree not found elsewhere in the
Western Hemisphere, everything that was buried in the
graves hollowed in the nitrous sands. It was the habit
of the pre-Inca to bury with their elaborately mummi-
fied dead not only personal ornaments, paraphernalia, and
tools of trade or profession, as well as all kinds of food,
but to place in the graves pottery vessels on which are
depicted, by either modeling or painting, nearly every
known object connected with their life. The modes of
burial varied almost endlessly, and from great formality
in the beginning they seem to have grown more and
more simple. Hence, owing to the unusual natural
conditions and to native customs, certain phases of the
aboriginal life may be studied, which are missing from
other culture areas, where the artifacts have perished
through decay or because the natives did not reproduce
in their ceramics the objects known to them. It may be
asserted that little relating to the material culture of
the ancient inhabitants of the Peruvian coast has been
lost, for we possess greater knowledge of their arts and
crafts than of any other ancient aboriginal American
people. Textiles, of which we know next to nothing
in Middle America, are here preserved in marvelous
condition, some of the most delicate and ornate fabrics
having suffered little or no deterioration either in color
or in texture.

When the Spaniards made their advent in Peru early
in the sixteenth century, thev found a flourishing civili-

116 INDIAN NOTES

inca zati°n> knowledge of which has come down to us under
culture the name Inca. The people lived in highly organized
states, with a well-ordered government. Religious
structures and other buildings of adobe bricks or of
stone, many of great size and splendor, abounded in the
numerous well-populated cities, both on the seacoast
and in the inter-tropical mountain region, the great
valleys of the Andes. Well-built roads traversed certain
districts of the country, and arts and crafts were de-
veloped to a high degree of excellence. The coast
people carried on an extensive commerce; rafts with
sails navigated the seas, while the mountain people had
domesticated the llama which served as a beast of
burden in the highlands. Agriculture had been brought
to a high plane in both regions, and along the coast
an elaborate system of canals and aqueducts conducted
water from the mountains to irrigate the almost desert
valleys. Where the watercourses became dry during a
great part of the year, reservoirs of enormous size are
found.

In the great narrow valleys in the Andes, where better
crops could be raised than in the lower tropical or desert
lands, even' available spot was cultivated, and naturally
cultivable areas were augmented by the building of
terraces on the steep slopes of the higher valleys, as
well as on those facing the Pacific. These terraces,
locally called andenes, are the most remarkable examples
of their kind known to the world, by reason of their
great extent. They were irrigated by a system of
canals and aqueducts, and even tunnels were cut through
the mountains and channels around their sides, which
may still be seen, although no longer used.

AND MONOGRAPHS 117

The Indians of Peru possessed two of the most valuable
foods known, the potato and the manioc, the former of
which they developed from an insignificant tuber no
larger than a filbert, while maize was developed by
cultivation from a kind of grass. When the food
production of America with reference to the available
plants for supporting it is considered, one cannot impute
to the aboriginal race any inferiority, in ingenuity or
industry, to the peoples of the Old World. The Peru-
vians also domesticated the only animals capable of
domestication. With the exception of the dog, appar-
ently trained to do man's bidding in nearly all parts of
aboriginal America, the only animals domesticated
were those of Peru, namely, the guinea-pig, used for
food in Peru and Ecuador, and the more important
quadrupeds — the llama, a small mountain animal useful
for food and clothing, and capable to a limited degree
as a beast of burden, and the alpaca, valuable for its
flesh and fleece.

But the Inca, or more properly the Quichua, were not
the creators of this complex of cultures, nor did they
form the mass of the coast population. They had
gradually worked their way from the valley of Cuzco
in the mountain region, reaching the coast through the
many fertile cultivated valleys, overcoming the in-
habitants in a comparatively easy manner by gaining
control of the water systems. This was in relatively
late times, as the beginnings of their traditional history
date only to three or four centuries before the arrival
of white men, and during the 14th century they rapidly
extended their dominion over an enormous area, cer-

US INDIAN NOTES

tainiy northward to beyond Quito in Ecuador, and
southward well beyond the present Valparaiso in Chile.

the heirs of at least four cultures, or

ceeding epochs or periods of civilization, which had

eloped in sequence on the coast and in the great

Andean valleys ; ir :hough the Quichua dominated

the region along the coast when the Spaniards arrived,

■ had made little impress on t;
coast people.

^e domestication of the llama and the alpaca in the
highlands (for these animals do not thrive on the c
:^ presupposes a long period of sedentary life by the 7
Inca people who lived in the region where this unique
feature of aboriginal life eloped. H

one should look for the development of the advanced
social organization which appare: :hed

a highe -in ancient Peru than in any other part of

lied the c.
on an agrarian communism that gives
dence of considerable antiquity-, coming into existence
:h the beginnings of agriculture in the region.

at man ha^ ited for a considerable period on the
Peruvian coa- been amply demonstrated by

archeological explorations at a number of important
on. fc -perposed artificial

rhow that during the earliest known period the
people were a coast fisher-folk, and that in turn the
pla: rubsequently occupied during several culture

epochs before the Inca invasion. Pachacamac has
yielded similar evidence of the relative antiquity of man
in this region— Study

AND MONOGRAPHS 119

of the vast number of crania from the graves affords
evidence that the entire coast was first inhabited by a
people of short-headed type, which evidently drifted
southward along the coast and through the inter-Andean
valleys. These were followed by a migration of people
of the same fundamental physical type, but who prac-
tised various forms of head deformation. Later there
appear groups of long-headed type, which probably
reached the coast from the eastern slopes of the Andean
region of Peru.

Within the scope of this Guide it is manifestly im-
possible to present an adequate idea of the various Bmldinss
features of Peruvian architecture. The people of both
the coast and the interior built massive edifices of a
type of construction relatively different from that of
Middle America, the ruins of which may still be seen.
Along the coast, where practically no stone was available
for buildings or for sculpture, the structures were erected
of adobes, or sun-dried bricks, now seemingly as hard as
stone. Gigantic terraces and huge stepped pyramids
were built for temples and burial places. Buildings
were often of several stories, and, unlike those of Central
America, many were provided with windows, but the
roofs were always of perishable materials. Excepting the
few instances of ruined coast cities whose adobe walls
are ornamented with stucco designs in bas-relief, while
other stucco-covered walls show traces of mural decora-
tion, neither the exterior nor the interior walls were
embellished. This is true also of the numerous stone
buildings found in the ruined cities of the interior, the
walls of which bear no carving. These stone houses are

120 INDIAN NOTES

often characterized by their cyclopean walls, of huge
stones fitted together without mortar. It is related by
Spanish conquerors that many of the walls in Cuzco,
the Inca capital, were covered with massive gold plates.
Bonding of the masonry forming the corners of buildings
was practised, a method unknown to the Middle Ameri-
cans; and often copper or bronze clamps were counter-
sunk in blocks to hold them firmly together.

The architecture of the Peruvian highlands is likewise
characterized by the imposing walls of the buildings,
which exhibit great skill in handling the huge polygonal
blocks of stone, which necessitated vast labor and un-
usual skill to fit them with precision. The structures
were preeminently utilitarian, yet they are impressive
in the beauty of their masonry. Certainly the most
excellent examples of wall construction thus far found
in America are at the late Inca site of Machu Picchu;
yet from the point of view of esthetic effect they do not
compare favorably with the results produced by the
sculptor-architects of Mexico and Central America.

Only two sites in ancient Peru are known where
Sculpture monolithic sculptures were produced to any great
extent, namely, in the Andean region of Chavin. and in
the neighborhood of Lake Titicaca. at the ruins of
Tiahuanaco. in the present Bolivia. Stone carvings in
the form of great sculptures,, or as mortars, cups, and
the small amulets or idols so common to Middle America,
do not show the skill in workmanship developed in the
northern culture areas.

It has been stated that, in the art of weaving, whether
judged by the fineness of texture, the purity of design,

AND MONOGRAPHS 121

or the harmony of color, the textile fabrics of ancient Textile
Peru are rivaled only by the most excellent products of 354
Asia; while the technique of Peruvian fabrics, com-
prising as it does every method known to the primitive
loom, is advanced beyond that of any other people.
These fabrics range from rough cotton mats to gossamer
veils, their technique from single embroidery and
painting to complex gauzes and veils, and a kind of
fancy weaving somewhat like Jacquard work. The
Peruvians carried spinning also to the highest perfection.
For textiles the fibers most commonly employed were
cotton, the wool of the llama, vicuna, guanaco, and
alpaca, the filaments of the agave, and occasionally
human hair. The appurtenances connected with this
highly esthetic industry, such as work-baskets con-
taining spindles and yarn, and looms with partially
woven fabrics, have been preserved in the graves,
together with innumerable examples of every type of
weave in both the unfinished and the finished products.
A splendid mantle, the gift of Mr. James B. Ford, is in
many respects the most beautiful example of Peruvian
weaving known; it dates, however, from the first years
of the Spanish dominion, as two of the motives, the
double-headed eagle and the harpist, are distinctly of
European derivation. This mantle, nevertheless, was
woven while the Indians still possessed the skill and
technique of the period in which the climax of the
weaver's art was attained, hence it represents a triumph
of aboriginal esthetic achievement.

Feathers formed an important part of the ceremonial
accouterment of ancient America, and their use still

122 INDIAN NOTES

th d Preva^s among all the tribes to which brilliant plumage
textiles is available. Owing to the peculiarly favorable con-
354 ditions for preservation in the coast deserts of Peru,
more examples of feathered fabrics are known than from
any other area in the Xew World. Ponchos, head-
dresses, and plumes have often been found in graves,
but usually they have fallen to pieces as soon as exposed,
hence well-preserved specimens of feathered textiles are
among the rarest objects of Peruvian archeology. Men,
animals, and geometric patterns in varying colors
embellish many of these objects, and gold and silver
bangles are often attached. It has been determined that
the technique of interweaving the feathers of the textiles
is different from that employed by the present-day
Indians of South America. The Museum is fortunate
to be able to exhibit several noteworthy examples of
feather ponchos, the gift of Mrs. Thea Heye.

The ancient Peruvians were also extremely proficient
Metalwo-k *n metallurgy, hence their work in gold, silver, and
351 h bronze is noted for its variety and beauty, and for the
skill with which the technical processes were employed.
Probably gold was more commonly used in ancient
Peru than in any other part of the Americas, for a
fabulous amount was obtained by the early Spaniards,
all of which went to the melting-pot. Both gold and
silver threads were interwoven in some of the mantles.
They made ornaments, crowns with plumes and bangles,
wristlets, idols, and utensils such as bowls and beakers,
of the precious metal in an infinite variety of forms.
A golden breast plate from Cuzco is the subject of a pam-
phlet issued by the Museum.

AND MONOGRAPHS 123

Woodcarving did not reach so high a plane as in
Middle America, but elaborate ceremonial staffs were Wood-
carved of wood, sometimes colored with mastic. W?L^
Receptacles, paddles, clubs, and agricultural and other
implements, as well as chests and idols, made of the
same material, exhibit considerable skill in workmanship
and design. Especially noteworthy are the elaborately
carved ceremonial spades, sometimes ornamented with
coverings of thin plates of gold or silver, while others
bear traces of a decoration in a kind of red lacquer or
in paint of other colors.

The art of incrusting objects with mosaic was practised Mosaic
in the coast region of Peru, the technic being similar to 351 a
that of the ancient Mexicans, though far less skill in
application is shown in the Peruvian work. The
materials employed were chiefly pieces of shells of differ-
ent shapes, sizes, and colors, including mother-of-pearl,
as well as varicolored bits of stone, turquois, and pyrites,
and even ore and gold were occasionally employed.
The base upon which the incrustation was laid was wood,
bone, shell, or stone. Idols and large cups of wood, and
other objects, were decorated with inlays of round and
square bits of shell, including mother-of-pearl. Animals
and birds cut out of the lips of molluscs were covered
with mosaic and provided with golden studs for eyes.
Mosaic ear-plugs of wood and other ornaments have
been found, and bone spatulas were decorated with
inlaid designs worked in turquois and pyrites. An
example of mosaic-work consisting of two sections of
shells embellished with turquois and shell incrustation
to form a conical object, probably for ceremonial use,
is displayed.

124 INDIAN NOTES

In no other part of the world can more be learned
Pottery of the life of an ancient people by a study of the pottery
3 %o A vesse*s and figures than on the coast of Peru. It is next
to impossible to enumerate the countless varieties of
forms and combinations of the coast pottery, for hardly
two specimens are alike. Not only are found almost
every combination of regular and geometric patterns,
but almost the entire known cosmos contributed to the
ingenious demands of the potter. Youth and age with
all their external physical features, their deformations
and diseases, as well as birds, animals, fishes, shells,
and fruits and other vegetal products, all have their
reproductions in earthenware; while architecture, the
arts, daily occupations, costumes, and religious practices
are likewise illustrated either by modeling or in painting,
or in a combination of both, in these fragile yet almost
imperishable receptacles and effigies.

Potten*, weaving, and metalworking flourished in
Peru at the earliest period no less than in more recent
times, and the art products of the earlier epoch were
not inferior to those of the later. Certain types of
pottery from the different culture areas are now well
denned, and their chronological sequence will be defi-
nitely established as knowledge is increased by further
Various investigation. The ceramic objects of Recuay, Trujillo,
periods Chimbote, Chancay, Ancon, Pachacamac, and Nasca
must be studied from the point of view that their de-
velopment was not necessarily contemporaneous, but
that they originated during long periods of time, and
therefore, instead of belonging to parallel cultures, they
represent succeeding epochs according as they are found

AND MONOGRAPHS 125

in varying strata. Long-continued processes of change
necessarily resulted in a great variety of forms, as may
be traced through numerous types of objects. Pottery,
textiles, and wrought metals exhibit fundamental differ-
ences in form and ornament, as well as in method of
treatment.

CHILE

(Case 352)

The southern part of the so-called Inca empire, named
Collasuyu, comprised the region of Lake Titicaca in
Bolivia, Charcas and Tucuman in Argentine, and the
valleys of Arequipa, Tacna, and Moquegua in Chile.
This territory of Chile was subdued by the Inca Tupac
Yupanqui, shortly before the coming of the Spaniards,
but the beneficent influence that was being exerted by
Inca industry was destroyed in short order by the
Spanish conquerors, so that little trace of this impressed
culture is now found. It must not be assumed that
Chile is lacking in antiquities, nor that the region is A neglected
not archeologically important, because the Museum
collections are restricted to one small case, for there is a
paucity of material from these parts in all museums.
It is not alone among the most neglected of all the highly
important archeological areas in South America, but it is
also a promising field for ethnological- research, since
there is little knowledge of the habits and customs of the
Araucanians who still inhabit portions of the southern
part of the country.

126 INDIAN NOTES

In early times northern Chile was the seat of several
Cultures cultures, chronologically considered, but the Atacamerios
apparently stand out as the leading people of this part
of South America. The arid region from the seacoast
eastward to high altitudes, reaching into northwestern
Argentine and southern Bolivia, is known as the desert
of Atacama. Here ilourished the Atacamerio culture,
which was related to the Diaguita or Calchaqui culture
of Argentine. Late researches in the coastal area have
revealed undoubted stratified deposits which have
attracted the attention of students and promise ulti-
mately to yield much information pertaining to the
ancient history of this interesting region. Owing to
the extremely arid nature of the country, under condi-
tions similar to those existing on the Peruvian coast,
wood, textiles, and other materials which ordinarily
perish are found abundantly and in well-preserved con-
dition. A feature of the archeology of this region is the
comparatively numerous pictographs.

A small collection from ancient graves in the Atacama
desert, in the province of Antofagasta, is displayed.
i tacami \mong j-ne objects are a considerable number of artifacts
of wood, such as the bow and short arrows, together
with implements believed to have been used both in
agriculture and in mining, for evidence abounds in
many ancient workings that mining of copper, for which
this part of Chile is now famous, was extensively con-
ducted. Among the objects also are spade-like imple-
ments with attached handles; wooden poles with slate
blades lashed at their ends by means of leather strips;
weaving implements, including wooden spindle-whorls —

AND MONOGRAPHS 127

all are characteristic of the area. Curious spoon-like
objects of wood and of bone, ladles, spatulas, and carved
tubes containing thorns used in scarifying, are common
both to this section of Chile and to the Diaguite region
of Argentine, as likewise are small wooden boxes,
curious bells or gongs, and combs with splint teeth.
Basket plaques, resembling those of our Southwest,
are common. Ropes of vegetal liber and vicuna-wool,
and leather thongs, are abundant. The singular wooden
hooks with vicuna-wool rope tied to both ends are sup-
posed to have been employed in lashing the cargoes to
beasts of burden, like the llamas. Woven bags of
vicuna- wool were carried; clothing was fashioned of
cotton and wool like that found in graves of the Peruvian
coast; leather sandals protected the feet from the hot
desert sands. In ornaments there are strings of beads
of turquois, shell, and stone. Knives and lance- and
arrow-heads of chert and quartzite show high proficiency
in stone-chipping. The pottery is simple in type, show-
ing little refinement in form or decoration. There is a
vast quantity of archeologicai material in this region,
but thus far only desultory scientific work has been
carried on, much of the material to be found in museums
having been dug by treasure-seekers.

In southern Chile are found the Araucanians, whose
habitat was the province, of Temuco, Mailleco, and
Cautin. These Indians, the most prominent tribe in the
extreme southern part of South America, resisted success-
fully the Inca invasion. Little of their early history
is known, and of the archeology of their country prac-
tically nothing is recorded. The Museum possesses a

Araucanians

128 INDIAN NOTES

few ancient pottery vessels from Temuco which display
a local type of decoration and characteristic forms,
especially the pitchers, a class of vessels that extends
into Argentine. Several stone axes and club-heads, and
a few personal ornaments of thin copper, such as still
survive among them, end the present exhibit of
Araucanian handicraft.

ARGENTINE
(Case 355)

Knowledge of the archeology of the Argentine
Republic is confined chiefly to its northwestern provinces.
In a region of mountains and desert plains the climatic
conditions are much like those of the Atacama desert
which extends well into the territory, hence wooden
objects, basketry, and other usually perishable materials
have been preserved to a remarkable degree, as on the
Peruvian and Chilean coasts. The country has been
extensively investigated in recent years by Argentine
archeologists, whose researches reveal certain striking
similarities in types of artifacts with those of south-
western United States. There appear to have been
more than one culture in this great region, but the most
generally recognized has been called Calchaqui, now
more usually known as Diaguite. Of the language and
affiliations of the Diaguite people nothing is known;
but there is evidence of an invasion from the Andean
region of Peru and Bolivia that profoundly influenced the
Diaguite culture. This was in relatively modern times —
at a period later than the establishment of the so-called

AND MONOGRAPHS 129

Tiahuanaco culture of upper Peru. As on the Peruvian
coast, nearly everything buried with the dead has been
preserved; but in the Museum collection there is only a
small amount of material illustrating this culture area,
no specimens of wood, basketry, or textiles being
present. The provinces represented are Tucuman, Salta,
and Catamarca.

Of interest are the large funerary urns, of a local type
as to form and decoration; these are polychrome, with
two handles on the body, and having broad, elongate
necks, with flaring rims. Art in stone is represented by
axes, and tiny, well-chipped arrowpoints. Of a great
variety of copper ornaments, utensils, and implements,
only a few implements are displayed. Turquois was
extensively employed for necklaces and small ornaments,
and spindle-whorls of stone, of a type different from
those of Peru, are common. A feature of the Diaguite
region is the series of small human heads and figures of
earthenware, analogous to those from northern South
America.

ETHNOLOGY OF MEXICO, CENTRAL AMER-
ICA, THE WEST INDIES, AND SOUTH
AMERICA
WEST HALL AND STAIRWAY HALL

MEXICO AND GUATEMALA

(Cases 303, 315 G H, 331 G, 333 A B)

The present population of Mexico and Guatemala is
largely of Indian origin, and in many parts of these

INDIAN NOTES

a

temala alone

5 almost im-
: proportio-
ns

ab>; ill-bloc v more

-

^ : - here

rven g
nmuni: > still speaking

>und only in ;:tle-

R r-iif

i and eighty dial-.

rch will ul:

La | the

ken throug
: > are found in many

-
r in other :
people - - > are Strang

)ne may fine
one fcomi,

- and occupying

Although rKwninally Romaz fie in religi

la still retain son:

ANB APE 131

itious to a degree, believing strongly in
of northern Mexic iixe of Oaxaca. the Lacandon

adherence to primitive ideas than among other
Middle America.

nuch as it was before the Spanish conquest,

periodic markets, the tianguis. are held weekly

as in former times; merchandise is carried for great

annual festivals of certain saints, whose

:: . . irrr. Ehrir.tE i:v "' uil: ;r_ :ht siies ;: \\\r.z.:^.

pies. The Indians are principally agricultun
th-'-Ugli irr.ii:. r.iiivt tri'Its E'.ill :,rtviil s-.h le
basket- and mat-making, and the manu-
f pottery; and the products of these indust:

" = - - "

clothing, vary according to environment, and
fally altitude. They have changed but little under
influences of civilization.

mainly of corn, beans, plantains, and
he corn is made into cakes known as tortillas, Too&

thin mush called posole, which are prepared as
s before the conquest, although to a certain

the native po: The chief vice of the

in the almost unbridled use of alcoholic

132 INDIAN NOTES

stimulants, for they make many intoxicating drinks, as

in former times, and indulge in them on all occasions.

A number of specimens, especially ceremonial masks,

303 A B obtained from Indians of Guatemala, are exhibited.

The masks range from ancient aboriginal types to

modern examples showing the influence of whites.

A wooden drum, the teponaztli, is displayed. Such

™™s instruments were often elaborately carved, and a few,

kept from pre-Spanish times and still to be found in

towns of the Mexican plateau, are brought out for use

during religious festivals.

. . . A spear-thrower, or atlatl, used by the Tarascan

315 B Indians of Lake Chapala. Mexico, for spearing fish, is

exhibited for comparison with the two beautiful examples

of the same kind of implements that have survived from

ancient times.

The Museum is fortunate in possessing a fine series
"i^gh °^ Dlan^cts and zarapes from Mexico and Guatemala,
333 the most interesting of which are from the former
Stairway republic. These range from the coarse weaves of the
Tarahumare and Otomi to the delicately made Saltillo
zarapes. with their beautiful and dainty designs. Like
the masks mentioned above, some of the weavings show
distinctly aboriginal patterns, while others are plainly
influenced by modern ideas. In the case of one ex-
ample from Oaxaca, for instance, the Mexican eagle
holds a prominent position.

AND MONOGRAPH- 153

WEST INDIES
Case 316 A, 329,

Owing to their enslavement and virtual extermination
by the Spaniards shortly after the Discover}', but few
persons showing Indian blood to a marked degree are
left in the West Indies; yet some linger in Cuba, mostly
in the eastern part, and in a few of the other islands.
Most of the collection exhibited was obtained from
Vara village near Baracoa, Cuba, and from scattered
families in the Maisi district, survivors of the Taino.
Many of the articles shown are also used by the neighbor-
ing country people of Spanish extraction, but all seem
to be of aboriginal origin. Some, however, show modifi-
cation due to Spanish influence. Especial attention
is called to the cassava grater, made by driving bits of
hard stone into a wooden tab":

On the lower shelf may be seen a few articles made by
the surviving Carib of St. Vincent and Trinidad, and on
the top of Case 329 a raft or catamaran of native type
from the former island.

For a summary of the aboriginal culture of the West
Indies, see page 57.

^

154

INDIAN NOTES

EAST HALL
COSTA RICA AND PANAMA

Southward from Yucatan the advanced cultures of
northern Middle America, as represented by the monu-
mental ruins of the Mexican and Mayan peoples,
gradually dwindle, and within the confines of Nicaragua
and Costa Rica the last vestiges of their outposts are
found. Here, however, commences a new and inferior
type of culture, the northern extension of a phase of General
human life that extends well down into eastern South features
America, and is found in its most typical and highly
developed form on the Amazon and its affluents. This
culture is characterized by the use of thatched houses,
usually without sides, the cultivation of maize and
starchy roots to a feeble extent, the use of the blow-
gun with pellets and darts in hunting, and the vestigial
existence of the cultivation of cotton and the textile
art. In other words, there is a great decline in the
material advances made by the peoples to the imme-
diate north. Instead of having to deal with peoples
who built great temples and edifices, who were expert
weavers, who depended greatly on agriculture, and
who had a highly organized social and political govern-
ment, there are a number of far-flung savage tribes
whose chief occupation is hunting, and whose govern-
ment and ceremonies are primitive in the extreme.

Owing to the discrepancy between the products of
these natives and the archeological remains found in

135

136 INDIAN NOTES

^ . t their present territories in Central America, the ques-
and tion arises whether, like the natives of Mexico and

modem Yucatan, they are the true aboriginal peoples of the
district in question, become degenerate in modern
times through contact with whites, or whether they
are more recent comers from the south. In all proba-
bility they are descendants of wild bands which always
roamed the jungles and forests where they now are.
and that their early history is somewhat obscure be-
cause they were outshone by their more brilliant neigh-
bors, the advanced peoples, whose wealth and achieve-
ments attracted the attention of white conquerors.
It is known, for example, that some of the tribes of
Panama were found in a state of simple culture similar
to that in which they now are. and that they took an
active part as warriors and guides in the old wars be-
tween Spaniards and buccaneers. On the other hand,
there is reason to believe that the Bribri of Costa Rica
once enjoyed a higher state of culture, and may have
been the makers of the remarkable pottery and the
stone carvings of some of the districts of eastern Costa
Rica, but relapsed into a hunter state after deportation
to the Talamanca valley in relatively recent times.

Costa Rica
(Cases 335 J, 336)

Beginning with Costa Rica, there are a number of
tribes, most of which are found in the more remote
mountainous districts. These include the Guatuso
(whose ethnology is very little known and who speak a

AND MONOGRAPHS 137

language differing wholly from that of any other tribe),
the Boruca, and especially the Bribri, of Chibchan
stock, from whom the Museum has a fairly complete
collection and who may be considered as typical of the
jungle-dwelling hunting tribes of the region.

The Bribri use the characteristic thatched houses of
palm-leaves, before mentioned, often without sides, The Bribri
for ordinary dwelling purposes. In general appearance
these houses resemble closely the lodges of the Seminole
Indians of Florida, and the bohios and caneys of the Houses
Antilles. The chiefs, or "kings," however, have huge,
conical, thatched houses, or palenques, reminiscent
of the grass houses of the Wichita Indians of the plains
of North America.

The Bribri raise corn, sugar-cane, plantains, and a
little cotton. Some families cultivate small plantations Fo°d
of cacao, the fruit of which they make into the drink
called cocoa. They also have a fermented drink,
chicha, made of corn, which is first thoroughly chewed
and then fermented in large earthenware jars with
pointed bases, similar in many respects to those found
on the ancient sites of the Algonkian Indians of North
America.

They sleep in hammocks, and are experts in netting
not only these articles, but burden-bags of all sizes, Netting
although these are less attractive than the more bril-
liantly colored examples fashioned by the Valiante
tribe of the Gulf of Chiriqui.

Unlike the Indians of North America, the Bribri
and their neighbors use wooden stools, usually low
and four-legged, suggestive of the duhos of the West

138 IXDIAX NOTES

Indians, but lacking the high backs generally seen on
the latter. Some of the stools are so hewn as roughly
to represent tortoises. The old graves of the Atlantic
highlands of Costa Rica yield many elaborate carved
seats and stools of stone, usually a porous volcanic
scoria, examples of which may be seen in the cases
adjoining the Bribri collection. Possibly the simpler
wooden seats of the latter may be degenerate survivors
of these ornate stools of the past.

Among the household utensils are twilled and open-
Domestic work cane baskets; calabash bowls and strainers, some-
utensils times crudely decorated with scraped designs; dishes of
folded palm-leaves, and round wooden bowls. Beaters
used in shredding bark for making cloth, closely re-
sembling the tapa-cloth pounders of Polynesia, are also
employed. For grinding corn the Bribri have wooden
mortars and pestles; formerly three-legged stone metates
were in use, but now any smooth bowlder, even though
it may lie in a public trail, is often made to suffice.

The clothing of the modern Bribri is very simple,
Clothing the men rearing a light cloth shirt and trousers made
of trade material, and the women a skirt of trade or of
native fabric, and sometimes a trade cloth jacket.
In former times the men wore a robe and a breech-cloth
of beaten-bark fabric, or a woven cotton blanket of
native make. For dress or ceremonial occasions the
men, and perhaps the women, still wear woven cotton
belts, and the men have also headbands of cotton of
native weave. The ground-color of both belts and
headbands is white, prettily striped in red and blue.

AND MONOGRAPHS 139

For ceremonies the men use headdresses consisting
of woven forehead bands of cotton, with gay plumes or
down-feathers attached so as to stand in a vertical
row across the forehead.

In former times, at least, Bribri chiefs had small
gold ornaments fashioned like flying eaglets, which
were worn about their necks as badges of office. These chiefs?
eagles are identical with some of the gold ornaments
found in the tombs at Las Mercedes and other localities
in the eastern highlands, and may be a connecting link
between the Bribri and the ancient inhabitants. The
chiefs also carried carved staffs made of a hard wood
called cacique, and usually with a crude human or
animal figure at the top, which likewise were badges
of their ofhce. The Bribri in general wear necklaces Orna-ment&
ranging from the handsome examples of several strands
of jaguar- teeth used by warriors, to small strings of
raccoon and monkey canines which adorn the children.
Strings of shell beads are common, and the chiefs have
carefully wrought, large, cylindrical beads of the same
material, which have the value of two cows each.

The weapons of the Bribri were formerly a combined
digging-stick, or dibble, and warclub, shaped like a
narrow paddle and made of hardwood; a long, simple War anj
bow, and compound arrow with a hardwood foreshaft hunting
and head in one piece, with many notches and barbs, lmpIen
but in modern examples often having a long shaft of hol-
low cane and metal points. Some of the arrows used in
shooting fish have light multiple points of split cane.
Tapir-hide shields were formerly employed in battle,
it is said. Blowguns, longer by far than the height of

140 INDIAN NOTES

■n, their rather diminutive owners, but generally used to

propel clay balls or pellets, are used for killing small
game. Possibly, in former times, at least, darts, very
likely poisoned, were used with the blowguns in war.

Musical instruments are represented by long goblet-
-^ shape drums of wood, carefully carved and hollowed,
and covered with iguana-hide. They are beaten with
the hand, not with drumsticks. A larger, cylindrical,
double-headed drum is also shown. Gourd rattles,
with bone handles attached to one end, but not thrust
through the gourd cavity as is usual in Xorth America,
are displayed.

For transportation,, long, narrow, dugout canoes
were used. A beaten-bark strap which crosses the
forehead is employed in carrying burdens on the back.

Like many Xorth American tribes the Bribri are
Clans divided into two social groups, subdivided into clans
having descent through the mother. Plural marriage
was once common. There were three classes of shamans
or medicine-men — the usekera or "high priest," the
tsuku who had charge of the ceremonies in honor of
the dead, and the ana who was a doctor or sorcerer.
The custom of rendering articles taboo by casting a

Medicine- sPeu* on tnem tnat none but a shaman could break,
men was well developed. Their divinities were a supreme
being called Sibu. and several good and bad subor-
dinate deities who quarreled over the fortunes of men,
who are believed to have been born from seeds.

The ceremonies, which are few and not highly de-
veloped, were concerned chiefly with funeral rites.
The chichara is merely a drinking bout; but a ceremony

AND MONOGRAPHS 141

for " quenching the fire" is an all-night rite in honor of Ceremonies
the dead, held nine days after the demise. This is
characterized by a feast and the singing of ceremonial
songs; a fire is lighted with a hand fire-drill, the taboo
is lifted from the belongings of the deceased, and the
fire is quenched.

When a Bribri is mortally ill he is carried out of his
lodge to a hut especially erected to receive him, for if
he dies at home the dwelling must be burned to de-
stroy the influence of evil spirits. After his last breath,
a special functionary called oko, who alone can handle
the dead without contamination, wraps the corpse in
bark blankets and plantain-leaves, bundles it in a
hammock, and places it on a protected platform in
the woods, where it remains for a period of five years.
Then is held a ceremony known as "bone dance,"
when the skeleton of the deceased is taken from its
scaffold and put in a permanent tomb. For a period
not exceeding twenty-two days the mourners feast
their friends, while sacred songs are chanted. At the
end of the ceremony the guests depart; the oko wraps
the bones in a bundle, and they are transported to
a communal burial-place. Warriors were honored with
a slightly different ceremony in which a masked clown
exorcised evil spirits from the onlookers.

It is believed that the souls of the dead travel on a
long journey to the other world, crossing dangerous
rivers beset with alligators, and at last arriving in the
beautiful realm of Sibu, the supreme deity.

A brochure on the ethnology of the Bribri has been
published by the Museum.

142 INDIAN NOTES

Panama
(Cases 371 A, 372, 373 L)

The tribes of the Republic of Panama are represented
Tribes j^y collections from two representative tribes, the
Kuna, Cuna, or San Bias, and the Chokoi.

The Kuna are coast dwellers, who, owing to the
Kuna or treatment which they received from the Spaniards
San Bias when their country was first colonized, have until
very recently been bitterly hostile to Caucasians,
steadfastly refusing to permit any white man to re-
main over night in their territory. It is also said that
any native woman who mingles her blood with that of
aliens is punished by death.

The original home of the Kuna extended southward
from the valleys of the eastern Chagres watershed,
covering both sides of the continental divide between
the present Canal Zone and the bays of San Miguel
and Atrato, but their range is now somewhat more
restricted.

Their houses, though usually built on dry ground,
are often raised on piles, especially in the rainy season,
s to keep their belongings dry and to protect them from
the attacks of insects and reptiles. While the roofs
of the dwellings are thatched with palm-leaves, the
houses on the whole are superior to the hovels of the
Costa Rican Bribri. Many houses are now provided with
such appurtenances of civilization as sides, windows,
and doors.

The two islands of Nargana, off the coast, are covered
with large buildings, averaging 150 feet long by 50

AND MONOGRAPHS 143

feet broad, with the ridge of the roof 30 to 40 feet
above the floor. Directly under the ridge extends an
alley, between two ranges of high pillars which support
the middle part of the structure. On each side of this
passage other upright posts divide the space into square
apartments, each probably occupied by a single family.
The side walls are made of poles lashed together with
vines, and there is a low door at each end of the structure.

The Kuna are expert seamen, and venture far from
shore, in their dugout canoes, in pursuit of fish and Livelihood
tortoises. Excelling also in agricultural pursuits,
their coast is fringed with coconut groves, and they
raise large crops of plantains, corn, rice, cassava, yams, .
and some cacao. At the time of the blossoming of
the fruit trees, of which the Kuna Indians have most ceremonies
of the tropical varieties, invocations are made by the
shamans to propitiate the evil gods and to invite the
blessings of the beneficent ones. For cacao, for ex-
ample, prayers are made to a being personified in the
ever-traveling sun.

The men weave hats in the style of those of white
men, and the clothing of the whites has been generally Dress
adopted. They still wear native earrings consisting
of heavy gold discs, and practise facial painting to
some extent. The women wear short skirts of red or
blue fabric extending from hips to knees and consisting
of single seamless pieces of calico rolled about the body.
The torso is covered with a loose, short-sleeved blouse.
Over these two garments is thrown a robe that reaches
from waist to ankles.

372 A

144 INDIAN NOTES

These garments, as shown by the examples displayed,
are made of colored cotton, composed of various layers
of applique patterns neatly sewn together, producing
many artistic and curious designs. Similar garments
were noted among them by the explorers of two
centuries ago. All the females wear gold nose-rings,
Ornaments an<^ usua% earrings or discs of the same metal, while

372 A their necks are laden with red, white, and blue beads, and
silver coins. Animal-teeth are prized for necklaces
by men and boys. Remarkable beaded armlets or
cuffs are also worn, in which the beads are so care-
fully strung as to produce a design when wrapped about
the arm or the leg, although when unwound the strings
appear to be a jumble of colors. A similar technique
in porcupine-quills and beads is often used to adorn
ceremonial pipes among the Indians of North America.
They use body paint and tattooing, and on holidays
and ceremonial occasions the men wear both girdles
and headdresses made of the plumes of brilliantly
colored tropical birds.

The Kuna sometimes wear on their heads a narrow
band, called by a name meaning " counter-poison/ '
which is made of bark fiber from certain plants, with
which they alone are acquainted. This band is used
as a ligature in case of snake-bite, for the fibers of
which it is made are supposed to have the property,
real or imaginary, of healing the wound.

Wea ns ^or weaPons the Kuna use bows and arrows, blow-
guns with poisoned darts, and lances.

The Chokoi are similar in many respects to the Kuna,
except that, living in the interior, they are more remote

AND MONOGRAPHS 145

from civilizing influences and consequently are more The chokoi
primitive. Unlike the Kuna, they are monogamists.
They wear less clothing, and make abundant use of
facial and body paint of annatto and soot, and tattoo-
ing, often in designs reminding one of the applique
figures on San Bias clothing.

Both the Chokoi and the Kuna have many wooden
household idols, of which a series is exhibited. These Household
bear an outward resemblance to the ancient stone
idols of Costa Rica.

The Chokoi poison their arrows with the skin secre-
tion of a venomous tree-frog, whereas the Kuna, it is
said, use the vegetal wurale or curare. Their houses. ^^
like those of the Bribri of Costa Rica, are more primi-
tive than those of the San Bias or Kuna, and, like the
latter, they use clay vessels of native manufacture to
ferment their chica, or chewed corn intoxicant. Both H<use5
Kuna and Chokoi make many handsome twilled 371 A
baskets of split cane, and have an abundance of calabash
utensils.

Their musical instruments consist of the usual tubular
drum of the Central American tribes, and gourd rattles. . Mu>K

0 instruments

the latter with the handle thrust through the gourd .^j \
in North American style.

Both Kuna and Chokoi make excellent netted fiber
carrying-bags and hammocks. Some glass-bead belts Weaving
are found among them, but these are quite dissimilar 371A
in design to those of the North American tribes.

Habitat and

146 INDIAN NOTES

ECUADOR

Highland People
(Case 365 C D)

The Indians living in the great inter-Andean valleys
and highlands of Ecuador, like those of similar regions

Condition . . ...

in Peru and Bolivia, are largely Christianized and use
the Spanish language to a considerable extent, although
there are many villages in which the Quichua language
of Peru is almost exclusively spoken. With the ex-
ception of geographical place-names, there exists no
trace of the indigenous languages of the region before
the advent of the Quichua early in the fifteenth century.
Early tribes jt js bdjevec^ however, that the present population
consists of rather pure descendants of these earlier
tribes, such as the Palta, Caiiari, Puruha, Quillansinga,
and Cara, but the submergence of their individual
cultures through Quichua influence is marked. None
of these tribes has been studied ethnologically, and
while nominally Christians they still preserve many
native traditions, folklore, and customs, among the
most curious of which is the couvade.
Houses Their dwellings are built of either adobe or stone,
with thatched roofs, being adapted to the temperate
and cold climates of the elevated valleys and mountain
slopes. These Indians are expert in spinning and
weaving, in leather-working, and pottery-making.
Their chief occupations, however, are agriculture and
Clothing sheep-raising. They clothe themselves with woolen
outer garments and cotton inner ones, and wear sandals

AND MONOGRAPHS 147

made from the fiber of the agave. Some of the primi-
tive objects which they still use are cockle-bur wool-
cards, pan-pipes of reeds, an ancient type of pins of
base metal for fastening their mantles, fashioned in
the same shape as the topos of copper, bronze, and gold,
found in ancient graves. The small collection illus-
trating the highland people was gathered in the villages
in the vicinity of Riobamba, province of Chimborazo.

Oriente People

The Quichua-speaking Indians of the almost tree-
less highlands have little or no relation to the tribes
which inhabit the forested eastern slopes of the Andes
and the upper reaches of the Amazonian drainage
system — the great Oriente region of Ecuador. The
ethnology of these tribes is typically that of the tropical
lowlands, covered with dense forests, as in the interior
of Brazil and in parts of Peru, Bolivia, Colombia,
Venezuela, and the Guianas — the great heart of South
America. The Jivaro and Cayapa tribes, which are
well represented in the Museum collections, are typical
of the group.

