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THE POETICS OF ARISTOTLE
TEXT AND TRANSLATION.
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POETICS OF ARISTOTLE
THE ᾿
TRANSLATED WITH A CRITICAL TEXT BY
5, H. BUTCHER, Lit.D., LL.D.
PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH ; FORMERLY FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, AND OF _ UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, OXFORD
London MACMILLAN AND CO. s AND NEW YORK “σ ΧΈΣ 1895 es
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PREFATORY NOTE
Tue following text and translation of the Poetics form part of the volume entitled ‘Aristotle’s Theory of Poetry and Fine Art’ (Macmillan and Co., 1895), and are here re-issued separately for
the convenience of classical readers.
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CONTENTS
PAGE Epitions, TRANSLATIONS, ETC. ANALYSIS OF ARISTOTLE’S POETICS
TEXT AND TRANSLATION OF THE POETICS
EDITIONS, TRANSLATIONS, ETC.
Tue following is a list of the chief editions and translations of the Poetics, and of other writings relating to this treatise, arranged in chronological order :—
Valla (G.), Latin translation. Venice, 1498.
Aldine text, in Rhetores Graeci. Venice, Aldus, 1508.
Latin translation, with the summary of Averroes (0b. 1198). Venice, Arrivabene, 1515.
Pazzi (A.) [Paccius], Avistotelis Poetica, per Alexandrwm Pacciwm, patri- tium Florentinum, in Latinum conversa. Venice, Aldus, 1536.
Trincaveli, Greek text. Venice, 1536.
Robortelli (Fr.), In librwm Aristotelis de Arte Poetica explicationes. Florence, 1548.
Segni (B.), Rettorica ὁ Poetica d’ Aristotele tradotte di Greco in lingua vulgare. Florence, 1549.
Maggi (V.) [Madius], Zn <Aristotelis librwm de Poetica explanationes. Venice, 1550.
Vettori (P.) [Victorius], Commentationes in primum librum Aristotelis de Arte Poectarum. Florence, 1560.
Castelvetro (L.), Poctica d’ Aristotele vulgarizeata. Vienna, 1570; Basle, 1576. .
Piccolomini (A.), Annotationt nel libro della Poctica d’ Aristotele, con la traduttione del medesimo libro in lingua volgare. Venice, 1575.
Casaubon (I.), edition of Aristotle. Leyden, 1590.
Heinsius (D.) recenswit. Leyden, 1610.
Goulston (T.), Latin translation. London, 1623, and Cambridge, 1696.
Dacier, La Pottique traduite en Franeais, avec des remarques critiques. Paris, 1692.
Batteux, Les quatres Pottiques d’Aristote, d Horace, de Vida, de Des- preaux, avec les traductions et des remarques par 1 Abbé Batteux. Paris, 1771.
x POETRY AND FINE ART
Winstanley (T.), commentary on Poetics, Oxford, 1780.
Reiz, De Poetica Liber. Leipzig, 1786.
Metastasio (P.), Zstratto dell’ Arte Poetica d’ Aristotele 6 considerazioni su la medesima. Paris, 1782.
Twining (T.), Aristotle’s Treatise on Poetry, translated with notes on the translation and on the original, and two dissertations on poetical and musical imitation. London, 1789.
Pye (H. J.), A Commentary illustrating the Poetic of Aristotle by examples taken chiefly from the modern poets. To which is prefixed anew and corrected edition of the translation of the Poetic. London, 1792.
Tyrwhitt (T.), De Poetica Liber. Textwm recensuit, versionem refinait, et animadversionibus tllustravit Thomas Tyrwhitt. Oxford, 1794.
Buhle (J. T.) recenswit. Géttingen, 1794.
Hermann (Godfrey), Ars Poetica cwm commentariis. Leipzig, 1802.
Grafenham (E. A. W.), De Arte Poetica librwm denuo recensuit, commen- tariis illustravit, etc. Leipzig, 1821.
Raumer (Fr. v.), Ueber die Poetik des Aristoteles und sein Verhiiltniss zu den neuern Dramatikern. Berlin, 1829,
Spengel (L.), Ueber Aristoteles’ Poetik in Abhandlungen der Miinchener Akad. philos.-philol. Cl. II. Munich, 1887,
Ritter (Fr.), Ad codices antiquos recognitam, latine conversam, com- mentario illustratam edidit Franciscus Ritter. Cologne, 1839.
Egger (M. E.), Essai sur (histoire de la Critique chez les Grecs, swivi de la Poétique d’ Aristote et @extraits de ses Problémes, avec traduc- tion francaise et commentaire. Paris, 1849.
Bernays (Jacob), Grundziige der verlorenen Abhandlung des Aristoteles uber Wirkung der Tragédie. Breslau, 1857.