THE JIVARO
(Cases 365 A B E F, 366)

The Jivaro Indians are composed of a group of nine
closely related tribes — Huambisa, Tamora, Cuanduasi,
Ashira, Andoa, Copotaza, Arapeca, Chargaime, and
Upano, inhabiting the virgin forests of the rivers Pas-
taza, Morona, Upano-Santiago, and their affluents,

Implements

Tribes and
Habitat

148 INDIAN NOTES

a district politically divided between the governments
of Peru and Ecuador. The Jivaro are one of the most
numerous groups of Indians in South America, num-
bering in all between fifteen and twenty thousand.
They are also the most warlike people of the continent,
and ever since 1599, when they rose against the Spaniards
who had settled in their territory and virtually exter-
minated them, the whites have thought it best to leave
them unmolested in their ancient seats.
Government Divided among themselves, the Jivaro recognize
no uniform tribal organization or common political
authority, except in time of war, when a war-chief
Warfare is selected with authority over all. Blood feuds and
war of extermination among themselves are constantly
going on, stimulated by their belief in witchcraft.
Indeed warfare is the traditional and accustomed oc-
cupation of the men, and the head of an enemy is
not only a trophy to a Jivaro warrior, but a fetish
imbued with supernatural power. The great victory
feast which follows a successful onslaught forms a part
of the religious cult of the tribe. The training of boys
is directed almost wholly toward making them brave
and skilful warriors, and hatred of their hereditary
foes is constantly taught them as a matter of virtue
and practice. Youths are encouraged to follow war-
parties even before they have been subjected to the
ordeal that admits them to manhood.

Although the Jivaro are polygynous, they hold their
wives in high esteem, and often go to war over their
abduction by enemies.

AND MONOGRAPHS 149

Like many South American tribes, the Jivaro are
largely agricultural, and grow maize, cassava, sweet Livelihood
potatoes, and plantains. They also are expert hunters,
and poison and trap fish and game.

The dress of the Jivaro for ceremonial occasions is
gorgeous. Lavish use of various gay-colored feathers, Dress and
especially of parrots and macaws, for headdresses, is 365°ABEFt
common. These often receive additional adornment 366
in the shape of brilliant green and bronze carapaces
and wing-sheaths of various tropical beetles that pos-
sess a striking iridescence as they swing in pendants
or form the encrusted covering of wicker head-bands.

For everyday use the Jivaro wear kilts and capes
woven of cotton, or loose, sleeveless bark shirts, and
shaggy grass rain-coats. Some kilts are made of ocelot-
skin, on which are fastened seeds, porcupine-quills,
and bee tie- wings. The men wear long cylindrical
plugs in their ears, and the women labrets of similar
shape, but smaller. Women's garments are a skirt
of cotton or bark, and a robe of the same material
thrown over one shoulder and fastened under the arm.
Necklaces made of animal-teeth, such as those of
jaguars and crocodiles, and of tubular bone beads,
shell plates, nuts, and bright-colored seeds, abound.

The Jivaro dwell, not in villages like other Indians Houses
of the Amazon watershed, but in communal houses
occupied by several closely related families, built on
the summit of a high hill or in an easily defended bend
of an affluent of a larger stream so that the inhabitants
are always hidden from the principal lines of travel.

150 INDIAN NOTES

These communal houses are oval or circular, with close-
set walls of poles and a conical thatched roof. In
times of war the lodges and even the fields are fortified
by a stockade, and a double wall is made for the house

Defense itself. Within the house along the inner walls are
built a number of small partitions, about a yard high,
also made of poles, each having a loop-hole through
which the defender can shoot, should the enemy force
an entry. The house has a door at each end. one for
the women, the other for the men. usually consisting
of half a dozen poles bound together with vines at the
top. while the nether ends are free and may be separated,
three on each side, making a small triangular opening
through which one man at a time may squeeze. At
night the poles are fastened to a transverse bar within.
Even the outer wall of a fortified house has a similar
door.

Before hrearms were so generally used, the chief-
the Jivaro used war towers at one end of their houses.

Towers These were four-sided, and were from 90 to 1_

high. On the summit was a room, about 12 feet square,
with walls a yard high, to protect the defenders from
the lances of the enemy. The foundation of the tower
was made of log pillars, and the ascent was by notched
log ladders. Before the houses traps were often made
by digging round holes in the ground. 4 or 5 feet deep,
and large enough to receive the body of a man. At
the bottom sharpened stakes were set. The pit was
covered with small sticks and concealed with lea-
Another type of man-trap, set in the paths, consisted of

Man-traps

eapons

AND MONOGRAPHS 151

a stout sapling, bent down, and with eight wooden
spikes lashed to it like the teeth of a comb. When an
unwary foe followed the path and tripped on the cord
which allowed the bent sapling to spring forcibly back,
he was felled by the blow. Nowadays set-guns are w,
placed in the same manner. The principal weapons of 365 F
the Jivaro are the lance, and the round shield of wood
or tapir-hide. Blowguns with poisoned arrows are
used in hunting, but not for war.

Household appliances consist of fire-sticks, gourd Household
or calabash dishes and bottles (often bearing incised de- 36f°gEsF
signs), excellently netted carrying-bags, and pottery
bowls and jars which often have intricate geometrical
patterns on their surfaces. They also have an abun-
dance of neat basketry.

The Jivaro sound alarms and send messages by
means of a great hollow log-drum, or tunduy, similar
to that of the Tucano Indians of Brazil, exhibited on
the central pyramid. The tunduy is beaten also to
summon the spirits which are supposed to inhabit
certain narcotic drinks taken by the Jivaro on cere-
monial occasions.

The most striking feature of the Jivaro exhibit is
the collection of shrunken sloth and human heads, Tr°Phies
and a shrunken human body, that of a negro, obtained Shrunken
from these warlike Indians. The human heads are heads
trophies of slain enemies from some other tribe than
that of those who prepared them. The method of
their preparation, which varies somewhat in different
localities, is as follows:

152 INDIAN NOTES

As soon as a Jivaro warrior has slain a foeman, he
cuts off the head as close to the body as possible. After
an appropriate ceremony a slit is made through the
scalp from the crown downward, when the scalp and
the skin of the face are carefully flayed from the skull,
attached to a vine handle, and immersed for a while
in boiling water, which causes the skin to contract a
little. It is then set up on a stick fixed in the ground,
and allowed to cool. The skull itself is discarded.
The incision in the skin is now sewed with a fiber thread,
and a ring made of a piece of vine is attached to the
opening at the neck to hold it open. Three hot stones
are first placed inside as a part of a magic rite, then
it is reduced in size by filling more than half with hot
sand, which is kept in motion in order that it may act
uniformly on all parts of the trophy. When the sand
cools, it is taken out, reheated in a broken clay pot,
and returned. Each time the sand is withdrawn the
scalp is scraped inside with a knife in order to remove
the charred integument. As the trophy dries, the
face especially is manipulated so that it retains its
human features, even when greatly reduced in size.

The work of head-shrinking is commenced on the
return from the scene of battle, and finished ultimately
at home, where it may be kept up for several weeks,
the same sand and pottery fragment being used through-
out the process. At length the head is reduced to
about one-fourth of its normal size, and becomes hard
and dry. Three small wooden pins, painted red, are
passed through the lips, and around them a fine cotton

AND MONOGRAPHS 153

string, also colored red, is wound. This is done to
prevent the slain enemy from cursing the victorious
warrior. Lastly, the trophy is treated with charcoal.
The heads of sloths are taken and prepared because
these animals are thought to be transformed warriors
of another Jivaro tribe.

The ceremonies that go hand in hand with the
preparation of the head, together with the subsequent „

. ,i t . n ,. Ceremonies

rites, are elaborate and expensive, as well as tedious.
Immediately on their return the victors pass through
a rite of purification, followed by others at some later
time, all sufficiently curious and interesting, but not
possible more than to mention here. After these
ceremonies the Jivaro head-taker may dispose of the
head or keep it as a trophy. In recent years the de-
mand for these heads as souvenirs has caused the
Indians to extend their head-hunting activities, even
to the capturing of the heads of white travelers, which
also ultimately find their way to the market. Laws
forbidding the practice of head-taking and shrinking
have repeatedly been passed by South American coun-
tries, but they have proved to be difficult of enforcement.
When a man dies he is not buried, but is left in his
bed with all his belongings about him. The house and Funeral
its surrounding gardens are deserted, and no one ever
goes back to the house or takes anything from the
fields.

THE CAYAPA

(Cases 363, 364)

In the northwestern part of the Province of Es- Habitat
rneraldas is found the Cayapa tribe, which occupies

154 INDIAN NOTES

the main and tributary streams of the river that bears
its name, within comparatively easy reach of the ocean,
which they usually visit at least once a year. These
Indians number 1500 to 2000. Their material culture
is well represented by the collections in the Museum.
Houses Excessive rainfall and floods are frequent in this
region, hence # the Cayapa have adopted a practical
type of dwelling to meet the conditions imposed by
their tropical environment. The typical abodes are
generally built as near as possible to the river, which
affords their means of travel and contributes in other
ways to their mode of life. These dwellings are pile
structures, which vary in size according to the size of
families. Occasionally a house is occupied communally.
The floor of a house is from 4 to 12 feet above the
ground, its height being very exactly gauged to escape
the floods of the particular locality. The sides are left
open; the roof, thatched with palm-leaves, is built
steep to shed rain; and access to the dwelling is gained
by means of a ladder.
Agriculture Being primarily agriculturists, the chief means of
livelihood of the Cayapa is by tillage. .As foods they
cultivate chiefly plantains, yuca, rascadera, a few pine-
apples, and a little corn. Bananas are grown solely
as hog feed. Cacao is cultivated for the market.
Occasionally a cotton plant, either brown or white,
is grown, but this is usually wild. Rubber is
gathered from the jungle, and a few trees are cultivated.
Their cultivated food products are augmented by various
wild growths, in which the jungle abounds, as it does

AND MONOGRAPHS 155

also in both game and fish. Maize and potatoes,
cultivated long before contact with Europeans, were
an important part of the Cayapa food supply when
they resided in the higher Andes, but do not thrive in
the low altitude and the great humidity which charac-
terize their present home.

Various food plants were introduced by the Spaniards,
among them sugar-cane, which is now grown exten- _

.11 i^ t i • r • , , • ^stilling

sively by the Cayapa. Its chief use is for making appliances
rum, but a syrup and also a kind of preserves are pro- 363 c D
duced in small quantities. The cane is crushed between
the rollers of a home-made mill, from which the sap
flows into a wooden trough or a small canoe. The
sap is next boiled in a large pottery vessel, the froth
being skimmed with calabash strainers. When the
boiling produces no more froth, the syrup is regarded
as cooked and is then allowed to ferment for about
three weeks in large pottery vessels. The distilling
is done in a crude but effective native still by a process
described on the label. A special flavor is imparted
to the resultant rum by adding aromatic herbs. The
concoction is consumed at fiestas and during various
ceremonies.

In aboriginal times the blowgun was the chief hunt- Huntincr
ing implement. This is a slender tube, 6 to 9 feet implements
in length, made of palm-wood wrapped with native
fiber and covered with black wax. From the blowgun
are shot light palm-wood darts, about a foot in length
and not much thicker than a knitting-needle. Their
lightness is overcome and the darts are given force by

156 INDIAN NOTES

a weight of wet clay placed near the point, and native
cotton is wound as a wad about the dart near its middle
to make it fit tightly in the tube. The sharp tip of the
dart is charged with a virulent vegetal poison, which,
when dry, will not easily rub off, but when the dart
enters the game or the body of a man, death speedily
ensues. A small quiver is made especially for carrying
the blowgun-darts. Lances of hard palm-wood, and
more recently the bow and arrow, were also used in
hunting wild hogs and other large game.
^var The Cayapa were always peaceably inclined, but
occasionally wars were forced upon them, on which
occasions the blowgun was used as a weapon, although
the lance was preferred. This weapon, 6 or 7 feet in
length, is made of palm-wood, sharply pointed. The
bow and arrow, the use of which is claimed to have
been derived by the Cayapa from their former enemy
inhabitants of the Rio Cayapas, were comparatively
little used except in war.
Fishing The numerous streams of the region are well stocked
363 A, 364 A yyfth fisn^ many species of which are used as food, and
are still caught by six different methods. There are
three types of nets — the large set-net, the conical or
casting net, and the small dip-net. These are all used
to a considerable extent, especially the set-net, but
the impounding trap, the pole and line, and the gig or
fish-spear, are much more generally employed. Of
these six devices, only the set-net, the dip-net, the trap,
and the gig appear to be of aboriginal origin. All
the nets are made of native fiber string, and the traps
and the gig of hardwood and bamboo.

AND MONOGRAPHS 157

The rivers of the Cayapa territory provide practi-
cally the only means of travel, owing to the dense 362, 364
jungle. The few trails are seldom used except in (tQp)
hunting larger game. Certain main trails lead from the
head of canoe nagivation to points in the high Andes,
such as Quito. All the habitations are situated along
the banks of the rivers, and to pass from one to another
of these the dugout canoe is used; in fact, the canoe
is one of the most prominent features in Cayapa life.
Everyone begins in early childhood the training which
ultimately makes him an expert canoeist.

From the important place the canoe holds in the life
of the people, it is natural that the art of canoe-making
should have reached a high state of perfection. Only
a few species of trees furnish wood that is hard and
tough enough to be suitable for the purpose. Having
found a tree of the desired kind, it is felled with an axe,
and the canoe is roughly fashioned from a section of
its trunk. Allowed to dry and season for a month
or so in the shade of the jungle, it is next hauled to the
river and paddled to the home of the owner, where it is
worked down and finally smoothed with adzes to the
ultimate shape and finish, and is further seasoned,
before being calked and painted with wax. The black
beeswax is applied hot with a brush made from a coco- w** h'"ush

^^ , 364 A

nut-husk. Sometimes along the outer surface of the
gunwale are placed various designs in wax for decora-
tive purposes. For this reason certain stamps, made Stim
of the light, soft wood of the balsa, are used. These 36 i A
designs, however, bear no symbolic significance.

158 INDIAN NOTES

The everyday dress of the Cayapa men consists
Dress chiefly of two garments — a very small, tight-fitting
clout, and an improvised shirt of calico or of gaudily
figured bandana handkerchiefs. On special occasions,
such as feasts and other gatherings, a man adds neck-
laces of beads, buttons, and silver coins; wrist-bands
and neck-bands of small white buttons; and decorations
upon the face and exposed parts of the body in red,
yellow, or black paint. The cloth used is woven by
the women, as is the woman's skirt or manta, but all
sewing is done by the men. It is said that formerly,
when the Cayapa were mountaineers, they used the
poncho, which at present is so common among the
Indians of the interior Andean region; but on migrating
into the warmer and more humid coastal region, the
poncho was found uncomfortable and gave place to
the present-day costume. Neither men nor women
wear native footgear.

Practically the only time that babies are clothed
is while they are sleeping; they are then tightly wrapped
and bound with cloth, but without cradle-board or
basket.

Some of the women perforate their ears and suspend
from them, as ornaments, small strings of beads or
other bright objects.

Hairdress Aboriginally both men and women wore their hair
Body- long, without braiding or other special mode of dressing,

pamtmg ^ut now jong ^[r is worn only by the women. A
characteristic feature of Cayapa life is the custom of
painting the face and other exposed parts of the body

AND MONOGRAPHS 159

with vegetal pigments on special occasions. The de-
signs, as those on various objects, are sometimes named,
but no symbolic meaning is attached to them, as they
are merely decorative. The paint is usually applied
with the linger, but sometimes wooden stamps are used
in lieu of brushes.

The household effects of the Cayapa consist of im- Domestic
plements and utensils of pottery, calabash, stone, and ^^^^
wood. The uses of all these appliances, many of which
are displayed, are too numerous to mention.

Both hard and soft textiles are made in great variety.
Baskets of many forms and in several different technics Textiles
-are made of various materials. Excellent mats and 363 c, 36 1
fans are manufactured from palm-fibers. Designs are
sometimes produced by variations in technic, very little
color being used.

Most notable are the soft textiles, woven of native
cotton fibers and of the fine vicuna wool from the
Andes. The beauty and intricacy of the patterns in
various native colors is most remarkable, considering
the crude loom upon which this work is done, and the
even more simple spinning apparatus.

The wooden benches, or seats, are of interest, be-
cause of their resemblance to the prehistoric stone seats
seats from the province of Manabi, Ecuador, exhibited 363 A B E
in the East Hall (see page 107).

Calabash implements and utensils are now widely c . b ,
used in this region, but it is said that in former times objects
pottery was largely employed for the many purposes 363AF
which various receptacles made from calabash now

160 INDIAN NOTES

serve. They are used as containers for all kinds of
liquids, and sometimes are perforated to adapt them for
use as sieves or strainers, such as are employed in
making green-corn mush and in distilling. These
receptacles are commonly ornamented with incised
lines or figures of mammals, birds, and human beings.
Pottery xhe Cayapa make rather crude, heavy, pottery
vessels, perfectly plain except when incised lines and
dots are sometimes impressed in the rim or the shoulder.
The process of manufacture employed in making these
vessels, with the exception of the decorating, is the
same as that of some of the North American tribes,
illustrated by the series displayed on the First Floor.

The primitive religion of the Cayapa consisted of a
belief in a great number of spirits or powers inhabiting,
with several other classes of beings, flat, square worlds
of equal size. The lower world supports our world,
and ours supports the upper. Beyond the edges there
is nothing.

The primitive ideas of the Cayapa are now more or
less mixed with introduced religious conceptions.
However, a few old beliefs prevail. Among these is
that of the ku'mi, or soul, which inhabits every human
body and which has the power to leave the body during
sleep, and of traveling about at will. In their travels
these souls are subject to considerable danger. A
shaman, for instance, may gain the confidence of one
of these wandering souls, and by inducing it to drink
intoxicants, insert within it some object which will
work ill. On returning to the body the soul takes

Religion

AND MONOGRAPHS 161

with it this malevolent object, which also enters the „,

J 7 Shamans

body. As a result, illness follows almost immediately, charms
and the person dies within a short time unless properly 364 B
and promptly doctored by a shaman.

After death, souls travel about as they do in sleep,
frequenting burial-places and former homes. They
would, if unmolested, do this indefinitely, but, owing
to the danger to the living from their presence, means
are taken to expel them. The shamans do this ex-
pelling by spraying the infested places with decoctions,
blowing tobacco smoke, and reciting incantations.

Many of the minor spirits which they believe wander
about the world can inhabit any object of unusual
form. Many are benevolent, while others are always
malevolent, or both, as occasion demands. Among the
most important of the major spirits are thunder, light-
ning, various giants, cave spirits that live in the moun-
tains, and many others that inhabit the waters of the
river.

VENEZUELA

THE MACOA

(Case 371 B)

The Perija mountains forming the frontier of Vene- G .
zuela and Colombia are inhabited by a large body of character
Indians known by the generic term Motilones; they
are divided into various subtribes which take their
names from the rivers whose headwaters they inhabit.
The natives of this region from earliest times have

::.

INDIAN NO I I -

resented intrusion, by whit

:: : . : ... : i :

t -: : : t .. ..-..- _ - .7

:z : r -: : zztiz : :zz..r

7 77. ii::lf :f~

cted by civilization. The

dnnate of their territory.

in ii :: : _ i t: 1 i : 2 " ii - : :

::7:_: r : : ; -.:.-:- Is if

mfi~: ~:iinrf _:: :z

i::; m: : : iif if::: iff :■:'.

. n: :. i :if ^: ::fvife-:

"'"■-. :~f I" ::---= " "V- ; ::.;. ;

_f: rr::'.: -r

The trails to their haunts a

:f ~

r. .7 : •" _-.r : : .i-rii :rf_:M:

ice to hive even the neigh-

boring tribes learn of then

- ~ -f.-r:. •; ::i in :; in

inhfrr~: :"f:ir :: nifs :*-" "• -

" ._ 7 _ .7 *

- - ■ . - :

:Z .7 — ..: ; . n :i7 ] I isc .iz:

collections by objects fron

i tLr a, a subtribe

hiring on the headwater

: : ::: A: :z - zl:z zr.iy if

::: : : _ ; vi . :: •.". :: il*

. _ 7 1 . _= :

Hoases The Macoa houses are re

::. . i : - : ifrs :: i-:ifi

:;f f : : rfifif r .\z_ ;:::: mi

7 ::":r~.cr5 mi :_i.::i.fi

7i7 :,

birth, death,, and marri

_- f i i 7- :■:- lifrir":
few tribes of the Ameri
in in >:J£i : :7:::::::

AND MONOGRAPHS 163

Both men and women habitually dress in heavy Dress
robes of native cotton fabric, instead of going naked,
or nearly so, by reason of the moist, cold climate
of their mountain territory. Both sexes are seldom
seen without an abundant use of facial paint. The Hats
men formerly wore plaited straw hats with conical
crowns, surrounded by bands of highly colored toucan-
feathers, examples of which, with a carrying case, are
exhibited; but these hats have been superseded by
cylindrical woven cotton head-bands, sometimes deco-
rated with colored seeds. The women wear no head-
dress except crowns of scarlet and black seeds, and they
also affect bandoliers and necklaces of the same material.

The Macoa depend chiefly on cassava, yams, plan- Food
tains, and game for their sustenance. Fire is made
with hand-drills, but food is eaten when only half
cooked. They have the usual intoxicating drink, Cooking
chic ha, commonly found throughout northern South
America, but apparently they do not go through the
customary process of masticating the material used
in making the drink, in order to induce fermentation.
The chicha is used largely to provide entertainment
during a ceremony devoted to singing and drinking,
when all the inhabitants of a given village, without
regard to age or sex, pass into a state of debauchery.

The Macoa women not only make various recep- utensils
tacles from gourds and calabashes, but they have
well developed the art of basketry, manufacturing
utensils of both twilled and openwork weave. Fans Weaving
of the same materials and technic are also found.

164 INDIAN NOTES

Being excellent textile workers, they weave cotton
garments on primitive looms.

The arms of the Macoa consist of bows (which they

W eapons . x J

sometimes use as quarterstaffs in righting), and arrows
with reed shafts and hardwood foreshafts attached with
ornamental lashings; but blowguns are unknown, and
neither lances nor warclubs are seen. Macoa boys
learn archery while very young, and one of their favorite
games is imitation warfare, in which they shoot at each
other with arrows tipped with corn-cobs.
Musical Musical instruments are conch-shell trumpets, pan-

instruments pipes, flutes, and flageolets, but they possess neither
drums nor rattles. One of the flageolets exhibited is
of especial interest because of the large wax mouth-
piece set at one side of the proximal end.

BRITISH GUIANA
(Cases 367-370)

The natives of British Guiana are of special interest
Lra^riban because they belong principally to two great stocks,
the Carib and the Arawak, offshoots from which early
migrated to and settled the West Indies from north-
ern South America. The tribes represented in the
Museum's ethnological collections are the Carib,
Waika, Arekuna, Akawoi, and Macusi of Carib stock,
and the Atorai, Arawak, Taruma, and Wapisiana of
Arawak affiliation.
D:stribution Geographically British Guiana may be regarded as
consisting of three distinctive territories — the coast, the
forest, and the savanna regions. The coastal district

AND MONOGRAPHS 165

is inhabited principally by the Arawak, with here and
there a Carib settlement. The forest region is occupied
almost entirely by tribes of Carib origin, while the
savanna country has a mixed population, being oc-
cupied by the Arekuna and Macusi, who are Carib,
and the Arawak, Atorai, Wapisiana, and Taruma,
together with remnants of other tribes not represented
in the Museum collections. The culture of all these
peoples is so intermingled that it is difficult to segregate
that of any given tribe.

The houses of these Indians vary only sufficiently
to meet the exigencies of environment. The natives of Houses
the coast formerly built shelters on piles over the water,
such, no doubt, as those which the early Spaniards
found on the shores of Venezuela and which prompted
them to give the name, which signifies "Little Venice,"
to that country. In recent years these Indians have
established their settlements farther inland, on high,
dry ground. In the forest region, because of the
shelter afforded by the surrounding trees, the dwellings
are rectangular structures of poles supporting a thatch
of palm-leaves. The two gable ends are usually open,
while at the sides the thatched eaves almost touch
the ground. The floor is the natural earth. Occa-
sionally a round shelter is found among these people.
The houses of the savannas, large enough to shelter
several families, are almost invariably round or oval,
with substantial walls of wattle and mud, often two
feet thick, as a protection from the cold winds of the
highlands. A short distance from the main dwelling

166 INDIAN NOTES

a dome-shape structure of palm-leaves serves as a
kitchen and a sleeping-place for the women, and not
far off a third shelter, a mere shed, is built for the ac-
commodation of visitors. Among the Arawak tribe a
partition of palm-leaves is often provided to give a
portion of the house more or less privacy.
ciothin» Little in the way of body covering is used by the
367 A f Indians of British Guiana. The men wear a breech-
68, 369 cioth mac[e usually of trade materials, but occasionally
it is fashioned from the beaten inner bark of a certain
tree, or of cotton cloth of their own weaving. The
dress of women consists of a small apron woven on a
simple bow loom with artistic designs of varicolored
glass beads. The enormous quantities of these beads
introduced into the colony by traders are gradually
supplanting the seeds and teeth once so extensively
employed.

The Arawakan Indians often bind the fleshy parts
Arm and 0f their arms and legs with ornamental wrappings so
eg in mg ^gj^jy ^\d.t the ligatures cut into the flesh and make
their wearers appear as though deformed. This type
of ornamentation was noted as being peculiar to natives
of this stock wherever they were met by the early ex-
plorers, even in the islands of the West Indies.

The Carib women pierce the lower lip with one or
adornment more h°les> in each of which a wooden pin, point outward,
is worn. The men also pierce the lower lip, from which
are suspended strings decorated with pieces of red or
white cotton, surmounted by a small, belt-like object
of bone or shell, and to the nasal septum they suspend

AND MONOGRAPHS 167

a crescentic ornament of metal. The men, and some-
times the women, also pierce the lobes of their ears,
in which they wear a wooden pin, or a straw sometimes
ornamented with hummingbird and other feathers.
Face and body painting is customary, sometimes only Ornaments
in blotches of solid color, but often designs are worked 367A.368AB
in various hues. Necklaces, armbands, and anklets,
made of a variety of colored seeds, animal-teeth, feathers,
and glass beads, are worn by both men and women.

On festive occasions the men wear elaborate head-
dresses and other paraphernalia of brilliant feathers, "er^°sn1,
and of iridescent beetle-wings, which tinkle with each 367 F, 368 A
movement of the wearer. The feathers of the head- 369 A B E F
dresses are supported by a woven basketry base. The
women's dress on such occasions is less elaborate, for
they wear no feathers, but adorn themselves with quanti-
ties of seeds and beads in the form of ropes around
the neck, as girdles about the waist, and as armbands,
wristlets, and anklets. Ornaments for children closely
resemble those of the elders, except that special kinds
of seeds are used.

The principal food of the tribes of British Guiana Food
consists of various animals and the wild fruits and roots
which the country affords, supplemented by agricul-
tural products, principally the cassava, banana, plan-
tain, pumpkin, watermelon, yam, sweet potato, sugar-
cane, pawpaws, cashews, corn, and peppers. Tobacco is
raised. The fields are cleared and prepared by the
men, but the women attend to the cultivation. The
coast and forest people have their clearings near their

369 E

168 INDIAN NOTES

houses, while on the savannas the natives are always
at a considerable distance from their cultivated lands.
because the ground near the houses is often stony,
unshaded, and unproductive.
Cassava Cassava is the staple among vegetal foods; the root
26: E furnishes the bread, the preparation of which is an al-
most continuous task for the women. After peeling,
the root is reduced to a juicy pulp by scraping on a
grater; this pulp is caught in a wooden trough, and
then transferred to a squeezer, a tube of closely woven
basketry, open at one end and there provided with a
loop for suspension, and at the lower end another loop
for the insertion of a pole to enable a forcible downward
pressure. The basket is so woven that, when this
pressure is applied, its diameter is greatly reduced,
while its length is increased, hence the poisonous juice
contained in the pulp is squeezed out. The dry cas-
I is taken from the squeezer, broken up. and sifted,
so that it becomes a coarse rlour. which is either wrapped
in leaves and put away for future use. or is made into
bread at once. Bread-making is a simple operation.
Formerly a stone griddle was used, but now the iron
griddle of trade is employed. The meal, which con-
tains enough moisture to make it adhere when pressed,
is spread over the hot griddle in a rather thin, circular
form, and patted and shaped with a wooden fan or
with a trowel-like implement of wood. After a few
minutes the cake is turned over, and in a short time it is
cooked, when it is placed on the roof of the house to
dry.

AND MONOGRAPHS 169

•

Among the Wapisiana, Taruma, and Atorai, the
cassava is more commonly used in the form of farina,
which is prepared by drying the meal on a hot stone,
and by constant stirring to keep it from scorching.
When dry and thoroughly cooked it is stored for future
use. In this state it will keep indefinitely, and may be
eaten as it is or mixed with stew. Cassava bread with
prolonged cooking is used for making an intoxicating
drink. The bread is broken up and mixed with water
in a large wooden trough. Fermentation is accelerated
by mastication of the bread, an operation carried on
by the women.

The common method of preparing animal food is
by stewing with peppers and salt in a large pot, which
is never emptied, but more meat and peppers are
added when necessary, and the stew, boiled again and
again, is always ready. Many delicacies are added
to the list of food staples. Birds' eggs are rarely eaten;
but insects and their larvae, and turtle- and lizard-eggs
are eagerly sought, and many are smoked and dried
for future use. Ants and grasshoppers, and their
larvae, are greatly relished.

Hunting and fishing are exclusively the men's share
of the work necessary in providing animal food. Be- „ .
fore a party of hunters start out (they never travel Fishing
singly), they observe one or more ceremonies to insure 369 f
success. One in particular is the use of the "nose
beena," a tapering string four or five feet long, the
thin end of which is passed through a nostril into the
back of the throat, when the whole length of the string

170 INDIAN NOTES

is drawn out through the mouth. This performance-
is supposed to have great efficacy. Other self-inflicted
ordeals are resorted to for the same purpose.

Although the gun has been introduced, native im-
plements are still used for securing game. Bows and
several varieties of arrows are employed by the coast
and forest people, while the blowgun is common among
the natives of the savannas. Fish are caught in traps
and nets, with hook-and-line, and with bow and arrow,
and large numbers are taken by poisoning the waters
of a small creek or inlet which has been dammed to
form a pool. Roots, stems, and seeds of certain plants
are pounded and thrown into the waters; the narcotic
juices stupefy but do not kill the fish, when they are
easily taken, while those left in the water ultimately
recover from the stupor. Many of the arrows have
poisoned points, but, like the poison placed in the waters
for taking fish, these do not impair the meat for food.
Ba k The men of these tribes excel in basket-making. A

367 B E F variety of forms is produced, each for a specific pur-
pose. Cassava presses and sifters, bread-trays, pack-
baskets, baskets for the storage of food and trinkets,
fish-traps, fire-fans, and containers for blowgun darts, all
show a wide range of weaves, mainly twilled, and many
of the finer basketry objects are ornamented with well-
Fiber executed designs. Cotton is gathered and spun by the
367 E women. A small quantity is grown and spun by almost
69ABEF ar] tne inciians 0f British Guiana, but by far the larger
part of the industry is conducted by the Arekuna, who
distribute their product among other tribes. Cotton is

• AND MONOGRAPHS 171

used mainly for the manufacture of hammocks. Fiber
from the Mauritia palm, and silk grass, are likewise
used for making hammocks and cordage.

Among the household utensils may be found vessels
made of gourds, calabashes, and pottery. Wooden ^Tl*
stools are numerous. Fire-blowing fans of basketry 369 D
and wood, stirring paddles for cooking, and presses
for extracting the sap from sugar-cane, are common
domestic appliances. Some skill is shown in wood-
working, especially in fashioning weapons.

Musical instruments are represented by drums,
rattles made of gourds, flutes, pan-pipes, whistles, and . Musical

, ; i ■ i r n r i instruments

a stringed instrument made from the leaf-stalk of the 369F
aeta palm. For the latter a narrow strip of the outer
skin is raised from the stalk, but not cut away at the
ends; the strip is divided into three or four strings, with
a piece of wood like a fiddle-bridge at each end. Wind
blowing across the strings produces the sound. These
instruments are all more or less used in connection with
ceremonies and dances.

Particular attention is called to the survival of the
stone celt-hatchet, used as a cutting blade set in an Warclubs
angular warclub of polished hardwood. These clubs 370B
are not only often highly ornamented with incised
designs filled with white pigment and neatly bound
with cotton cords or streamers, but display a variety
of forms unusual in tropical America and reminiscent
of the islands of the South seas. In one example the
stone celt-blade is replaced by one of steel or iron,
marking a transition between ancient and modern

172 INDIAN NOTES

times. A pamphlet describing the warciubs, published
by the Museum, treats these interesting weapons in
greater detail.

DUTCH GUIANA

(Case 370 B)

A few specimens collected from the "Bush negroes"
Bush are exhibited. These people are not Indians, but,
Negroes as j-heir name implies, are descendants of Africans,
imported at various periods between 1660 and 1840,
principally by the Dutch, as slaves on sugar planta-
tions. Their number gave them courage to resist the
harsh treatment to which they were subjected, with
the result that an insurrection was precipitated, fol-
lowed by vigorous hostility toward the whites from
about 1715 to 1775, when they won their freedom and
became an independent body of such strength that,
but for the help of the Carib Indians, they would have
been a serious menace to the Dutch planters. The
climatic conditions of the country were found to be
similar in many respects to the Gold Coast of Africa.
Hence today is found a colony of Bush negroes esti-
mated to number about 7000, living a primitive life
much like that of their forefathers. They inhabit
the country along the Maroni, Coermolibo, and upper
Cottica rivers. With the exception of their basketry,
which is distinctively Carib, their artifacts show sur-
prisingly little Carib influence. Their language is a
remarkable mixture of the original African coast dia-
lects, plus "Pidgin English/' Dutch, French, and
Spanish.

AND MONOGRAPHS 173

FRENCH GUIANA

(Case 370)

A few characteristic objects from the Indians of
French Guiana, principally spears and warclubs with
ornamental cane wrappings, are exhibited.

BRAZIL

(Cases 356 C, 359 C, 362)

Or the nianv tribes of Brazil and of the tributaries m

. The

of the Amazon beyond its borders, but few specimens conebo
of their handicraft are shown. Among the Indians 359 c
represented, however, are the Conebo, living in the
region of the Waupes river in Brazil and Colombia,
who show particular skill in pottery-making, an interest-
ing feature of which is a kind of glaze on the surface,
produced by applying copal gum to the vessel after
firing, but while still hot. The painted designs in
many cases show a highly conventionalized form of
the human figure. The long and powerful bows of the
Conebo are wrapped with cotton thread the greater
part of their length, and are embellished with designs,
similar to those on the pottery, painted on the wrapping.
The arrows are long and usually have broad points
of bamboo; these also are ornamented with painted
designs.

The Tucano, of the same region, like other tribes The
of the Amazon basin, devote much time to ceremonial T?™n°

' t v)o9 C

observances. The paraphernalia used in their dances

174 INDIAN NOTES

is highly ornamented, chiefly with bright-colored
feathers. A headdress and a necklace are shown on
a bust. Other interesting objects employed in cere-
monies are the large cigar and cigar-holder. When
in use the cigar is placed between the tines of the fork-
like holder and the sharpened end of the handle is
thrust into the ground; the smoker then reclines at
ease in his hammock, reaching out from time to time
to draw in a whiff of smoke from his huge cigar.

On the north side of the central pyramid in the East
Hall is shown a Tucano tunduy, or log-drum, orna-
mented with painted geometrical patterns in white.
Drums of this type are found generally in the upper
Amazon region, among many tribes, notably the Tucano,
Jivaro, Zaparo, and Uitoto, by whom they are used
not only in ceremonies, but for signaling, especially for
sounding alarm in times of danger. It is said that
under favorable weather conditions these drums may
be heard for fifteen miles. The drums are suspended
horizontally on two vine ropes tied to four posts planted
in the ground. They are beaten with two short drum-
sticks, the striking ends of which are covered with
crude rubber, over which is stretched a net of vegetal
fiber. Some examples, like the specimen exhibited,
are ornamented with conventional patterns in white,
blue, or red paint, and sometimes even the supporting
posts bear ornamental designs.
PRitTay° 0tner objects, from the Putumayo River Indians,
Indians are the massive bows with ornamented wrappings, and
362 A B circular-bladed paddles with elaborated incised designs.

AND MONOGRAPHS 175

The region between the Tapajos and Madeira rivers The
is occupied by the nomadic and warlike Munduruco,
who were much feared by neighboring tribes, which
called them by a name signifying "decapitators," on
account of the customarv treatment of captives, whose

^ Preserved.

heads they preserved in such manner that they re- heads
tained the facial features to a large extent (seepage 151).
Two such heads, probably obtained from victims among
the neighboring Parentintin tribe, are displayed.

The Caraja and Yuruna Indians on the Xingu river, caraja and
like the Munduruco, are warlike, as some of their weapons Yuruna
suggest. Several bone-pointed spears from the Caraja,
with elaborate basketry coverings and feather ornamen-
tation, are shown. A headdress from the Yuruna is of
special interest from the fact that the crown is made from
a. wasp-nest surmounted with bright-colored feathers.

PARAGUAY
(Cases 359 A B D~F, 360, 361)

The ethnology of Paraguay is represented by objects
obtained from the nomadic tribes of the Gran Chaco
region, including the Chamacoco, Lengua, Tumraha, and
Macikui.

The country of these Indians is of a forbidding nature,
subject to both flood and drought, with but only brief
intervals of favorable weather. The Indians congregate
in small villages numbering only a few families, and Dwellings
each separate clan lives in its own rude shelter, or
■toldoj made of branches, roughly roofed with a thatch
•of grass or palm-leaves, and protected on the south or

176 INDIAN NOTES

stormy side with a sunshade of reed-matting erected
in front of the hovel. In these clan dwellings each
family has its own apartment.

The attire of the men is scanty. For everyday use
Dre5S a blanket-robe woven of cotton by the women is worn;
359 b E F it usually bears a pattern depicting the markings seen
on snake-skins, or representing trails, palm-trees, or other
natural objects. This garment is worn suspended from
the waist or covering the entire body as occasion or
weather demands. When hunting, the men usually
wear only a fringed skin girdle and rude sandals of
rawhide. Similar footgear is used by the women when
gathering firewood in the forest, to protect them from
the thorny undergrowth. Sandals of antbear-skin are
worn in certain ceremonies. The everyday garment of
the women is a skirt made of two or three skins of the
goat, sheep, or small deer, sewn together, to which is
added a fur mantle in cold weather.

Like many tribes of South America, especially those
of the Amazon region, the natives of the Gran Chaco
bedeck themselves with gorgeous clothing for gala and
Ornaments ceremonial occasions. Headdresses and girdles made
of the feathers of the parrot, macaw, duck, and rhea,
are worn. Belts with pendent deer-hoofs or snail-shells,
girdles of human hair and seeds, and clattering pendants
of antbear claws and hollow bones adorn the costume on
such occasions. Necklaces of bright-colored seeds,
trade glass beads, and pieces of freshwater musselshells,
turtle-bones, and occasionally animal-teeth, are common.
Labrets Large wooden button-like labrets are worn in the lower
lip by the men, especially those of the Lengua tribe.

AND MONOGRAPHS 177

These strange ornaments cause such distention of the
lip that from a distance it looks like a protruding tongue,
hence the popular name Lengua, applied by the •
Spaniards. These labrets are regarded as emblems of
manhood. The first insertion of the labret is accom-
panied by a ceremony to which strangers are not willingly
admitted. When a boy is six or seven years of age his Initiati<>n
parents send for a shaman, who places the boy on his manh00(j
back on the ground and marks the spot where he is to
operate. Then he speaks to the boy, saying, "Come!
Thou hast played long enough! It is time that thou
should'st become a man. Henceforth thou must work,
fight, and vanquish thine enemies. Above all thou must
not cry, for then thou would'st be unworthy of the
labret, the badge of a man!" The shaman then pierces
the boy's lip with an awl, and in the aperture a straw
is inserted to keep it open; then in course of time the
opening is enlarged by thrusting in successively larger
and larger plugs. When a warrior is killed in battle his
labret is taken as a trophy by the victor and presented
by him to his wife.

Wooden ear-plugs are also worn, chiefly by the men.
They are without ornamentation, except in the case Ear-plugs
of the shamans, who embellish them with pieces of tin 361 c
in the shape of stars or crosses.

The principal foods of the Gran Chaco tribes are wild
beans, palm- tops, and game, which are cooked in
pottery vessels. Fish is usually roasted, and meat Foods
boiled; but vegetables are never cooked with meat.
Agriculture is very primitive, and its practice is limited.
Wild honey is eagerly sought and collected by the

178 INDIAN NOTES

natives. For cooking food and for smoking fire is
made with a wooden hand-drill.

One of the most interesting features of the culture of

the tribes of the Gran Chaco is the cultivation of tobacco

35<Ta (though to a limited extent), and the development of

360 a the custom of smoking. Tobacco pipes, sometimes of

361 D clay, but more commonly carved of wood, are abundant.

From the Chamacoco tribesmen comes an odd specimen,
long and staff-like, which served as a walking-stick as
well as a pipe.

The domestic appliances of the Gran Chaco tribes
., consist of pottery vessels, the usual gourd and calabash

Utensils f j > &

359 d receptacles, netted fiber carrying-bags, and animal-skins
361 c F that serve as seats by day and as beds by night. From
the Chamacoco there are a number of finely woven
bags of native cordage, and of trade glass beads obtained
from the whites. Some of the fiber bags are excep-
tionally well made, and are very closely woven. The
pottery, found probably at its best among the Macikui,
is ornamented by impressing patterns with a neatly
twisted cord in the soft clay of the vessels before firing,
and then filling the open areas with paint. The gourd
utensils of the Macikui are incised in pleasing designs.
Fish are generally shot with bow and arrow, but in
some remote interior localities the Lengua dive in
deep pools formed by weirs and capture their quarry
under water with nets fastened between two long sticks.
Fish-traps of twigs are set in gaps left in stone dams or
weirs built across the streams during low water, and the
fish are driven into them by lines of wading men.

AND MONOGRAPHS 179

Hunting with the bow and arrow is the common
method of taking game, and the Lengua are said to be Hunting
especially adept in disguising themselves with twigs
and leaves so that they may approach their quarry within
arrow shot. Club-like throwing-sticks are also used.
For hunting small birds and animals the Tumraha use
a very unusual weapon, a bow with a double string
holding a pocket for hurling clay pellets.

The Tumraha Indians are also notable because of the
fact that until recently there still survived among them warclub
a long wooden warclub shaped like a planting-stick,
in the smaller end of which was set a narrow celt of
stone; but there are examples entirely of wood, the
handle and blade being carved of a single piece.

Besides the initiation into manhood, many dances and
ceremonies are performed by these Indians, chief among Musical
which are thanksgiving feasts for food. Drums made ^59 ^en
of clay vessels with skins stretched across the mouths 360 c d
for heads, wooden whistles, and gourd rattles serve as
the principal musical instruments. In some ceremonies
masks impersonating bird-like demons are worn.

PERU
(Cases 350 A, 354 C)

A wide gap exists between the culture of the wild
tribes of eastern Peru and the Aymara and Quichua
peoples of the Andean highlands and the coast, as will
be seen by comparing the modern artifacts with the
ancient. The wild tribes referred to display the familiar
traits of the South American jungle or forest Indians,

Masks

Condition

180 INDIAN NOTES

and are famous head-hunters. The latter, particularly
the Quichua. represent the retrograde descendants of
the builders of the great stone fortresses of the Inca.
skilled workers in metals and textiles. The Aymara
" ncient and Quichua, although greatly degenerated, still main-
tain a few attenuated ceremonies that have descended
from ancient times; they still chew the leaves of cacao,
like their ancestors, and possess that peculiar beast of
burden, the llama, the diminutive American camel.
Potatoes, one of the gifts of the Inca to civilization, still
form their principal diet on the cold, windy slopes of the
Andes. In early times the potato, the tomato, and
quinine (once called "Peruvian bark"), were all obtained
from the Indians of western Peru.

Some examples of western Peruvian feather and

Textiles textile work, ranging from prehistoric to early Spanish

Feather- c°l°m'al times, are shown. These arts were long in

work vogue, and some of the later specimens, particularly the

" c hand-woven ponchos, are exquisitely beautiful in color

and design (see page 121 .

Some wooden cups of the early colonial period are not
only ornately carved, but beautifully lacquered. Their
late origin is manifest in some examples by the figures
of white men on horseback, in the way that early colonial
ponchos show mermaids, winged llamas, and other
European or semi-European concepts; yet these cups,
like the robes, are often close copies as well as direct
descendants of the ancient forms.

AND MONOGRAPHS 181

BOLIVIA
(Cases 357, 358 B)

In the collection from Bolivia are various objects
gathered from the Aymara and the Quichua. These two T -b
tribes, however, are not confined within the Bolivian
borders, but extend, as before mentioned (see page 117),
into Peru, Chile, and Argentine, their hamlets being
found mostly in the Andean highlands. Their dwellings Ho
are built either of stone covered with adobe or of adobe
bricks, with a thatch roof. Sometimes the houses are
erected on posts about three feet above the ground.
A fireplace of clay is provided usually in the rear part
of the house; vaulted ovens are built outdoors for bread-
baking, and another fireplace is provided outside where
general cooking is done in fine weather. The bed con-
sists generally of a pile of sheep and llama skins on an
earthen platform in one corner of the house; and some-
times a clay bench along the rear wall is provided for
lounging.

The food supply is principally vegetal, the staple being
potatoes, which are eaten fresh, frozen, or dried. Being Fcod
an agricultural people they raise quantities of corn,
beans, barley, wheat, and many kinds of fruits and
vegetables suited to the varying altitude. They also
cultivate alfalfa and other fodder for their sheep and
llamas. Cotton is grown in the river valleys.

Many of their cultivated areas are in a sloping country
where terraced fields are necessary; these are watered by
a well-understood system of irrigation. An earth-
covered storehouse is built near the dwellings, where

182 INDIAN NOTES

beans, corn, potatoes, and dried meats are kept for
community use in case of food shortage. Being semi-
Christianized, it is customary for the Indians to place a
cross on top of the storehouse to keep evil spirits away.

Meat, which is used only sparingly, is supplied by the
llama, vicuna, guanaco, sheep, goat, deer, chickens, and
some wild birds. Fish, which also are eaten, are taken
with hooks, nets, traps, and with bow and arrow. A
fermented drink is made from ground corn boiled in
water. Fermentation is caused by the addition, after
cooking, of corn which has been chewed to a paste.

Clothing is made from native cloth of llama, sheep,
~ or vicuna wool, and cotton. The man's costume consists

Dress

357 b of a sleeved shirt and short trousers, with a poncho for

358 B extra warmth. The shirts of the women are longer

than those of the men; a blanket is wrapped around the
waist as a skirt or a petticoat, and a square shawl is
worn over the shoulders. Up to the age of five or six
years children wear only a shirt. Sandals of leather and
hats of braided straw are sometimes worn.

For adornment women wear a highly decorated spoon-
shape pin of silver to fasten their shawls, and necklaces
of seeds and glass beads.

The exhibited material representing the Indians of
the lowlands of Bolivia in many ways resembles the
objects gathered from the Indians of Brazil and the
interior of Ecuador.

The Pacaguara, who live in the region between the

wad tribes £em- an(j Mamore rivers in the northern part of Bolivia,

and the Chacobo who inhabit the region toward the

Ucayali river across the Peruvian border, use quantities

AND MONOGRAPHS 183

of brilliant feathers from tropical birds for headdresses Ad
and other ornaments. The use of beetle-wings and 357 A B
monkey-teeth for necklaces and headdresses is also 358 B
prevalent among these people, as is the case with cotton
and other fiber for hammocks, such as the one exhibited. Textiles
They also make a cloth from the inner bark of a certain
tree which often is decorated with artistic painted designs.
A number of specimens of this cloth are exhibited.

PATAGONIA
(Cases 358 A, Stairway Case 161 A)

Occupying the vast territory lying south of the Rio
Negro of Argentine to the Straits of Magellan are a
group of tribes known as the Tehuelche, Puelche, and
Penck. The Puelche generally frequent the district Tribes
extending from the Rio Santa Cruz to the Rio Chubut,
and the Tehuelche from the Santa Cruz to the straits.
They are so intermixed as to be distinguishable only by
dialectic differences in language and slight difference in
physique. The Penck occupy the region between the
Rio Chubut and the Rio Negro; they speak an Arau-
canian language, and are notably different from the
Puelche in physique and feature.

Of the three tribes living in Patagonia the Tehuelche
alone are represented in the Museum collections. These
pampean nomads originally were strictly a foot-people,
but the introduction of horses by the Spaniards in
1536 made a great change in their mode of living, because The
horses made transportation on the arid pampas easier Tehuelche
and quicker. The Tehuelche are noted for their unusual

184 INDIAN NOTES

stature, many of them ranging from six feet to six feet
four inches, and of proportionate build. Their breadth
of chest and their muscular development have attracted
the attention of travelers, and indeed they were reported
Physique to be giants by the first Europeans who met them. The
Tehuelche are noted runners, and in their sports display
great quickness and strength. They now almost in-
variably travel on horseback, but when forced to do so
the}' can walk great distances without distress.

The dress of the Tehuelche men consists of a waist-
cloth, either of linen, blanket, or a piece of an old mantle;
a robe, about six feet square, made of the skins of young
or of unborn guanacos, and sometimes of skunk, fox,
rhea. or wildcat. The mantle is secured about the
waist by a girdle, often ornamented with silver, in which
the tobacco-pouch, knife, and bolas are secured. Their
feet are protected bv boots made of the hocks of the

Adornment .

horse or the puma, over which they sometimes wear
overshoes made from the hock of the guanaco. They
go bareheaded, their long hair being confined by a fore-
head-band of yarn or of cloth. For ceremonial and
other gala occasions they adorn their knife sheaths,
belts, and horse gear with silver studs or plate, and
wear necklaces of silver and blue glass beads.

The women wear a loose calico gown extending from
shoulder to ankle, and over this a guanaco-skin mantle
secured below the throat with a silver pin ornamented
with a large disc. If they are very poor, a thorn serves
the purpose. When traveling they also wear belts
ornamented with blue glass beads or with copper or
silver ornaments, and boots of horsehide similar to those

AND MONOGRAPHS 185

worn by the men, except that the hair is left on. On
state occasions they wear huge earrings and necklaces of
silver and blue glass beads. Both sexes smear their
faces, and occasionally their limbs, with paint made from
red ocher, powdered white gypsum, and grease. The
women cover their bodies with white paint at the time
of marriage. Tattooing is common among both sexes.

The tents, or toldos, of the Tehuelche, designed
primarily as windbreaks, are made of forty to fifty
full-grown guanaco-skins sewn together and smeared with
a mixture of grease and red ocher. Large square tents
are used for more permanent dwellings. The covering
is drawn over the frame from the rear and secured by
thongs to the front poles. Curtains made of skins
cleaned with flint and obsidian scrapers, fastened
between the inner poles, partition the sleeping places,
and the baggage, piled round the sides, excludes the cold
wind.

The introduction of the horse into Patagonia, as
on the plains of North America, greatly increased the Hunting
efficiency of the Indians in traveling and in procuring 358 A
game, but because of their acquired taste for horse-
flesh it likewise has greatly reduced the constant neces-
sity of hunting. In aboriginal times they were de-
pendent for food almost entirely on the chase, using the
sling, the bow and arrow, the lance, and the bolas, the
last a group of stone balls fastened together by thongs,
for taking the guanaco and the rhea, or South American
ostrich. Thrown at the legs of the game they desire to
capture, the balls spread out and wind themselves
about the guanaco, entangling and tripping it. Their

186 INDIAN NOTES

occasional vegetal diet consisted of roots, a species of
wild potato, and apples and berries when procurable.

Weaving Weaving is confined to the manufacture of robes,
i6iWA) head-bands, and garters by the women, who are also
sometimes silversmiths.

The Tehuelche believe in a great good spirit gifted
.e igion wjtk mucj1 p0werj wno made the Indians first, and also
the animals necessary to their maintenance. This
spirit, however, seems to take little trouble as to their
welfare, consequently most of the religious observances
have in view the propitiation of evil spirits, which are
supposed to lurk continually outside the toldo and under
particular rocks and rivers, watching for an opportunity
to harm the people. This is prevented by the spells of
the medicine-men, who are not only supposed to be
gifted with the power to suppress the spirits, but who
claim to be able to see them. On occasions of sickness
an attempt is made to drive away the evil spirits by
firing guns, throwing lighted brands into the air, and
beating the backs of the toldos with lance-shafts or
bolas. If a child hurts itself while playing, mares are
slaughtered as a kind of thanksoffering that it did not
die; a house is erected, and a feast and dance take
place. In case of illness the doctor is sent for, and if he
says the person will live, a feast is given.

When about to smoke, the Tehuelche invariably puff

Smoking toward each cardinal point, muttering an incantation.
They then lie prone on the ground and inhale several
whiffs which induce a state of torpor for a minute or
two. A drink of water is then taken and they recover
their senses completely.

AND MONOGRAPHS 187

On the death ,of a Tehuelche, his horses, dogs, and
other animals are slain, and his weapons, clothing, and
other belongings are placed in a heap and burned. The
flesh of the horses is distributed among the relations, custom&
and the widow, who cuts her hair short in front and
paints her face black, departs, bag and baggage, to the
toldo of her relations or to that of the chief. The body is
sewn in a mantle or poncho and buried in a sitting
posture, facing eastward, and a cairn of stones is generally
erected over the grave.

TIERRA DEL FUEGO
(Case 358 A)

Occupying the territory in the vicinity and south of
the Straits of Magellan, generally known as Tierra del
Fuego, "Land of Fire," are found a group of tribes Tribes
known as the Ona, Haush, Alaculoof, and Yahgan.
Living in a desolate, sub-Antarctic region, characterized
by gales and cold, and with a rainfall perhaps unequaled,
these hunting Indians exhibit a simplicity in life and
costume which contrasts so strongly with the culture
of the Chilean and Argentine peoples that the latter
seem rich by comparison. Each of the four Tierra del
Fuego tribes speaks a language of its own. The Ona
occupy, or have occupied, most of the mainland south
of the strait, while the Haush, now almost extinct, lived
on the extreme southern extremity of the mainland
near Beagle channel. The Yahgan inhabit the south-
west coast of the mainland and many of the numerous
islands in the southernmost extremity of the archipelago.

188 INDIAN NOTES

The Alaculoof territory extends from % the western end
of the strait southward as far as Brecknock peninsula
and northward up the Patagonian channels.

Less is known of the Alaculoof than of other Fuegian
the tribes. They have been so reduced by contact with
laculoof whites that they have almost disappeared from Tierra
del Fuego, with the exception of those who live in the
region of Last Hope inlet, Port Grappler, Port Tamar,
the vicinity of Scholl bay, Dawson island, and Beagle
channel. In 1904 their number was estimated at 800.
No adequate linguistic comparison has been made of
their language, and many of their customs are not
recorded. They are said to preserve a tradition of the
existence of a stone giant which harassed them and stole
their women, until he was slain by an heroic youth.

The Alaculoof use canoes dug out of beech logs, and

Artifacts

are equally at home on land and water. Some of their
craft, capacious enough to accommodate 20 or 30 persons,
are said to be the largest of any on the South American
coast. They weave fish-nets of seal sinew, and use the
bow and arrow, the sling, spear, harpoon, and knife in
hunting and war.

Culturally, the Yahgan resemble the Alaculoof in
the general appearance, customs, and character, and many
of the facts regarding Yahgan culture are applicable to
the Alaculoof, although their language is different.
An approximate census made more than fifty years ago
placed their number as probably 2800, but. as in the
case of the Alaculoof, they have been greatly reduced,
so that now only about 100 survive. The low status of
the culture of the Yahgan is perhaps due to their en-

AND MONOGRAPHS 189

vironment and isolation. Living on the seaboard, and
in a sub-Antarctic climate, their staple food, with the
exception of a few berries and other meager vegetal
products, is derived from the sea. It is owing to the
necessities of this food quest that they have developed Fooci
rude but seaworthy canoes, both hollowed from logs and
made of beech -bark, in which they sometimes venture
considerable distances out to sea in search of stranded
whales, seals, eggs, and fish. Model canoes, of both
the types referred to, containing miniature weapons and
other objects used by Yahgan hunters, are displayed.

Deriving their livelihood chiefly from the sea, the
Yahgan are what may be termed canoe nomads. Mode of
Occasionally they assemble in central settlements, but life
threatening starvation soon scatters them about the
archipelago in small family groups. They have no
chiefs nor communal government, but in their com-
munity life it is customary for one to divide food or
plunder equally with others.

Occasionally the Yahgan show deference to a medi-
cine-man, who is supposed to have power over the Religion
elements. When a man dies, everything possible is and death
done to efface all memory of him; all his belongings are
destroyed, and his name is never mentioned. When
death occurs far from home the remains are cremated,
evidently to prevent their desecration by enemies or
animals. In other cases the dead are interred.

Occasionally the Yahgan hunt whales in the open sea
with spears and harpoons. Seal and otter are also taken Huntin<r
with spears, the otter hunter often being aided by dogs.
The eastern Yahgan use the bow and arrow in hunting

L90 INDIA X NOT] -

the guanao re killed with s

oi v. itl
The common form of sh< S ihgan,

g ... 5 by tl I I - S • oonc

trunks,
; with grass, [ems, branch* s skim

practically anj I band, an<

times the ground inside the shelfc

id branches I on the

The fire is made in the cent.
\ mantli • skin, or both

the common and only garment of th< I gian tril
Among the J hgan it is worn over the shoulder

I with a string,
["he common form sketry • g the

i of rush, and it is of the half-hitch

hnic ki

tnd shape, and

| -a hark.

All tl ' ll an<l

wristlets and anb

I ather

and fill

bum 8 N -in mcn comma

While the \ x -

TH

livi the mainland adjacent to the

Iturally tin- Ona have much in common with the
Yahgan and tin- Alaculi d they also h

AND MONOCJ RAPH S L91

tinctive cultural elements which they share with the
Tehuelche of Patagonia, such as tattooing and the use

of the child's cradle.

The Ona do not go nude, as do the other Fuegians,
►except when the rigor of the climate compels them to Dress
weir the skin robe. The Ona mantles, made of guanaco-
skins and occasionally of fox skins, reach to the knees

Or the feet, and are always worn except in hunting,
wrestling, and climbing. The Ona women wear under-
garments of guanaco skin tied to the body and reaching
from the breast to the knees. Their mantles are usually

shorter than those of the men. In hunting and lighting
the men wear a triangular peak of guanaco skin over

the forehead, so as to be less easily distinguished by

game or by enemies, but the women are always bare
headed. Both men and women while traveling wear
rude moccasins, and someiimes leggings, made of skin;
when hunting I he men paint or stain their bodies to
resemble the snow or the ground over which they must

advance to stalk their prey.

The Ona still use the bow and stone tipped arrow, but
sometimes their arrows are tipped with points made Bows and
from glass secured from wrecks along their storm swept Arrows

coast. Although they possess only a lew other rather
rude tools, t heir bows and arrows are beautifully finished,
and they are expert marksmen. Their chief food is the

flesh of the guanaco, which animal is hunted with bow Food

and arrow, Certain vegetal and sea foods are eaten

when obtainable.

When Ona boys become adolescent they are subjected

to the tutelage of an experienced man for a year or two,

192 I X D I A X X 0 T E S

Ceremonies during which time they are obliged to fast and to undergo
physical tests, and the society of women is fur-
bidden. This training is to teach them courage, endur-
ance, and the ethics of the tribe. The men dres
masks of skin and paint themselves to represent the
numerous spirits for the purpose of terrorizing the
women and children to test the courage of the boy, who,
if found worthy, is finally told the truth about the sup-
posed spirits and the purpose of the masquerade, namely,
to keep the women in subjection, and he is threatened
with dire punishment if he should reveal the secret.- to
women or children. The initiation rites of the Yahgan
are similar, but data on this subject, as on many others
pertaining to the Fuegians, are meager.

INDIAN NOTES
AND MONOGRAPHS

Edited by F. W. Hodge

No,

39

A SERIES OF PUBLICA-
TIONS RELATING TO THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES

SKELETAL REMAINS

FROM

SANTA BARBARA, CALIFORNIA

I
CRANIOLOGY

By

BRUNO OETTEKING

NEW YORK

MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

HE YE FOUNDATION

1925

This series of Indian Notes and Mono-
graphs is devoted primarily to the publica-
tion of the result of studies by members of
the staff of the Museum of the American
Indian, Heye Foundation, and is uniform
with Hispanic Notes and Monographs,
published by the Hispanic Society of
America, with which organization this
Museum is in cordial cooperation.

A List of Publications of the Museum
will be sent on request.

Museum of the American Indian,

Heye Foundation,

Bioadway at 155th St.,

New York City

INDIAN NOTES
AND MONOGRAPHS

Edited by F. W. Hodge

39

A SERIES OF PUBLICA-
TIONS RELATING TO THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES

SKELETAL REMAINS

FROM

SANTA BARBARA, CALIFORNIA

I
CRANIOLOGY

By
BRUNO OETTEKING

NEW YORK

MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

HEYE FOUNDATION

1925

SKELETAL REMAINS

FROM

SANTA BARBARA,

CALIFORNIA

CRANIOLOGY

BY

BRUNO OETTEKING

CONTENTS

Page

Illustrations 6

Foreword 9

State of preservation and classification 11

The problem and the plan of its investigation 15

Cranial size (capacity; horizontal circumference; module) . 15

Intracranial and cranio-facial correlations 18

Norma verticalis 21

Norma lateralis 31

Norma basilaris 69

Norma frontalis 82

Norma occipitalis 121

Lower jaw 124

Teeth 146

Conclusion 148

Literature 154

Index 159

ILLUSTRATIONS

Plates

I. System of sagittal cranial tracings of skull B (c?)

II. System of sagittal cranial tracings of skull C ( 9 )

III. System of sagittal cranial tracings of skull E (c?)

IV. System of frontal cranial tracings of skull B (c?)
V. System of frontal cranial tracings of skull C ( 9 )

VI. System of frontal cranial tracings of skull E (c?)

VII. System of horizontal cranial tracings of skull B (d71)

VIII. Svstem of horizontal cranial tracings of skull C

IX. System of horizontal cranial tracings of skull E (cv)

X. Median-sagittal tracing of Santa Barbara skull

B (c?j in ear-eye orientation with angles marked

XL Median-sagittal tracing of Santa Barbara skull C

( 9 ) in ear-eye orientation with angles marked
XII. Median-sagittal tracing of Santa Barbara skull E
(cf ) in ear-eye orientation with angles marked

XIII. Superposition of median-sagittal outlines

XIV. Superposition of median-sagittal outlines
XV. Xorma frontalis (facialis) of skull B (cf)

XVI. Xorma frontalis I facialis I of skull C ( 9 )

XVII. Xorma frontalis (facialis) of skull E (cf )

XVIII. Xorma lateralis of skull B (cf )

XIX. Xorma lateralis of skull C ( 9 )

XX. Xorma lateralis of skull E (cf )

XXI. Xorma verticalis of skull B (cf)

XXII. Xorma verticalis of skull C ( 9 )

XXIII. Xorma verticalis of skull E (cf )

XXIV. Xorma basilaris of skull B (cf )
XXV. Norma basilaris of skull C ( 9 )

XXVI. Xorma basilaris of skull E (c7)
XXVII. Xorma occipitalis of skull B (cf )
XXVIII. Xorma occipitalis of skull C ( 9 )
XXIX. Xorma occipitalis of skull E (cf )
XXX. Xorma lateralis of calotte D (cf )
XXXI. Xorma verticalis of calotte D (cf1)
XXXII. Norma occipitalis of calotte D (cf)

6

ILLUSTRATIONS 7

Figures

Page

1. Coronal angle of partes bregmaticae of coronal sutures

in the Santa Barbara skulls 25

2. Diversity of the coronal suture in skulls from San

Miguel Island, California 27

3. Right and left squama temporalis of Santa Barbara B

{<?) • 35

4. Crista supramastoidea projecting upon parietal bone. 36

5. Tracings of fossa temporalis of skull B (c?) in ear-eye

orientation 38

6. Tracings of fossa temporalis of skull C ( 9 ) in ear-eye

orientation 38

7. Tracings of fossa temporalis of skull E (cf) in ear-eye

orientation 39

8. Anatomical configuration and landmarks of fossa

temporalis 40

9. Median-sagittal frontal outlines in superposition. ... 52

10. Postbregmatic elevation 56

1 1 . Schematic representation of angles at the cranial base . 64

12. Canalis hypoglossi in the Santa Barbara skulls, show-

ing different forms of bipartition 73

13. Merging of the left foramen spinosum and canalis

musculotubarius in skull C ( 9 ) 76

14. Variation in the shape of the spina nasalis posterior of

the Santa Barbara skulls 77

15. Anomalous palatine perforations in skull C ( 9 ) 78

16. Superposition of left frontal processus zygomatici in

frontal projection 85

17. Pars nasalis of frontal bone in frontal projection and

ear-eye orientation with nasion and infranasion

points in the Santa Barbara specimens 87

18. Scheme of orbital declinations of skull B (cf ) 94

19. Scheme of orbital declinations of skull C ( 9 ) 95

20. Scheme of orbital declinations of skull E (cf) 96

21. Midorbital outlines of nasal bones in cranial ear-eye

orientation 99

22. Vertical outlines of the nasal bones and angles of the

nasal roof 100

23. Two aspects of crista infrazygomatica 109

8 ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

24. Midfacial horizontal outlines (comparative) 116

25. Basal and median-sagittal outlines of chin region

in the Santa Barbara mandibles in alveolar orienta-
tion 127

26. Lateral outlines in orthogonal projection and alveolar

orientation of the Santa Barbara mandibles 133

27. Superposition of mandibular rami in lateral projec-

tion and alveolar orientation 141

m

FOREWORD

IKE many other finds of supposed antiquity
in America, the much noted skeletal remains
from Santa Barbara, California, have passed
through the usual stages of fantastic misrepre-
sentation in the daily press to sober evaluation by scien-
tific judgment. The bones were found in October, 1923,
by Mr. J. P. Harrington of the Bureau of American
Ethnology, Washington, D. C, in the course of work
conducted jointly with the Museum of the American
Indian, Heye Foundation, in connection with the
exploration of the Burton Mound at Santa Barbara,
which was made possible by the generosity of Mrs.
Thea Heye. The exploration was conducted under the
immediate auspices of the Museum, by an agreement
whereby the remains came to its Department of Physi-
cal Anthropology, where their methodical study was
undertaken. Its procedures, so far as the craniology is
concerned, are set forth in the following pages, while
the results, remarks on the geological conditions and
otherwise, and the discussion of the morphological sig-
nificance of the find, are treated in the final chapter.

A preliminary note by the author on the Santa Barbara
skeletal remains appeared in Indian Notes, 1924, v. I,
pp. 76-83, Museum of the American Indian, Heye
Foundation. He also reported on the find at the Ninety-
second Meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, held at Toronto in August,
1924.

Bruno Oetteking

SKELETAL REMAINS FROM SANTA
BARBARA, CALIFORNIA

I. CRANIOLOGY

By Bruno Oetteking

state oe preservation and classification

THE skeletal remains from Santa Barbara as
they were received during the month of Feb-
ruary, 1924, at the Department of Physical
Anthropology of the Museum, consist of three
lots, named A, B, and C. The bones were heavy from
the adhering soil, and incrusted with earth and ashes.
After cleaning they regained their original color, which
is dirty brownish for all the B items, and a lighter but
uneven brownish for C. The fragments of A had ab-
sorbed ashes and remained smoke-blackened even after
cleaning. The viscous consistency of the incrustation
seemed to be due to a hardened and perhaps a fatty sub-
stance; however, no attempt was made to analyze it.
During the summer of 1924 two additional specimens
from the same site were acquired by Mr. F. W. Hodge,
then traveling in California, and sent by him to the
Museum. They bore similar traces of adhering earthy
material and were listed with the others as D and E,
and the results of their examination are incorporated
with those of the primary finds.

It deserves special mention that none of the skulls

11

12 SAXTA BARBARA

had been submitted to intentional deformation, in which
respect they conform to the general status of crania
from southern California. Only skull E is slightly
deformed, as a result of unintentional pressure, con-
cerning which mention is made later ''pages 14. 22. 32).

In general the state of preservation is very good,
except that of A. which, as already mentioned, consists
of a number of fragments, and D which represents a
skull cap or calotte only. The external compacta of all
the parts belonging to B is so little impaired that it
retains its glossy appearance. The same is true of D
and partly of E. In the latter and in C the compacta is
less smooth and is slightly injured in places by the
chemical action of the soil and perhaps by root erosion,
without, however, being scaly or calcined. Minor
defects in the skulls are mentioned in connection with
the parts affected in the detailed list below.

Specimens B. D. and E were quite probably males of
adult age between 40 and 45 years. All the teeth,
except the third lower molars of E. are erupted and worn
in the way usual with Xorth American Indians. All
the sutures are open. The same applies to specimen C,
quite probably a female. The fragments of A are
doubtless those of a male. Frequent mention will be
made of them in comparison. The five specimens are
referred to in the text as either A. B, C, D. and E. or the
Santa Barbara specimens, or the males (B, D, E) and
the female (C), and in the tables as: A y . B f .
(D - . E y . and C i .

The Santa Barbara cranial remains, then, comprise
the following items :

CRANIOLOGY 13

A} cranial fragments of an adult male:

a. frontal bone, with adhering portions of right

parietal and nasal bones, and portion of right
ala magna.

b. right temporal bone, with incomplete squama.

c. right zygomatic and maxillary bones, with adher-

ing portions of right palatine bone, and of the
palatine and alveolar processes of the left
maxillary, and the horizontal process of the
left palatine bone.

d. right condyle of lower jaw.

Teeth:

8765432 l|lx3 xxx xx1

B, cranium of an adult male:

right lacrimal bone missing, left one fragmentary.

Teeth:

x7654x2xll2345 6 7x

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 x | 1 2 3 x x 6 7 8

C, cranium of an adult female :

coronal and left spheno-parietal sutures, slightly
rifted after cleaning, were rejoined; as also
were cracked portions of the occipital bone
posteriorly of the foramen magnum; roofs of
both orbits and nasal bones slightly defective;

1 A cross (x) indicates loss of teeth, a dash ( — ) teeth not
erupted, while numbers in parentheses refer to defectiveness.
The latter is indicated in the same way in other bones.

1

14 SANTA BARBARA

anterior walls of alveoli for both upper lateral
incisors and both left lower incisors open, in
the latter apparently by some pathological
process.

Teeth:

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 11 x 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 | 12 3 4 5 6 7 8

D, skull cap of an adult male:

with adhering nasal bones, the upper extreme end
of the left ala magna, and the interparietal
portion of the occipital bone; the squamosal
margin of the right parietal bone is slightly
defective.

E, cranium of an adult male:

brain case slightly depressed on right side, caused
perhaps by cradle-board pressure1 or by carry-
ing the infant on its mother's back; posterior
border of foramen magnum slightly defective,
also right orbital roof and both laminae
papyraceae.

Teeth:

876x432l|l2345678
-76543 2x|lx 34567-

1 On this particular form of plagiocephaly, Boas (1889, 365)
remarks: "It is a noteworthy fact that in the majority of
cases the left side of the head is more prominent than the
right side. Presumably this is due to the fact that the child
mostly lies on his right side when in his cradle."

CRANIOLOGY 15

THE PROBLEM AND THE PLAN OP ITS INVESTIGATION

Notwithstanding the fact that on first examination
the skeletal material from Santa Barbara did not appear
to present any extraordinary features from the morpho-
logical angle of observation, its methodical investigation
seemed to be commensurate with the importance
attached to the find. This was done in such a way that
in the fiva cranial aspects or norma: the descriptive and
metrical features were subjected to a careful individual
and comparative study. It is by such procedure that
the significance of a given specimen might be ascertained.
Furthermore, it is only by exhaustive investigation that
the gradually multiplying American finds will receive
the full scientific treatment due them.

The investigations were carried on with the aid of a
modern instrumentarium, particularly with regard to
the drawing of outlines, superimposing these, and the
ascertaining of angular relations. In most of the cases
the technique is that prescribed by Rud. Martin (1914).

CRANIAL size (capacity; horizontal circumference;

module)

In order to afford a conception of the cranial size in
general, the three quantities mentioned in the heading
were studied and their metrical expressions are listed
in the subjoined (able. On the basis of the classification
of the cubic capacity of the skull as established by Fr.
and P. Sarasin, our three skulls are diencephalic. The
only pronounced difference is to be noted between the
female and the males. lis capacity of 1158 ccm. places

16

SANTA BARBARA

HUMAN VARIETY

Santa Barbara

B (d»)

C (9)

E (c?)

North Pacific Coast
(Undef ormed )

Averages

Eskimo, Southampton Island1

Averages

Chinese!

Averages

19
I?

CRANIAL SIZE

Capacity

Horizontal
circum-
ference

Module:
L+Br+H

ccm.

mm.

3

1379
1158
1338

495

478
482

149.7
141.0

145.3

1349.5

1243.8

516.4
484.5

150.2
145.6

1563
1458

524
510

156.5
152.0

1456
1380

507.4
492.6

152.7
147.5

* Hrdlicka 1910.
\Rabcrcr 1902.

the female skull near the lower limit of euencephaly
and toward the oligencephalic class. The Santa
Barbara skulls are seen to be fairly in line with the male
and female averages of the Xorth Pacific Coast. They
are exceeded only slightly by the Chinese, who have
just aristencephalic averages, while the Eskimo of the
same column are well advanced in aristencephaly, with
a male average of 1563 ccm. and a female one of 1458
ccm.

Similarly expressive are the cranial modules accord-
length + height + breadth

ing to the formula

The

CRANIOLOGY 17

Santa Barbara modules fall short of all the averages
contained in the third column of our table, which differ
among themselves proportionally in the same way as
the cubic capacities. Consulting Hrdlicka's (1916, 118)
table of cranial modules of Eastern Indians, which con-
tains male averages of 152.2-160.4 mm., and female
averages of 146.4-150.0 mm.,1 it is seen that of our own
averages the male of the North Pacific Coast does not
reach even the lowest male average of that table; that in
the Chinese it is level with it, and only in the Eskimo
does it occupy about the middle of Hrdlicka's range.
Similar conditions obtain among the female averages,
where, however, the Eskimo average of 152.0 mm.
exceeds the highest Eastern Indian average of 150.0
mm. The rather low position of our own crania is
furthermore confirmed by the average values of our
collection from San Miguel island, where the males
yielded 148.0 mm. and the females 142.3 mm. On the
whole it will be realized that the cranial size of the
Eastern Indians, as expressed by the cranial module,
noticeably exceeds that of the Western, at least those
listed in our table, while the Chinese enter the range at
its lowest station and the Eskimo maintain a medial
one.

The horizontal circumference also listed in our table
brings out in a similar way the differences of cranial
size as expressed by the other two indications. In the
physiological range of that measurement, extending from
454-578 mm. (Martin 1914, 654), they fall quite low.

1 Hrdlicka designates centimeters; e.g., 15.22 cm.

18

SANTA BARBARA

They range likewise considerably below the averages
which the same author quotes for Europeans, namely,
550 mm. for males and 520 mm. for females. The
smaller size of the latter results naturally in the smaller
values for all the quantitative expressions listed here.

INTRACRANIAL AND CRANIOFACIAL CORRELATIONS

More recent craniological research has pointed to
certain cranio-facial and intracranial correlations which
may also briefly be referred to in our specimens. It was
Falkenburger (1913) who, following up Klaatsch"s (1909)
discovery of the "central angle," discovered on his part
the "cranio-facial" angle and the parallelism between

Hl'MAN VARIETY

Santa Barbara
B (<*■)...

C (9)...

Haida

Averages^ g

Australian
European!

:K72,,;

INTRACRANIAL AND CRANIOFACIAL
CORRELATIONS

Anffli

Central

92°

87°

95°

91.7°

(88-97)

90.4°

(90-93)

90°

90°

Cranio-
facial

87°
92°

85°

89.0°
(86-92)
88.1°
(86-91)
90°
92°

Angular relations
between basion-

nasion and

bregma-lambda

lines

-3°

+ 2°

-15°

+ 2.9°
(-4:0-4-11)

+0.8°
(-5 to +7)

-8°

-4°

*Klaatsch 1909, 18.

t Swabian; Am. Mus. Xat. Hist., 4555.

CRANIOLOGY 19

the cranial base (basion-nasion) line and the bregma-
lambda chord. There are a number of other correla-
tions, like the parallelism of the alveolar plane lines
with the glabella-lambda plane as pointed out by
Klaatsch, but only the aforementioned correlations will be
discussed here. These are listed in the table on page 18.

The " central angle" is the angle which Klaatsch
(1909) described as a rectangular correlation between
the basion-bregma and glabella-lambda lines, and after
the reinstitution of the latter which was Hamy^s line
of cranial orientation. This angle, Z glabella-inter-
section-bregma of pis. x-xn, oscillates around 90°.
Our Santa Barbara skulls have angles of 92° in B, 87°
in C, and 95° in E. This deficiency in C is probably due
to the greater declination of the cranial base line, as
well as to the more anterior position of the bregma.
The three angles are illustrative of the variation under
which they come about and which in the Haida series of
our table extends from 88° to 97°, yielding averages of
91.7° in the males and 90.4° in the females. Both
Klaatsch1 s Australian and the European of our table
represent at 90° the ideal size of the " central angle."
On the other hand, Falkenburger's assertion and demon-
stration of the recurrence, in deformed Peruvian skulls,
of the correlative conditions as encountered in the normal
ones, does not hold true, for instance, for the strongly
deformed Chinook, whose "central angles" average 99.8°
in the males and 99.2° in the females.

The cranio-facial angle is formed by the intersection
of the nasion-basion and prosthion-bregma lines, i.e.,
Z nasion-intersection-bregma of pis. x-xn. This

20 SANTA BARBARA

angle also oscillates around 90 °, and occurs generally at
that figure in varying frequencies in the different series.
The deviations do not frustrate the correlation at all,
but are rather in accordance with the variability of
organic forms in general {Falkenburger, p. 94). The
cranio-facial angle of the Santa Barbara skulls is like 87°
in B, 92° in C, and 85° in D; in other words, it falls short
of the ideal angle of 90° in B and D, and exceeds it in C.
Falkenburger points out repeatedly his interesting obser-
vation that with increasing prognathism the cranio-
facial angle also increases, an observation corroborated
in the Santa Barbara skulls, and it is particularly the
alveolar prognathism of C that must be held responsible
for such deviation. In larger series the variation results
correspondingly. The author (p. 84) gives, for instance,
a range of variation for Australians of 86-96°, with an
average of 90.6°. The Haida series of our table yielded
averages of 89.0° and 88.1° in the sexes at a total varia-
tion of 86-92°. The two individual values of our table
represent in the Australian the ideal angle of 90°, while
the Swabian slightly exceeds it at 92°.