Saint-Hilaire (J. B.), Poétique traduwite en frangais et accompagnée de notes perpetuelles. Paris, 1858.
Stahr (Adolf), Avistoteles und die Wirkung der Tragédie. Berlin, 1859.
Stahr (Adolf), German translation, with Introduction and notes. Stutt- gart, 1860.
Liepert (J.), Aristoteles iiber den Zweck der Kunst. Passau, 1862.
Susemihl (F.), German translation, with Introduction and notes. Leip- zig, 1865 and 1874,
Vahlen (J.), Beitrdge zu Aristoteles’ Poetik. Vienna, 1865.
Spengel (L.), Avristotelische Studien IV. - Munich, 1866.
Vahlen (J.) recenswit. Berlin, 1867.
Teichmiiller (G.), Aristotelische Forschungen. 1. Beitriige zur Erkliérung |
der Poetik des Aristoteles. 11. Aristoteles’ Philosophie der Kunst. Halle, 1869.
Ueberweg (F'.), German translation and notes. Berlin, 1869,
EDITIONS, TRANSLATIONS, ETC. xi
Reinkens (J. H.), Avistoteles iiber Kunst, besonders iiber Tragidie. Vienna, 1870.
Doring (A.), Die Kunstlehre des Aristoteles. Jena, 1870.
Ueberweg (F.), Ars Poetica ad βάδην potissimum codicis antiquissimi 445 (Parisiensis 1741). Berlin, 1870.
Bywater (I.), Aristotelia in Journal of Philology, v. 117 ff. and xiv. 40 ff. London and Cambridge, 1873 and 1885.
Vahlen (J.) iterwm recensuit et adnotatione critica auxit. Berlin, 1874.
Moore (E.), Vahlen’s text with notes. Oxford, 1875.
Christ (W.) recenswit. Leipzig, 1878 and 1893.
Bernays (Jacob), Zwei <Abhandlungen iiber Aristotelische Theorie des Drama. Berlin, 1880.
Brandscheid (F.), Text, German translation, critical notes and com- mentary. Wiesbaden, 1882.
Wharton (E. R.), Vahlen’s text with English translation. Oxford, 1883.
Margoliouth (D.), Analecta Orientalia ad Poeticam Aristoteleam. Lon- don, 1887.
Bénard (C.),°L’ Esthétique α᾽ Aristote. Paris, 1887.
Heidenhain (F.), Averrois Paraphrasis in libruwm Poeticae Aristotelis Jacob Mantino interprete. Leipzig, 1889.
Prickard (A. 0.), Aristotle on the Art of Poetry. A Lecture with two Appendices. London, 1891.
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CORRIGENDA ET ADDENDA (October 1895)
[I desire to acknowledge special obligations to my reviewers in The Saturday Review March 2nd 1895, The Classical Review May 1895, The Oxford Magazine June 12th 1895, and the Berliner Philologische Wochenschrift September 28th 1895. Many, however, of the points thus raised. will require separate and full treatment elsewhere. ]
p- 9 ll. 18 to 15, for ‘People do, indeed, . . . poets’ read ‘People do, indeed, add the word ‘‘maker” to the name of the particular metre used, and speak of ‘‘ makers” of elegiac, or of epic (that is, hexameter) verse.’
p- 91. 16, for ‘ poets’ read ‘ ‘‘ makers” or poets.’
Ῥ. 19 1. 28, for ‘for example’ read ‘to go no farther.’
p- 19 1. 29, for ‘cause pain’ read ‘imply pain.’
p. 22 notes 1. 6, for αἰτία read αἴτια.
Ῥ. 23 1. 28, for ‘By Thought, that whereby a statement is proved’ read ‘Thought is required wherever a statement is proved.’ Similarly, p- 27 ll. 22 to 25, for ‘Thought . . . general maxim’ read ‘ Thought, on the other hand, is found where something is proved to be or not to be, or a general maxim is stated.’
p. 25 1. 31. In The Classical Review of June 1895 the Rev. W. Lock (following Vahlen) shows that the traditional translation of περιπέτεια, ‘Reversal of Fortune,’ does not express the sense attached to the word by Aristotle in the Poetics. It ‘is simply any event in which any agent’s intention is over-ruled to produce an effect which is the direct opposite of that intention.’- Several interesting illustrations are added of περιπέτειαι in ancient and modern literature. A satisfactory English equivalent for this technical and special meaning of the word can hardly be found. Perhaps a ‘Reversal of the Action’ may be accepted as an approximate translation, if we bear in mind Aristotle’s own definition in ch. xi. 8 1. Another and looser use of the word occurs in xvi. 3, ἐκ περιπετείας, which, as Mr. Lock suggests, may merely mean ‘accidentally’ (cf. its use in Polybius).
p- 29 1. 24, ‘a living organism.’ I am inclined to agree with Mr. R. P. Hardie (Mind vol. iv. No. 15), that ζῷον here (ch. vii. §§ 4-5) and again in ch. xxiii. 1 refers to a painting of a living creature, not to the living organism itself.