The parallelism between the nasion-basion and
bregma-lambda lines also shows deviations resulting in
either their anterior or posterior convergence. Falken-
burger does not point out these possibilities, but they may
be distinguished by a plus or a minus sign in the two
cases. The two lines deviate in skull B at —3°, in skull C
at +2°, and in E at —15°, which finds its explanation
in part in the stronger declination of the nasion-basion
line as expressed by the cranial base-angle of 33° in the
males and 27° in the females. The two bregma-lambda

CRANIOLOGY 21

lines, on the other hand, are nearly parallel, with parietal
angles of 30° and 29° in specimens B and C, while an
angle of 20° in D explains the stronger posterior diver-
gence of the two lines in question. The averages of the
Haida group fall on the plus side of the angle; the two
individual values of the Australian and the European
are found on the minus side.

Another relationship seems to obtain between the
correlations described, and which are particularly notice-
able in the varying figures of the Santa Barbara speci-
mens. It is seen there that the higher " central angle"
associates itself with a proportionately lower cranio-
facial angle and similarly a minus divergence of the
basion-nasion and bregma-lambda lines, and vice versa.
It appears as if these conditions represent a sort of
compensatory adjustment of the varying dimensions
within the cranial complex. They are not borne out,
however, by the other figures of our table, but may be
worthy of special study.

NORMA VERTICALIS

Following Giuseppe Sergi's (1893) tassonomic method
of enclosing the skull contour of the vertical aspect
within a geometrical or other definite outline, speci-
mens B, C, and E are byrsoides in appearance,
while D is somewhat more roundish on account of its
greater frontal width. It resembles thus rather an
cllipsoides or a sphenoides rotundus. The byrsoides
differs from the ovoides, of which it is rather a sub form,
insofar as its outlines from the parietal bulgings forward

22 SANTA BARBARA

are not continuously convex toward the frontal outline,
but more or less concave, i.e., constricted in the temporal
region. At the same time, the occipital contour is
well rounded off, while the postorbital constriction is
quite marked. The dotted outlines of skulls B, C, and
E (pis. vii-ix), taken in ear-eye orientation at the
height of the supraorbital margin, resemble thus those of
a purse, as signified by the term byrsoides.1 The out-
lines are amplified each by solid outlines at the height of
the ear-eye plane proper. These fall entirely within the
supra-orbital outlines posteriorly of the ear-frontal plane
through the poria-points. In advance of it they trans-
gress them, inclosing the zygomatic arches, bridging
spacious temporal fossae, and returning finally into the
supra-orbital curve in skulls C and E, but still further
exceeding it in B. This is indicative of a facial projec-
tion in the latter, which will be properly dealt with later
(see page 51).

The skull C ( 9 ) is slightly plagiocrane in consequence
of a mild right parie to-occipital depression, a condition
somewhat more pronounced in E ( d"), and referred to on
pages 12, 14, 32, 121.

The sutures, on the whole, show the typical regional
differences. Of the coronal suture, the pars bregmatica
is simple in the four skulls, broadly but insignificantly
meandering in B, slightly serrate in the others, but some-
what obscured on account of disarticulation in C. They

1 Liddell and Scott's dictionary gives the following trans-
lation: i7 /3upcra, the skin stripped off, a wine-skin. In a wider
sense this may have referred to the similarly shaped purse
which is a direct etymological derivation.

CRANIOLOGY 23

correspond to forms I 1 and II 2 of Oppenheim' s (1907)
scheme. The pars complicata is individually different,
showing rather large excursions of lively movement in B,
while those of C and D are very complicated frizzy
patterns, both comparable with numbers 1 and 3 of the
same author's sutures of rarely occurring designs. The
pars complicata of E, on the other hand, is somewhat
simpler and may be likened to form IV 6. The partes
temporales of the coronal sutures, again simplifying,
represent an almost exact repetition of the pars breg-
matica patterns.

The pars bregmatica of the sagittal sutures resembles
quite precisely those of the coronal sutures. The pars
verticis of B is composed of long and moderately narrow
loops, only slightly simplified in the pars obelica, and
continued as pars postica s. lambdica similar to the
pars verticis. In C they are much more in keeping with
the sutural character of the pars bregmatica of both,
its sagittal and coronal sutures, although of stronger,
somewhat irregular dentation. Here, likewise, the pars
obelica is only slightly modified as against the vertex
and lambda parts. The sutural patterns of the three
portions of the sagittal sutures in B and C, outside of the
partes bregmaticae, may be likened to Oppenheim' s II
5 and II 4.

Altogether livelier is the sagittal suture of D, which
indeed refers to all four divisions of the latter and which
differ between themselves. Thus, while the pars breg-
matica of this suture and skull conforms to scheme IV
3, the pars verticis equals I 4, the pars obelica II 4, and
the pars postica s. lambdica to III 7. Similarly agitated

24 SANTA BARBARA

is the sagittal suture of E, whose first two divisions may
be likened to I 3 and 4, while the pars obelica is more like
II 3, and the short pars postica s. lambdica like IV 6.

The discussion of the lambdoid suture, although
belonging rather to the norma occipitalis, may neverthe-
less have its place in this connection. In all human
varieties this suture is the most complicated in its partes
lambdoideae and mediae, while the third divisions, the
partes astericae, range with the simplest of all the cranial
sutures. The partes lambdoideae of B and C are com-
paratively less complicated than those of D and E, the
former corresponding to Oppenheim's sutural patterns
1 4 and II 3, while the latter conforms to the very complex
types III 7 and IV 8. Following in character these
divisions, the partes mediae show slight differences in
type, although exceeding in complication all the other
sutures. Thus, while the pars media of B assumes a
form like II 6, those of C and E are like III 8 and IV 8,
the latter simply continuing the pattern of its pars lamb-
doidea. The lambdoid suture of D is not accounted for
because of the defectiveness of this skull.

The three principal cranial sutures of our skulls, show-
ing no signs of obliteration, are neither exceedingly com-
plicated nor very simple, and may be classed, therefore,
between the Europeans as the exponents of the former,
and the Chinese of the latter condition.

The partes bregmaticae of the coronal suture are only
slightly inclined toward each other, as may be seen in
fig. 1. With the bregma as a vertex, they form large
coronal angles of 149° in B and 152° in C, 160° in D and
150° in E. According to Martin (1914, 749) this angle

CRANIOLOGY

25

Fig. 1, — Coronal angle of partes bregmaticae of coronal sutures in the
Santa Barbara skulls

26 SANTA BARBARA

varies from 75° (Cebus) to 140° (Orang-utan) in simiidae.
It varies also in the human skull, short-headedness pro-
ducing larger angles than long-headedness. Briix, for
instance, has a coronal angle of 125° only.

How variable the course of the coronal suture may be
in a single series of skulls may be gained from fig. 2, a-d.
They come from San Miguel island, California, and are
contained in the collections of this Museum. In a,
a fairly straight transverse course is to be noticed, while
in b and c the two halves of the coronal suture slant
forward, in c, however, swinging backward again and
forming semicircular notches before the forward course
is resumed. In d the great liveliness of the sutures, even
of their partes bregmaticae, is of particular interest. In
illustration of what was remarked regarding the coronal
angle in short- and long-headedness, it is to be stated
that a belongs to the brachycranial variety, while b-d
are mesocranial.

The foramina parietalia are much better developed in
C than in B. While their typical number is two in the
former, one on each side of the obelion portion of the
sagittal suture, and at about 1 mm. in diameter, there is
only one tiny foramen parietale on the left side of B.
The foramina parietalia are entirely lacking in skulls D
and E. It is just these two crania whose pars obelica
of the sagittal suture was found to be rather complicated
in contrast with the usual behavior there. This may
have something to do with the absence of the foramina,
suggesting a premature union of the two parietals in
the obelion region of the occipital fontanelle and the
suppression of the foramina. Variation as to multiple

CRANIOLOGY

27

Fig. 2. — Diversity of the coronal suture in skulls from San Miguel Island,
California. (M. A. 1.)

28 SAXTA BARBARA

or uneven occurrence is quite frequent, and total absence
was noted in 19. 2^ in the undeformed skulls from the
American Xorth Pacific Coast.1 Hrdlicka (1916, 36)
states that in almost half of the Lenape Indian skulls
there are no parietal foramina at all.

Of the cranial dimensions observable in the norma
verticalis, the length and breadth may first be discussed.
The maximum length of our skulls amounts to 174 mm.
in B, 167 mm. in C. 177 mm. in D, and 169 mm. in E.
Within the physiological range of the cranial length
measurements from a series of 84 adult skulls from San
Miguel island, California, and extending from 168-193
mm. in men, our male skulls B and E occupy low stations,
while D conforms exactly with the male average of 177.0
mm. The position of skull C in the female range of that
series is similar to the position of B and E in the male
range. Somewhat different falls the cranial breadth.
Skulls B and D, with individual breadths of 141 mm. and
142 mm., hold about medium positions in the San Miguel
male range of 130-151 mm., while E attains only to 134
mm. The cranial breadth of 131 mm. in the female skull
C is almost in line with the lowest value of the female
range of 130-140 mm. The cranial length and breadth
of the Santa Barbara specimens are thus to be con-
sidered as rather submedium. The length-breadth
indices computed from these figures render the two male
skulls B and D brachycranial at 81.0 and 80.2, but E

1 References to craniological conditions in the Pacific North-
west here and in other parts of this monograph are from the
author's studies of the Jesup Expedition skeletal material,
not yet published.

CRANIOLOGY 29

and the female skull C mesocranial at 79.3 and 78.4.
The sex difference generally observed, of greater short-
headedness of the female skull, does not obtain in our
specimens; but it must be remembered that individual
values only are dealt with here. Group averages of a
larger number of skulls like those under discussion would
quite probably be in keeping with that general condition.
From the same point of view must be considered the
slightly higher indices of the Santa Barbara male skulls,
and the slightly lower index of the female, when com-
pared with the San Miguel averages. Mesocrany with a
tendency toward brachycrany is the character of both.
The minimum frontal breadth as an expression of post-
orbital constriction (Schwalbe 1899, 62-63) amounts to
96 mm. and 94 mm. in the male skulls B and D, and 90
mm. in the female. Conspicuously low at 85 mm. is
this measurement in the male E. It ranges thus below
the figures 88-92 mm. which Nehring (1905) quotes as
characteristically low for skulls from Brazilian Samba-
quis. Hooton (1920, 93), on the other hand, found in
the Madisonville (Ohio) crania averages of 94.97 mm.
and 92.71 mm. in the two sexes, but the lowest values
of his ranges drop to 87 mm. in the males and to 85 mm.
in the females; both ranges, however, rise to 103 mm.
Compared with the average value of minimum frontal
breadth in brachycranial groups {Martin 1914, 759),
namely 99 mm., all of our four values fall below that
average. But their real significance becomes manifest if
brought in proportion to the parietal breadth as expressed
by the transverse fronto-parietal index. This index
falls with 68.1 in B, 66.2 in D, and 68.7 in C, markedly

30 SANTA BARBARA

below 77, which Martin (1914, 759) quotes as an average
for brachycrany, but coincides with Sullivan's (1921)
Andamanese at 68.1 and 67.8 for the two sexes, whose
average cranial indices are 83.4 and 81.0. Considerably
below that average lies the index of skull E, namely
63.4, and that on account of its minimum frontal breadth
of only 85 mm. It is thus seen that, although the abso-
lute frontal breadth measurements of our skulls B, C. and
D are not excessively low, they appear to be so in the
cranial complex. Nevertheless, they fall into the metrio-
metopic class of the transverse fronto-parietal index.
Quite different, of course, is the position of skull E, whose
low index of 63.4 marks it stenometopic.

There is, however, a morphological detail which, in
spite of the non-excessive minimum frontal breadth, adds
to the impression of pronounced postorbital constric-
tion: the horizontal trend of the processus zygomaticus
of the frontal bone, and, in consequence thereof, the obvi-
ous lateral deviation of the crista temporalis of the fron-
tal bone. This condition will more suitably be referred
to in the discussion of the norma frontalis (page 83).

As to Indian skulls with narrow foreheads, there is in
our collection the full-grown skull of a Carijo Indian of
the Guarani stock of southern Brazil, with even a smaller
minimum frontal breadth than that listed by Nehring
for the Sambaqui skulls, namely 85 mm., which thus
corresponds with our skull E. This Carijo skull is doli-
chocranial at 72.6, as against the mesocranial skull E
at 79.3, its transverse fronto-parietal index dropping to
66.9 as compared with 63.4 in the same Santa Barbara
skull. The lower index of the latter is due to its greater

CRANIOLOGY

31

parietal (maximum cranial) breadth 134 mm. to 127 mm.,
while both min mum frontal breadths amount to 85 mm.,
as mentioned above. In consequence of the pronounced
postorbital constriction in conjunction with bulging
zygomatic arches, the latter are phaenozygous in the
vertical aspect, as shown in the photographic reproduc-
tions (pis. xxi-xxin). The cranial measurements
pertaining to the norma verticalis are listed in the fol-
lowing table.

CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS

X

o

o

X

|H

X

-&

CS

at

XI

HUMAN VARIETY

O
1-t

X

4>

B

o

a

X

x

s

o

Ul

CO

X

"So

B

'3

Xl

XI

to

B

3

as
u

u

<u

S-l

a

J

S

mm.

mm.

mm.

,0

S

Santa Barbara

B (d1)

174

141

96

81.0

68.1

C (9)

167

131

90

78.4

68.7

(D c?)

177

142

94

80.2

66.2

E (<?)

169

134

85.

79.3

63.4

San Miguel island

[*

177.0

139.7

—

78.3

—

Averages < g

(168-193)
170.0

(130-151)
135.3

_

(72.0-83.9)
79.2

_

(164-175)

(130-140)

(77.1-83.3)

Carijo (Brazil )cf

175

127

85

72.6

66.9

NORMA LATERALIS

The main impression given by the outlines of the
Santa Barbara skulls in side view is in addition to

32 SANTA BARBARA

an even vaulting of the brain case, the bulging
development of the post auricular portion, and the pro-
trusion of the face. The frontal outline is mildly retreat-
ing, showing the typical flexion of the human forehead
by the supraglabellar depression above weakly devel-
oped superciliary ridges. The frontal outline is con-
tinued into that of the parietal, which reaches its highest
point behind the bregma, more so in skulls C and E than
in B. In each of the skulls the postbregmatic eleva-
tion is perfectly absorbed by the evenness of the general
outline. The extreme occipital extension is reached in
B, D, and E by a slight curving fall from the vertex,
which is somewhat more abrupt in C. The entire occipi-
tal curve is well rounded, with almost no indication of
an inial flexure in B and C, owing to a very weak develop-
ment of the occipital relief, which however is slightly
more marked in D. The mastoid processes pointing
forward at about 45° with the plane of ear-eye orientation
are well developed, and of elegant form in B and E, but
rather small and insignificant in C. The elliptic pori
acustici externi are rather large in the three skulls,
even somewhat wider in the female, and vertically
oriented. The right porus of E is slightly compressed
bilaterally, very probably in consequence of the depres-
sion on that side of the cranium referred to on pages
12, 14, 22, 121. The tympanic margins are only scantily
thickened inferiorly and posteriorly, excessive thicken-
ing being very frequently found in Indian skulls of the
Pacific area, as is well known, and in those of the Eskimo.
Turning now to the face, it will be noticed that the
nasion shows no depression whatsoever. The nasal

CRANIOLOGY 33

bones protrude somewhat in their lower portions, i.e.,
are convex in outline, particularly in skulls B and D,
while the upper form deep concavities, but no side-to-
side flattening. The facial protrusion, which is quite
pronounced in B and C, is augmented by alveolar prog-
nathism in the female skull C. It differs, however,
from alveolar prognathism, for intance, of the Veddah,
in whom the cousins Sarasin pointed out the enhance-
ment of that condition by prodenty, i.e., the strongly
inclining incisor teeth. In the Santa Barbara female
skull the teeth are vertically set and labidodont with
those of the lower jaw. In the teeth of skulls B and C,
which are fairly complete in both skulls, the plane of
mastication is convexly rounded in the upper jaws, and
in the fore-to-aft direction, while that of the lower jaw
forms a compensatory concavity for complete occlusion
of the two dental rows. Those of E do not exhibit this
condition. The chins are only slightly protruding, a
feature in keeping with the Mongoloid characteristics.

Muscle marks are rather weakly developed, except the
temporal ones in B and E. The temporal crest of the
frontal bone in the former is strong and sharp. The
lineae temporales, into which it continues in an even
curve, are well marked. The upper temporal line
diverges from the frontal crest about 2.5 cm. before it
reaches the coronal suture, the zonula circummuscularis
becoming wider and comprising the parietal bump.
In a sharp turn and continuing along the lambdoid
suture they terminate in the mastoid region, the zonula
circummuscularis diminishing in width at the same time.
The asterion region is somewhat rugged, less so the area

34 SANTA BARBARA

of muscular insertion (mm. sternocleidomastoideus and
splenius capitis) on the outside of the mastoids. The
female skull has all these details in a less marked degree,
although the mastoid outer surface is more rugged than
that of the male, and in spite of much smaller mastoid
processes. The cristae supramastoideae are well
marked, although not excessively, in our specimens, and
correspond more or less with the conditions generally
met in Indian skulls of the Pacific Coast. The supra-
mastoid fossae are for that reason not very deep.

The shape of the temporal squama differs in our skulls,
tending to be shorter and higher in B, and longer and
lower in C and E. It is a general observation that, in
connection with the former, deeper cut mastoid incisures
are found, i.e., incisurae of an angularity of 90° or less.
How different, however, the conditions may be found in
one and the same skull is demonstrated by fig. 3, a and
b, where the two tempora1 squamae of B are shown in
contraposition. Of about equal height, the right squama
produces a sharp-angled incisura mastoidea, while on
the left side it is indicated by a shallow concavity only.
The formation of an incisura mastoidea comes about
occasionally by the crista supramastoidea forming a
triangular ridge-like projection of the temporal squama.
This temporal ridge is sometimes found continued as a
parietal one upon the parietal bone, where it then ter-
minates thinning or sickle-shape, as is the case in a mild
form in skull E. Both formations are shown in fig.
4, a, b, the thorn-like one being that of a Bellacoola
male (no. 4626, American Museum of Natural History),
the ridge belonging to a male Haida (no. 3738, same).

CRAN10L0GY

35

The first case in particular is instructive for the reason
that the low squama temporal's would very probably

Fig. 3. — Right and left squama temporalis of Santa Barbara B (d*) to
show difference of incisurse mastoideae (see arrows) and incipient stages of
processus frontales (x). a, left squama; b, right squama; E — E', ear-eye
plane. (About f natural size.)

have been without a parietal incisura were it not for the
triangular projection of the supramastoid crista, the

::

S A X T A BARE A I

CRANIOLOGY 37

latter continuing very slightly upon the parietal.
Stronger parietal projections are quite frequently encoun-
tered in skulls from the Pacific Northwest, as mentioned
on page 33 .

The squamosal sutures are very simple, on the whole,
becoming slightly livelier posteriorly. The zygomatic
processes of the temporal squamae in B and E incline
very slightly and reach their maximum depression at a
point above the anterior s'opeof the well-developed artic-
ular tubercles. From this point they rise again to con-
tinue evenly into the temporal processes of the zygoma-
tic bones. In C the arcus are perfectly straight. Both
these forms show too little significance to associate them
with racial types; they occur in Europeans, Negroes, and
Mongoloids.

The temporal squamae of B are markedly bulged later-
ally, signifying a better development of the temporal
lobes of the brain as compared with more plane surfaces
of the squamae in C and E. The sulcus sphenoparietalis
(Schwalbe) , indicative on the cranial outside of the divid-
ing furrow of the fronto-parietal and temporal lobes of
the brain (fissura Sylvii), is therefore somewhat more
distinct in the male skull B.

The fossae temporales are spacious transversely, as well
as longitudinally, especially in the female skull. Here
and in E this state is recognizable by the greater length of
the spheno-parietal suture and the greater width of the
ala magna. In skull B, on the other hand, the temporal
squama extends farther forward into the fossa tem-
poralis, thus shortening the length of the latter. For
a better understanding of the size and depth of the tern-

m

Fig. 5. — Tracings of fossa temporalis of skull B (cf) in ear-eye orientation,

on a level with: ear-eye plane; minimum frontal breadth;

-7 — - zygomatico-frontal suture; ektokonchion; .

crista infra temporalis, e—f, ear-frontal; m — s, median sagittal plane.
{\ natural size.)

Fig. 6.— Tracings of fossa temporalis of skull C ( 9 ) in ear-eye orientation.
Levels and markings as in fig. 5. {\ natural size)

38

CRANIOLOGY

39

poral fossae of our three skulls, their outlines have been
traced at different levels as shown in figs. 5-7. En-
closed in a facial curve coinciding with the ear-eye plane,
the temporal fossae have been traced at the four different
levels of the minimum frontal breadth, the zygomatico-
frontal suture, the ektokonchion, and the crista infra-

Fig. 7. — Tracings of fossa temporalis of skull E (cf) in ear-eye orientation
Levels and markings as in fig. 5. (| natural size)

temporalis. The latter illustrates in every case the
greatest depth of the temporal fossae, which gradually
diminishes upward. The curve systems are supple-
mented by the next table of measurements. It gives
the length of the fossa temporalis as taken between the
deepest point of the notch of the zygomatic process of
the temporal bone, and the sutura zygomaticomaxil-

40

SANTA BARBARA

laris on its temporal course, and at half the corpus height
of the zygomatic bone; the width of the temporal fossa
as measured between the crista infratemporalis1 and the
temporal surface of the zygomatic arch, parallel with the
frontal plane; the index derived from these two measure-
ments; the length of the
sphenoparietal suture be-
tween the krotaphion and
sphenion measuring points;
the combined lengths of the
sphenoparietal and spheno-
frontal sutures, directly be-
tween the krotaphion and
sphenofrontale (mihi; the
point of meeting of the
sphenofrontal and spheno-
zygomatic sutures) ; the pro-
jective distance between the
krotaphion and frontotem-
porale, the latter indicating
on the crista temporalis of
the frontal bone the point of
greatest frontal constriction.
The anatomical configuration in the fossa temporalis
and the landmarks are illustrated in fig. 8.

The table, with a few additions, lists only the Santa
Barbara data and may be used as a model for future
comparative study.

1 The tuberculum spinosum of the crista infratemporalis
may be recommended as a measuring point, if not so bulky
as to modify the true width of the temporal fossa.

Fig. 8. — Anatomical configuration
and landmarks of fossa temporalis.
//, frontotemporale; sphf, spheno-
frontale; sphn, sphenion; k, krota-
phion.

CRANIOLOGY

41

FOSSA

temporalis"

4-)

O

i c

, Q-

HUMAN VARIETY

o
o

.11

o D-

J3

o a

^ o

j3

to

a

^2

<u

£

£

M

M

W

r

1

r

1

r

1

r

1

r

1

r

1

Santa Barbara

*

B (cf)

38
42
41

38
40
42

30
30

28

28
30
?Q

78.9
71.4
68.3

73.7
75.0
69.0

4
14
14

7
16
16

28
33
37

28
34
38

31
37
41

S1

C (9 )..

4?

E (tf1)

44

■^ i • + / ff"

29

27
25.5

EskimoJ < g

_.

Europeans^

* The measurements are in millimeters.

f For explanations see text immediately preceding

X Cameron 1923, p.c. 39.

The difference of dimension between the two sides of
the skull is the rule in the listings of this table. The
length-width index of the fossa temporalis is more influ-
enced by its variable length than by its width, which is
more stable. The male width is quite in keeping with
Cameron's figure for Eskimo, while his female Eskimo
range below the female Santa Barbara skull. The
Europeans have a width of only 25.5 mm.; it must be
taken in consideration, however, that the zygomatic
bridge, which is involved in this measurement, represents
a racially differing feature. Coinciding with the low
indices of our skull E (c?) are seen the high sutural
lengths as compared with those of B (a") and C ( 9),
a fact already referred to.

Additional mention should be made regarding the

42 SANTA BARBARA

sphenoparietal suture of skull B. Approaching the
stenocrotaphic state with a length of only 4 mm., the
left suture takes a strong upward turn. The krotaphion
is situated on the summit of a trapezoid projection of the
temporal squama, denoting an incipient stage of the
processus frontalis.

This condition is prompted on the right side of skull B
by a sharp rectangular forward turn of the squamosal
suture, which latter is evenly continued into the spheno-
squamosal suture. Fig. 3, a, b, depict these slightly
irregular appearances.

The shape of the processus frontosphenoidalis is rather
slender and high in our three skulls, with marginal
processes hardly indicated. In the fragments of skull A,
however, the frontosphenoidal process is somewhat more
robust, and the marginal one well developed. The
height of the processus frontosphenoidalis in our skulls
is influenced by the more horizontally directed zygo-
matic processes of the frontal bone, particularly in skull
B. The bearing of this condition on the production and

1 A stenocrotaphic state is reached with a length of 3-0
mm. of the sutura sphenoparietalis (R. Virchow 1875, 52).
Langc (1924, 373) has found that the greatest absolute length
of the suture occurs in Europeans; it is less extended in the
Negroes, and shortest in the Australians. Stenocrotapby
was noted in the undeformed Xorth Pacihc crania in 0.8 rc
on the right, 1.6% on the left, and 0.8^ on both sides. This
insignificant frequency does not conform with Anutschin's
(Martin 1914, 780) findings of 3.0 % in Mongols of Xorth
Asia, 5.8^ in Mongols in general, and even 8.2 f^ in Chinese.
It is an interesting fact, however, that the frequency of
stenocrotaphy rises in the deformed skulls of the Xorth Pacific
Coast.

CRANIOLOGY 43

extent of postorbital constriction is referred to on page
30 and will be further discussed on page 83. In a previ-
ous publication (Oetteking 1919) racial differences prevail-
ing in this region as concerns the shape and lateral reces-
sion of the process under discussion have been pointed out.
It was shown there that among European, Eskimo, and
Negro, the first named held a medium position as regards
the recession of the processus frontosphenoidalis. Meas-
sured in lateral projection between the medial and lateral
borders of the left orbit (maxillof ronta1 e-ektokonchion) ,
the greatest distance amounted to 9 mm. in the Eskimo,
13 mm. in the European, and 16 mm. in the Negro.
Our three skulls, with 14 mm. in B, and 12 mm. each in
C and E, thus conform with medium conditions as
represented by Europeans. The orbital measurements
in general are treated on pages 91, 98.

Among the main measurements observable in norma
lateralis are those of the cranial length and height.
The former has been discussed in connection with the
norma verticalis. The basion-bregma height of B is 134
mm., of C 125 mm., and of E 133 mm. Compared with
the height averages of 129.9 mm. and 122.4 mm. of the
two sexes of the San Miguel skull series, the cranial
heights of the Santa Barbara skulls exceed them. This
is demonstrated also by their relative position within the
ranges of variation of 120-139 mm. and 115-130 mm. for
the San Miguel males and females. The length-height
index becomes accordingly 77.0 for skull B, 74.9 for
skull C, and 78.7 for skull E, rendering the two males
hypsicranial, the female orthocranial, but at the border
line of orthocrany and hypsicrany. The relatively

44 SANTA BARBARA

high individual values of the length-height index of the
Santa Barbara crania are somewhat disproportionate to
the San Miguel averages of 72.5 and 71.4 in the two sexes,
although covered by the range of variation of the latter.
The difference is due, as will be seen from the table of
measurements, to both the greater length and the lesser
height of the San Miguel skulls. In dolichocranial
Mongoloid varieties like the Eastern Eskimo, the length-
height index is naturally decisively influenced by the
relatively greater cranial length. Thus, while the
basion-bregma height in that human variety {Oetteking
1909) yielded an average as high as 134.6 mm., at a range
of from 128-144 mm., the length-height index yielded
only an orthocranial average of 73.7, owing to the greater
cranial length averaging 182.3 mm. from a range of 1 71—
200 mm. Chamaecrany, on the other hand, is the pre-
vailing condition in the paleolithic skulls (La Chapelle-
aux-Saints = 62.9, and approximately: Piltdown =
68.4; Galley Hill = 67.4), owing here to their excessive
cranial length, which amounts to 208 mm. in the first-
named skull.

The cranial ear-heights (porion-bregma) nearly coin-
cide with 112 mm. in B and 111 mm. in C, while E has
only 109 mm. A pronounced sex difference was noticed
in the San Miguel skulls, where the males attained an
average of 111.2 mm. against 104.2 mm. for the females.
The difference between their basion-bregma and porion-
bregma heights is the result of different infraporial
extension. The basion-porion portions of the cranial
height measure 22 mm. in B, 14 mm. in C, and 26 mm.
in E, showing the two male skulls consider ably in excess

CRANIOLOGY 45

of the female skull. This seems to be the general con-
dition between the two sexes, although R. Virchow
(quoted by R. Martin 1914, 691) found the position
of the porion to be higher in Frisian women. In our
frequently mentioned San Miguel series there is an
average infraporial extension of 20.3 mm. in men and
17.9 mm. in women, varying from 13 mm. to 30 mm. and
12 mm. to 24 mm. respectively. Males and females
combined yield an average of 19.9 mm., which ranges
among the highest quoted by Martin (p. 691), compris-
ing the Maori with 19.4 mm., Papuans with 20.3 mm.,
and Old Egyptians with 21.6 mm. The infraporial
height varies according to the same author from 6 mm.
to 26 mm. in the human varieties.

The ear-heights brought into proportion with the
length measurements of 174 mm., 167 mm., and 169
mm., in the three Santa Barbara skulls, give rise to
indices of 64.4 for B, 66.5 for C, and 63.9 for E. Apply-
ing for the ear-height index the same nomenclature as
used for the cranial height index, all our skulls turn out
hypsicranial, the female even more than the two males.
The ear-height index reverses somewhat the calculations
of our cranial heigh t index in so far as skull C ( 9 ) , which
was found to be orthocranial by the latter, is hypsicranial
by the former, and even exceeds the two male skulls in
ear-height hypsicrany. The reason is to be seen, first,
in the smaller infraporial extension of the height diame-
ter in C, and, secondly, its smaller cranial length. The
San Miguel averages of the ear-height index at 61 +
are orthocranial, although their range of variation
comprises also a number of hypsicranial individuals.

46

SANTA BARBARA

From a general point of view it seems that the peoples of
Mongol extraction manifest a tendency toward hypsi-
crany, while the true Mongols (Buriat, Ostiak, Kal-
muck) are rather platycranial.

The measurements just discussed are listed in the
following table.

CRANIAL HEIGHT MEASUREMENT

s

-<->

'3

~z a

,d

^ a

cd

HUMAN VARIETY

-C c

as

o
o

"So

to

o

©

-c

c.2

C rt

To

to

c

to

ov-'

o

u

-=

to

c

i— i

IX,

mm.

mm.

CJ

mm.

mm.

w

Santa Barbara

B (c?)

174
167
169

134
125
133

77.0
74.9
78.7

22
14
26

112
111
109

64.4

C (9 )

66.5

E (d1)

63.9

San Miguel island

re?

! 177

129.9

72.5

20.3

111.2

61.5

1

(168-

(120-

(66.3-

(13-

(100-

(56.8-

Averages { 9

193)

139)

79.3)

30)

118)

66.7)

170

122.4

71.4

17.9

104.2

61.3

1

a 64-

(115-

(66.9-

(12-

(100-

(59.4-

175)

130)

76.0)

24)

118)

64.9)

The median-sagittal arc is, with 359 mm., largest in
the male B, while that of the other male, E, measures
342 mm., and the female, C, only 340 mm. This is in
conformity with about average conditions on the coast
of southern California, but conspicuously less than the
averages of tribes farther north, like the Haida with male
and female averages of 371.2 mm. and 355.2 mm., or
the Western Eskimo at 366.4 mm. and 356.6 mm.

CRANIOLOGY 47

Of greater interest is the participation of the individual
arcs that constitute the median-sagittal arc. The pro-
portional lengths of the frontal, parietal, and occipital
divisions are as 119-120-120 mm. in B, 114-126-100
mm. in C, and 113-105-124 mm. in E. The parietal
arc exceeding both the frontal and occipital arcs in true
human proportion is the condition met in the female
skull C, and is only conditionally true of B. Here the
three participants are almost of the same length, which
is the exact proportion between the parietal and occipital
arcs, while the frontal is only 1 mm. in default. The
two arcs of the skull cap D, with 121 mm. for the frontal
and 123 mm. for the parietal, retain the proportion as
met in B and C. Fully out of the ordinary are the pro-
portions of skull E, with 113-105-124 mm. The parietal
arc is exceeded here by both the frontal and the occipital,
owing in the latter perhaps to the excessive development
of the interparietal part of the occipital squama. Agree-
ing with Schwalbe that in 50% of human skulls the fron-
tal arc exceeds the parietal, while in 42.8% the reverse is
true as a progressive proportion, the remainder going to
the proportion of equality, skulls B, C, and D are seen
to conform with the progressive state, while E marks in
every respect the opposite. Equality of frontal and
parietal arcs at 121 mm. was noted in La Chapelle-
aux-Saints. The larger frontal arc, however, seems to
be the prevailing condition in the undeformed skulls from
the North Pacific Coast, where the three proportions —
frontal arc greater than parietal, equal with parietal,
or smaller than parietal — occur in the males in the pro-
portions 82.1%— 3.8%— 14.1%, and in the females in
82.3%-5.9%-11.8%.

48

SANTA BARBARA

The measurements just discussed are combined in the
following table.

MEDIAN-SAGITTAL

ARC

Arc

Fronto-parietal
proportions

HUMAN VARIETY

i a

o

d.t:

13

u3

o

CJ

'-5 rt

c

<U

.z?

03

Pm

P^

PL.

sT

o

03

u

V-i

^J

A

II

V

h

Ph

O

03

o

f3H

fe

Ph

mm.

mm.

mm.

mm.

03

0-<

<-t-l

Of

,0

Of

/0

%

Santa Barbara. . . .

B (c?)

359
340

119
114

120
126

120
100

100.8
110.5

—

—

C (9)

(D d1)

—

121

123

101.7

—

—

—

E (d")

342

113

105

124

92.9

—

—

North Pacific Coast

Undeformed

r <?...

363.6
(317-

395)

127.2
(109-

145)

119

(88-
139)

117.6
(103-

140)

93.6

82.1

3.8

14.1

Averages

9 . . .

350

(325-

122.3
(113-

115
(102-

112
(98-

95.6

82.3

5.9

11.8

380)

135)

131)

123)

La Chapelle-aux-

Saints

357

121

121

115

1000

—

—

Important in a racial diagnosis are declination and
curvature of the frontal bone, because both determine the
relative position of the forehead in the cranial complex.
Hrdlicka (1907, 1908) has repeatedly called attention to
the "low forehead" in non-deformed Indian skulls, but
without proving his observations methodically. From
his comments it is quite clear that low vaulting, as well
as different degrees of sloping, was involved. At first
glance our three skulls give the impression of the dis-
tinctive development of both those conditions. How-

CRANIOLOGY 49

ever, this is somewhat deceptive with regard to the
declination of the frontal bone, as will be seen. The
angles formed by the nasion-bregma chord with a parallel
of the ear-eye plane passing through the nasion are
48° in B and E, and 51° in C, thus preserving between
themselves the predominance of the female angle over
the male — the condition most frequently present. The
Santa Barbara skulls fall well within the variation of,
for instance, the San Miguel islanders of (39) 43-54°,
and whose averages are 47.2° for the males and 46.4°
for the females. Lower averages, at least for the males,
were found for the Haida, namely, 43.6° and 50.4°,
while the Western Eskimo have 46.1° in both sexes.
Taking further into consideration the averages of North
Pacific undeformed skulls, amounting to 46.0° and 48.1°
in the two sexes, the variations running from 40° to 54°
and 43° to 54° respectively, it is clear that we cannot
attribute to our skulls any exceptional position among
the Pacific groups as regards the declination of the fron-
tal bone. It may be of interest to cite in this connection
the declination of the frontal bone in the La Chapelle-
aux-Saints skull which, on account of its fair state of
preservation among the Neandertaloids, admits of an
orientation in the ear-eye plane. Fr. Sarasin (1916—
1922, 210) found in that specimen an angle of frontal
declination of 48°, which curiously enough coincides with
that of the Santa Barbara males. The same author
gives a European average of 49.5°, which as such demon-
strates the predominance of the European frontal angle,
although the Haida female average reached as high as
50.4°. An obvious difference was noted in seven Chim-
panzee skulls with an average of 35°.

50 SANTA BARBARA

The impression of low frontal vaulting, as mentioned
above, is borne out by the measurements. The median-
sagittal frontal index amounts to 91+ in skulls B, D,
and E, and 92.1 in skull C, expressing well-marked
flatness of the frontal vault. Drawing the line at 90
between orthometopism and chamaemetopism, our skulls
are seen to be chamaeme topic, and the female more so
than the males. The indices mark a condition of flat-
ness which exceeds all the racial averages of Martin's
(1914, 765) table, and which occur there between the
figures 87.1 and 89.1. Their indices exceed even the
highest individual indices of the Haida at 90.8 and 89.7,
and of the Eskimo at 90.5 and 91.1 in the two sexes,
while the San Miguel Island skulls comprise individual
indices as high as 96.8 in the males and 91.2 in the
females, which latter is level with the Santa Barbara
males. Astonishing again is the well-curved forehead
in the Xeandertaloids at 87, conforming with the
European average. The Chimpanzee skulls also, at
89.5, have better vaulted frontals. These conditions
are likewise expressible by the angle of frontal curvature
which is formed by two lines extending from the point of
highest elevation of the median-sagittal frontal curve
above its chord (frontal acrion [mini], to distinguish it
from the parietal and occipital acria) to the nasion and
bregma respectively. Depending somewhat on the
length of the chord, the angle nevertheless is expressive
of the frontal curvature in such a way that the greater
angle indicates the lesser vaulting, and vice versa. Our
specimens B and C present angles of 140° each, while E
rises to 142°, but D attains to only 135°. Comparing

CRANIOLOGY 51

these figures (see table) with those given by R. Martin
(1914, 766), it is immediately observed that the Santa
Barbara skulls range with the Neandertal skull. Com-
pared with the averages given for Alsatians and Aus-
tralians, Neandertal, as well as our skulls shows a
distinctly flatter forehead.

The glabella-projection is only mildly developed.
As the highest points of the glabellar curves do not in
anterior projection exceed the nasion in the properly
oriented skulls (ear-eye plane), Mollis on' s (1908, 575)
index of glabella-projection in advance of the nasion-
vertical and glabella-height above the nasion-horizontal
was not applicable. Thus another method based on
absolute measurements had to be resorted to. The
most reliable of several methods that offered themselves
seemed to be that proposed by Fr. Sarasin (p. 211),
who computed an index from the glabellar arc and chord,
the latter marking the distance between the nasion and
supraglabellare, i.e., the deepest point between the
fronto-glabellar and fronto-cerebral median-sagittal
curves. The indices derived from the absolute measure-
ments for the glabellar arc and chord differing 1-2 mm.
in the individual skulls, are in B and C 95.8 and 96.0,
and in D and E 92.0 and 92.3. Although these indices
are indicative of only slight bulging, Fr. Sarasin gives
an average for European men of 98, signifying a still
less vaulted glabella than that of the Santa Barbara.
His New-Caledonian men yielded a markedly lower
average of only 91.1 in illustration of strong glabellar
vaulting, at a variation of 82.8-97.8, but a female one
of 97.2, ranging 92.2-100.0. For further comparison

52

SANTA BARBARA

\U

.- -
- ' :

- - > «

c - •

i I

Ijll!

-I - 3
tj — • *

v. . —

U u-. -

qT N lt. <:

>Z 3

CRANIOLOGY 53

Fr. Sarasin's findings upon Neandertaloid crania may
be given, namely, 80-83, and it is furthermore seen that
his lowest New-Caledonian male of 82.8 fits with those.
The glabellar protrusion is naturally greatest in a series
of Chimpanzee skulls at an average of 78.1 from a range
of 70.1-81.8.

In order to show some of these conditions in a graphic
way, the frontal outlines of a European and the Neander-
tal calotte have been superposed in fig. 9, a, upon that
of our skull B. They are oriented on the ear-eye plane
at their individual angles of frontal declination. The
Neandertal outline was approximately oriented on the
ear-eye plane in such a way that in adjustment with the
orientation of skull B, the angular difference between this
skull's ear-eye and nasion-inion lines (which latter is
the line of orientation of the Neandertal calotte!) was
subtracted from the frontal angle of the Neandertal.
The result is an angle of 30°. This procedure is justified
only in this particular case in view of the fact that the
frontal angle of B represents in a way an average con-
dition of frontal angularity; it is by no means supposed
to be final. In b of the same figure the same three out-
lines as in a are again superposed, the frontal chords
reduced to the length of that of B, and their angles of
frontal declination adjusted to the latter's angle of
48°. This shows to better advantage the differing
amount of frontal vaulting, disclosing at the same time
the more pronounced one of the Neandertal forehead
which exceeds even that of the European.

The measurements discussed in connection with the
frontal bone are assembled in the next table.

54

SANTA BARBARA

b s-a

O O

OJ-B

OOT-pioqD

piotp

DIE 1

ofcu«

o o o o

00<0(N

^h ^ ro ^f

oT?T I ^ds

6Gm 'iPoOei subpbsiv

XCOro

ON On On CN

(0"00T-2T6) r>6 6
(8-Z6-8T8) T'T6 .P

co Tf co ^f

OJ CN CN CN

(S'*Z-0'6l) OTZ 6
(S"6Z-0"03) £'fl \P

r^H LC l_C O
CN CN CN CN

(0"9£-0'6I) I'll 6

(0'f£-0'll) 191 sP

(££61-9161 'utsvws 'Jd)

SUBIU0p3[E3 A\.9JSJ

DJE

O T-< CN CN

1 ^ 1 ^

HQX

•3

OOI-P-ioip

On On On On

oc oc on oc oc on

xioo

00 OC On

G

pjoqo |

o o o o

">■ 1 -^ 1 ~

On i-h O ^ oc fC
O O CM O On «-"

OC

• 1 ^

CO lo LC

tH o ^

'-3

w

s

S

DJ-C |

On "^ *-i O

^ -r- CN r<~

CO io

CN O O CO rt Tf

ro

On OC ^
CN ^h ^

^ v^ W

<■> o
OC i-H
■^ LO

° ci o O
" re u"/ ^ ^

O "^

O ^

• I
co O

CRANIOLOGY

55

I o

COOO
O^ Q\ rH

CO
oo

I

o

CO

HrHOOOO

... I

000H0
x>- r- oo oo

88.1

(85.7-

89.7)

rH a "^ ^ Qy 'H "* ^ fO

OO^OoOiOrHNLOON
OOOOOnoOOOOnoOoOOO

1 1 ^
LO LO H OO <N

NOOON^ON
00 00 OO OO On OO

On rH to

O O rH

rH o <M ▼h O "— '

CN t-h ro

On 00 "O rH- rH to
CN rH rH CN CN CO

CO

CO

O rH
r* LO

© vo

LO rH

O CO

rH LO

• I

VO rH

r* rH

O CN

1—1 LO

NO CO
r* rH

O rH
LO LO

• I
ON NO
r* rH

o

OO
r*

r+
O I

LO rH

CO co

o

o
to

X
d

c3

jv

"o H —

rG.S
(J ^

Hi

u

d

S^S

^ ^ ^
c/a d. o3

H-> Oh

Or] o

a .^

d. **> §.

X> LO J

^On o
d^£

03 ^ g

C <3 o .

& S

. o3 O

d

s^

85

? d o u

° s^° .

in d .d i— T,<~ n

u O O si ,;

"r>*^i ^ "S *°

O d QJ £o

^s-J.

_Q c/3

QJ 111

NO

NO

d ^

<L> d n r-t I

d.2 S^^

© 22 J3 <» 2 «: rH"

*S ^^ rt— §;^

. H QJ 1x5 T3 §? oo On

il.§.S-j;!|>l

* > S)~H-++W»

•J O I)

56

SANTA BARBARA

Following up the cranial outline posteriorly, a marked
post-bregmatic elevation is noticed. This is particu-
larly true of the female skull and coincidental with its
higher sagittal frontal index. As the maximum or total
cranial height is rarely identical with the basion-bregma
height, it is quite natural that the highest point of the
cranial vault, the vertex, falls behind the bregma also
in European skulls. But pronounced cases may duly

a

Fig. 10. — Post-bregmatic elevation. Superposition of outlines: a.

Santa Barbara B (c^); Santa Barbara C (9);

Santa Barbara E (d71). b. Santa Barbara C (9);

Swabian (No. 4555, A.M. N. H.); Senoi (Martin 1905);

Ainu (No. 1634, A. M. N. H.). e—e', parallel to ear-eye plane through b,
bregma. (£ natural size.)

be signified as morphologically inferior, especially if
accompanied by low vaulting of the forehead as in our
skulls, which again is commensurate with the develop-
ment of the frontal brain. A comparative demonstration
of these conditions has been attempted in fig. 10, a, b,
where the horizontal e-e' is a parallel to the ear-eye plane
laid through the bregma. In a the differences of post-
bregmatic elevation are shown in our three skulls, C

CRANIOLOGY 57

exceeding B and E, and amounting to 5 mm. as against
2 mm. and 4 mm., and occurring 3 cm. behind the bregma,
in C and E, and 2 cm. in B. In b, the parietal outlines
of a Senoi, a Swabian, and an Aino are seen superposed
upon that of C, which represents the highest postbreg-
matic elevation. This racial order of individual values
is, of course, fortuitous. It is of interest, however, that
the outline of highest post-bregmatic elevation coincides
with low, and that of least elevation with high, frontal
vaulting.

The parietal angle between the bregma-lambda line
and a parallel to the ear-eye plane passing through the
lambda is not affected by the post-bregmatic elevation,
since its variation depends on quite different factors,
such as the position of the bregma and lambda, and post-
bregmatic extension of the skull. The angles are fairly
identical at 30° in the male B, and 29° in the female C,
but it drops to 20° in E, owing to the comparatively
shorter parietal arc which is compensated by an occipi-
tal arc of considerable length. The first two values
conform exactly with the averages of the Western
Eskimo. The Haida, on the other hand, have slightly
lower averages of 27° in both sexes, resulting quite prob-
ably from their tendency toward longheadedness.

The sagittal parietal vaulting is well developed and
illustrates, with indices of 89.2, 86.5, 87.8, and 91.4
for skulls B, C, D, and E, the variable conditions gen-
erally met in Indian skulls. The higher male indices
indicating a slightly flatter bend seem to be likewise a
generally prevailing condition, which is corroborated by
the Haida and Eskimo indices in the subjoined table ?

58

SANTA BARBARA

where the factors underlying the sagittal parietal index
also are listed. It will be noted that the averages for
the parietal arcs of the Santa Barbara skulls, as well as
of the groups mentioned there, present values near 120
mm. This is in conformity with the average value for
the median-sagittal parietal arc in brachycrany which
R. Martin (1914, 747) gives as 122 mm., while that of
dolichocrany lies at 130 mm.

HUMAN VARIETY

Santa Barbara

B(cf)

C(9)

(D <?)

E(d-)

Haida (d1)

Averages^ Q

Eskimo
(Western)

Averages^ g

OS PARIETALE

Median-sagittal

z.
bregma-

arc
mm.

chord
mm.

chord- 100
arc

lambda

on

ear-eye

plane

120
126
123
105

107

109

108

96

89.2
86.5
87.8
91.4

30°
30°

20°

119.6
(103-134)

119.8
(115-131)

107.7
( 94-120)

105.8
(101-115)

89.9

(83.1-92.5)

OO j

(86 .'4-90. 4)

27.4°
(20-38)

27.8°
(23-33)

121.5
(107-139)
117.7

(110-131)

108.4
( 98-117)

104.7
( 98-115)

89.3
(81.3-92.9)

88.9
(86.5-90.3)

30.2°

(24-38)

29.5°

(27-38)

What was said with respect to the median-sagittal
parietal vaulting does not hold true for the occipital one.
The higher indices here, indicating lesser curvature, are

CRANIOLOGY 59

those of the females. Skull C ( 9 ) has a median-sagittal
occipital index of 87.0, while the corresponding indices
of B ( & ) and E ( <?) are 83.3 and 84.7. But the remark-
able fact about the entire posterior outline (bregma-
opisthion) in Santa Barbara specimens B and C, less so
in E, is the almost semicircular bulging with hardly any
interruption at the lambda or inion. Martin (1905,
465-466) describes this condition as characteristic of the
Senoi and as depending partly upon the position, i.e.,
declination of the planum nuchale of the occipital bone,
as indicated by an angle between the opisthion-inion
line and the ear-eye plane, or rather the parallel of the
latter passing through the inion. The r.ngle with the
inion for its vertex opens toward the cranial cavity if
measured below the inion-parallel of the ear-eye plane.
The compensatory angle lies above it and opens out-
wardly. It is clear that a more erect position of the
planum, as expressed by a greater angle, is more con-
ducive of a perfect occipital rounding than the opposite,
which, however, is easily disturbed by other morphologi-
cal features, like the protrusion of the upper occipital
squama, and, as Martin correctly points out, the develop-
ment of the protuberantia occipitalis externa. His
listings of the nuchal angle are quite instructive and are
presented on page 60.

The nuchal angles of 23° in the Santa Barbara B skull,
and 34° in the C, and even 38° in E, are comparable with
Martin's highest figures, and thus justify what has been
said about their significance with regard to the occipital
curve. The nuchal angle in a way bears on the interoc-
cipital angle opisthion-inion-lambda in such manner that

60 SANTA BARBARA

GROUP

NUCHAL ANGLE

Senoi cf

36°

Senoi 9

30°

Usa c?

28°

Disentis cf

23°

Timorese cf

21°

Vecida &

18°

Vedda 9

17°

Hohberg c?

17°

in our cases the higher and lower figures appear to be
correlated, 23° to 124°, 34° to 128°, and 38° to 127°.
Also another correlation is to be noticed between the
nuchal angles and those of occipital declination as given
by the angle between the opisthion-lambda line and the
ear-eye plane. The more erect position of both the
opisthion-inion and opisthion-lambda lines in C and E
finds its expression through a greater nuchal angle of
34° and a smaller occipital angle of 118° in the former,
and still more significant in the latter of 38° and 109°,
as against 23° and 122° for the same angles in B.
Another correction seems to exist between these angles
and the median-sagittal index, as may be seen from the
next table. The stronger occipital vaulting appears
to be characteristic of the male skull, which seems to
be the prevailing condition among the sexes of the
Indians. The variability of the averages of this index
is very limited, Martin (1914, 738) listing them for a
number of human groups between 81.2 and 83.6.
Among our own observations were male and female
averages from undeformed skulls of the North Pacific

CRANIOLOGY

61

Coast at 82.3 and 83.8; the Haida at 81.8 and 84.1, the
Eskimo at 83.8 and 84.0. But very considerable is the
individual variation which, for instance, amounts to
77.4-91.2 and 80.8-88.7 in the first-named group.

The occipital measurements discussed in the imme-
diately preceding paragraphs are listed in the following
table:

OS OCCIPITALE

Median-sagittal

Angles with

J2

ear-eye plane

s

HUMAN VARIETY

o

'.B

.s-s
'3-&

T3

o
o

■"7 o3

Cl'rt

2 "

rS 0

)h

T— I

2.&1

0^5

O

o

o

en O

mm.

mm.

O

o

-J

Santa Barbara

B (cf)

120
100
124

100

87

105

83.3
87.0
84.7

122°
118°
109°

23°
34°
38°

124°

C (9)

128°

E (cf)

127°

Haida

'<?

122

100.2

81.8

117.6°

. —

123.1°

(108-

(92-

(77.4-

(105-

(115-

Averages <

9

140)
111.7

113)
93.9

91.2)
84.1

131)
117.9°

134)
122.8

(106-

(90-

(80.8-

(113-

(96-

120)

97)

88.7)

124)

133)

Eskimo

'&

116.2

97.2

83.8

120.7°

—

127.9°

(111-

(86-

(78.2-

(111-

(115-

Averages <

126)

110)

88.6)

131)

136)

9

114.4

96.8

84.0

118.6°

—

129.2°

(106-

(88-

(77.6-

(114-

(119-

^

123)

103)

88.6)

126)

140)

62 S A N T A BARBARA

_lr i

1 ■ 2 r r '.

>.- i~- m 52111 ii me rmm

im mime 15

eiT:e2Se

_ IV

i-iier miin"- in.: i i

le imremiei

~ _± 11

e :r

mmeieim ii" m~ mi inm

essin 1: me

:. mm

. ,

»

. _-T _lr lr r __.Tr

- ^ —

— I 11 1"

-miiimvi Tie

-"1 2 I

1.72 — 1

-J.- - . _-.__>

_ — »_ —

j 1 5 1 • i i .

1115

111" iT-C rZTirfSSrS 2. IV .21" 111

mimi.i 111*

im ~:::::

_ _

52rimei :e".:~ ±21 1

• - _ -- ~- , - -_ :

- j_ ' - -

.1.11 11:1 11 ive

—^ i iri

_r. Li

11 " .11. r-Ji I 11 2. 51imim5 I

, ;--; - ,

— ..

--_. - ' .- - - - — ,__ - - -

-

V J 1 172. 5-1 ll_i 1.

.ve iimm :•:

v " z. - -

L " X

v- -" (" ■■ - mi - ; . " ' ;. - ..V"

11 m: iii-
m 111" 11.

Zi 1112.2

1

lemrm 5ime mmem me 1

—

-. - -' - -" - -

i mj: 2

. _ . . . . . — _. -.._... ^ .

:- - - m - " " - - _

mom C

rei vr-.VH II: V . _-

I m ser.es

— ~

----

r r . -

rress:

-.- !_ 11. .1 -

1 • _ - 1 me

m mmei

ii m

11 5_ri._. mimmiii rmmrn ::

;: |g 11 -

ii i -':'

to -

__ in ±r :~I 2 H 5

T-r-

:_._._.*.

■ .._.'.. _"

icrlif-ir nirn^w^lr

Till

:iit .-

mmn . -i : . .. 11 7 :.::

. ~_ _ - . . Z . -

:e :: im

ere5i

~* - ,~*~ : ~ - *- _.--..---:

: 1924). It is

— - —

-

=si—.- •- • -

r.;s:eri::

. I7i1rm2.u1 1. v.. iver. .

12 12 iirmmei

— - ;

- _. - ' -

"."'."" ~rl~_ ------ - — -•--_■-

111 2 —

Z- :-

lie femmes. 7 '.:-.- .: : ime-5

1:111 -14: 1

- : : : m

CRANIOLOGY 63

distinctly show the influence of deformation by their
low values and great extensions.

The low value of +7° in La Chapelle-aux-Saints
{Fr. Sarasin 1916-1922, 195), on the other hand, is
directly expressive of the primitive phyletic stage of this
specimen. Fr. Sarasin (p. 195) also gives a general
average for Europeans amounting to —12°, with which
the San Miguel averages mentioned in the second pre-
ceding paragraph conform.

The ear-eye parallel involved in the angle just dis-
cussed helps also to form the angle of the cranial base as
represented by the nasion-basion line. This line mea-
sures 97 mm. in skulls B and C, and 101 mm. in E, and as
the position of the nasion above the ear-eye plane proper
is fairly alike in the three skulls (30 mm. in B and E as
against 29 mm. on C), the size of the angles depends en-
tirely on the infraporial position of the basion. With a
basion-porion extension of 22 mm. in B, 14 mm. in C, and
26 mm. in E, the greater cranio-basal angle of 33° is natur-
ally found in the two male skulls, while the angle in the fe-
male skull amounts to 27°. Within the physiological range
of the angle under discussion in series from different
human provinces and covering values from 20° to 39°, our
two angles occupy stations only slightly removed from a
medium condition. This is confirmed by an examina-
tion of averages which Liithy (1912, 35) lists from 26.7°
to 29.0°, the extremes being those of Singhalese and
Australians. Our frequently quoted San Miguel
islanders yielded averages of 30.2° in both sexes, and
thus range with Martin's (1914, 484) Chinese at 30.5°.
Considering furthermore the Western Eskimo averages

64 SANTA BARBARA

for the two sexes of 31.6° and 31.0°, and those of the
Haida of 29.9° and 30. 0°, it appears that the peoples of
Mongoloid extraction are possessed of steeper cranial
bases than the other human varieties.

In close relation to the angular conditions of the cranial
base line (nasion-basion) stand those of the pars basilaris
of the occipital bone.

The declination of the pars basilaris measured on its
underside, the angle being formed by the sphenobasion-

Fig. 11. — Schematic representation of angles at the cranial base: Z_ 1,
foramen magnum angle; / 2, angle of cranial base; / 3, 4, angle of pars
basilaris; e — e' , parallel to ear-eye plane through b, basion; n, nasion; o,
opisthion; sphba, sphenobasion.

basion line and the parallel to the ear-eye plane through
the basion, amounts to 33° in skulls B and E and to only
22° in C. This signifies, according to Fr. Sarasin's
(1916-22, 251) classification, platyclin and hyperplaty-
clin states and illustrates not only the sex difference
generally met in human groups, but also the specific
conditions among the Indians of the Pacific coast (Oet-
teking 1924). Moreover, in our particular case it is
the limited infraporial extension of the cranial height
diameter which is responsible for the depressed condition

CRANIO LOGY

65

of the pars basilaris in C, and consequently its small
angle of declination.

A schematic representation of the angles at the cranial
base is given in fig. 11.

The following table contains the measurements just
discussed:

HUMAN VARIETY

Santa Barbara

B (c?)

C (9)

E {&)

San Miguel island
'&.

Averages< g

La Chapelle-aux-Saints* .

ANGLES OF THE CRANIAL EASE

Ear-eye plane and lines

opisthion-basion
(foramen magnum)

basion-

nasion

(cranial

base)

-8°

33°

-8°

27°

d.

33°

-9.4°

30.2°

(+3 to -21°)
-13.2°

(25-35)
30.2°

(-5 to -22°)
+7°

(25-34)

spheno-

basion-

basion

(pars

basilaris)

33°
22°
33°

32.0°

(19-46)

29.8°

(20-38)
14-20°

Tr. Sarasin 1916-22, 195 and 253.

Turning now to the profilation of the face, its vertical
projection relative to the ear-eye plane must be
considered first.1 The three angles known as profile
angles are: (1) the facial (nasion-prosthion-E'), (2) the

1 The discussion of the vertical declination of the orbit and
the nasal bones has been joined with the study of the orbit
and nasal aperture, and will be found in the section on the
norma frontalis (pages 98-99).

66 SANTA BARBARA

nasal (nasion-nasospinale-e') , and (3) the alveolar (naso-
spinale-prosthion-e') . Er and e' indicate the extensions
of the ear-eye plane or its parallels to the right. The an-
gles themselves may be identified from the diagrams of
pis. x-xn. Those of the Santa Barbara crania, and, for
wider comparison, of a Pacific Coast tribe, groups from
southern India, and of a European group, are listed in
the table on page 67. For some of them Flower's index

prosthion to basion-100,

gnathicus, ; : — ; could be ascertained,

nasion to basion

and at the bottom the physiological range for each angle

and applying to human conditions in general is given.

The figures show the typical proportions obtaining in

man: the nasal angle as the greatest exceeds the other

two, and that of the alveolar process is the smallest.

Liithy (1912, 39) has proposed the following classification

of the angles of vertical profilation :

Hyperprognathy x — 69 . 9

Prognathy 70.0 - 79.9

Mesognathy 80.0 - 84.9

Orthognathy 85 . 0 - 92 . 9

Hyperorthognathy 93 . 0 — x

According to this classification the facial angles of our
skulls B, C, and E, are seen to be prognathous at 77°,
just mesognathous at 80°, and pronounced mesognathous
at 82°. The same proportions hold true for the nasal
angles at 78° in B, and 84° in C and E, which places the
latter two skulls close to orthognathy. Quite remark-

CRANIOLOGY

67

HUMAN VARIETY

Santa Barbara

B (<?)

C (9)

E.(c?)

San Miguel island

Averages< g

i

Senoi*

d"

9

Semangj

&

9

fVeddat . . .

Averages \ Singhaleset

[Swiss|

VERTICAL PROFILATION
(EAR-EYE PLANE)

Angle

facial

nasal

77°

78°

80°

84°

82°

84°

81°

83.2°

(72-88)

(76-91)

80.2°

84.4°

(75-89)

(77-89)

85°

90°

82°

85°

80°

82°

81°

83°

84.3°

87.6°

82.1°

85.5°

87.0°

88.7°

70-93°

73-95°

71°
68°
76°

74.6°

(61-91)

74.6°

(62-89)

55°
66°

65°
75°
71.6°
69.9°

82.4°

w s

106.3

104.1

96.0

99.0

99.7

100.0
98.0
94.7
99.2
93.6

"Martin 1905.

t Schlaginhaufen 1907.

% Liithy 1912.

able is the relapse into the prognathous state of the
alveolar angle of 71° in B, and the hyperprognathous of
68° in C, while E at 76°, although likewise prognathous,
holds an intermediate position between the first two.
Besides the pronounced state of alveolar hyperprogna-
thy in the female skull, the other interesting fact is
revealed that it coincides in the same skull with the dis-

68 SANTA BARBARA

tinct superiority of the facial and nasal angles over
male skull B. This interesting combination in a similar
way obtains in the averages of the San Miguel series, and
is fully equaled by the Senoi, Semang, Yedda, and Sing-
halese. The individual figures of the Senoi and Semang
show the two conditions even exaggerated, i.e., a
decidedly stronger alveolar prognathism, excepting in
the Semang woman, and a more pronounced tendency
toward orthognathy of the two facial angles, as com-
pared with the Santa Barbara specimens. The differ-
ences between the averages of the Yedda and Singhalese
in each of the three angles are, according to P. and F.
Sarasin (1893, in), notable from the standpoint of
a phylogenetically secondary and stronger prognathism
in the phylogenetically younger Singhalese. Regard-
ing the alveolar prognathism, our Santa Barbara speci-
mens show closer affinity to the averages of both the
latter groups, while their two facial angles are markedly
less orthognathous.

The different findings in all these groups are exceeded
by those of the Swiss, who, as a European group, are
included in the table for comparison. With distinctly
orthognathous facial angles they are seen to combine
well-marked alveolar mesognathy of 82.4°. Alveolar
orthognathy even of 85° and 86° on an average obtain
in two other European groups — the Tyrolese and the
Bavarians {Martin 1914, 809).

All these findings gain in significance under the con-
sideration of the stations which they occupy in the ranges
of variation at the bottom of our table. It will be noted
that, with the exception of Santa Barbara skull B, most

CRANIOLOGY 69

of the facial angles hold medium or supramedium posi-
tions which is equal to mesognathy with a tendency
toward orthognathy. The same cannot be said of the
alveolar range, which per se is considerably wider than
the ranges of the two facial angles. Thus, the middle
stations in that range are still decidedly prognathous,
and only a few of our figures exceed the middle.

In the last column of the preceding table Flower's
gnathic index reaches its highest values of 106.3 and
104.1 with our skulls B and C, marking both prognathous
with reference to the facial angle and according to the
classification of that index. The two methods are thus
seen not to yield identical results, as the angle of facial
profilation indicates a slightly mesognathous state of C.
In the San Miguel series, on the other hand, the angle,
as well as the index, results in mesognathous averages,
signifying the conditions prevailing in general in the
Mongoloids. The other indices are in agreement with
the angular expressions, the other extreme being repre-
sented with an index of orthognathy of 93.6 in the Swiss.

NORMA BASILARIS

The basilar aspect is much alike in the skulls from
Santa Barbara, in that the occipital region is fairly
of globular shape, which, however, is slightly modified
in skull E. Only the radius of occipital extension
posterior of the foramen magnum (opisthion) differs
according to the individual size of the skulls and
measures about 60 mm. in B, 45 mm. in C, and 44 mm.
in E. The greatest width extension of the skulls in the

70 SANTA BARBARA

basilar aspect is somewhat covered in perspective by
the supramastoidal expansion, the mastoids themselves
slanting mesially only insignificantly, which condition
is still better to be observed in the occipital norma.

The shape of the foramen magnum is almost circular
in B, but narrows slightly anteriorly in C and E. The
circular shape, or the tendency toward it, seems to be
the predominant one in skulls of Mongoloid extraction;
it occurs in the San Miguel islanders in 41.0%. This is
likewise expressed by the length-width index of the
foramen magnum at 93.8 in B, 90.9 in C, but only 77.8
in E. The length measurements amount to 32 mm.,
33 mm., and 36 mm. in skulls B, C, and E, those of the
width to 30 mm. in B and C, and 28 mm. in E. Martin
(1914, 743) gives physiological ranges of these two dimen-
sions extending from (25) 30-40 (43) mm. for the length
and from (20) 23-38 mm. for the width. The foramina
of the Santa Barbara skulls are thus to be characterized
as submedium in size. This holds true also for the
averages in the San Miguel series at 33.6 mm. and 32.8
mm., and 28.6 mm. and 27.3 mm., for the two dimen-
sions and sexes, while their indices at 84.8 and 83.2 are
expressive of foramina of slightly longer shape (37.3%
elliptic and 21.7% oval). The range of variation is
not very extensive. The averages in Martin's table
(p. 714) run from 72.6 to 89.1, and the sex difference
almost throughout is expressed by lower figures for the
females. A very low index in illustration of a foramen
magnum of considerable length (46 mm.!) is that of La
Chapelle-aux-Saints, namely, 65.2.

CRANIOLOGY

71

Some comparative foramen magnum measurements
are listed in the following table.

HUMAN VARIETY

Santa Barbara

B (c?)

C (9)

E(cf).

San Miguel island

&

9

La Chapelle-aux-Saints

FORAMEN MAGNUM

length

32
33
36

33.7
(29-38)

32.8

(29-37)

46

width

30
30

28

28.6

(24-33)

27.3

(24-31)

30

■idth-100

length

93.8
90.9

77.8

84.8
[71 .4-
97.1

(103.5)]

83.2

(72.7-

93.1)

65.2

The condyles are medium high and wide, their angular
position resulting in intervals of 21 mm. in B and E,
and 19 mm. in C, between the most anterior points of
their articulating surfaces. The articular surface of the
left condyle in C is posteriorly drawn out about 1 cm.
around the circumference of the foramen magnum,
tapering beyond the fossa condyloidea and ending on a
roughened ridge which ends about 1 cm. before reaching
the opisthion. The right condyle is constricted at its
posterior end and about 1 cm. in advance of the fossa
condyloidea, the articular surface thus acquiring a
slipper-like appearance. The canales condyloidei are
above medium width, circular at their entrance and

72 SANTA BARBARA

approached through narrow funnel-like fossae condyloi-
deae, more so in the males than in the females.

The canales hypoglossi are of medium size in our skulls,
but an anomaly, namely, bipartition, is noticed in each.
This is not of very rare occurrence in this region, and
was proclaimed by Kollmann (1905, 1907) as a "mani-
festation of the occipital vertebra." In the tribes
of the North Pacific Coast not addicted to artificial
deformation, bipartition was found in 20.5%, distrib-
uted among its variable forms in such a way that
4.9% of bipartition occur on the right, 11.5% on the left
side, and 3.3% on both sides. The remaining 0.8%
accounts for a case of left occurrence, while a canalis
hypoglossi is absent on the right side. Our skull B shows
a complete bipartition on the right side, skull C an incom-
plete one on the left. The latter case is complicated in
such a way that from the medial superior edge of the
canalis an osseous spicule, between 2 mm. and 3 mm. in
length, runs free, ending free on a level with the plane of
the medial opening of the canalis hypoglossi. The
lateral opening is drawn out posteriorly. The exten-
sion, 3.5 mm. long and 2 mm. broad, is level with the
lateral wall of the right condyle and forms a kind of
vestibule to the funnel-like entrance of the canalis.
Quite singular is the bipartite formation of the right
canalis in skull E, which does not represent, in the ordi-
nary sense, a bipartition of the medial outlet of the canal.
There are, on the contrary, two independent outlets of
relatively small size, one at the base of the condyle and
the other 9 mm. above it at the base of the tuberculum
jugulare. These two outlets have a common entrance

CRANIOLOGY

73

of slightly enlarged size at the usual place on the lateral
wall of the condylar base. It appears that a singular
case like this serves to support the " manifestation"
theory still better than the ordinary bipartition. All
three cases are depicted in fig. 12.

The jugular foramina show no anomalies except in
size. In B it is the left foramen that is almost twice the
size of the right one, while in C the right foramen exceeds
slightly the size of the left. An enormous widening of

Bit)

C(%)

E16)

3S-H

Fig. 12. — Canalis hypoglossi in the Santa Barbara skulls, showing different
forms of bipartition. a, in medial, b in lateral aspect. (| natural size)

the right foramen is noticed in E. The left one in this
skull is rather compressed and narrow, correlated quite
probably with the canalis hypoglossi anomaly described
in the last paragraph. Anomalies of size in the jugular
foramina are more or less the rule in the human cranium,
and occur, for instance, in undeformed Indians of North
Pacific tribes in such a way that in 66.4% the right fora-
men is larger than the left, in 16.8% the left larger than
the right, while in another 16.8% both are alike in size.

74 SANTA BARBARA

The partes laterales of the occipital bone (processus
jugulares) are slightly clubbed at their extreme ends
thus shielding medially deep incisurae mastoideae in B.
These are much more shallow in C, commensurate with
the size of the mastoid processes, but showing better
developed sulci for the occipital artery than in B.
Medium conditions obtain in E. The incisions of the
apex of the mastoids are more or less in evidence. The
styloid processes are destroyed in the three skulls; the
styloid foramina are of medium size.

Of particular interest are the high vertically directed
anterior tympanic plates drawn out into ample vaginae
for the styloid processes, and the deep mandibular
(glenoid) fossae. The transverse roots of the zygomatic
process represent well-developed tubercula articularia
in the two male skulls, but somewhat weaker ones in the
female. The transverse axis of the tubercula nearly
coincides with the frontal plane in B. In C and E, on
the other hand, they slant slightly from medially for-
ward to laterally backward. This condition prevails in
the immature skull, where at the same time the notch
between the free end of the zygomatic process and the
portion of the temporal squama from which it springs is
rather narrow. During growth, and as the masticatory
functions develop, it widens, while the tuberculum arti-
culare, under the molding influence of the mandibular
condyles, assumes its definite appearance and direction.
The latter conforms in B and E to the direction of the
fossae mandibulares and will be described more explicitly
farther on in connection with the discussion of the lower
jaw (see page 130).

•

CRANIOLOGY 75

The pars basilaris of the occipital bone, which is corre-
lated with the proportions of the cranial base in general
(Martin 1914, 746), appears to be more slende; in female
skull C. The underside shows the usual roughened
surface, but no exceptionally developed muscular ridges.
There is a well-developed tuberculum pharyngeum in
B, and a weaker one in C and E, besides an indication of
a fossa pharyngea in advance of it in the latter two.
While the tuberculum is a fairly regular feature in the
Indian skull (it occurs in 94.8% in undeformed skulls
from the North Pacific areas), the fossa is much more
rare at 16.1% in the same series. This percentage is
in accord with that found by Hrdlicka (1906, 62) in
California Indians, while according to Sullivan (1920,
241), "the fossa is not of very frequent occurrence in
the American Indian and Eskimo." The latter found
it in only 3.5%, and its most frequent occurrence is
" limited to that area of North America which is or was
the home of the Uto-Aztecan stock."

There are irregularities to be noticed in connection
with the foramina spinosa and ovalia. The former are
above medium size in B, while the latter are long and
somewhat narrow. The left one, furthermore, is trans-
versely divided in such a way that an anterior small and
oval division stands out against an extensive posterior
one. The right foramen ovale shows an indication
toward a division by slight projecting ridges on opposite
sides of the foramen, or, rather, the canalis of which the
foramen forms the outlet. The more interesting
anomaly is seen in skull C. Here both foramina spinosa
are medially open to the full depths of their canalcs,

76

SANTA BARBARA

and merged with the canales musculo tub arii. The
condition described is illustrated in fig. 13; it is apparently
very rare, while merging of the foramina spinosum and
ovale is of less rare occurrence. The foramina in ques-
tion are of medium size in E, but there is an additional
foramen on the left side of the skull in advance of and in
line with the foramen ovale, and a slight indication of
one on the left side.

Advancing by way of the processus
pterygoidei, whose two laminae are
well developed and thus afford deep
pterygoid fossae, we now enter upon
the description of the palatine com-
plexes. Their dimensions coincide
well with the general proportions of
the configuration in the basilar view,
but otherwise are well developed.
The palates themselves are spacious
and deep, rather smooth, but with
good-sized spinae palatinae, particularly
in B. The spina nasalis posterior is nipple-shape in C, its
two sides continuing into the broadly curved incisures of
the palatine plates. These are narrower but deeper in
B, forming medially the sides of a truncated spina nasalis
of angular shape. In E it is broadly but pointingly
drawn out. The three shapes as described in our three
skulls are illustrated in fig. 14.

In the three skulls there are faint indications of a
spindle-shape torus palatinus, especially in the female,
which ends as a well-developed crest on the os palatinum
in B and E, and as a narrow "keel" in C. It appears that

Fig. 13. — Merging of
the left foramen spino-
sum and canalis mus-
culotubarius in skull C
(9). a, foramen spino-
sum; b, canalis mus-
culotubarius; c, fora-
men ovale. (Natural
size.)

CRANIOLOGY

77

the torus palatinus occurs with some regularity in
Indians of the North Pacific Coast. Accounting for all
its forms from a mere indication to a strongly developed
torus, the frequency there was as high as 78.8% in
undeformed crania, and higher at that in females than in
males.

There is in skull C another noteworthy feature, namely,
above the first molar of each side, where the palatine

Ok)

E(6)

r\

r\

Fig. 14. — Variation in the shape of the spina nasalis posterior of the Santa
Barbara skulls: truncated in B (d71); nipple-shape in C (9); pointed in E
(cf). The figure also shows variations of the sutura palatina transversa.
(| natural size.)

process flexes into the somewhat angularly joining alveo-
lar process, a vascular orifice of 1.5 mm. in diameter.
The foramina have direct connection with the maxillary
antrum of each side, as the probe revealed, and prob-
ably transmit a branch of arteria palatina major (of a.
palatina descendens). As such they are of quite differ-
ent significance from the usual minute foramina nutricia
of the palate, and form a singular feature in skull C.
Fig. 15 shows this anomaly as marked by x.

78

SANTA BARBARA

The foramina incisiva are of regular, i.e., medium,
size, and more long than broad, and there are no traces
of an incisiva! suture. The foramina palatina majora are
slightly above medium size in B, smaller in C, and are
less sharply edged than those of E. The foramina
palatina minora are of the usual diminutive size, one on
the right and two on the left side each of B and C,

with the difference,
however, that they
do not appear on the
inferior termination
of the processus
pyramidales, but are
somewhat removed
from it on their
medial sides. The
same holds true for
skull E, in which,
however, there are
two foramina on
each side.

Of the two palatine sutures the median one shows
the regular straight course and becomes slightly obscured
through the formation of the medial crest of the palatine
bones. The two parts of the transverse suture do not
join medially in B, the left half joining the median suture
at a right angle 3 mm. in advance of the right half,
which turns sharply backward before reaching the
median suture. In C the two halves turn backward and
form a sharp posteriorly directed triangle, which is a
rare condition in Hominidae, according to Martin (1914,

Fig. 15. — Anomalous palatine perforations,
right and left in identical places, in skull C
( 9 ), marked by x. (f natural size.)

CRANIOLOGY 79

830), the reverse being by far the more common state.
In fact, the posteriorly directed triangle was found in
only 5.6% of the undeformed North Pacific crania, in
2.5% of those of the Chinook, but in 9.9% of the Salish.
Martin's highest frequency of the condition under dis-
cussion is 20.8% for the Eskimo. The more progres-
sive forward bend is seen in E. All three shapes are
illustrated in fig. 14.

It remains to discuss the part of most decided morpho-
logical significance in the palatine complex: the alveolar
process and the dental arch. The latter is paraboloid
in all three skulls, somewhat more rounded in B, and
slightly straighter in C and E. They thus represent a
morphologically advanced type as against the upsiloid
shape in the anthropoid apes and the ellipsoid in the
lower apes. All three types may occur in one and the
same series, as shown by their frequency on the North
Pacific Coast, where in the undeformed skulls the
upsiloid type was found in 2.1%, the ellipsoid in 9.3%,
and the paraboloid in 88.7%. The frequency of the
first two types is somewhat increased in the Chinook to
6.0% and 20.5%, while the paraboloid type occurs in
73.5%, illustrating again the decided prevalence of the
latter. As already indicated by the individual differ-
ences of the dental arches in our three specimens, the
dimensions of their maxillo-alveolar processes likewise
differ. Although of equal alveolar length, namely, 57
mm., the alveolar breadth of B measures 66 mm., that of
C 63 mm. The two dimensions are smaller in E, namely,
50 mm. for the length and 60 mm. for the breadth. The
indices computed from these two measurements are

80 VIA BARBARA

— r Zll_t ^T___5 ZTl^Lj-—lzl: I _: 1 HIT i; ITlrT llZr

: :■: znt i_ r_ir .enri^ :: -■ md L. just
if^iriiei. The iizert" :t zzi: ur.:i :■: ; .. : :

:r _r:7 :

tal index the female in the mesostaphylm, but at the

: itz _1t :■:— iri :: :r ; :. -_..'.;■ Tut ! -. : -

jm:r5 ihr ~~-.~ .: - . 7 . : inf :i: iiliiil :: lie ^iz:i
:xzr^iiv± :f ;:ziiii:zj ... : zrev .

:::::::tZ:::: i: "Ht 5int ------ - - - is such zi-is: t

7: tit iiilf :: — --—""•---."— . :_:

HUMAN VARIETY AND
ANTHROPOIDS

Santa Barbara

B (c?)

C (9)

. E (d1)

Haida

&

9

General range\ . . .

of variation/
Group averages* .

Hylobates synd. 9

Hylobates agilis*.

Orang-utan*

c?

9

Gorilla*

&

9

Chimpanzee*

c?

9

MAXILLO-ALVEOLAR AND PALATAL
MEASUREMENTS

Maxillo-alveolar

Palatal

o

.a

o

-a

nd

jp

4=1

rC,

o
o

bJO

C

CD

a
jo

■T3

C
CD

to

CD

^

h

to

c

OJ

■ '

T3

mm.

mm.

JO

mm.

mm.

>

57

66

115.8

50

43

86.0

57

63

110.5

46

39

84.8

50

60

120.0

44

40

90.9

56

66.5

119.3

47.9

43.9

91.3

(52-

(61-

(108.5-

(45-

(40-

(76.8-

60)

71)

129.3)

52)

49)

108.0)

53.5

64.5

120.0

46.3

42

88.3

(50-

(61-

(115.2-

(44-

(38-

(80.4-

57)

69)

127.1)

50)

45)

97.1)

44-65

50-72

94-154

38-54

33-48

63.6-

49-57

58-69

108-126

42-50

36-43

94.6

77.6

fcf

46.6

(74.1-

Hyobla

tes J

(37.0-

82.3)

synd

• 1

53.0)

—

—

80.2

(73.8-

19

48.5

(43.1-

89.7)
74.8

52.1)

49.2

(66 . 3-

(43.0-

85.7)

53.1)

—

—

81.9

51.2

(72.8-

—

—

( 42 . 4-

106.0)

57.8)

64.7

42.2

(52.1-

—

—

(34.5-

73.7)

52.3)

—

—

72.5

46.3

(65.3-

—

—

(41.5-

77.7)

54.2)

—

—

80.8
(70.8-
90.4)

—

—

53.0
(45 . 8-
62.5)

—

—

82.0

(68.2-

—

—

54.0
(50.0-

90.4)

57

1)

* Mar tin (1914, 824, 827).

81

82 SAXTA BARBARA

ments (page 81) the general individual ranges and those
of group averages are appended in order to orient the
quantitative nature of our specimens.