Ls)
CORRIGENDA ET ADDENDA
p. 29 1. 27, after ‘a certain magnitude’ place a semicolon, and add ‘for beauty consists in magnitude and arrangement.’
p. 83 1. 13, for ‘that which . . without being perceived,’ read ‘that whose presence or absence is not noticed.’
p- 87 1. 12, ‘while he was looking at it.’ The Rev. W. Lock has represented to me that θεωροῦντι here must mean ‘while he was acting as θεωρός, ‘serving as a sacred envoy,’ for Plutarch tells us that the incident took place θέας οὔσης. See Plut. de sera num. vind. 8 553d (quoted by Vahlen on this passage).
p. 41 1. 26, for ‘on the simple not the complicated plan’ read ‘on the complicated not the simple plan.’
p. 50 1. 9 (1454 ἃ 22), perhaps insert <dvdpl> before ἀνδρεῖον (Saturday Review March 2nd 1895).
p. 51 1. 6, after ‘will’ insert ‘as has been said,’ placing commas at ‘will,’ and ‘said.’
p. 511. 7, for ‘This rule applies to persons of every class’ read ‘ This rule is relative to each class.’
p. 60 1. 11 (1455 Ὁ 21), for ἀναγνωρίσας [τινὰς αὐτὸς] I prefer Professor Bywater’s correction, dvayvwploas ὅτι αὐτὸς (Oxford Magazine June 12th 1895).
p. 65 1. 2, for ‘figure badly on the stage’ read ‘contend unsuccessfully.’
p. 72 1. 2 (14574 36). For μεγαλείων (μεγαλιωτῶν codd.) we should doubtless read Μασσαλιωτῶν or Μασιλιωτῶν with Diels (Ber. der Berl. Akad. 1888). Following the Arabic version (‘sicut multa de Massaliotis, Hermocaicoxanthus qui supplicabatur dominum coelorum’) he conjectures Ἑρμοκαϊκόξανθος ἐπευξάμενος Aw πατρί, and discovers in ‘EppoxatxdéavGos an allusion to Phocaea (the mother-city of Massalia) which lay between the Hermus and the Caicus. Cp. Susemihl in Jahresbericht (Bursian) lxvii p. 163 and Wilamowitz Aristot. αν. Athen τι. p. 29.
p. 86 1. 2 (1459 Ὁ 22), for τιθεμένων Mr. H. Richards offers a good con- jecture, καθιεμένων (Class. Rev. May 1895).
p- 94n. 2 (on ovdpfas). Dr. Verrall has pointed out to me that the passage referred to, in all probability, is not J/iad i. 50, but Iliad xxiii. 111, 115.
p: 95 1. 17, for ‘right or wrong’ read ‘ poetically good or not,’ and so in 1. 19 for ‘in itself good or bad’ read ‘ poetically good or bad.’ See Aristotle's Poetics C. xxv in the Light of the Homeric Scholia, Mitchell Carroll, Baltimore, 1895.
Ῥ. 96 n. 3, for ‘igitur’ read ‘ agitur.’
p- 97 1. 13, for ‘accent’ read ‘accent or breathing.’
Ῥ. 99 1. 30, for ‘inconsistencies’ read ‘ contradictory statements.’
Ῥ. 101 1. 11, for ‘inconsistent’ read ‘ contradictory.’
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
I. ‘Imitation’ (uiunors) the common principle of the Arts of Poetry, Music, Dancing, Painting, and Sculpture. These Arts dis- tinguished according to the Means, the Objects, and the Manner of Imitation. The Means of Imitation are Rhythm, Language, and ‘Harmony’ (or Melody), taken singly or com- bined.
II. The Objects of Imitation. Higher or lower types are represented in all the Imitative Arts. In Poetry this is the basis of the distinction between Tragedy and Comedy.
III, The Manner of Imitation.
" Poetry may be in form either dramatic narrative, pure natrative (including lyric poetry), or pure drama. A digression follows on the name and original home of the Drama.
IV. The Origin of Poetry. ἢ
Psychologically, Poetry may be traced to two causes, the instinct of Imitation, and the instinct of Harmony and Rhythm.
Historically viewed, Poetry diverged early in two directions : traces of this twofold tendency are found in the Homeric poems : Tragedy and Comedy exhibit the distinction in a developed form.
The successive steps in the history of Tragedy are enumer- ated.