The anthropoids have been added to this table for the
purpose of broader comparison in a morphological feature
of greatest phylogenetic interest. Their indices are seen
to differ radically not only from the human, but also
between themselves.

NORMA FRONTALIS

The norma frontalis, or, as it is also termed, facialis,
is complicated more than any of the other norma? by
the proportions and configuration of the parts involved.
They are in particular those that help in shaping the
orbital and nasal cavities, the zygomatic expansion, and
the alveolar process of the maxillary bone.

The frontal bone in the facial aspect shows in its
squamous part nothing of particular interest. The
tubera frontalia of moderate elevation seem to lie quite
low, i.e., they begin to rise just above the superciliary
depressions, which latter, although well marked, are
nevertheless not broad. The superciliary region itself
shows moderate development. The arcus superciliares
in B and E represent stage a of Cunningham-Schvalbe's
(see Martin, p. 770) classification, i.e.. accounting for a
margo supraorbitalis between the orbital rim and the
sharply circumscribed arcus elevation. The latter shows
still more pronounced forms in the E calotte. In C the
arcus are somewhat wider and less sharply marked.

The glabella protrusion has already been discussed

CRANIOLOGY 83

(page 51). The foramen s. incisura supraorbi talis,
known to be very variable, is likewise so in the Santa
Barbara specimens. Presenting two incisures in B, a
right foramen and a left incisure are seen in C, D, and E.
The statistical data of the North Pacific tribes revealed
a predominance of the foramen, which occurred in the
undeformed skulls in 61.4%, while the frequency of the
incisure was 25.2%, and the irregular occurrence (right
foramen and left incisure, or vice versa) amounted to
13.4%.

The incisura frontalis for the n. frontalis, of a diminu-
tive appearance per se, is only slightly indicated in B.
Its total absence amounted to 18.4% in the series
mentioned in the preceding paragraph. The two-
sided occurrence of an incisure, the predominating one,
has a frequency there of 60.0%, that of a foramen fron-
tale a frequency of 10.8%, and irregular occurrence was
seen in 10.8%.

The lateral extension of the supraorbital portions of
the frontal bone, i.e., the zygomatic processes of the
latter, play an important part in the configuration of the
facial norma. In the Santa Barbara specimens they
point laterally somewhat more straight than usual and
thus give the impression of a more pronounced postor-
bital constriction. These conditions have already been
touched on (pages 29-30), where it was pointed out that
the minimum frontal width, low but not excessively so,
became a significant factor in the low transversal fronto-
parietal index. If brought in proportion to the upper
facial breadth as measured between the two frontomalare
temporale points, the most laterally situated points of

84 SANTA BARBARA

the zygomatico-frontal suture, the significance of the
minimum frontal width comes into play again, together
with the unusual lateral extension of the zygomatic
processes of the frontal bone. The fronto-biorbital index
lending expression to these conditions amounts to 88.9
in skull B, 84.9 in C, 89.5 in D, and 81.0 inE. Taking
Schwalbe's (1899, 97) index of 90 and higher as charac-
teristic in recent skulls, it will be noticed that the Santa
Barbara indices fall below that mark and thus join in
with more primitive morphological behavior. Fr. Sara-
sin (1916-1922, 202) gives for Neandertaloids an aver-
age of 87.65, which almost coincides with the index of
B, but ranges above that of C and E. One Carijo
Indian from southern Brazil, mentioned above in con-
nection with postorbital constriction (page 30), has as
low an index as S3. 3, which is even outdone with an index
of 81.0 by our skull E. Martin (1914, 713) lists averages
of 95.7 and 94.4 for male and female Bavarians, and 96.2
for Aino. These figures signify onV a slight diversion
between the two factors involved. But it must be
considered that the lowest individual fronto-biorbital
index in the Bavarian series was only 78, while the other
extreme of the same series amounted to 102. The next
table contains the measurements last discussed.

The figures make it plain that with the increasing
difference between the two measurements involved,
which in greater part is due to the decreasing minimum
frontal width, the index also decreases.

In order to bring out their characteristics, the left
frontal processus zygomaticus of skulls B and C is super-
posed in fig. 16, a, b, upon that of a skull from Santa

CRANIOLOGY

85

HUMAN VARIETY

Santa Barbara

B (<?)....

C ($)....

(D rf1)....

E (<?)....

Carijo (Brazil )cf

FRONTO-BIORBITAL INDEX

fronto-

biorbital

index

upper

facial

breadth

mini-
mum
frontal
width

differ-
ence

mm.

mm.

88.9

108

96

12

84.9

106

90

16

89.5

105

94

11

81.0

105

85

20

83.3

102

85

17

Cruz island (no. 537) with strongly curved zygomatic
processes, oriented on a horizontal line through the
supraorbital margins. The superpositions show the
more curved process of the last-named skull in contra-
distinction to those of Santa Barbara.

r/

A

6

f

Fig. 16. — Superposition of left frontal processus zygomaticus in frontal
projection of: a, Santa Barbara B (cf), and b, Santa Barbara C (9), upon
that of a skull from Santa Cruz Island, California (No. 537, M. A. I.), drawn
in broken lines, h—f, frontal plane line through supraorbital margins in
ear-eye orientation. (5 natural size.)

The nasal process (pars nasalis) of the frontal bone
is likewise involved in the facial configuration, both by
its length and its width. Its absolute height lies between
the supraorbital, i.e., the point of intersection between
the median-sagittal plane and a line which connects

86 SANTA BARBARA

the two supraorbital margins, and either the nasion or the
infranasion (mihi) -1 In our series of skulls these distances
amount to 7 mm. and 12 mm. in males B and E, 8 mm.
and 11 mm. in female C, and 6 mm. and 10 mm. in male
D, the differences between each two measurements
accounting for the distance between the nasion and the
infranasion. They are of course dependent on the extent
of the encroachment of the nasal bones upon the nasal
process of the frontal bone and therewith the form of the
naso-frontal suture. In C this form corresponds to the
curved one as described in a previous publication (Oet-
teking 1920), while that of B does not coincide with any
of the six described there. Slanting upward from both
sides, and then sloping mesially slightly downward, the
two sides rise again to form a sharp triangle whose vertex
lies in the median line. The whole formation might be
taken as a variation of the trapezoidal form in the publi-
cation cited. The course of the naso-frontal suture of
D is a curve, and that of E a triangle. Our four cases
are illustrated in fig. 17. They show in the frontal
aspect the individual behavior of the naso-frontal suture.
In each case an auxiliary line was drawn for the deter-
mination of the infranasion measuring point. That the

1 Measuring the height of the nasal process of the frontal
bone in the customary way (nasion-supraorbitale) has never
quite satisfied the present writer, for the reason that it does
not account, in a morphological sense, for the true extent of
that process. He has for that reason substituted his ' 'infra-
nasion" as the point of intersection between the median-
sagittal plane line and a horizontal connecting the two
"maxillo-naso-frontal points" (Oetteking 1920, 56), i.e., the
meeting point of suturse nasofrontalis, nasomaxillarisj and
maxillofrontalis.

CRANIOLOGY

87

supraorbitale-infranasale dis-
tance affords a better means
of ascertaining the proper
height of the nasal process in
the facial aspect is shown in
a (San Miguel island, no. 318)
of the same figure, where the
infranasion lies on a level with
the auxiliary line mentioned
in the preceding paragraph.
An impairment of the height
measurement of the nasal
process through the encroach-
ment of the naso-f rontal suture
upon that process does not
occur in this case.

The width of the processus
nasalis can best be judged by
the distance between the two
maxillofrontale1 points repre-
senting the so-called anterior
interorbital width, to distin-
guish it from the posterior
one between, either the dacrya
or the lacrimalia. The anter-
ior interorbital width measures

20 mm. in B, 18 mm. in C,

21 (?) mm. in D, and 18 mm.

1 Point of intersection between
the crista lacrimalis anterior and
the sutura maxillofrontalis,

88 SANTA BARBARA

in E. Martin (1914, 864-865) gives a physiological
range of this measurement of 14-30 mm., and adds
that the average interorbital width is greater in
Europeans (21.7 mm. in the Swiss) than in Mongols,
contrary to previous assumption. For a better under-
standing of the proportions of the nasal process, the
width at its base was also measured and an index com-
puted from the two width measurements. The basal
width cannot be taken on a level with the supraorbital
point for reasons which need not be discussed. The
measuring points were rather found at the deepest recess
of the supra-medial angle or curve of the orbit and which,
with a little practice, can easily be ascertained. The
basinasal width, then, amounts to 36 mm. in B, 32 mm.
in C, 28 mm. in D, and 26 mm. in E. For comparison,
the table on page 89 contains also the corresponding meas-
urements in an Eskimo skull from Cape Xome and in
that of the Brazilian Carijo already referred to, both
belonging to our collection.

Both the Carijo and the Eskimo basinasal widths range
below those of Santa Barbara specimens B and C, and
as this is, at least in the Eskimo, likewise the case with
the anterior interorbital width, the indices of these two
quantities result accordingly. Thus, while the two Santa
Barbara indices are almost alike, the Eskimo index of
53.3, lower than those, lends expression to the smaller,
that of the Carijo. which is higher than any of the pre-
ceding, to the greater interorbital width and, at the same
time, the smaller basinasal widths. The smaller basina-
sal widths of D and E likewise account for their higher
indices, which in fact are the highest of our list.

CR ANIOLOGY

89

HUMAN VARIETY

Santa Barbara

B (<?)

C (9)

(D <?)

. E (J)

Eskimo (Cape Nome) &
Carijo (Brazil) c?

PROCESSUS NASALIS OSSIS FRONTIS

length

a a

12
11
10
12
14
10

width

20

18

21(?)

18

16

20

36
32
28
26
30
31

index

55
56

75.0

69
53
64

The important part which the nasal process of the
frontal bone plays in the formation of the interorbital
septum is also revealed by the fact that the length of the
former is greater in primitive human varieties than in
the modern recent ones (P. and Fr. Sarasin 1893, 229;
Fr. Sarasin 1916-22, 214; Zuckerkandl 1877, 86). The
bearing of both the length and width of the nasal process
on the configuration of the orbit might be expressed by
indices that bring those dimensions in proportion to the
orbital height and the biorbital width (ektokonchion-
ektokonchion) . As regards the orbital height measure-
ment, one would have to choose that which is at right
angles with the orbital width measurement (maxillo-
frontale-ektokonchion), and not the vertical height,

90

SANTA BARBARA

which does not account for the morphological peculiar-
ity of the horizontally slanting orbita. It may not be
superfluous to recall the fact that the supraorbital mea-
suring point of the length of the nasal process coincides
with that of the orbital height. The following table,
in its first three numerical columns informs of the
height proportions, and in its second three of the width
proportions, between the nasal process and the orbita.

HUMAN VARIETY

Santa Barbara

B (<?)

C (9)

E (tf1)

Eskimo (Cape

Xome) cf

Carijo (Brazil) cf •

PROCE

1

2

V

-

~

-=

=-5

M

.2 o

01 71

XJ

~ fa

C — i

oj

3 a

■i-i

•_ X

Xl

a

c

mm.

mm.

34

12 (7)

11 (8)

36

12 (7)

36

14 (9)

34

10 (5)

33

PROCESSUS XASALIS AND ORBITA

35.3 (20.6)
30.6 (22.2)
33.3 (19.4

41.2
30.3

(26.5)

(15.2)

3

4

, -=

»3

^r

a &

£

u cd

O — '

-

l- Q

U s-

X)

— c

c

c

rt

Xl

wz w .

mm.

20

102

18

99

18

98

16

95

20

95

19.6
18.2
18.4

16.8
21.1

The parenthesized figures of the first and third columns
signify, in conjunction with the infranasion-supraorbi-
tale length, the length with the nasion, and the indices
in which it is involved. Considering that for the first
proportion an index of 50.0 and above denotes that the
nasal process reaches down to or below the level of hori-

CRANIOLOGY 91

zontal halving of the orbit, all the indices fall short of
that mark. On the other hand, it will be noticed that
the greater lengths of the nasal processes give rise to the
higher indices, as shown by Santa Barbara specimen B
and the Eskimo skull. Similar conditions prevail in
regard to the indices in parentheses : although the higher
index among the Santa Barbara shifts to C, the Eskimo
maintains its highest position. It will be easily recog-
nized that the increasing differences between the infra-
nasion and nasion lengths modify the indices in such a
way as to be no longer illustrative of the true morphologi-
cal conditions, which can lie only with the infranasion
length. A comparison of the indices and of the factors
involved in Santa Barbara skull C and the Carijo skull
corroborates this statement.

With regard to the width index, the table shows its
gradual decrease with the diminishing of both factors
involved, or, from a general angle, the interorbito-bi-
orbital index decreases with the diminishing biorbital
width. If, however, a greater interorbital width com-
bines itself with a relatively smaller biorbital width,
the index assumes a higher figure, as shown by the Carijo,
whose index of 21.1 exceeds the others noted in the table.

The orbital dimensions constituting the orbital index
may be gathered from the table on page 92, in which, in
order to facilitate comparison, the lacrimale width
likewise is considered.

The difference between the two widths, amounting to
4 mm. and 2 mm. in the three Santa Barbara skulls,
rarely surpasses the higher figure in any scries of skulls.
Their maxillof ron talc widths of 41-43 mm. fall very

92

SANTA BARBARA

ORB IT A

width

index

HUMAN VARIETY

3
height

l.maxillo-

2.1acri-

frontale

male

3-100

3-100

WW.

mm.

mm.

1

2

Santa Barbara

B (d»)

43

39

34

79.1

87.2

C (9 )

43
41

39
39

36
36

83.7
87.8

92.3

E (c?)

92.3

Haida

[cf ...

45.3

41.3

35.7

78.9

86.4

(42-50)

(38-45)

(33-39)

(70.0-

(76.5-

Averages^

9 ...

42.1

38.8

35.4

86.4)
84.1

95.2)
91.1

(39-44)

(36-40)

(32-38)

(76.2-

(82.3-

92.3)

100.0)

Koskimo

[cf ...

45.1

40.5

39.2

85.9

96.6

(43-48)

(39-44)

(39-42)

(79.2-

(86.2-

Averages^

9 ...

43.2

39.0

38.7

93.3)
89.6

102.5)
99.0)

(42-44)

(37-41)

(37-40)

(84.1-

(92.3-

93.0)

105.1)

La Chapelle-aux-

—

Right

Right

Saints

47.5
Left

39.0

Left

46.5

38.0

■ — ■

81.9

low in the physiological range of that measurement as
listed with the series in our table and which covers the
values of 42-50 mm. The lacrimale width naturally
yields similar results. The width averages of the Haida
and Koskimo, although slightly in excess of our indi-
vidual values, are nevertheless fairly uniform among
themselves. This cannot be said regarding the orbital

CRANIOLOGY 93

height, which is greatest in the Koskimo with their
notoriously high orbits, and of which not only the Haida
averages but likewise the Santa Barbara orbits fall short.
The maxillofrontale index renders skulls B and C meso-
konchial at 79.1 and 83.7, and E hypsikonchial at 87.8,
while the three lacrimale indices are hypsikonchial at
87.2 for B, and 92.3 for both C and E. There seems to
be indeed a tendency toward hypsikonchy in the Mongo-
loids, which is clearly shown even by the more conserva-
tive figures of the maxillofrontale index which renders
both Koskimo averages hypsikonchial, while those of the
Haida prove to be mesokonchial. Not so much by our
individual Santa Barbara indices as by the averages of
our table, it is shown that the female orbit is more hypsi-
konchial than the male and that on account of the
higher orbit of the female in proportion to the width.
This condition is fairly generally met with in all the
human groups.

The orbital index (lacrimale) of La Chapelle-aux-
Saints is mesokonchial, but near the border line toward
chamaekonchy (quoted by Martin 1914, 858). The
considerable orbital height of 38 mm. is prompted there
by a still more considerable orbital width of 46.5 mm.,
which bespeaks a very extensive orbital orifice, although
the orbital index amounts only to 81.9, rendering it
mesokonchial but quite close to chamaekonchy.

In addition to the general descriptive marks of the
orbit and their quantitative interpretation, it is the
angular relation toward the three geometrical planes
which is of great importance with respect to the con-
figurative significance of the orbit in the facial complex.

94

SANTA BARBARA

The relations are those of the orbital width (maxillo-
frontale-ektokonchion) toward the frontal and horizon-
tal planes passing through the maxillofrontale points,
and that of the orbital height toward the horizontal

OT'jX

E.

85°,

-E'

or

Fig. 18. — Scheme of (a) frontal, (b) horizontal, and (c) vertical orbital
declination in ear-eye orientation of skull B(cf). /— /', frontaland h — h' ,
horizontal plane line through mf, maxillofrontale; ek, ektokonchion; E — E',
ear-eye plane through or, orbitale; ors, orbitale superior; or — v, vertical
plane line, (f natural size.)

plane. It may not be superfluous to add that these three
relations accounting for the frontal, horizontal, and sagit-
tal declination of the orbit correspond to its declination
in the vertical, frontal, and lateral aspects. The meas-

CRANIOLOGY

95

urements were obtained by means of H. Vir chow's
(1915; 1918) " prosopometer," an ingeniously constructed
instrument capable of the minutest application. The
absolute measurements taken by this instrument from

■

or-s

•

/'94o|

92?\

or

■JE'

Fig. 19. — Scheme of orbital declinations of skull C ( 9 ). The markings are
as in fig. 18. (f natural size)

the skull oriented in the ear-eye plane can easily be repro-
duced upon paper and, for the frontal and horizontal
declination, projected upon lines representing the fron-
tal and horizontal plane lines passing through the maxil-

96

SANTA BARBARA

lofrontale points, while the vertical declination is referred
to a line representing the ear-eye plane. Figs. 18-20,
constructed in such manner, visualize the respective
conditions in the Santa Barbara skulls, which are more

£

_

org

'/

;96°\

\9f6\

or

E

Fic. 20. — Scheme of orbital declinations of skull E (cf ) . The markings are
as in fig. 18. (| natural size)

precisely explained by the legends. However, it may
here also be pointed out that the broken lines in the three
sets of figures are in adjustment of differences of position
in each pair of orbits which amount to 1 mm. as to the

CRANIOLOGY

97

frontal projection in both B and C, and likewise 1 mm.
with reference to the horizontal orientation in C. The
latter amounts to exactly 3 mm. in E, i.e., the right orbit
lies in horizontal orientation 3 mm. below the level of
the left. The subjoined table lists the three declinations
(a-c of each figure) for each pair of orbits, and the aver-
age of each two. It will be seen that the findings for
the two orbits are diverse in most cases. Comparing
the averages, it is shown that the female skull at 19.0°
exceeds in frontal declination the male skulls at 17.3°

DECLINATION OF ORBIT

SPECIMEN

Frontal

Horizontal

Vertical

r.

1.

17°
19°
17°

aver.

r.

1.

15°
15°
10°

aver.

r.

88°
94°

96°

1.

85°
92°
94°

aver.

Santa Barbara

B (cf)

C (9)

E (d1)

17.5°

19°

19°

17.3°
19.0°
18.0°

18°

15.5°

12°

16.5°
15.3°
11.0°

86.5°
93.0°
95.0°

and 18.0°. Judging from Martin's (1914, 819) compara-
tive table of averages, it appears that stronger deviations
such as in the Swiss at 20.1° (16-28°) and in modern
Europeans in general at 20.0° (16-24°), stand in opposi-
tion to those of the different Mongoloid peoples such as
the Japanese at 14.2° (11-18°), the Kalmuck at 15.9°
(9-23°), as well as in the Australian at 16.0° (14-20°).
Our three skulls do not corroborate this disparity, but
it must be remembered that they represent individual
values which, as such, fall well within the Mongoloid
ranges.

; - AN I A BARBARA

lA it liini: .- n eziresi

.11 :i A: 1:5 n:ie :r Ass An
Li.eriZy nA :e'_:~ A::::

1 A4 : : : iiie miA
i: 'niiese ni lit Z-i:ii:l :

- :. i s : ~ " i : z : :

-1A5 A' lives iv-iies A:

A A AnArS -i : :: y:A: A~iAs.-Ai.ei

ire 1: : n: 11 : re5ie:AveA i:

— :iei it sAAls I ■ ni \::\:.-: ;::

Zn: : t en - . : iir Z ialls even b<

3. ver

A:

ii i :er ein ii 'Ae _"i:iz : A Ii
. .' ii A: A :ir n. - i: i:-:i:

are listed with 95.9° and 96° in
dvai ban 89° to 101 : i

: : :i i ii: : i : n n lie

C i: A me Z . : - : Aer A

ill — eZ ~AiAii_ i.

r (cited by 3/ar/iw 1914, 818) gi

nenA-iiei A

CRANIOLOGY 99

the upper ends of the nasal bones (page 85). Both the
latter joining in the sutura internasalis form the gabled
roof of the nose, as shown by the midorbital horizontal
tracings in ear-eye orientation of fig. 21, a-e. Our three
specimens (a-c) show to an appreciable extent the angu-
lar projection in advance of the frontal plane ine (f-f)
passing through the points of intersection with the naso-
maxillary sutures. All three of them are considerably
exceeded by a Swabian (American Museum of Natural
History, no. 4555), while a Negro (same, no. 6958) falls
markedly short of them. These instances serve to
illustrate the conditions discussed, in three different

f y\ y"\ /^\ La -^ /'

Fig. 21. — Midorbital outlines of nasal bones in cranial ear-eye orientation.
a — c, Santa Barbara B (cf), C (9), and E (cf); d, Swabian; e, Negro.
/■—/', a frontal plane line coinciding with midorbital horizontal. (About
| natural size.)

races, although the ranges of individual variation may
be quite wide at the same time.

Another morphological characteristic in the skull of
the Mongoloid is the vertical concavity of the nasal
bones and which is evenly and deeply curved in the
Santa Barbara skulls, as demonstrated in fig. 22, a-c.
The Chinook (no. 4470, American Museum of Natural
History) tracing (d) shows a slight modification in so
far as its lower portion swings outwardly into a mild
convexity. The tracing in its entirety represents thus a
double curve not too rarely found in the Chinook. Of
moderate depth is the concavity of the Negro curve (c),
and quite shallow that of the Swabian (/). However,

100

SANTA BARBARA

^:

o ^

a

rt

O W)

OU

Os-' N

T§5

pq 3

the point of distinction
between the latter two
tracings is their different
projection as measured
by the angle of the nasal
roof between the nasion-
rhinion line and the ear-
eye parallel through the
nasion. The shallow-
ness of the Swabian out-
line is correlated with a
stronger projection as ex-
pressed by a lesser angle
o" 57° as against 71° in
the Negro and which in
the latter illustrates the
flatness of his nose.
There is a much stronger
projection at 43° to be
noticed in the Chinook,
and in line with the
Swabian is that of the
Santa Barbara specimens.
But the difference lies
with their degree of con-
cavity, as has been
pointed out above.1 It is

1 The total concavity of
the nasal bones vertically is
also noticed in the human
fossils (Homo mousteriensis ,
Rhodesia) .

CRANIOLOGY 101

this feature, first of all, which furnishes the racial distinc-
tions, but, second in importance, also the amount of pro-
jection. For the latter, Martin (1914, 814) gives a varia-
tion in Caucasoids from 43° to 65°, and in Mongoloids
(Kalmucks, Torgotes, Chinese) from 56° to 76°.

The projection of the nasal contour (angle of the nasal
roof) is in a way influenced by the profile line, and it is
clear that a more prognathous face mitigates the impres-
sion of nasal projection. The angle between the nasal
roof line and that of facial prognathism varies therefore
between the Europeans and the more primitive groups.
At a physiological range of from 1° to 47°, Martin
(1914., 815) lists extreme group means of 34° for the
Swiss and 12.1° for Negroes, while the Mongoloids main-
tain about medial stations. Such inferences cannot be
fully justified by the Santa Barbara skulls at 24°, 19°,
and 31°, which as such represent only individual values
within generally quite extensive ranges of variation.

Coming now to the dimensions of the nasal aperture,
it appears that within a general range of variation of
32-64 mm., the heights represent, with 53 mm. for B,
49 mm. for C, and 48 mm. for E, about medium condi-
tions, which hold true likewise for the widths of 24 mm.
and 26 mm. for B and C, and even 21 mm. for E, within
the width variation extending from 17 mm. to 32 mm.
The indices result accordingly, namely, leptorrhinic in
B and E at 45.3 and 43.8, but chamaerrhinic in C. While
there is a general tendency toward broader noses in
the peoples of Mongoloid derivation, except the Eskimo
who are the classical representatives of leptorrhiny,
there are on the other hand Indian groups with a tend-

102 5AXTA BARBARA

ency toward narrower noses. Our skulls B and E are
examples of such.

There are no anomalies to be noticed in the nasal bones
of our specimens, except that in C the two principal
nasal foramina are situated in the lower halves, while
as a rule they occur rather in the upper halves. The
left one of C furthermore is removed toward the naso-
maxillary suture. The nasal bones of C, as already
mentioned in connection with the general state of preser-
vation, are defective at their interior ends, but the right
one is medially intact and anorded the complete vertical
outline of the nasal roof. In D only the left nasal fora-
men is present; in E the right one is of normal size, while
the left exists as a very tiny opening.

The nasal bones are of medium width and are con-
stricted in their upper halves, the minimum width being
8 mm. in skulls B and C . and 9 mm. in D and E . Widen-
ing in their lower halves, they acquire maximum exten-
sions of 16 mm. in B. 15 mm. in C. and 12 mm. each in
D and E. The mininimn and maximum widths give
rise to the transverse index of the nasal bones, which is
: 1 1 in B and 53.3 in C. but 75.0 each in D and E. account-
ing here for smaller difference between the sizes of the
two factors involved. In the former they are indicative
of the "Sanduhr"' I hourglass ) shape of the nasal bones,
which is typically pronounced in the Eskimo at an aver-
age I ' ; : ". while in Europeans the constriction becomes
more equalized as expressed by indices, for instance, of
the Parisians at 60.0 and Auvergnates at 62.7. rising
d to 66.6 in La Chapelle-aux-Saints. The proportions
of the nasal bones in the Anthropomorphae are no I ss

CRANIOLOGY 103

variable than those in the human skull. Their funda-
mental differences were clearly conceived by Martin
(1914, 840) when he compared the constriction and the
lower width of the nasal bones: " Relatively to the inter-
orbital width the nasalia are less constricted in Hominidae
than in the Anthropomorphae, while relatively to the
width of the apertura piriformis their lower width is
smaller, and their height is also considerably smaller."

Of interest in this connection also is the upper width of
the nasal bones between the meeting points of the naso-
frontal, maxillo-frontal, and naso-maxillary sutures.
In a study of the naso-frontal suture in skulls from San
Miguel island the writer (Oetteking 1920, 57) has referred
to this measurement as the direct width of the naso-
frontal suture between the "maxillo-naso-frontal" points
(mnf). Bringing it in proportion to the anterior interor-
bital width, the indices in our skulls rise quite high with
75.0 in B, 66.7 in C and E, but lower at 57.1 in D. In
the range of variation of the San Miguel skulls (35.0-
87.5), the index of 57.1 falls beJow the male average of
61.6, while the other two exceed it. This applies like-
wise to the female C as compared with the San Miguel
female average of 60.3. But they illustrate, furthermore,
what was shown there in the comparative table (page
105), that there is a proportional interdependence between
the anterior interorbital width and the upper width of
the nasal bones.

The upper (maxillo-naso-frontal) and the maximum
lower width of the nasal bones at a numerical proportion
of 15 mm. to 16 mm. in B, 12 mm. to 15 mm. in C, and
12 mm. to 12 mm. in both D and E, give rise to indices

104 SANTA BARBARA

of 93.8, 80, and 100. This index below 100 appears
to signify the typical proportion between the two dimen-
sions under discussion in the human skull, although
there may occasionally be a coincidence between the
two measurements or even an excess on the side of the
upper width, which would raise the index to 100 or
more.

The nasal measurements of the Santa Barbara skulls
are combined in the table on page 105.

The nasal aperture is elegantly shaped in both skulls
and the sides sharply edged. This holds true also for
the lower incisures of the apertura piriformis in C, while
those of B and E are less sharply marked. As the mor-
phology of the lower notches depends on a number of
intermediating factors, a short review of the conditions
there may be proffered. The most significant detail
here is the spina nasalis anterior, to a greater extent the
result of the naso-alveolar flexion in the phylogenetic
sense, the subsequent formation of the clivus nasoalveo-
laris, and as such best developed in Europeans. From
the spina running backward and toward the concha
nasalis inferior on each side, there is generally to be
noticed a more or less sharply developed ridge, which has
been variously named by different authors. We shall
call it, with Fr. Sarasin (1916-22, 259), margo nasospin-
alis. The same author's margo nasoalveolaris corre-
sponds to the lateral edges of the apertura piriformis
themselves, which, turning medially, are (1) either lost
upon the alveolar process of the maxillary bone before
reaching the spina (infantile form), or, (2) reaching it,
produce a more or less broad groove-like depression

CRANIOLOGY

105

NASAL MEASUREMENTS

1. Absolute measurements:

a. Anterior interorbital width

(maxillofrontale width)..

b. Upper width of nasal bones

( maxillo-naso-f rontal
width)

c. Minimum width of nasal

bones

d. Maximum width of nasal

bones

e. Nasal width

f . Nasal height

2. Angles of nasal roof:

g. Nasion-rhinion and ear-eye

lines

h. Nasion-rhinion and nasion-
prosthion lines

3. Indices:

. b-100

l.

a

b-ioo

k* d

c-100
L d

elOO

m-~T"

SANTA BARBARA

Bid1)

20

15

16

24
53

53°
24°

75.0

93.8
50.0
45.3

C(9)

18

12

15
26
49

(Dcf)

61°
19°

66.7

80.0
53.3
53.1

21

(?)

12

9

12

57

E(J>)

18

12

12
21

48

51°
31°

66.7

100.0100.0

75.0

75.0
43. S

between the margines nasospinalis and nasoalveolaris
(fossa pramasalis), or, (3) coinciding with the margo
nasospinalis, cause the uniform, i.e., undifferentiated,

106 SANTA BARBARA

sharp edge of the lower notches (anthropine form).
There is a fourth form in which the rims of the nasal
aperture continue rather straight upon the alveolar
process, which results in broad sagittal (longitudinal)
grooves whose bottoms are more or less continuous with
the floor of the nose. This condition is considered
truly pithecoid, but occurs also in the human varieties,
most frequently in Oceanians and Xegroes.

Our skulls differ quite markedly regarding the develop-
ment of the spina nasalis anterior and the shape of the
lower rim of the apertura piriformis. The former is
well marked and projects horizontally in C and E,
representing the oxyacanthic condition of Macalistcr
(1898, 223-230). and which he characterizes as European.
By the coinciding naso-spinal and naso- alveolar margines
Macalister's oxycraspedotic form is produced. It is
considered the true anthropine one. which, as a result of
the pronounced flexion between the alveolar process
and the floor of the nose, is to be considered an advanced
morphological stage. In B. on the other hand, the
spina projects only slightly and is illustrative of Macalis-
ter's lophacanthic condition as characteristic of the
Mongoloid varieties. The halves of the spina as afforded
by the two maxillary bones cleave in B, but give rise to
well-marked margines nasospinales. The margines nasj-
alveolares are also distinct, but become less so on
descending in a curved way and reaching the crista
alveolaris media at about its middle. The nearly triangu-
lar field thus described on each side by the margines
and the crista just mentioned is only slightly depressed,

CRANIOLOGY 107

but nevertheless is fully recognizable rather as a clivus
nasoalveolaris than as a fossa praenasalis.1

The pithecoid form of the lower rim of the apertura
piriformis is very rare in Indians of the North Pacific
Coast, among whom, in the undeformed skulls, it occurs
in only 1.7%, while the oxycraspedotic or anthropine
form shows a frequency of 21.2%, the amblycraspedotic
or infantile one of 18.6%, while the majority of 58.4%
is possessed of true fossae praenasales. As regards the
spina nasalis anterior, there is in that group a preponder-
ance of the lophacanthic state at 53.3%, while only 6.7%
represent the oxyacanthic, but 40.0% the kryptacanthic
forms. Although quite variable in general, the two fea-
tures under discussion assemble nevertheless the highest
frequencies upon those forms which were recognized as
particularly Mongoloid in character.

The regions lateral of the nasal aperture are dis-
tinguished by very shallow fossae caninae in B and E,
while those in C are quite deep. The appearance of the
anterior surface of the maxillary bones depends greatly
upon its dimensions, particularly its height, the height of
the alveolar process, the width of the zygomatic processes
of the maxillary bone and that of the maxillary process

1 The three conditions of the spina nasalis anterior dis-
tinguished by Macalister (1898, 223-230) are: oxyacanthic
to characterize the European distinctly developed spina;
lophacanthic, the Mongoloid blunt spina; and kryptacanthic,
the negroid primitive one. The notches of the nasal aperture
are either amblycraspedotic as representing the infantile two-
lipped form; bothrocraspedotic, the fossa praenasalis; oxy-
craspedotic, the anthropine, sharp-edged; and oxygmocraspe-
dotic, the pithecoid sulcus-like forms.

108 S A X T A BARBAR A

of the zygomatic bone, and the curve described by the
lower edge of the former, the so-called crista infrazygo-
matica (see Raiibcr-Kopsch 1919. v. n. p. 95). This
curve can be very shallow, moderately deep, or deep.
The hrst state is a reminiscence of primitive conditions
as found in the anthropoid apes and in the fossil Homi-
nida?. It is here connected with an even anterior maxil-
lary surface, the depression of it. the so-called fossa
canina, being a condition which marks a more advanced
morphological state. Involved in the latter are such
factors as the progressive stages of naso-alveolar flexion,
the narrowing of the face. and. in connection with it. the
general refinement of the parts that participate in the
facial complex. It is quite probable, and in a number of
cases directly provable, that the processes of organic
and structural economy are aided also by muscular trac-
tion in the production of modifications of morphological
appearance. Thus, in the intensification of infrazygoma-
tic curving may also be involved the functions of mm.
masseter. zygomaticus and quadratus labii superioris.
It is under the influence of these factors that the fossa
canina is developed, although, as shown in C, it may
exist at an appreciable depth in connection with a less
deep curve of the crista infrazygomatica. The latter is
more pronounced in B and shows at the same time more
protruding (downward) tuberosities at the points of
junction of the zygomatic and maxillary bones in the
craniometrical points called zygomaxillaria. E also
has a rather shallow infrazygomatic crest, which in this
case coincides with a very shallow fossa canina. The
infrazygomatic outlines of E and a Chukchee (no.

CRANIOLOGY

109

3848, American Museum of Natural History) are pre-
sented in fig. 23 to show the deep infrazygomatic curve
in the latter and the shallow one in the former.

Fig. 23. — Two aspects of crista infrazygomatica: deeply curved in a
(no. 3848, Chukchee cf, A. M. N. H.), and very shallow in b (Santa Barbara
E (cf). (About § natural size.)

The foramina infraorbitalia in the upper regions of the
fossae caninae exceed medium size. Between the foramen
infraorbitale and the lower orbital rim the sutura infra-
orbitalis is present on the left side of B and on both

110

ANT A BARBARA

si;As of C. but there is nc indication of it in E. The
orbital portion of trie suture is also preserved in B.
Well known as a typical feature in the Eskimo skull, it
is occasionally found in ether human varieties. Its
frequency in the undeformed Indian skulls of the North
Pacific Coast amounts even to 51.9% of bilateral and
2.9% of unilateral (left) occurrence.

As regards the position of the foramen infraorbitale
in proportion to the height of the corpus maxillare. it
must first be stated that both measurements differ as I :
right and left, and it is the latter which e:::rris the
former. The vertical height of the corpus (lower rim of
orbit to alveolar border at middle of second premolar),
- shown in the following table is hi the whole greater
in B than in C and E. and in correlation therewith the
distance is smaller d the upper rim of the foramen

infraorbitale and the lower rim of the orbit.

Si

v_ , _

, __ , _

: :"

C(9)

I f

42

;

16.7

17.4

5

13 :

6
14.5

21.1

lef:

Height c: ;: .- rxaxillare

Height of foramen

infraorbitale 'mm. )

Index : jsitk n : foramen

infraorbitale

1Q 5

Upper facial height mm.)

Upper facial index

\ j c 7- -~~ c 3.1 lipi^ht index

- 1

54.6

61.1

53 . 1

59.4

5S

CRANIOLOGY 111

This correlation is perfectly clear in skulls B and C,

but is not corroborated by E, whose maxillary height,

fairly coinciding with the lower one of C, has a foramen

height equaling that of B. The index of position of

the foramen infraorbitale, according to the formula

height of foramen infraorbitale • 100 . ...

; ; , results accordingly

height of corpus maxillare

in each case.

Another correlation is worthy of mention in this con-
nection, namely, that between the height of the maxil-
lary corpus and the general proportion of the face.
According to Martin (1914, 823), in euryprosopic Swiss
an average maxillary height of 38 mm. was observed,
and in a leptoprosopic one of 44 mm. Similar correla-
tions are likewise to be stated in the Santa Barbara
crania, whose maxillary heights diminish with their
upper facial heights, as may be seen in the preceding
table. Here also the indices of the upper face height
and that of the corpus maxillare bear out this correla-
tion. Furthermore, although all three of our skulls are
mesenic, they nevertheless show different stages of
meseny in proportion to the quantitative differences.

For a general estimation and comparison of facial
size and proportions, the averages and ranges of variation
of undeformed skulls from the North Pacific Coast are
presented in the table on page 112.

The upper facial height is seen to be quite variable in
our three skulls. The two males B and E at 72 mm.
and 67 mm. differ by 5 mm.; and between, at 69 mm.,
falls the female C. The latter, with 130 mm., stands
lowest in bizygomatic breadth; but it is in this measure-

112

SANTA BARBARA

FACIAL MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES

1 . Total facial height

2 . Upper facial height

3 . Bizygomatic breadth

4. Cranial breadth

5. Minimum frontal width

6. Bigonial width (lower jaw). . .

Indices: l • 100

/ . Facial: — = —

a tt f • i 2'100

8. Lpper facial: — —

o t • 3'100

9. iransverse cranio- — - —

facial: ^

«„ -r i 5-100

10. Jugo-frontal: — : —

o

11 T 1-1 1 6"100

11. Jugo-mandibular: — - —

o

NORTH PACIFIC

COAST

SANTA BARBARA

(UNDEFORMED

SKULLS)

Averages and

B(cf)

C(9)

E(cr)

Variation

male

female

WW.

mm.

WW.

WW.

wm.

118

110

105

72

69

67

75.0
(65-
85)

70.2
(63-
79)

132

130

134

138.5
(125-

156)

129.6

(117-
140)

141

131

134

140.8

(129-
152)

136.5

(130-
150)

96

90

85

94.1
(83-
106)

91.4
(82-
104)

97

96

103

106.0

(85-
117)

98.0
(86-
110)

89.3

84.6

78.4

54.1

54.2

54.6

53 . 1

50.0

(41.4-
61.8)

(49.6-
61.0)

93.6

99.2

100.0

98.5
(90.7-
108.5)

68.1

95 . 3
(87.0-
103.8)

70.6

72.7

69.2

63.4

(59.7-

77.2)
76.9

(64.0-
84.5)
75.9

73 .5

73.9

76.9
1

(67.8-
85.1)

(69.9-

85.8)

ment that E, with 134 mm., exceeds B at 132 mm. If
the variation in the undeformed skulls of the North
Pacific tribes be taken as an illustration of physical
oscillation in general on the Pacific Coast, it will be
noticed that the Santa Barbara male skulls fall in facial

CRANIOLOGY

113

breadth and height below the average expressions, while
the female fairly coincides with them. Our table con-
tains also a number of other cranial measurements which
have been discussed elsewhere in this report, and being
brought in proportion to the facial measurements are
discussed as indices farther below.

The proportion between the bizygomatic breadth
and the facial height (nasion-gnathion) gives rise to
indices which render B mesoprosopic with 89.3, but at
the border line toward leptoprosopy, and C euryprosopic
with 84.6, but in close proximity to mesoprosopy.
E with 78.4, is hypereuryprosopic, owing rather to its
relatively low total facial height than to its more conser-
vative facial (bizygomatic) breadth. The upper facial
index with the nasion-prosthion height is mesenic, but
in different degrees, and it is E which, with an index of
50.0, holds the line between meseny and euryeny — a
reminder of its hypereuryprosopic total facial index.
Likewise in the upper facial index the variable facial
height is of more decisive bearing than the less differing
bizygomatic breadth. The upper facial indices of our
specimens coincide with those of the North Pacific
Coast Indians, whose averages may be considered as
representing Mongoloid conditions in general.

The upper and lower facial breadths observed in the
norma frontalis, i.e., the minimum frontal and the bi-
gonial of the lower jaw, brought into proportion with
the bizygomatic bieadth, are expressed in the jugo-
frontal and jugo-mandibular index. As both breadth
dimensions almost coincide in B, their indices coincide
likewise with 72.7 and 73.5, thus indicating an equal

114 SANTA BARBARA

upper and lower constriction of the facial aspect as
against the zygomatic expansion. These conditions
turn out differently in C on account of the bigonial
breadth exceeding the minimum frontal by 6 mm., with
the result of a jugo-frontal index of 69.2 and a jugo-
mandibular one of 73.9. Similar proportions, only much
more emphasized, obtain in E, on account of the mini-
mum frontal width being reduced to 85 mm. and the
bigonial breadth enhanced to 103 mm., with a difference
of 18 mm. between the two. Its jugo-frontal index at
63.4 ranges therefore below, its jugo-mandibular index
at 76.9 above, those of B and C. Diverging proportions
obtain likewise between the two dimensions in the North
Pacific Coast tribes of our table, and give rise to diverg-
ing indices in indication of a greater bigonial as against
a smaller frontal breadth. This, however, seems to be
the prevailing condition in all the human groups, the
cause of which must be sought in phylogenetic processes
of brain expansion bearing on the dimensions of the
cranial base and lower jaw, as well as in functional
adaptations in connection with mastication.

Of diagnostic interest also is the proportion between
the facial and cranial breadth from which the transverse
cranio-facial index is computed, and which reaches
93.6 in B, 99.2 in C, and 100 in E. The difference
between the first one and the latter two, although all
three are indicative of greater facial breadth, lies with
the cranial breadth, which in C is 10 mm., and in E 7
mm., less than in B. In the series from the North Pacific
Coast the male exceeds the female average. Although
the variation is rather extensive with regard to this index,

CRANIOLOGY

115

those under discussion nevertheless illustrate Mongoloid
conditions. These can even exceed the mark of equal-
ity (100.0) of the two dimensions involved, with indi-
vidual indices of 108.5 in the males and 103.8 in the
females of the series of comparison of our table, and with
an average of 100.8 in Eastern Eskimo (Oetteking 1908,
49), where an individual index of even 111.5 was observed.
Although, then, the cranial breadth is of decisive influence
in the outcome of the cranio-facial index, it is neverthe-
less the bizygomatic breadth which is of racial signifi-
cance and which is absolutely as well as proportionately
of conclusive importance.

Regarding the horizontal profilation of the face, it is
the more frontal position of the maxillary process of the
zygomatic bone and of the zygomatic process of the
maxillary bone which results in what one is accustomed
to term the high cheek of the Mongoloid face. Medially
this condition is still further intensified by the behavior
of the frontal process of the maxillary bone. The less
anteriorly concave the latter is, and the smaller its
angular deviation from the frontal plane, the more pro-
nounced is the frontal orientation of the middle face.
A further characteristic of the Mongoloid face is the sharp
backward turn of the zygomatic bone by which two
more or less distinct planes are produced, an anterior and
a lateral one, while in the Caucasian and Negro skulls the
lateral outline is more evenly rounded and considerably
flatter. These racial modifications are shown in the trac-
ings of fig. 24, which were taken upon skulls oriented in
the ear-eye plane, upon the left side of the face slightly
below the lower orbital rim in order to cover all the parts

116

SANTA BARBARA

Fig. 24. — Midfacial horizontal outline of
a, orang-utan; b, Negro; c, Nootka; d — /,
Santa Barbara B (cf), C (9), E (d*); g,
Swabian. m — s, median-sagittal plane line
intersecting in ms with frontal plane line
F — F' which coincides with ear-eye plane;
n — zt, nasozygomatic line (apertura piri-
formis to sutura zygomaticotemporalis)
intersecting with F — F' line at point x.
(| natural size.)

from the nasal aper-
ture to a point beyond
the zygomatico-tem-
poral suture. The
lines of orientation are
afforded by a parallel
to the median-sagittal
plane (m-s) intersect-
ing with the zygoma-
tico-maxillary suture
of the outlines, which
points were adjusted
to it, and the frontal
plane line (F-F'), at
right angles to the
former, and passing
through the same
points. There is still
another line connect-
ing the edge of the
nasal aperture and the
point of intersection
with the zygomatico-
temporal suture (n-zt),
and which in a way
helps to analyze the
morphological compli-
cation there, as will be
seen presently. For
it is by this line that
the appearance of the

CRANIOLOGY 117

frontal process of the maxillary bone in horizontal
cross-section may be judged. Its point of intersection
with the F-F' line is marked x in our figure. The
Nootka curve (fig. 24, c) as a prototype of the Mon-
goloid face shows its characteristics as pointed out
above: the anterior portion almost coinciding with the
frontal plane line, the sharp turn of the lateral outline,
and the remarkably small deviation of the frontal
process. These characteristics are only slightly modified
in the Santa Barbara skulls (d, e. f). The concavity
of the frontal process here is seen gradually to increase,
simultaneous with its anterior aberration medially,
while the zygomatic outlines remain true to the Mon-
goloid type. In the Swabian skull (g), the concavity
of the frontal process is restricted to the medial half of
its curve, while the lateral one is continuous with the
zygomatic outline in its regular but little pronounced
bulging. Quite different is the appearance of these parts
in the Negro skull (b), and still more so in that of the
orang-utan (a) . Thus, while in the former the maxillary
outline is practically straight and hardly set off against
the zygomatic curve, the maxillary frontal process of the
latter forms by its convexity a curve of itself which is
continued into that of the zygomatic bone which then
starts to form an individual curve. In connection with
the conspicuous deviation of the maxillary outline in the
Negro skull in advance of the frontal plane line, it must
be pointed out that in the Negro skull it is rather an
expression of pronounced vertical profilation of the Negro
face. The zygomatic curve, as already mentioned, is
least marked and flattest in the European where the naso-

118 SANTA BARBARA

zygomatic line of orientation {n-zt) fairly resolves the
entire tracing based on it into a medial concave portion
and a larger lateral convex one. The gradual removal
of the intersecting point of the naso-zygomatic and
frontal plane lines from that of the latter and the median-
sagittal plane line (m-s)1 is quite an interesting feature in
this connection, and is listed in figures in the next table,
where it is accounted for as " naso-zygomatic deviation."
It was for the sake of comparison with an anthropoid
state that the facial outline of an orang-utan was added
in fig. 24. The principal point of difference between it
and the human facial outlines is the total convexity in
advance of the naso-zygomatic line of orientation, which
accounts for the distinctly frontally oriented face of
the ape.

The projective width and length of the zygomatic
curve, measured between the ms point and the zl point
projected upon either the m-s or the F-Fr line, the eleva-
tion of the curve above its chord, the length of the latter,
and the indices derived therefrom, are listed in the
table on page 119.

The projective widths and lengths do not differ greatly
in the Swabian and the four Indian skulls, while the
zygomatic width of the Negro falls short of them, and its
length considerably exceeds them. This excess is due
in part to the conspicuous medial deviation of the maxil-

1 In the tracings of fig. 24 this point of intersection is
marked ms. In analogy with the point marked zt it might
have been called zm as signifying the two anatomical parts
joining there. But since that symbol as zygomaxillare is
used already for the lowest point of the zygo-maxillary suture,
the symbol ms was resorted to in our tracings.

CRANIOLOGY

119

HUMAN VARIETY AND
ORANG-UTAN

Swabiancf
Santa Barbara

E (tf1)...

C (9)...

B (*)...

Nootkacf

Negro &

Orang-utan

E 9
o.2

>> o3

r>

O 0)
PI

mm.

4

7

9

14

15

OS ZYGOMATICUM

projective

m7w.

29

32
30
28
30
26

42

28

27
27
29
28
39

18

& J,

MS

'53 *
mm.

•S i

40

42
41
41
42
47

46

Index

° 1

o

o

o

•<-* CN

*-*

>o

ro '

tJ<

96.6

12.5

84.4

19.1

90.0

17.1

103.6

17.1

93.3

19.1

150.0

12.8

41.9

10.9

For markings compare fig. 24.

lary frontal process in advance of the frontal plane line,
and which was pointed out before as in conformity with
the profllation of the Negro face (page 117). The index
computed from the projective zygomatic length and
width, and expressing the latter in percentages of the
former, is quite variable among our Indians and the
European, in spite of the apparent slight disparity of
the underlying factors. More marked, however, is the
difference with the Negro, whose index of 150 expresses
the strongly differing single dimensions and illustrates
the morphological differences of the zygomatic bone in
the facial configuration of the race. In opposition to

120 S A NT A H ARHA R A

them stands the orang-utan, with an index of only
41.9, which is the result not only of its extreme pro
jective zygomatic width of 42 nun., but of its greatly

reduced Length of 18 mm.

The difference of horizontal extension or curvature
of the zygomatic arc finds definite expression through an
index which brings the elevation of the arc above its
chord in proportion to the length of the latter. Again

the lengths (\\\\c\- only slightly in the Swabian and the

Indians. However, the Swabian chord length falls
slightly lower in opposition to the \egro and orang

utan, which, with 47 mm. and 46 mm., outrange the

others. More marked is the difference in the height of

curve, exceeding in the Indians those of the other spe< i

mens, and aiding in I he production of the higher indice

that characterize the Mongoloid condition. The indices

of the Swabian and \egro differ only by tin- lower de< i
mal above the index unit. 12, while the orangutan1
index is only 10.9.

Observing, finally, what was termed the naso zygo-
matic deviation, as situated in fig. 21 between the points
vis and x, it. is seen to increase in our Indian skulls from
4 mm. to 11 mm., and to rise in proportion to the dimin
ishing deviation, in advance Of the frontal plane line, of

those parts of our curves that irate the frontal processes

of the maxillary bone. 4 he Swabian, with o mm., falls
within the variation of our Indian specimens, while the
Negro exceeds them with 1 5 mm., and the orang titan's
deviation likewise amounts to only 6 mm., but the
morphologically different conditions of the latter two
find expression through other quantitative means dis-
cussed above.

CRANIOLOGY 121

NORMA OCCIPITALIS

The norma occipitalis offers less opportunity for
morphological and metrical description than any of
the other normae. Starting with the delineation of
the cranial contour, it corresponds in our three skulls
to Haberer's (1898) "house shape.'' The sides are
nearly vertical in projection, their greatest expansion
occurring at the level of the temporal lines, or, still more
precisely, Dalla Rosa's (1886) " circummuscular zone,"
where they turn rather sharply to form the cranial roof.
The latter appears to be more rounded off in the female,
while in the males a flat gable is formed. The somewhat
irregular shape of E in the occipital aspect is due to its
plagiocephalic cranial condition hinted at before (pages
12, 14, 22, 32). The shape and course of the sutures were
discussed on pages 22-26. It may be pointed out
that in C the interparietal apex of the occipital squama
is somewhat dilated and squarish, while that of E is
more acutely triangular. Observed quite frequently in
a variety of shapes in the skulls from the North Pacific
Coast, it was supposed there to represent an irregular
ossification of the occipital fontanelle. The upper
squama shows an even, almost globular, bulging, which
continues only slightly interrupted into the lower
squama, still better to be noticed in norma lateralis
(pages 59, 60, 69). This condition conforms with those
described by Martin (1905, 466) in the Senoi, and in both
instances is due partly to the more erect orientation of
the nuchal planum. The angle of the latter is discussed
on page 59 of this work. The conditions described

122 SANTA BARBARA

here are seen in outline in the median-sagittal curves
(see pis. i-iii), in which particularly the tracing of
B represents an almost faultness segment of a circle.
By this description it is already suggested that the occip-
ital relief of the planum nuchale is rather weak The
protuberantia occipitalis externa is very weakly devel-
oped, but there is a distinct indication of a torus occipi-
talis, more so in the males than in the female. A similar
observation is that of Koganei (1906, 525) on Korean
skulls where the torus occipitalis occurred eight times
out of seventeen. Of these, seven cases were males and
one a female. The transverse bulgings between the
lineae nuchae superiores and supremae were recognized in
the undeformed skulls from the North Pacific Coast in
different degrees of development at a frequency of 69. 7r^,
although only in 0.8°^ in a pronounced form. The latter
is a typical feature in the Neandertaloids, Australians,
and certain Oceanians. But even the high occurrence
in the American native population must be considered
a racial characteristic. The foramina mastoidea are, as
a rule, decidedly variable in size, number, and position,
and are so in both our specimens. The left foramen in
skull B is of medium size and is situated in its typical
place in the occipito-mastoid suture. The right foramen,
in size the same, is situated upon the mastoid portion of
the temporal bone and removed about 5 mm. from the
suture. The left foramen in skull C is in its regular
place and is slightly above medium size. It is lacking on
the right side, but perhaps is vicariously substituted by
a smaller opening near the sutura parietomastoidea.
On the left side in E there is a foramen of medium size on

CRANIOLOGY

123

the mastoid portion of the temporal bone, while on the
right side a tiny foramen in the corresponding part and
another in the occipito-mastoidal suture are in evidence.
Complete absence on one side is not so rare; such
absence was observed in 5.2% on the right side and in
15.5% on the left side of the North Pacific undeformed
skulls.

Regarding the principal dimensions observable in the
norma occipitalis, the Santa Barbara skulls are slightly
broader than high, as will be seen from the following
table.

HUMAN VARIETY

Santa Barbara

B (cf)

C (9)

E (cf)

North Pacific Coast
(undeformed )

c?

Averages Q

CRANIAL BREADTH AND HEIGHT

indices

breadth

height

1

2

3

4

V-.

Oj

, i

_

3

cd

"j-i

O

eg

fl

3

to

3

d

ctf

OS

d

u

42

s

mm.

mm.

mm.

mm.

141

120

97

134

131

118

97

125

134

119

102

133

140.8

134.2

(129-

(110-

152)

148)

136.5

— .

. .

132.2

(130-

(115-

150)

141)

© [
o

o

o

95.0
95.4
99.3

95 . 5
(77.8-

106.1)

95.6
(83 . 3-

106.3)

85.1
90.1
88.1

68.8
74.1
76.9

Presenting medium conditions in this respect, the
breadth-height indices result accordingly. They arc,

124 SANTA BARBARA

with values of 95 + , metriocranial in B and C, conditions
typical of the Mongoloid and especially of the Indian
skull. E, on the other hand, is acrocranial at 99.3,
resulting from a smaller cranial breadth than that of B,
but having a cranial height equal to it. The breadth-
height indices of B and C are seen to conform exactly
with those of the undeformed crania from the North
Pacific Coast. The index of E, however, falls well into
the range of variation. In further characterization of
the cranial dimensions in the occipital aspect, the bi-
auricular as well as the mastoidal breadths were recorded.
The former differs by only 1 mm. each in our three skulls,
while the latter is identical in both B and C, but is
higher by 5 mm. in E. The two measurements as such
differ in the typical way, i.e., the biauricular or breadth
of the cranial base exceeds the mastoidal breadth. Sex
differences in favor of the male skull are due naturally to
the differences in size, and Martin (p. 717) claims that
the two measurements differ more in brachycranial than
in dolichocranial skulls. Each two indices derived from
the latter two breadths in proportion to the cranial
breadth differ in the Santa Barbara skulls on account of
the difference in the latter measurement, which is even
more noticeable in E.

LOWER JAW

The lower jaws are of medium size and are well
balanced in their proportions. Muscle markings are
somewhat more pronounced, although moderately
developed in the males. This is likewise true of the lineae
obliquae, which are steeper in the males, forming upon

CRANIOLOGY 125

the corpus the familiar swelling and spreading into a
vertical and longitudinal branch. About the lower
border of the corpus of B and C is to be observed the
planum platysmaticum ending anteriorly and laterally
in the tubercula mentalia, also tubercula platysmatica
according to H. Virchow (1920, 23). These conditions
are merely indicated in C, while in E the striae platys-
maticae (H. Virchow 1920, 5) are well marked. The
basal border from fore to aft in lateral projection, par-
ticularly that of C, forms a continuous flatly convex
outline without producing even an incisura praemasse-
terica (M. v. Lenhossek, 1920, 53; also incisura prae-
muscularis Klaatsch 1909, 107, and incisura praeangularis
Frizzi 1910, 259) in its posterior portion. In the two
males this incisure is only faintly indicated, as is another
below the mental foramen, and here more so in E than
in B, but in general the lower border is similar to that in
the female. Characteristic of the outlines in lateral
projection is the anterior height, exceeding only slightly
that of the corpus in general, and which is due in part to
the weak chin formation, all of these features repeating
conditions prevailing in the American Indian, and, in a
wider sense, the peoples of Mongoloid affinity.

The trigonum men tale is well developed in B and E,
but weaker in C. The incisura subincisiva (Klaatsch
1909, 112), or incurvatio mandibular anterior (H. Virchow
1920, 62), is therefore quite shallow in C, but better
marked in B and particularly in E. Laterally of the
trigonum, the fossa mentalis (//. Virchow 1920, 62)
and its continuation upon the corpus as sulcus mentalis
(Klaatsch 1909, 112) are likewise better developed in B

126 SANTA BARBARA

and E. It is remembered that the latter author (1909)
has employed in connection with his alveolar plane line
a chin vertical. The projection of the chin in advance,
or falling short, of the vertical was termed by him posi-
tive, neutral, and negative chin. The misleading latter
term occasioned Frizzi's (1910, 23) corrective vertical
through the deepest point of the sub-incisival incurva-
tion. It had to be employed in the median-sagittal
tracing of C, which in Klaatsctis method would be pos-
sessed of a negative chin, while with Frizzi's corrective
vertical the chin becomes positive. An angular expres-
sion of chin projection may be had by drawing the chin
tangent from the incision (Klaatsch 1909, 103), or infra-
dentale, or katoprosthion (H. Virchow 1920, 14), and
touching the most anterior point of the chin (v. Tor ok }s
"pogonion"). The angle formed by this tangent and
the alveolar plane line is the one sought, but the present
writer prefers the angle below the alveolar plane to the
one used by Puccioni (1913, 6, 13) above that plane
for the reason of more direct expressiveness. Reversing
therefore Puccioni 's classification of the "progonic"
angle, the divisions would read thus:

Progonic x — 89°

Orthogonic 90 - 100°

Opisthogonic 101 — x°

As indicated in fig. 25, a state of progony prevails in
B and E, even quite pronounced in the latter at 73°,
while C is orthogonic. This method is naturally applic-
able only for mandibles possessed of a chin and not for
the chinless fossil men and apes. Slight projection of

CRANIOLOGY

127

the chin must be recognized as truly Mongoloid, which

is also the state of the

American Indian, and

in this respect B and C

are more typical than

E, although the range

of variation is rather

wide, as noticed in a

more cursory survey of

this feature.

Fig. 25 shows likewise
the basal tracings in
alveolar orientation of
our three mandibles.
They are well rounded
and even narrow at that
in C, while chin angles
(tubercula mentalia s.
platysmatica) are only
slightly to be noted in
E. They thus present
Klaatsch's (1909, 113)
" median chin" in con-
tradistinction to his
" lateral" one, for which
Frizzi (1910, 24) sub-
stituted " round" and
i l squarish" (abgekan-
tet). It may be said
that the more roundish
shape of chin in our

Fig. 25. — Basal and median-sagittal
outlines of chin region in the Santa
Barbara mandibles in alveolar orienta-
tion, m — s, median-sagittal; A — A',
alveolar plane; id, infradentale, id — n,
chin tangent; [_A — id — n, chin angle;
f.m., foramen mentale. (^ natural size.)

128 SANTA BARBARA

three specimens is likewise a true expression of rather
typical conditions in the American Indians, although
the opposite shape is also occasionally encountered
among them.

The foramina mentalia, of which there are two on the
left side of B and on the right side of E, are in line here,
as well as in C, with the second premolars — in the latter,
however, with the anterior alveolar rim, in the former,
with the posterior. It seems that in the Anthropomor-
phae, as well as in the Hominidae, and certainly in the
Australians, the situation of the mental foramina is rather
in line with the first molar. This is doubtless a feature
of phylogenetic significance, since with the progressive
reduction of the alveolar process and the size of the teeth
the foramina mentalia move automatically forward, or,
better, retain their positions upon the more conservative
corpus mandibular as against the modifying alveolar
process.

The upper portion of the ramus is dilated in both C
and E as compared with B, causing there the wider inci-
sura mandibular, conditions which will be treated quan-
titatively below. The processus coronoidei are more
pointed in the female, but in our three mandibles they
fall short in height of the condyloid processes. They
show on their medial sides well-developed ridges, von
Lenhossek's (1920, 51) crista? endocoronoideae. Another
ridge, the crista endocondyloidea of the same author,
branches from the former to form the medial edge of the
condyloid process. Between the two cristas the bone
becomes thinner and often produces deep triangular
depressions which are the rule in the lower jaw of the

CRANIOLOGY 129

chimpanzee and occur with some frequency in man too
They are wanting, however, in our specimens. This
was called by Klaatsch (1908, 93) fossa subcoronoidea.
and was supposed by him to be a muscular groove.
But as it is a place particularly free from muscular inser-
tion, and situated not below but back of the processus
coronoideus, it might as well be termed " fossa (or tri-
gonum) postcoronoideum." The longitudinal groove
at the anterior border of the ascending ramus, Klaatsch' }s
(1909, 108) fossa praecoronoidea, is deeper in B than in C
and E, and its width is of medium proportions. Its
lower portion in connecton with the postmolar space or
trigonum postmolare {Klaatsch 1909, 108) presents, as
a rule, the greatest thickness of the mandible. The
respective measurements are 16 mm. in B, 18 mm. in
C, and 14 mm. in E, as compared with 23.5 mm. in the
Heidelberg jaw.

Medially the three mandibles are quite spacious and
well rounded out in their anterior portions. The spina
mentalis interna, or, better, the spinae genioglossi, are
individually well developed in B, but are merely indicated
in C and E. The insertion of the mm. geniohyoidei is
marked in proportion by tuberosities. Just above these
formations there is a deeper funnel-like depression with
an opening at the bottom in C, the outlet of a canalis
medianus Bertelli. The fossae digastricae slope backward,
indicating an advanced morphological condition as
against those in the fossils where the area digastrica is
directed downward. In our three specimens the two
fossae are medially separated by a distinct spina inter-
digastrica. The mylohyoid line, or rather angle, is well

130 SAXTA BARBARA

developed, particularly in B and C, and this seems to be
the rule in the Indian lower jaw. It is even more pro-
jecting in the female, where likewise the postmolar
width was shown slightly in excess of that of the males.

The condyloid processes are well rounded above and
show no signs of flattening wear such as is usual in middle
age. In vertical view they are elliptic with tapering
ends, medially even more so than laterally. The fre-
quently occurring and slightly pointed projection at the
anterior edge of the mandibular condyles, which is
brought about partly by the molding influence of liga-
ments and muscles (capsula articularis, ligamentum
temporomandibulare, m. pterygoideus externus), is not
present in our specimens. The antero-posterior diameter
of the condyles which, according to Martin (1914, 881),
amounts in the adult in most cases to a third of the length
of the transverse diameter of the condyles, comes in the
Santa Barbara mandibles to about its half. The length-
breadth index of the capitulum therefore lies around 50,
within a general range of 23-72 (p. 881), which is higher
than the human average of 38.1. However, Martin
states that about 90^c of all cases occur between the
index values of 30 and 50. The following table of
capitulum measurements contains also a few compara-
tive data of which those of La Chapelle-aux-Saints are
distinguished by unusual proportions.

The axes of the condyles are in general quite variable
and subject to the conngurative formation at the cranial
basis. The axes are directed from medially and back-
ward to laterally and forward, which is likewise the con-
dition here. The angles formed by the two condylar

CRANIOLOGY

131

axes are greater in B and E than in C, corresponding
thus to the nearly frontal direction of the fossae mandib-
ulares there, as referred to on page 74. The condylar
angles are also listed in the table.

HUMAN VARIETIES AND
ANTHROPOTDS

Santa Barbara
B (<?)...
C (9)...
E (<?)...

Homo*,

Chimpanzee* ,
Orang-utan* .

La Chapelle-aux-
Saints*

CAPITULUM MANDIBUL^

length

breadth

breadth -100

length

r.

1.

r.

1.

r.

1.

mm.

mm.

mm.

mm.

21

20.5

10

10

47.6

48.8

19

20

10

10

52.7

50.0

22

22.5

12

11

54.4

48.9

—

—

38.1

(23-72)

• —

—

46.1

— ■

—

75.0

2

9

13

.5

4:6

.6

angle
of con-
dylar
axes

154°
140°

158°

148c

"Martin 1914, 881.

A word may be said regarding the mutual behavior
of the processus alveolaris and the ramus. It appears
that during phylogenetic development and with ihe
broadening out of the skull base, the condyles, as well
as the coronoid processes into which the temporal
muscles are inserted, develop and broaden similarly,
producing the downward and mesially slanting position
of the ramus. Without changing the general status,
this at times is counteracted by muscular traction that

132 SANTA BARBARA

causes the eversion of the anguli mandibular, which as a
feature by itself is very pronounced in the gorilla. But
the most remarkable change takes place between the
posterior end of the alveolar process and the anterior
border of the ramus below the coronoid process, causing
that deep recess, the fossa praecoronoidea. It shows
the alveolar process to be the more conservative element,
and the fossa, which is already well marked in the anthro-
poids, subject to the degree of ramus deviation.

The foveae submaxillares, as well as the sublinguals,
are quite pronounced in C. The sulci mylohyoidei and
the foramina mandibularia are of normal appearance,
except that the left sulcus in C is bridged, and both sulci
are doubly bridged in E, with outlets at the lower end.

The principal measurements of the Santa Barbara
mandibles are combined in the table on page 134, where
for comparison several other groups, as well as the
Heidelberg specimen, are included. In conjunction
with this table and those following, the lateral outlines
of our three mandibles in alveolar orientation should
be consulted. The central of the three outlines of fig.
26 shows the measurements and angles referred to in the
text.

The dimensions listed in our table for the lower jaws
of B and C are nearly identical, while the length of E
falls short of, and the two widths exceed, the correspond-
ing measurements. According to the physiological
ranges given by Martin (1914, 870) for the three meas-
urements extending for the length from 90 mm. to
126 mm., the bicondylar width from 103 mm. to 135
mm., and the bigonial width from 85 mm. to 117 mm.,

CRANIOLOGY

133

FlG. 26.— Lateral outlines in orthogonal projection and alveolar orienta-
tion of the Santa Barbara mandibles. A — A', alveolar plane line. J;or
angles and methods see text. (| natural size.)

134

SANTA BARBARA

HUMAN VARIETY

Santa Barbara

B (c?)

C (9)

E (<?)..

f Chinese!

Averages^ Negroes']". . .
(Australians!

Heidelberg

PRINCIPAL MEASUREMENTS AND
INDICES OF THE MANDIBLE

length

107*
109
99
102
106
112

120

bicon-
dylar
width

117
118
120
120
112
122

131

bi-

gonial
width

97

96

102

101

93

103

110

Index

1-100

90.6
90.6

82.5
98.5
87.9
92.3

91.7

3-100

82.9
81.3
85.0
83.7
83.1
84.4

84.0

* The length of the mandible is measured from the chin pro-
jection to the most posterior points of extension, the jaw
resting on its base. The points of posterior projection are
the backs of the condyles (Martin 1914, 559, measurement
68). However, since through the introduction of the alveolar
plane line (Klaatsch 1909) we possess a means of proper
mandibular orientation, the length (mento-condylar) might
just as well be adjusted to it. In further justification of such
procedure is the outstanding fact that the mandibular orien-
tation coincides with the general cranial ear-eye orientation
much more frequently than the fortuitous one of its former
by its basal border. Although the alveolar plane has been
utilized extensively in the present studies, the mandibular
length was not referred to it in order to facilitate comparison,
but may nevertheless be mentioned separately in this note.
The mento-condylar lengths then,- — the one taken in the
usual way and that secured in alveolar orientation,- — are in
B as 107 mm. to 103 mm., in C as 109 mm. to 103 mm., and
in E as 99 mm. to 96 mm.

| Martin 1914, 869,

^

CRANIOLOGY 135

our mandibles represent about medium conditions in
B and C, while for E here holds good what has been said
about it in the preceding sentence. The length averages
listed for comparison in our table are graded in such a
way that the Negroes with 106 mm. exceed the Chinese
with 102 mm., while both in turn are exceeded by the
Australians with 112 mm. Comparing the Chinese
averages of the two width measurements taken as a
standard for peoples of Mongoloid affinity, it will be
seen that the Santa Barbara mandibles fairly approxi-
mate them as representing medium conditions, while
the Negroes range below and the Australians above them.
The length-width indices of our specimens are strongly
influenced by the relative shortness of their lengths,
especially in E, i.e., they range below the averages of the
other varieties except the Negroes, while the high index
of the Chinese is not entirely plausible from the average
dimensions involved.

The width indices are more stable in general, amount-
ing to 81.3 in C and 82.9 in B, and accounting in the
former for a slightly greater bicondylar and a slightly
smaller bigonial width. The higher index of 85.0 in E
results, of course, rather from its markedly greater bi-
gonial than its only slightly greater bicondylar width.
Regarding the Heidelberg jaw, it is its exceedingly large
dimensions which mark it as the largest specimen on
record, while its indices conform with those of the
Australians.

The height proportions of the body were determined
by Cameron (1923, 54 c) by an index involving the sym-
physial and molar heights, the former being measured.

136 SANTA BARBARA

like the chin height, between the lower border of the
chin and the interalveolar septum of the middle incisor
teeth, the latter between the second and third molars.
Cameron observed the anterior height of jaw in the adult
Western and Central Eskimo greatly to exceed in cases
that of the molar region. The lowest index as expressing
the greatest divergence between the two heights was
that of an adult female at 62.1, while an adolescent female
had an index of 91.4. He compares the adult index with
the European variation of 76.1-94.1, concluding "that
the masticatory activity, and therefore the downward
pressure upon the lower molar series, were not merely
so evident in these types of mankind" (p. 54 c). It
seems doubtful to the present writer whether the
depressed molar height of the corpus is a result of func-
tion, since the principal demands on the masticatory
apparatus occur during a period of concluded growth
when such radical changes in a bone as alluded to are
hardly imaginable. He is confirmed in his deviating
opinion by the examination of an Eskimo mandible from
Smith sound (American Museum of Natural History,
no. 105) of extraordinary massiveness. Its two corpus
heights are as 37 mm. to 30 mm., giving rise to the high
index of 81.1.

Our two mandibles B and C have chin heights of 33
mm. each, and molar heights of 29 mm. and 25 mm.
respectively, resulting in indices of 85.5 in B and 75.8
in C. With a chin height of 27 mm. and a molar height
of 28 mm., the conditions are reversed in E. The index
here amounts to 103.7, thus exceeding Cameron's Euro-
pean range. The smaller chin height of our specimen E

CRANIOLOGY 137

is due to an incurvation of the basal border of the chin,
Klaatsctis (1909, 110) incisura submentals, which is
absent in C and only slightly indicated in B. The last
named author sees in it an inferior character existing in
the Gibbon and the mandibles of old diluvial origin,
and only as a reminiscence of those conditions encoun-
tered in more recent varieties.

It is to Cameron's credit that he has called renewed
attention to a faint groove medially right below the
third molar tooth, which is theie caused by nervus
lingualis (p. c 55). Not of constant occurrence in gen-
eral, it is nevertheless very pronounced in our speci-
men C.

In order to express by an index the dimensions of
the ramus, Cameron (p. c 55) has brought into propor-
tion its minimum breadth, and, at right angles with it,
the height from the bottom of the sigmoid notch (incisura
mandibular) to the lower border of the corpus. Admit-
ting that the height measurement of the ramus as usually
taken between the condyle and the angle (condylion to
gonion) is a rather arbitrary one, the writer fails to see
the advantage of the substitution of the no less variable
sigmoid height without accounting for the coronoid
and condylar processes which are integral parts of the
ramus. He therefore would prefer that the ramus height
be taken with the inclusion of the two processes easily
to be connected by a string or a needle, and above the
deepest point of the curve. The accompanying table
shows our two mandibles B and C to be possessed of equal
ramus breadths of 35 mm., E exceeding them by 2 mm.
The difference between the sigmoid and condylo-coro-

135

AXTA BARBARA

noid heights is. in favor of the latter, seen gradually
ascending and amounting to 13 mm., 15 mm., and 18 mm.
in our three mandibles and signifying a differing depth of
the incisura mandibular. Thev diner also between

HCMAX VARIETY AND CHIM7

—
-
-
—

—

s

-

I

- =

mm. i mm.

- a Barbara

B (o*)

C (91

E (d<)

ern and Central Eskimof

~ 4

Anglo-Saxon-- . .

35 53 66
55 44 59
37 51

-: ;

35.149.4 ■

44

::

5m >

66.0

n :

_ :

71.0

:! ; to
" 8

"

53

50 ;

53

Chimpanzee! 5C

* The description of measurements 2 and ; is given in the
text.

mcron 192
I Amer. Mus. Xat. H : ; " "

themselves in such a way that the heights of C fall be-
tween those of B and E. The index with the sigmoid
height. Cameron s "index of width of the ramus" (p.
. 55), is at 79.5 higher in C than in B and E, owing to its

CRANIOLOGY 139

lower ramus height at about equal breadths. The con-
dylo-coronoid heights influence the indices, of course, to
the amount of the height differences. The Eskimo of the
last table, at least in the males, have broader and lower
rami, as compared with the Santa Barbara specimens,
and hence a markedly higher index. The females range
with slender rami below the males. Decidedly lower
indices are characteristic of the Anglo-Saxons, with
perhaps an average around 60.0, or even lower, in expres-
sion of much slimmer rami. Cameron (p. c 55) remarks
on the highly interesting observation that the index
" increased with age in both sexes, up to middle life at
any rate," owing to the increasing width of the index,
while "in European types of mandible, it was ascertained
that the index of width of the ramus increased with age
so long as the teeth remained intact, and then diminished
again if the individual became edentulous."

For comparison the corresponding measurements of
a chimpanzee are included in the table. They exceed
those of the human varieties considerably, yielding also
indices in excess of them.

Since the establishment by Klaatsch of a plane of
orientation, quite a number of the absolute measure-
ments of the mandible may be referred to it.1 Thus, the

1 Slightly modifying the technique proposed by Klaatsch
(1909, 102-103) and II. Virchow (1920, 14), the writer passes
his alveolar plane line through points upon the thickened
seam all around the alveolar process and which is rarely mis-
sing, between the middle incisors and at the alveolus for m3.
He believes to have thus found more constant points of orien-
tation as compared with those required by the two authors
named.

14" SANTA EAaI ARA

tl:

;ve Aze i'.vr:'.i: zAzr_e zrAgA: "ze ezczressez z az.

condylar hafijhit - 100*

-1 Z - = :: — * : :-e : --- coronoid height "
izt Sarzza -zz':zrz szeAzzzezzs zze lis : in rzzsAez zy
I-:~er : irzzzziz zz: :^ssts zhey are zAazrzae: :r:z.: : . ..
AzzA:es c: 105.0 in B. 121 : Lz I zzA 129.7 iz E.
?:>.::::'<'.: zz. ;,Ai AzssiAes zAe Azzztz:::.: Iz :zz . z. is
z; z.i: :zzzzi:. At vizA ir_zz:ts zz :; :- : His state-
ment refers. «:: course. :<: aver: _ : A :ns zs Ake~:st

z : rs :zt ::A zz . z Les ::z z A'zuAs A: zz. zz : : : ;nes nt Sr
trzuvent z:s Aez.es A:nc:ues: "a micAize mferieure
it Mazez es: "_a set : z :z; . .- zzzz z rs

:tgrzuzt Our two mar ind E however A

~izAAz zAe :Azmaz:z: ::::: ::zz: ~ iziie I isz z:

1 : is n:t far rem:vez frzm :':.-.

The depth of the incisura mandibular (s. condylocoro-
noidea), which varies in the human varieties from 10
mm. to 18 mm. (Martin 1914. 881), presents with 12
mm. in B, 13 mm. in C, and 16 mm. in E. varying con-
ditions in the Santa Barbara specimens. Greater differ-
ences were noted for the condylo-coronoid width,
asuring 35 mm. in B7 it reaches 42 mm. in C and E,
represents iz. the latter a kind of a "dilation*" of the

1 1: 5 : '.:.-: : . - - At A:

lower, or at an equal height with the condyloid process-
Pucaoni (1914, 300 classifies the index according to the

zi:v: :tm? --AAA trzlam :At:us±A t5

;vzzz:z ' - . :

iicoronk 94.6-106.5

:nz~-::::rA: 1. ;--

CRANIOLOGY

141

two processes, which seems to be more frequent in the
female mandible.

The indices derived from these measurements are, with
34.3 in B, 31.0 in C, and 38.1 in E, microbathyccelomic
in B and C, but macrobathyccelomic in E, according to
Puccioni's (1914, 303) classification.1 In spite of its
greater depth, the lower
index in C is due to the
markedly greater width,
which in fact appears to
be the more variable
factor, not only in the
Indian mandible, but in
the Mongoloid in general.
The index of E, on the
other hand, is expressive
of a greater incisura
depth.

The alveolar plane line
is of greatest importance
in angular investigation.
The following table con-
tains in alveolar orienta-
tion (1) the condylo-coronoid angle between the condylo-
coronoid tangent and a parallel of the alveolar plane
line, (2) the ramus angle between the ramus tangent
and the alveolar plane line, (3) the"postero-basal" (mihi)
angle between the ramus and basal tangents, and (4)

1 Incisura index:

microbathycoelomic x-37. 0

macrobathycoelomic 37 . 1-x

Fig. 27.— Superposition of mandib-
ular rami in lateral projection and
alveolar orientation, to show differ-
ences of ramus angles. A — A ', alveolar

plane. Santa Barbara B

(cf); Santa Barbara C (9);

Ozan, Arkansas (no. 543 inf.,

M. A. I.). (| natural size.)

14.

SAXTA BARBARA

the"'antero-basal" (mihi) angle between the chin vertical
and the basal tangent. They may be read also from
the lateral projections of fig. 26 (middle hgure).

MANDIBULAR ANGLES Di

ALVEOLAR ORIENTATION

HUMAN VARIETY

condvlo-

postero-

antero-

coronoid

ramus

basal

basal

Santa Barbara

B (df) I

C (9)

-::

/ 5C

115°

81°

-12c

66c

123°

-::

E tf

-18e

/ -

iny:

85°

Xorth Pacific

coast uncle-

formed ]

f..

-0.4:

69. 0Z

11$. 4D

Bl. 8C

(-18 to

y?-

100-

69-

-1-

-

137c

89c

Averages 3 . .

-1.4C

64. ::

124 2

SO. 5°

1

— 12 to

;,-

116-

72-

-12:

70c

131°)

s():

European*

-10°

-

112;

>

Negro*

-:o:

'

I28c

71°

Australian*

-12°

83c

116°

'_

Dajak*

-7:

75°

108c

88°

* Single jaws Klaatsch 1909 .