VY. Definition of the Ludicrous (τὸ γελοῖον), and a brief sketch of the rise of Comedy. Points of comparison between Epic Poetry and Tragedy. (The chapter is fragmentary. )
B
VII.
VIII.
ΙΧ.
ΧΙΥ.
XV.
XVi.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS
. Definition of Tragedy. Six elements in Tragedy : three external,
—namely, Scenic Presentment (ὁ τῆς ὄψεως κόσμος or ὄψι), Lyrical Song (μελοποιία), Diction (λέξις) ; three internal,— namely, Plot (μῦθος), Character (400s), and Thought (διάνοια). Plot, or the representation of the action, is of primary import- ance ; Character and Thought come next in order.
The Plot must be a Whole, complete in itself, and of adequate magnitude.
The Plot must be a Unity. Unity of Plot consists not in Unity of Hero, but in Unity of Action. The parts must be organically connected.
(Plot continued.) Dramatic Unity can be attained only by the observance of Poetic, as distinct from Historic Truth; for Poetry is an expression of the Universal, History of the Par- ticular. The rule of probable or necessary sequence as applied to the incidents. Certain plots condemned for want of Unity.
The best Tragic effects depend on the combination of the Inevitable and the Unexpected.
. (Plot continued.) Definitions of Simple (ἁπλοῖ) and Complicated
(πεπλεγμένοι) Plots.
. (Plot continued.) Sudden Reversal of Fortune (περιπέτεια)
Recognition (ἀναγνώρισις), and Tragic or disastrous Incident (πάθος) defined and explained.
. The ‘quantitative parts’ (μέρη κατὰ τὸ ποσόν) of Tragedy de-
fined :—Prologue, Episode, ete. (Probably an interpolation. )
. (Plot continued.) What constitutes Tragic Action. The
change of fortune and the character of the hero as requisite to an ideal Tragedy. The unhappy ending more truly tragic than the ‘ poetic justice’ which is in favour with a popular audience, and belongs rather to Comedy.
(Plot continued.) The tragic emotions of pity and fear should spring out of the Plot itself. To produce them by the Scenery or Stage Spectacle is entirely against the spirit of Tragedy. Examples of Tragic Incidents designed to heighten the emotional effect.
The element of Character (as the manifestation of moral purpose) in Tragedy. Requisites of ethical portraiture. The rule of necessity or probability applicable to Character as to Plot. The ‘Deus ex Machina’ (a passage out of place here). How Character is idealised.
(Plot continued.) Recognition: its various kinds, with examples. -
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
XVII. Practical rules for the Tragic Poet : (1) To place the scene before his eyes, and to act the parts himself in order to enter into vivid sympathy with the
dramatis personae
(2) To sketch the bare outline of the action before proceed- ing to fill in the episodes, The Episodes of Tragedy are here incidentally contrasted
with those of Epic Poetry XVIII. Further rules for the Tragic Poet : (1) To be careful about the Complication (déc1s) and Dé- nouement (λύσις) of the Plot ; especially the Dénouement. (2) To unite, if possible, varied forms of poetic excellence. (3) Not to overcharge a Tragedy with details appropriate
to Epic Poetry. (4) To make the Choral Odes—like the Dialogue—an organic
part of the whole. XIX. Thought (διάνοια), or the Intellectual element, and Diction in
“ ; , Tragedy. Thought may be expressed either by the dramatic speeches —composed according to the rules of Rhetoric—or through the
dramatic incidents, which speak for themselves Diction falls largely within the domain of the Art of De-
clamation, rather than of Poetry. . An analysis of the parts of
Ὕ ἌΧ, Diction, or Language in general
speech, and other grammatical details. (Probably interpolated.) . The words and modes of speech admissible including Metaphor, in particular.
/ XXI. Poetic Diction in Poetry: i i A passage—probably interpolated—on. the Gender of Nouns How Poetry combines elevation of
( XXII. (Poetic Diction continued.) language with perspicuity. XXIII. Epic Poetry. It agrees with Tragedy in Unity of Action: herein — Further points of agreement with
contrasted with History. (2) the metre ;
XXIV. (Epic Poetry continued.) Tragedy. The points of difference are enumerated and illus-
trated,—namely, (1) the length of the poem ;
(3) the art of imparting a plausible air to incredible fiction.
XXY. Critical Objections brought against Poetry, and the principles on - In particular, an elucidation
which they are to be answered.
of the meaning of Poetic Truth, and its difference from common reality.
XXVI. A general estimate of the comparative worth of Epic Poetry and
Tragedy. The alleged defects of Tragedy are not essential to it Its positive merits entitle it to the higher rank of the two
Αὐ-ὀ the Parisian manuscript (1741) of the 11th century: generally—but perhaps on insuffi- cient evidence—supposed to be the archetype from which all other extant MSS. directly or indirectly are derived.