Before the introduction of the alveolar plane of man-
dibular orientation, the means of determining the exact
state of erectness or declination of the ramus were want-
ing. The ramus angles on that plane for the Santa
Barbara specimens are 75c in B. 66c in C. and 77" in E.
The female angle C 9 ) is thus seen to range below the
male angles. The average ramus angles of the unde-
formed crania from the Xorth Pacihc Coast, at 69.0"
and 64.2° in the two sexes, also show the female angle

CRANIOLOGY 143

to be smaller than that of the male, or, what is equivalent,
signifies the more marked declination of the female
ramus. This fact being established there, it was shown
by further comparison that the infantile ramus angle
fell short of the angle in both the male and the female,
the cause for it, of course, lying with the processes of
growth and function. In order to show the different
degrees of declination, the ramus outlines in lateral pro-
jection of Santa Barbara specimens B and C are suoer-
posed in fig. 27, together with an outline of an infan-
tile mandible from Ozan, Arkansas (no. 543 of our col-
lection). They were made to coincide at the points of
intersection between the ramus tangents and the alveo-
lar plane line. The other ramus angles of our table
show a remarkable degree of erectness at 83° in an Aus-
tralian, followed by a European at 77°, a Dajak at 75°,
and an African Negro at 70°. However, their figures,
like those of the Santa Barbara mandibles, are only of
relative comparative value, as they represent only indi-
vidual ones. Taking the ranges of variation of the North
Pacific Coast as a criterion, it will nevertheless be realized
that our two specimens hold high stations there and that
the Australian at 83° even exceeds the ranges.

In close relation to the ramus angle, but conditioned
by the behavior of the basal tangent, the postero-basal
angle is, in a way, the equivalent of and comparable
with the older ramus angle. In spite of the variation
of that tangent, the sex difference is well pronounced in
the individual figures of the Santa Barbara specimens,
as well as in those of the North Pacific Coast. They arc
in favor of the female angle and correlated with the

144 SAXTA BARBARA

greater female ramus angles first discussed. The angles
of B and C fairly correspond with those of the Xorth
Pacific specimens, while E falls noticeably short of them
on account of its more erect ramus tangent. The indi-
vidual figures of our column are quite variable, owing
doubtless to the varying conditions regarding the basal
tangent. These may best be judged from the ranges of
the antero-basal angle between the basal tangent and
the chin vertical. Sex differences of this angle seem to
favor the males, who have a slightly higher average.

For the postero-basal. or the ramus angle of the older
method, Martin (1914, 884) gives an adult range of
SS— 142 r, and Kieffer*s (1908) averages for Peruvians
and Chinese at 119". Australians a: 12-:. Negroes at liz
and Europeans at 128°. The latter author showed that
it was the differing chin heights that bore decidedly on
the outcome of the angle.

T he condylo-coronoid deviation has been expressed
by the condylo-coronoid index (see pa^\ -140). The

more exact method, however, seems to be the determina-
tion of the angle of deviation of the "condylo-coronoid
tangent*7 (Klaafsch 1909. 107) from intersecting lines.
Thus Klaatsch determined such an angle by the inter-
srtion of the condylo-coronoid and ramus tangents.
However, both being variable quantities, this method
lacks denniteness. Puccioni (1913, 7) determines the
angle in relation to al ine at right angles with the alveo-
lar plane line, which he ts as a tangent to the anterior
border of the ramus. The angle opens forward and is
named by Puccioni "angolo anteriore della bran:
the justification of which is not quite clear, sir:r i: is

CRANIOLOGY 145

the deviation of the condylo-coronoid tangent which is
to be expressed by it. To the present writer the sim-
plest and most unequivocal method seems to be the direct
determination of the angle upon a parallel to the alveo-
lar plane line passing through the cor onion. It is a
plus angle (+) if the condylo-coronoid tangent slopes
backward, and a minus one (— ) if it slopes forward.
The required lines can easily be drawn into the cranio-
gram (mandibulogram) , since a suitable apparatus for
direct measurements is not yet available. The angle
itself is one of great variability. In the North Pacific
mandibles, as will be seen from the table, it extends
from -18° to + 18° in the males and from -12° to +12°
in the females, with averages of +0.4° and —1.4° in
the two sexes. The Santa Barbara mandibles, with
— 7° in B, —12° in C, and —18° in E, decidedly empha-
size the minus state. Of some significance is the single
value of +20° in the Negro, which exceeds the plus side
of the North Pacific range of variation. It will remain
for a later period of multiplied studies in this new method
to produce more comprehensively differentiated results.
Puccioni's assertion of the predominant state of hypsicor-
ony in the American Indian can not very well be upheld
on the basis of our own results, at least for the Santa
Barbara specimens and the North Pacific tribes. His
statement as based on his index classification (see page
140) is neither prompted by the Santa Barbara indices as
listed there nor by the condylo-coronoid angles which
likewise suggest a chamaecoronic state, while the average
angles of the mandibles of the undeformed crania from
the North Pacific Coast suggest absolute isocorony. The

146 SANTA BARBARA

range of variation here is nevertheless quite extended, as
stated above. However, Puccionrs assertion is upheld
by MacCurdy (1923, 234) for Peruvian mandibles, when
he states that, "in the collection as a whole, the coronoid
process is almost without exception higher than the
condoloid."

TEETH

All the teeth in the upper as well as in the lower jaws
were erupted in B and C. This holds good for E too,
except that in its lower jaw the third molars have not
appeared. Of all the dentures only that of the lower jaw
of C contains the full number of teeth; the others are
slightly incomplete by postmortem loss. The teeth
extant are recorded in the section on the State of Preser-
vation (page 12).

Common in all the teeth is their wearing off, which,
although not extravagant, is well pronounced and con-
forms with the degree of attrition generally met with in
Indians of medium age. The third molars are better
preserved in both jaws than the two other molars and
the premolars, which demonstrates the diminishing func-
tional strain in a fore-to-aft direction. The occlusal
surfaces of the molars are beveled in the familiar way,
i.e., slanting lingually-buccally in the two jaws. There
is a more intensive attrition of the incisors and canines
to be noticed in the female C.

The teeth are of medium size in every respect, showing
the typical differences, in the molars, of five cusps in the
upper and four in the lower, with a diminishing tendency
backward. The molars diminish also in size and thus

CRANIOLOGY 147

represent the condition of progressive phyletic differen-
tiation.

No anomalies occur in our specimens, and no patho-
logical conditions were noted. This refers particularly
to caries, of which there is no indication at all. Due to a
pathological process (periostitis, fistula), however, is the
deterioration of the anterior alveolar borders of the lower
left incisors of C, in such a way that openings of the alveo-
lar wall at the ends of the roots were produced, while the
alveolar margins remained unimpaired in the alveolus for
\2: while that of ii is only slightly affected.1 The teeth
themselves are normal.

A feature of special interest in Indian skulls, and one
thoroughly studied by Hrdlicka (1920), 2 is the " shovel-
shape" of the incisors, and which is more elaborate in the
upper than in the lower. In the Santa Barbara speci-
mens this feature is merely indicated and may be
described as " semi-shovel" in the upper incisors of B and
C, and "trace" in E. The latter is noted also in the
lower incisors of B, while there is no " trace" in C and E.

1 Regarding this condition of alveoloclasia, see Leigh 1925,
190.

2 In his extensive study of the literature that author traced
the description of the feature under discussion back as far as
1844, while as an Indian character he first called attention
to it in 1907 (article on "Anatomy" in Handbook of Amer-
ican Indians, Bull. 30 Bur. Amer. Ethnoi.). According to
Hrdlicka's tables, pronounced "shovel-shaped" median incisors
occur in 67%, and lateral incisors in 76,%, while smaller per-
centages go to the "semi-shovel" and "trace." Thus, "keilo-
koilomorphy" (better, perhaps, in English adaptation, from
xeZXos = lip and koIXos = hollow: "cheilo-ccelomorphy,"
or "chilo-ccelomorphy") must be considered a distinct racial
character in the American Indian.

148 SANTA BARBARA

CONCLUSION

The study of the cranial material from Santa Barbara
has disclosed a number of facts which are the outcome of
a methodical investigation on a comparative basis, the
more important of which will be briefly reviewed.

In general the size of the skulls as exhibited by their
capacity, circumferences, and modules, was recognized
as medium and tending toward smallness. This is in
conformity with the findings of other authors. Thus,
while Boas (1895, 407) has shown that the skulls from
the California islands are smaller by 6% than those of
the Plains, Hrdlicka (1906, 54) asserts that "the Cali-
fornia mainland crania are characterized by small size."
The principal cranial diameters are therefore rather sub-
medium and give rise to meso-brachycranial, ortho-
hypsicranial, and metrio-acrocranial indices. If this is
in keeping with the cranial averages of the California
mainland and particularly those around Santa Barbara,
the interesting fact was revealed in previous works
that a difference of type occurs on the islands of the
Santa Barbara archipelago in such a way that on the
islands situated farther north (San Miguel, Santa Rosa,
Santa Cruz, and Anacapa) shortheadedness predomi-
nated as against longheadedness on the islands farther
south (San Clemente, Santa Barbara, San Nicolas, and
Santa Catalina). A number of authors (Carr 1879;
R. Virchow 1889; Boas 1895; Matiegka 1904; Dixon
1923, et al.) concur in this statement, which in part is
corroborated by our own data on a series of crania from
San Miguel island, used for comparison, and whose

CRANIOLOGY 149

cranial length -breadth indices average 78.3 in the males
and 79.2 in the females. The total frequency of meso-
brachycrany in this series amounts to 91.7%, the rather
insignificant remainder of 8.3% being dolichocrany.
Further reference to these proportions will be made
below.

A feature of particular interest in the Santa Barbara
skulls is the degree of postorbital constriction expressed
not only by direct measurements, but also in proportion
to the cranial breadth. The transverse fronto-parietal
index was shown to be metriometopic in skulls B, C, and
D, and even stenometopic in E. The impression of
this condition is peculiarly emphasized by the morpho-
logical behavior of the zygomatic processes of the
frontal bone, which appear to be drawn out laterally in a
horizontal direction. This has a bearing naturally on
the fossa temporalis, which is relatively deep, and like-
wise on the appearance of the zygomatic arches in verti-
cal aspect, thus causing the condition of phaenozygy.

The smaller transverse extension of the frontal bones
is met by their lesser vaulting longitudinally, a con-
dition more pronounced in the Santa Barbara skulls
than in La Chapelle-aux-Saints and Neandertal, and
falls likewise below the San Miguel averages. The angle
of frontal declination, on the other hand, corresponds at
the same time with European conditions, exceeding even
the San Miguel, Haida, and Eskimo averages of our table.
However, the relative flatness of the frontal bones pro-
duces another interesting feature, viz., post-bregma-
tic elevation, a condition found quite typically in mor-
phologically inferior races.

150 SANTA BARBARA

The glabella is only weakly developed in the male
skulls as well as in the skull of the female.

The pars nasalis of the frontal bone was found rather
long, but not so long as that of an Eskimo from Cape
Nome. The width of the pars nasalis of the latter was
in turn less extended, thus emphasizing the Mongoloid
condition in contradistinction to the greater interorbital
width in Europeans.

The orbits are meso-hypsikonchial and have the infero-
lateral angle rounded out as usually is found in Mongo-
loid skulls and which is drawn downward as a rule in
Europeans.

The nasal indices are leptorrhinic in B and E, but
slightly chamaerrhinic in C, while the lower nasal notches
represent advanced morphological conditions. This can
also be said of the fossa canina. Altogether the facial
detail is quite well proportioned and in harmony with
the general facial dimensions which render our skulls
mesenic with a slight tendency toward euryeny, and
which as such corresponds with the conditions most
frequently met in the Indians of the Pacific Coast.

A feature of more decisive significance, but likewise
not at all rare in the Indians of the Pacific Coast in general
and of Santa Barbara in particular, is the more or less
pronounced state of prognathy, especially in the alveolar
region, where it falls as low as 68° in skull C. To this
extent it recalls similar conditions in certain tribes of
southern India, such as the Senoi, Semang, Singhalese,
etc. In opposition to this the foramen magnum angle
falls rather high in expression of a phylogenetically
advanced stage.

CRAN10L0GY 151

From a purely descriptive point of view the facial
complex appears somewhat out of proportion, i.e., rather
small by comparison with the well-rounded and capa-
cious brain case, as will be noticed by consulting the
tables of curve systems and the photographs. This
impression is conveyed not only by the flatter frontal
outlines, but more so by the postbregmatic elevations
and the bulky well-rounded postauricular portions of
the brain case.

Muscle marks on the whole are weakly developed, the
texture refined, and the general outlines quite gracile.
This is especially true of the mastoids, the zygomatic
bridges, and the processes of the zygomatic bones.

The fossa temporalis presents no anomalous conditions.

The dental arches are paraboloid in shape, and thus
are of an advanced morphological state.

The infero-lateral orbital angle has been mentioned
as characteristically Mongoloid, which is likewise true
of the " shovel-shape" incisor teeth, and of the vertical
outline of the nasal bones which is quite concave in all
the skulls. The latter feature, as well as the pronounced
alveolar prognathism, is also constantly referred to in
the works of R. Virchow (1889), Matiegka (1904), and
others.

The purely morphological evaluation of the numerous
traits discussed in this study admits of a division into
primitive or inferior and advanced morphological con-
ditions. Among the first are to be counted: (a) the
pronounced alveolar prognathism; (b) the flatness of
the frontal bone; (c) the postorbital constriction; (d)
the postbregmatic elevation; (c) the weak chin promi-

152 SANTA BARBARA

nence, which is, however, also a Mongoloid trait. These
are certainly compensated by such features as the rela-
tive cranial height; the normal degree of frontal declina-
tion; the advanced condition of the foramen magnum
plane; the slight superciliary development; the shape of
the dental arch; the teeth of elegant shape; and particu-
larly the molar size conforming to phylogenetic reduc-
tion toward the third, and the apertura piriformis, not
to speak of the refined texture of the bones and the
general appearance of the skulls, which is anything
but crude in the sense of more primitive finds.

If the problem of identifying the Santa Barbara skulls
with the morphologically inferior ones of the Xeander-
tal kind be thus disposed of. the question arises as to
their position in the ethnical complex of the American
Indians and particularly of the Indians of California.
Relatively inferior morphological characters, if judged by
Caucasoid standards, may occur and do occur in almost
all the American Indian types, a number of them, how-
ever, representing racial characteristics at the same time.
If some of them, on the other hand, occur, as in our finds,
in a given locality, one may be justified in identifying
them with a more ancient ethnological layer which in
analogous cases inferred not only certain differences of
type, but more primitive morphological conditions as
well. The former suggestion, however, does not hold
true in our case, for, as shown in pis. xni and xiv, by
the superposition of the cranial outlines of our skulls
B and C upon such from San Miguel island, these out-
lines fairly coincide in every detail except the frontal
section of the median sagittal arc, which shows the

CRANIOLOGY 153

peculiar depression of the Santa Barbara skulls. They
are thus seen to represent the type of their immediate
environment, which, as stated above, is shortheaded in
comparison with the more longheaded ones from the
southern coast and the group of southern islands. These
are of the Sonora cranial type (Boas) , while the northern
shorthead is very probably an intruder.

Finally, as regards the all-important geological con-
dition in connection with our find, a statement by Dr.
Robert T. Hill in the "Los Angeles Times" of November
13, 1923, maybe referred to and the following paragraphs
cited. Dr. Hill says:

"The bones were found beneath about five feet of black
vegetal soil, some of which might have been scraped down
from the higher portions of the hill in the various grazing and
horticultural operations which have taken place since the hill
was occupied first by a large adobe Mexican ranch house and
later by the [Ambassador] hotel, both of which structures
have been razed by fire or otherwise.

"The material in which the bones occur is a dark-colored
impure earth carrying many fragments of shells and charcoal.
This is slightly indurated but easily breakable between the
fingers. The induration is like that which accompanies any
old Mexican or Indian patio floor of today where much
tramping and frequent throwing down of liquids occur.

"It is all secondary surface material, and by no stretch of
the imagination can it be interpreted as imbedded sedimen-
tary strata beneath the original accumulation of the camp
floor, as was alleged. Neither is there anything in connection
with this material or its soil overburden which would justify
the assignment of great age to it."

Having thus disposed of the geological evidence, the
problem of Indian antiquity may once more be referred
to. Proof of a relative antiquity of our finds may be

154 SANTA BARBARA

seen in the fact that they were taken from a mound burial
which per se might be considered as a sign of relatively
old age. This, however, would hardly justify assign-
ing to them an age older than our Christian era. Simi-
lar comments were advanced by A. L. Kroeber, Clark
Wissler, and JT\ K. Gregory. There is thus a possibility
of linking our finds with an ancestral strain in the
sense of American Indian ethnogeny, which in turn
would suggest an affinity with the early intruders into
the locality where their remains were found, and perhaps
even with those already on American soil. However,
such speculation is lacking in proof.

Summarizing as a result of our methodical investiga-
tion, it must be stated that the designation of the Santa
Barbara finds as a special variety of Homo primigenius
(in Schwalbe's sense) and under the caption of Homo
barbarensis or the like, is unjustifiable; nor do the)'
present an assemblage of such morphological features as
to warrant their recognition as a special racial unit within
the ethnic complex of which they form a part. The
Santa Barbara crania, in spite of their slight primitive-
ness, are truly Indian of recent morphological appearance
and are related to the types of their specific habitat.

LITERATURE

Boas, Franz. 1889. Deformation of heads in British

Columbia. Science, xin, pp. 364-365.
1895. Zur Anthropologic der nordamerikanischen In-

dianer. Zschr. Ethnol. (Verh.), xxvn, pp. 366-411.
Cameron, John. 1923. Osteology of the Western and

Central Eskimos. Rep. Canadian Arct. Expcd., 1913-18,

xii, pt. C.

CRANIOLOGY 155

Carr, Lucien. 1879. Observations on the crania from the
Santa Barbara islands, Calif. Rep. V. S. Geogr. Surv.
West 100th Meridian (G. M. Wheeler), vn, Archae-
ology, Washington.

Dalla Rosa, L. 1886. Das postembryonal Wachstum des
menschlichen Schlafenmuskels. Stuttgart.

Eisen, Gustav. 1904. An account of the Indians of the
Santa Barbara islands in California. Sitz. Ber. Kgl.
Bohm. Ges. Wiss., Math-Naturw. Classe, No. 1, pp. 1-30.

Falkenburger, F. 1913. Diagraphische Untersuchungen
an normalen und deformierten Rassenschadeln. Arch.
Anthr., n.f., xii, pp. 81-95.

Frizzi, Ernst. 1910. Untersuchungen am menschlichen
Unterkiefer mit spezieller Benicksichtigung der Regio
mentalis. Arch. Anthr., .n.f., ix, pp. 252-286.

Haberer, K. A. 1898. tjber die Norma occipitalis bei
Mensch und Affe. 86 pp. Munich.
1902. Schadel und Skeletteile aus Peking. 165 pp. Jena.

Hooton, Ernest E. 1920. Indian village site and ceme-
tery near Madisonville, Ohio. Pap. Peabody Mus. Amcr.
Archceol. Ethnol. Harvard Univ., vm, no. 1, 83-137.

Hrdlicka, Ales. 1906. Contribution to the physical an-
thropology of California. Univ. Cat. Publ. Amcr. Ar-
chceol. Ethnol., iv, no. 2, pp. 49-64.

1907. Skeletal remains suggesting or attributed to early
man in North America. Bull. 33 Bur. Amcr. Ethnol.
Washington.

1908. New examples of American Indian skulls with
low foreheads. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xxxv, pp.
171-175.

1916. Physical anthropology of the Lenape or Delawares,

and of the eastern Indians in general. Bull. 62 Bur.

Amer. Ethnol. Washington.
1920. Shovel-shaped teeth. Amcr. Jo urn. Phys. Anthr.,

m, pp. 429-465.
Kieffer, J. 1908. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Veriinde-

runger am Unterkiefer und Kiefergelenk des Menschcn

durch Alter und Zahnverlust. Zschr. Morph. Anthr.,

xi, pp. 1-82.
Klaatscii, Hermann. 1908. The skull of the Australian

aboriginal. Rep. Pathol. Lab. Lunacy Dcp. Sidiicv, I,

pt. in, pp. 43-107.

156 SANTA BARBARA

1909. Kraniomorphologie und Kraniotrigonometrie. Arch,

AfUhr., x.f., vnr, pp. 101-123.
Kogaxei, Y. 1906. Uber Schadel und Skelette der Ko-

reaner. Zschr. EtknoL, xxxyiii, pp. 513-535.
Kolumann, J. 1905. Yarianten am Os occipita!e;besonders

in der Umgebung des Foramen occipitale magnum.

Anat. Anz. (Verh. 19. Vers. Genf), xxvn, pp. 231-236.
1907. Varianten am Os occipitale, besonders in der

Umgebung des Foramen occipitale magnum. Anat.

Anz., xxx, pp. 545-563.
Laxge, Berxhard. 1924. Uber Rassenunterschiede an der

Regio pterica beim ATenschen. Anat. Anz., lviii, no.

15/16, pp. 353-374.
Leigh, R. W. 1925. Dental pathology of Indian tribes of

varied environmental and food conditions. Amer. Jour.

Phys. Anthr., vm, no. 2, 179-99.
Lexhossek, M. v. 1920. Das innere Relief des Unter-

kieferastes. Arch. Anthr., x.f., xviii, pp. 49-59.
Luthy, A. 1912. Die vertikale Gesichtsprofilierung und

das Problem der Schadelhorizontalen. Arch. Anthr..

x.f., xi, pp. 1-87.
Macalister, A. 1898. The apertura pyriformis. Journ.

Anat. Physiol., London, xxxn, pp. 223-230.
MacCurdy, G. G. 1923. Human skeletal remains from the

Highlands of Peru. Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthr., vi, 218-329.
Martin, R. 1905. Die Inlandstamme der malayischen

Halbinsel. Jena.
1914. Lehrbuch der Anthropologic Jena.
Mateegka, H. 1904. Ueber Schadel und Skelette von

Santa Rosa (Santa Barbara-Archipel bei Californien).

Sitz. Ber. Kgl. Bohm. Ges. Wiss., Math.-Noturw. Classe,

no. 2, pp. 1-121.
Mollisox, Theodor. 1908. Beitrag zur Kraniologie der

Maori. Zschr. Morph. Anthr., xi, no. 3, pp. 529-595.
Xehrixg, A. 1905. Menschenreste aus einem Sambaqui.

von Santos in Brasilien. Zschr. EtknoL, xxvn, pp. 710-721
Oettekixg, Bruno. 1908. Ein Beitrag zur Kraniologie der

Eskimo. Abh. Ber. Kgl. Anthr. -Ethnogr. Mus.,

Dresden, xii, no. 3.
1919. The processus frontosphenoidalis of the zygoma

and its bearing on the configuration of the orbit.

An at. Rec, xvn, no. 1, pp. 25-31.

CRANIOLOGY 157

1920. Morphological and metrical variation in skulls
from San Miguel island, California. I. — The sutura
nasofrontalis. Indian Notes and Monogr. (Mus. Amer.
Ind., Heye Found.), vn, no. 2, pp. 51-85.
1924. The Santa Barbara crania. Indian Notes (Mu-
seum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation), i,
no. 2, pp. 76-83.
1924. Declination of the pars basilaris in normal and in
artificially deformed skulls. Indian Notes and Monogr.,
no. 27.

Oppenheim, St. 1907. Die Suturen des menschlichen
Schadels in ihrer anthropologischen Bedeutung. Korr.-Bl.
Dent. Anthr. Ges., xxxviii, pp. 128-135.

Puccioni, Nello. 1913. Richerche sulla forma del mento
e dell' incisura sigmoidea negli uomini e nelle scimmie.
Archivio Antr., Florence, xliii, pp. 3-39.
1914. Morphologie du maxillaire inferieur. Anthro-
pologic, Paris, xxv, pp. 291-321.

Rauber-Kopsch. 1919. Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Men-
schen. II. Knochen. Bander. 347 pp. Leipzig.

Sarasin, Fritz. 1916-22. Anthropologic der Neu-Caledonier
und Loyalty-Insulaner. C. Anthropologic Berlin.

Sarasin, P. and F. 1893. Die Weddas von Ceylon, in.
Wiesbaden.

Schlaginhaufen, O. 1907. Ein Beitrag zur Craniologie der
Semang, nebst allgemeinen Beitragen zur Craniologie.
Abh.Ber.Kgl. Anthr. -Ethnogr. Mus., Dresden, xi, no. 2.

Schwalbe, Gustav. 1899. Studien liber Pithecanthropus
erectus Dubois. Zschr. Morph. Anthr., i, pp. 16-240.

Sergi, Giuseppe. 1893. Le varieta umane. Principi e
metodo di classificazione. Atti Soc. Romana Antrop.,
i, pp. 19-74. (English translation by D. G. Brinton in
Smithson. Misc. Coll., 1894, xxxviii, no. 969, 61 pp.)

Sullivan, Louis R. 1920. The fossa pharyngea in Ameri-
can Indian crania. Amer. Anthr., N.S., xxn, pp. 237-243.
1921. A few Andamanese skulls with comparative notes
on Negrito craniometry. Anthr. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist., xxm, pp. 175-201.

Virchow, Hans. 1915. Die anthropologische Untersu-
chung des Gesichts-Skelettes. Zschr. Ethnol., xlvii, pp.
323-372.
1918. Nasenbreite und Deklination des Orbital-Ein-
ganges. Zschr. Ethnol., l, nos. 4/6, pp. 237-244.

:-

5 A N T A BARBARA

1920. Die menschlkheii Skeletreste ans dem Eam-
pfe'schen Bruclfa. im Travertin von Ekring^dori bet
Weimar. 141 pp. Jena.
" : ..:■:. I.~:u 1:~: Vt .; zlzlzt V±:

MenschenrassenamSdiadeL Abk.Kgl.Ak.Wsss^Pkrs.
Bedm Abt, pp. 1-130.

1: * . z :.;:..:: :. : Z-I: '.:ziz '-■

Westkuste Xoidamerikas. Zsckr. Ethncl. (Verh,), xxi,
pp. 382-403.

Zcckerkaxdl, E. 1877. Zut Morphologic des Gesichts-

5::.. i:^: .v.. .;-._•.:::.

INDEX

Age of specimens, 12
Angle, coronal, 24

inferior lateral, of orbit, 98

foramen magnum, in deformed skulls, 62

of frontal curvature, 50

nuchal, 59, 60, 121

See Tables of measurements
Antiquity of finds, 9, 154

problems of, 15
Antrum maxillare, 77
A pcrtura piriformis, 104, 106, 107, 152

clivus naso-alveolaris, 104, 107

crista alveolaris media, 106

fossa pramasalis, 105, 107

incisura nasalis, 104

margo nasoalveolaris, 104, 106

margo nasospinalis, 104, 106

naso-alveolar flexion, 104, 108

notches, inferior, 106

spina nasalis anterior, 106
Areas superciliaris, 82, 152

zygomaticus, 37, 41, 151
A sterion region, 33

Burton Mound, 9

Canalis, Canales
condyloideus, 71
hypoglossi, 72, 73
absence, 72
bipartition, 72

159

160 INDEX

musculo tub arius, 76
Chin

median (round), 127

lateral (squarish), 127

protrusion, 33, 126, 127, 151
Circummuscular zone, 121
Classification of bones, 12-14
Condylus occipitalis, 71

Correlations, intracranial and cranio-facial, 18-21
Cranial outline in norma verticalis, 21, 22

in norma occipitalis, 32, 59, 121-122
Cranio-facial correlations, 18-21
Crista infratemporalis, 39, 40

supramastoidea, 34, 35, 36

temporalis, 33, 34

Deformation, absence of cranial, 11-12

unintentional, 11-12, 14, 22, 32
Dental arch, 79, 151, 152

Evaluation of morphological characters, 151, 152

Face, 111, 120, 150

horizontal profilation of, 115, 116

protrusion, 33, 117, 118
Fontanelle, occipital, 21
Foramen, Foramina

incisivum, 78

infraorbital, 109, 110

jugulare, 73

magnum plane

in artificially deformed skulls, 62
phylogenetic significance, 62, 151, 152

INDEX 161

magnum shape, 70
mastoideum, 122
mentale, 128
nasale, 102
ovale, 75, 76
palatina majora, 77, 78
palatina minora, 78
parietale, 26
spinosum, 75, 76
supraorbitale, S3
Fossa canina, 107, 108, 150
condyloidea, 71, 72
mandibularis, 74
pharyngea, 5
pterygoidea, 76
! upramastoidea, 34
temporalis, 37-41, 151

Geology of Burton Mound, 15 .»
Glabella, 51
Gregory, W. K., 154

Harrington, J . P.,9
"High-cheek," 115
Hill, Dr. Robert T., 153
Hodge, F.W.,9

Incisura frontalis, 83

mastoidea, 34, 74

supraorbitalis, 83
Index, Indices. See Tables of measurements
Infranasion, 86

Infraporial extension, 44, 45, 64
Interorbital width, anterior, 87, 88

162 INDEX

Intracranial correlations, 18, 12
Investigation, plan of, 15

Kroebcr, A. L., 154

Lin ecu temp or ales, 35
Lower jaw

alveolar plane, 126, 132, 139, 141, 142

anguli mandibular, 132

''antero-basal" angle, 142

basal border, 125

canalis medianus (Bertelli), 129

chin (negative, neutral, positive), 126

corrective vertical, 126

tangent, 126

vertical, 126
condylo-coronoid dilation, 128, 140

height proportion, 140
crista endocondyloidea, 128

endocoronoidea, 128
foramen mandibulare, 132

mentale, 128
fossa digastrica, 129

mentalis, 125

"postcoronoidea," 129

pra?coronoidea, 129, 132

subcoronoidea, 129
fovea sublingualis, 132

submaxillaris, 132
height of ramus (sigmoid and condylo-coronoid), 137
horizontal tracing, 127

incision (s. infradentale s. katoprosthion), 126
incisura mandibular (sigmoidea), 128, 137, 140

praemasseterica (s. prarmuscularis s. pra?angularis) , 125

INDEX 163

subincisiva (s. incurvatio mandibular anterior), 125

submentalis (Klaatsch), 137
linea mylohyoidea, 129

obliqua, 124
median-sagittal tracing, 127
nervus lingualis (sulcus), 137
planum platysmaticum, 125
pogonion, 126
postero-basal angle, 141
processus alveolaris and ramus (mutual behavior), 131, 132

condyloideus, 130, 140

coronoideus, 131, 140
spina, spinae, genioglossal 129

interdigastrica, 129

men talis interna, 129
striae platysmaticae, 125
sulcus mentalis, 125

mylohyoideus, 132
thickness of corpus (postmolar), 129
trigonum men tale, 125

postcoronoideum, 129

postmolare, 129
tubercula mentalia (s. platysmatica), 125

Manifestation of occipital vertebra (Kollmann), 72
Mar go supraorbitals (lateral extension), 82
Maxillofrontale, 87

Median-sagittal arc, divisions of, 46, 47
Method and plan of investigation, 15
Morphological position of Santa Barbara man, 152
Muscle marks, 33, 124, 151

Museum of the American Indian, Ileye Foundation (Depart-
ment of Physical Anthropology), 9, 11

164 INDEX

Narrowing of face, 108
Nasal roof and prognathy, 101

concaveness of, 99, 100
Nasion, depression of, 32
Naso-alveolar flexion, 104
Naso-zygomatic deviation, 118, 120
Norma basilaris, 69-82

frontalis (facialis), 82-120

lateralis, 31-69

occipitalis, 121-124

verticalis, 21-31
Nose, 98-107, 150
Nuchal angle , 59-62, 121
correlations with, 59-63

Orbita, 88-98, 150, 151
Os} Ossa

frontale, 82-91

curvature, 48, 50, 149, 151

declination, 48-49, 149, 151

outlines, 53, 151

pars (processus) nasalis, 85-90, 150

processus zygomaticus, 30, 84, 85
maxillare, 107-111

corpus maxillare, 110, 111

crista infrazygomatica, 108-109

facial configuration, 111

fossa canina, 108, 109

processus alveolaris, 107
nasale, 98-107

horizontal outline, 99

"Sanduhr"-shape, 102

vertical outline, 33, 99, 100, 151
occipitale, 58-65

INDEX 165

interparietal apex, 121

median-sagittal outline, 32

pars basilaris, 64-65, 75

planum nuchale, 59, 62, 122

posterior extension, 69

protuberantia occipitalis externa, 59, 122

relief, 32

torus occipitalis, 122

vaulting, 59, 60, 69, 121
tympanicum, 32

porus acusticus externus, 32

thickening, 32, 74
zygomaticum, 113-120

crista infrazygomatica, 108

horizontal outline, 115-118, 120

naso-zygomatic deviation, 118, 120

processus frontosphenoidalis, 42, 43, 151
maxillaris, 107, 115
temporalis, 37

Palate, anomalous perforation of, 77, 78

Palato-alveolar complex, 76-82

Phamozygy, 31, 149

Plagiocrany, 12, 14, 22, 32, 121

Post-auricular cranial extension, 32, 151

Post-bregmatic elevation, 32, 56, 57, 151

Post-orbital constriction, 22, 29-32, 40, 43, 84, 149, 151

Preservation, state of, 11-12

Processus condyloideus, 74

frontalis, 42

frontosphenoidalis, 42, 43, 151

jugularis, 74

marginalis, 42

mastoideus, 32, 34, 70, 74, 151

166 I X D E X

pterygoideus. 76
styloideus Vagina}. 74
zygoma ticu s

frontal bone 50,42, 53, 84, 149
maxillary bone. 1
temporal bone. 37. 74
Prodcnty. ': ;

-Jatiofi of face, 11 5-1 1 7
Prognathism. :- 1:
Prosopometer :

Refinement of facial parts, 108

Septum inierorbitale, 89
rf skulls, 15-18, 14S

Skeletal remains, classification of, 11. 12
Spina nasal is anterior \ - 106.107

posterior. 7
S pi nee palatini. 76
Squama temporal: ;-- "

forward extension. ;"

lateral bulging. : "

processus zygomatic

shape. 34
Stenoerotaphy. 42
Sukus arteriae occipitalis 74

sphenoparietal 57
Sut ura , Sutiirce

complication. 24

coronal: 5 '- 2

divisions, 22-24

incisiva .

infraorbitalis, 109, 110

intemasalis, 99

INDEX 167

lambdoidea, 24
nasofrontal, 98
obliteration, 24
palatina mediana, 78

transversa, 78
sagittalis, 23
sphenoidalis, 37, 42
squamosa, 37

Tables of measurements, angles and indices
Cranial size, 15

Intra-cranial and cranio-facial correlations, 18
Cranial measurements, 31
Fossa temporalis, 41
Cranial height measurements, 46
Medium-sagittal arc, 48
Os frontale, 54-55
Os parietale, 58
Nuchal angle, 60
Os occipitale, 61
Cranial base (angles), 65
Vertical profilation, 67
Foramen magnum, 71
Maxillo-alveolar and palatal, 81
Fronto-biorbital index, 85
Processus nasalis ossis frontalis, 89
Processus nasalis and orbita, 90
Orbita, 92

declination of, 97
nasal measurements, 105
corpus maxillare, 110
facial measurements, 112
os zygomaticum, 119
cranial breadth and height, 123

168 INDEX

capitulum mandibular, 131

mandible. 13-4

ramus mandibular 138

mandibular angles. 142
T.:ssonomic method. 21
Technique. 15
Teeth, 146-147

completeness. 146

occlusion. 33. 146

pathology. 147

"shovel-shape." 147. 151

size. 146. 152

wear. 146
Torus palatinus. 76

occipitalis. 122
Tuber frontale. v2

parietale. ; ;
Tubercuhim articulare. 37. 74

jugulare. 72
fossa pharyngea. 75

spinosum. 40
Type, difference of cranial, in southern California. 14s

Wissler, Clark. 154

Zonula circummusculari . ;;. 121

CJ

u

<

t/5

CO

OS

u.

0)

r

o

^

UJ

h-

eo

>

CO

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL. IV

SYSTEM OF FRONTAL CRANIAL TRACINGS OFSKULLB(cT)

ear -frontal. - anterior frontal posterior

frontal. (| natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL. V

SYSTEM OF FRONTAL CRANIAL TRACINGS OF SKULL
The system is the same as in pi. iv. (| natural size)

C(9)

OETTEKING— SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL VI

^^~

^^ x- • ■ •

y' . ■ ' ' ■"""" '

~-~ ^\

s ••' -*'

^ *■■•» *^\

/ ■' ^

^ "^\

/ •' *■"

\ \

/ ■'' s

\ "\

/ ■ /

\ \

I •' /

\ A

/ ■ /

\ o

/

/

\

:

/

\

/

/
1

\

\
\

1

I

\ \ \

J
i

V • \

i

\ : \

l

\ '• ^

I

\ :- ^

/

\ -: \

/

\ '■ \

/

\

/

/ .">

A \ \

j .-^

'U

(J

\ \ •'•••.

¥

+~* "i

tVJ (

/

'Xp

SYSTEM OF FRONTAL CRANIAL TRACINGS OF SKULL E (a*)
The system is the same as in pi. iv. (j natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

SYSTEM OF HORIZONTAL CRANIAL TRACINGS OF SKULL B (cf)

ear-eye plane. midorbital glabellar.

— vertex. (h natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL. VIII

■■—

_.^J^^^. __^

y^'"

„ X

y ^y^ZZ

^^ *v.

.■'/ ^s^

y y

■■/ 7

\\--

■/ //

V''-

f/f

\v.

••//

\\\

ill

\v.

u

u

\

Mr

1 1

1 \

-Li-

■\ f

~~W 1

H

•A ^

! K

/\ \

i /A

\ -0 / \

i X / /

\, yy* \ i

i / vi/

V 7 v I

\N^ *x '

\^-' vy

\\ >•

'"' i ■ /

X-.. \

1 y\y

^"^.■H,. X

/ ... .j-l^^

^^x v

j .-'y^*^

V-.. >
\ " "^

'* /

SYSTEM OF HORIZONTAL CRANIAL TRACINGS OF
SKULL C (9)

The system is the same as in pi. vn. (\ natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CftANIOLOGY

PL. IX

SYSTEM OF HORIZONTAL CRANIAL TRACINGS OF SKULL E (cf)

The system is the same as in pi. vn. (£ natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL. XV

NORMA FRONTALIS (FACIALIS) OF SKULL B (cD
(2 natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL. XVI

X

NORMA FRONTALIS (FACIALIS) OF SKULL C (9 )
(f natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL, XVII

I

TK£*JK&

NORMA FRONTALIS (FACIALIS) OF SKULL E (d")
Q natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL. XVIII

NORMA LATERALIS OF SKULL B (cf)
(| natural size)

OETTEKING— SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL, XIX

t

&«'■

! :":

NORMA LATERALIS OF SKULL C (9)

(J natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

E

NORMA LATERALIS OF SKULL E (cf)
(f natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL. XXI

Wdim.

#*J*

NORMA VERTICALIS OF SKULL B (cf)
(\ natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL; XXII

NORMA VERTICALIS OFSKULLC(9)
(2 natural size)

OETTEKING— SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL. XXMI

NORMA VERTICALIS OF SKULL E(c?)
(^ natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL, XXIV

NORMA BASILARIS OF SKULL B (c?)
(5 natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL. XXV

x^m y

NORMA BASILARIS OFSKULLC (9)
(| natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL. XXVI

NORMA BASILARIS OF SKULL E (cf )
(a natural size)

OETTEKING— SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL, XXVII

NORMA OCCIPITALIS OF SKULL B (<?)
(| natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANiOLOGY

PL. XXVIII

m

NORMA OCCIPITALIS OF SKULL C [9)
(f natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL, XXIX

NORMA OCCIPITALIS OF SKULL E (cf)
(f natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL, XXXI

NORMA VERTICALIS OF CALOTTE D ( (?
(| natural size)

OETTEKING — SANTA BARBARA CRANIOLOGY

PL. XXXII

NORMAL OCCIPITALIS OF CALLOTE D (<?)
(j natural size I

SMffHSONIAN INSTfTUTION LIBRARIES

3 9088 01528 2171