Apogr.= 018 or more of the MSS. other than A“ Arabs
the Arabic version of the Poetics (Paris 882 A), of the middle of the 10th century, a version independent of our extant MSS. (The quota- tions in the critical notes are from the literal Latin translation of this version, as given in Margoliouth’s Analecta Orientalia.)
Ald.= the Aldine edition of Rhetores Graeci, published in 1508.
Vahlen= Vahlen’s text of the Poetics Ed. 3. Vahlen coni.= ἃ conjecture of Vahlen, not admitted by him into
the text. [ ]= words with manuscript authority (including A°), which should be deleted from the text. >= a conjectural supplement to the text. * *— a lacuna in the text. + = words which are corrupt but have not been satis-
factorily restored.
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APISTOTEAOTS ΠΕΡῚ ΠΟΙΗΤΙΚΗΣ
I Περὶ ποιητικῆς αὐτῆς τε καὶ τῶν εἰδῶν αὐτῆς, ἥν τινα 1441 ἃ δὴ “ ” Vien Ree , \ ΄ ύναμιν ἕκαστον ἔχει, καὶ πῶς δεῖ συνίστασθαι τοὺς μύθους nr > / το εἰ μέλλει καλῶς ἕξειν ἡ ποίησις, ἔτι δὲ ἐκ πόσων Kal / > \ / € / \ \ \ lal - Φ fol “ποίων ἐστὶ μορίων, ὁμοίως δὲ Kal περὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὅσα τῆς
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> ἈΝ “ ’ > 7ὔ \ A oe nr / τον ἀπὸ TOV πρώτων. ἐποποιία δὴ Kal ἡ τῆς τραγῳδίας / yw \ / Wei 4 \ \ n ποίησις ἔτι δὲ κωμῳδία καὶ ἡ διθυραμβοποιητικὴ καὶ τῆς Ε na ς / \ rn cal / 15 αὐλητικῆς ἡ πλείστη καὶ κιθαριστικῆς πᾶσαι τυγχάνουσιν οὖσαι μιμήσεις τὸ σύνολον, διαφέρουσι δὲ ἀλλήλων τρισίν, 3 BY \ νυ SE Ψ a d “a ¢ x Ae Ff ἢ yap τῷ ἐν ἑτέροις μιμεῖσθαι ἢ TO ἕτερα ἢ TO Eré- pos καὶ μὴ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον. ὥσπερ γὰρ καὶ χρώμασι 4 καὶ σχήμασι πολλὰ μιμοῦνταί τινες ἀπεικάζοντες (οἱ μὲν 20 διὰ τέχνης οἱ δὲ διὰ συνηθείας), ἕτεροι δὲ διὰ τῆς φωνῆς, οὕτω κἀν ταῖς εἰρημέναις τέχναις" ἅπασαι μὲν ποιοῦνται \ / > ς a \ / in Oe / ΄ > τὴν μίμησιν ev ῥυθμῷ καὶ λόγῳ Kal ἁρμονίᾳ, τούτοις ὃ x \ x “4 ς 7 \ ε al ,ὔ ἢ χωρὶς ἢ μεμυγμένοις, οἷον ἁρμονίᾳ μὲν καὶ ῥυθμῷ χρώ-
/ ¢ > \ » a4 \ x μεναι μόνον ἥ τε αὐλητικὴ καὶ. ἡ κιθαριστικὴ κἂν εἴ τινες
1441 a 9. ἕκαστον apogr. : ἕκαστοτι ΑΞ, 12. λέγωμεν apogr. : λέγομεν AS, 17. tw ἐν Forchhammer: ‘imitatur rebus diversis’ Arabs : τῶι γένει AS, 20. φωνῆς] ‘per sonos’ Arabs: φύσεως Maggi. 21. καὶ
ἐν apogr.: καὶ ΑὉ : κἂν Ald.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS
I I propose to treat of Poetry in itself and of its several
1447 species, noting the essential quality of each; to inquire into the structure of the plot as requisite to a good poem ; into the number and nature of the parts of which each species consists; and similarly into whatever else falls within the same inquiry. Following, then, the order of nature, let us begin with the principles which come first.
Epic poetry and Tragedy, Comedy also and dithyrambic 2 poetry, and the greater part of the music of the flute and of the lyre, are all in their general conception modes of imitation. They differ, however, from one another in 3 three respects,—the means, the objects, the manner of imitation being in each case distinct. :
For as there are persons who, by conscious art or 4 mere habit, imitate and represent various objects through the medium of colour and form, or again by the voice ; so in the arts above mentioned, taken as a whole, the imitation is produced by rhythm, language, and ‘ harmony, ’. either singly or combined.
Thus in the music of the flute and the lyre ‘ enone
8 I. 4—10. 1447 a 25—1447 b 24
25 ἕτεραι τυγχάνουσιν οὗσαι τοιαῦται THY δύναμιν, οἷον ἡ τῶν 7ὔ > Ὁ \ A ε lel a \ e / συρίγγων, αὐτῷ δὲ τῷ ῥυθμῷ [μιμοῦνται] χωρὶς ἁρμονίας 5 fal lal cal / ἡ τῶν ὀρχηστῶν, καὶ yap οὗτοι διὰ τῶν σχηματιζομένων ῥυθμῶν μιμοῦνται καὶ ἤθη καὶ πάθη καὶ πράξεις" ἡ δὲ 6 > r » “Ὁ [ἐποποιία] μόνον τοῖς λόγοις Ψιλοῖς ἢ τοῖς μέτροις καὶ τού- 1410 τοῖς εἴτε μιγνῦσα μετ᾽ ἀλλήλων εἴθ᾽ Evi τινι γένει χρωμένη τῶν μέτρων, --ἀνώνυμος-- τυγχάνει οὖσα μέχρι τοῦ νῦν" Τ 50 Ν. x 4 > / Ν \ / \ 10 οὐδὲν γὰρ ἂν ἔχοιμεν ὀνομάσαι κοινὸν τοὺς Σώφρονος Kal Ξενάρχου μίμους καὶ τοὺς Σωκρατικοὺς λόγους, οὐδὲ εἴ τις διὰ τριμέτρων ἢ ἐλεγείων ἢ τῶν ἄλλων τινῶν τῶν τοιού- τῶν ποιοῖτο τὴν μίμησιν" πλὴν οἱ ἄνθρωποί γε συνάπτοντες τῷ μέτρῳ τὸ ποιεῖν ἐλεγειοποιούς, τοὺς δὲ ἐποποιοὺς ὀνομά- 15 ζουσιν, οὐχ ὡς κατὰ τὴν μίμησιν ποιητὰς ἀλλὰ κοινῇ κατὰ τὸ / 4 \ x > \ x / μέτρον προσαγορεύοντες. Kal yap ἂν ἰατρικὸν ἢ φυσικόν 8 τί διὰ τῶν μέτρων ἐκφέρωσιν, οὕτω καλεῖν εἰώθασιν, οὐδὲν > lal δὲ κοινόν ἐστιν Ὁμήρῳ καὶ ᾿Ἐμπεδοκλεῖ πλὴν τὸ μέτρον, διὸ τὸν μὲν ποιητὴν δίκαιον καλεῖν, τὸν δὲ φυσιολόγον μᾶλλον Xx / ς / δὲ ΕΝ yf Ὁ \ / 4 9 20 ἢ ποιητήν: ὁμοίως δὲ κἂν el Tis ἅπαντα τὰ μέτρα μιγνύων fal \ / 7 5 ’ / ποιοῖτο τὴν μίμησιν καθάπερ Χαιρήμων ἐποίησε Κένταυ- \ « id > © / Ὁ ͵ὕ] ὶ nr pov μικτὴν ῥαψῳδίαν ἐξ ἁπάντων τῶν μέτρων, Kal τοῦτον ποιητὴν προσαγορευτέον. περὶ μὲν οὖν τούτων διωρίσθω τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον᾽ εἰσὶ δέ τινες al πᾶσι χρῶνται τοῖς εἰρη- 10 25. τυγχάνουσιν apogr.: τυγχάνωσιν AY. τοιαῦται δα, ΔΡΟΡΥ. : ‘aliae artes similes vi’ Arabs. 26. μιμοῦνται del. Spengel, quod confirmat Arabs. 27. ἡ apogr.: ‘ars instrumenti saltationis ’ Arabs: of A®: οἱ «πολλοὶ: Heinsius. 29. ἐποποιία seclus. Ueberweg. ψιλοῖς ἢ τοῖς μέτροις] ἢ τοῖς ψιλοῖς μέτροις coniec. Vahlen. 1447 Ὁ 9. ἀνώνυμος add. Bernays, con- firmante Arabe ‘quae sine nomine est adhuc.’ τυγχάνει οὖσα Suckow: τυγχάνουσα codd. 15. κατὰ τὴν apogr. : τὴν κατὰ ΑΞ“. 16. φυσικόν Heinsius: ‘re physica’ Arabs. ‘Idem praestat Averroes’ (Margoliouth) :
μουσικόν codd. 22. καὶ τοῦτον apogr.: καὶ ΑΘ; οὐκ ἤδη καὶ Ald., Bekker.
24, αἵ apogr.: οἱ A°: ‘homines qui’ Arabs. é
1447 b
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS I. 4—10 9
and rhythm alone are employed; also in other arts, such as that of the pipe, which are essentially similar to these. In dancing, rhythm alone is used without ‘harmony’; for,5 even dancing imitates character, emotion, and action, by rhythmical movement.
The art which imitates by means of language alone, 6 and that either in prose or verse—which verse, again, may either combine different metres or consist of but one kind —has hitherto been without a name. For there is no7 common term we could apply to the mimes of Sophron and Xenarchus and to the Socratic dialogues; or, again, to poetic imitations in iambic, elegiac, or any similar metre. People do, indeed, commonly connect the idea of poetry or ‘making’ with that of verse, and speak of elegiac poets, or of epic (that is, hexameter) poets; implying that it is not imitation that makes them poets, but the metre that entitles them to the common name. Even if 8 a treatise on medicine or natural philosophy be brought out in verse, the name of poet is by custom given to the author; and yet Homer and Empedocles have nothing in common except the metre: the former, therefore, is properly styled poet, the latter, physicist rather than poet.
So too if a writer should, in his poetic imitation, 9 combine every variety of metre, like Chaeremon—whose Centaur is a rhapsody in which all metres are mingled — we must, according to usage, call him simply poet. So much then for these distinctions.
There are, again, certain kinds of poetry which 10 employ all the means above mentioned, — namely, ἡ rhythm, melody and metre. Such are dithyrambic and nomic poetry, and also Tragedy and Comedy; but be-
10 1. ro—IIL. τ. 41447 Ὁ 25—1448 a 19
25 μένοις, λέγω δὲ οἷον ῥυθμῷ καὶ μέλει καὶ μέτρῳ, ὥσπερ oe a a / ‘ c a / wen ἥ τε τῶν διθυραμβικῶν ποίησις καὶ ἡ TOV νόμων καὶ ἥ τε τραγῳδία καὶ ἡ κωμῳδία, διαφέρουσι δὲ ὅτι αἱ μὲν “ a e \ \ 7 4 \ φ / \ ἅμα πᾶσιν ai δὲ κατὰ μέρος. ταύὔτας μὲν οὖν λέγω τὰς διαφορὰς τῶν τεχνῶν, ἐν οἷς ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν. > Ν \ n e , / oe 4 II ἐπεὶ δὲ μιμοῦνται οἱ μιμούμενοι TpaTTovTas, ἀνάγκη δε 1448 a τούτους ἢ σπουδαίους ἢ φαύλους εἶναι (τὰ yap ἤθη σχεδὸν 3." / > n / / \ eh} r ” ἀεὶ τούτοις ἀκολουθεῖ μόνοις, κακίᾳ yap Kal ἀρετῇ τὰ ἤθη διαφέρουσι πάντες), ἤτοι βελτίονας ἢ καθ᾽ ἡμᾶς ἢ χείρονας 5 ἢ καὶ τοιούτους, ὥσπερ οἱ γραφεῖς" ἸΠολύγνωτος μὲν γὰρ κρείττους, ἸΤαύσων δὲ χείρους, Διονύσιος δὲ ὁμοίους εἴκαξεν" δῆλον δὲ ὅτι καὶ τῶν λεχθεισῶν ἑκάστη μιμήσεων ἕξει 2 4 Ν \ ΑΓ φρο “τῶν n ταύτας τὰς διαφορὰς καὶ ἔσται ἑτέρα τῷ ἕτερα μιμεῖσθαι fe) \ ’ Ν εἶ > > / \ te ee Ν τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον. καὶ γὰρ ἐν ὀρχήσει καὶ αὐλήσει καὶ 8 , ᾿ ͵ , Ao ὦ , : \ 17. 10 κιθαρίσει ἔστι γενέσθαι ταύτας τὰς ἀνομοιότητας" καὶ [τὸ] περὶ τοὺς λόγους δὲ καὶ τὴν Ψψιλομετρίαν, οἷον “Ὅμηρος μὲν βελτίους, Κλεοφῶν δὲ ὁμοίους, «Ἡγήμων δὲ ὁ Θάσιος ὁ τὰς παρῳδίας ποιήσας πρῶτος καὶ Νικοχάρης ὁ τὴν Δηλι- dda χείρους" ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ περὶ τοὺς διθυράμβους καὶ περὶ 4 15 τοὺς νόμους" ὥσπερ γὰρ Κύκλωπας Τιμόθεος καὶ Φιλό- »” 5] nr 7 A \ A c Eevos, μιμήσαιτο ἄν τις" ἐν τῇ αὐτῇ δὲ διαφορᾷ καὶ ἡ δί Ν \ δί LA ς \ / τραγῳδία πρὸς τὴν κωμῳδίαν διέστηκεν, ἡ μὲν γὰρ χεί- ρους ἡ δὲ βελτίους μιμεῖσθαι βούλεται τῶν νῦν. Ill ἔτι δὲ τούτων τρίτη διαφορὰ τὸ ὡς Exacta τούτων
26. διθυράμβων apogr. 28, πᾶσαι apogr. οὖν apogr.: οὐ A°. 29. οἷς Vettori: αἷς Α5, 1448 a 3. κακίᾳ... ἀρετῇ apogr.: κακία... ἀρετὴ A°. 8. τῷ apogr.: τὸ AS. 12. dante τὰς add. apogr. 13. Δειλιάδα Ae pr. man. 15. ὥσπερ yap Vahlen ed. 3 adnot.: ὥσπερ yas codd.: ὥσπερ ᾿Αργᾶς Castelvetro: ὡς Πέρσας Vettori. 16. μιμήσαιτο ἄν τις] fort. secludendum (Vahlen). τῇ αὐτῇ δὲ Vettori: ‘in eadem discrepantia’ Arabs: ταύτῃ δὲ τῇ M. Casaubon: αὐτῇ δὲ τῇ codd. '
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS I. 1o—III. 1 11
tween them the difference is, that in the first two cases these means are all employed at the same time, in the latter, separately.
Such, then, are the differences of the arts with respect to the means of imitation.
II Since the objects of imitation are persons acting, and
MS? these persons must be either of a higher or a lower type (for moral character mainly answers to these divisions, goodness and badness being the distinguishing marks of moral differences), it follows that we must represent men either as better than in real life, or worse, or as they are. It is the same in painting. Polygnotus depicted men as nobler than they are, Pauson as less noble, Dionysius drew them true to life.
Now it is evident that each of the modes of imitation 2 above mentioned will exhibit these differences, and be- conie a distinct kind in imitating objects that are thus distinct. Such diversities may be found even in dancing, 3 flute-playing, and lyre-playing. So again in prose com- positions, and in verse unaccompanied by music. Homer, for example, makes men better than they are; Cleophon as they are; Hegemon the Thasian, the inventor of parodies, and Nicochares, the author of the Deliad, worse than they are. The same thing holds good of dithyrambs 4 and nomes; here too one may portray lower types, as Timotheus and Philoxenus represented Cyclopes. _The ‘same distinction marks off Tragedy from Comedy; for
Comedy aims at representing men as worse, Tragedy as
better than in actual life. III There is still a third difference—the manner in which
each of these objects may be imitated. For the means
*?
12 IIL 1—4. 1448 a 20—1448 b 3
20 μιμήσαιτο ἄν τις. Kal yap ἐν τοῖς αὐτοῖς καὶ τὰ αὐτὰ Lal Μ Φ..Α, \ > / xX ὦ / , μιμεῖσθαι ἔστιν ὁτὲ μὲν ἀπαγγέλλοντα (ἢ ἕτερόν τι yuyvo- ef 7 OR ὃς \ ae \ μενον, ὥσπερ ὍὍμηρος ποιεῖ, ἢ ὡς τὸν αὐτὸν Kal μὴ μετα- 7, x /, e / tee a \ βάλλοντα), ἢ πάντας ὡς πράττοντας καὶ ἐνεργοῦντας [τοὺς / > \ \ 4 - ς / , μιμουμένους]. ἐν τρισὶ δὴ ταύταις διαφοραῖς ἡ μίμησίς 2 > ς Ν > Ὁ 7 > ν ἃ » Tats ef 25 ἐστιν, ὡς εἴπομεν κατ᾽ ἀρχάς, ἐν ols Te καὶ ἃ Kal ὥς. ὥστε Tinka Wy eet SALW SET », Teh τ / a - τῇ μὲν ὁ αὐτὸς ἂν εἴη μιμητὴς .Ομήρῳ Σοφοκλῆς, μιμοῦνται \ ” / al \? / / \ yap ἄμφω σπουδαίους, τῇ δὲ ᾿Αριστοφάνει, mpatrovtTas yap μιμοῦνται καὶ δρῶντας ἄμφω. ὅθεν καὶ δράματα καλεῖ- 3 / > / Ὁ nr n \ Ν σθαί τινες αὐτά φασιν, ὅτι μιμοῦνται δρῶντας. διὸ καὶ 30 ἀντιποιοῦνται τῆς Te τρωγῳδίας καὶ τῆς κωμῳδίας οἱ Δω- a a \ \ , Ω A “ > - ριεῖς (τῆς μὲν γὰρ κωμῳδίας οἱ Μεγαρεῖς οἵ τε ἐνταῦθα ὡς ἐπὶ τῆς παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς δημοκρατίας γενομένης, καὶ οἱ ἐκ Σικελίας, ἐκεῖθεν γὰρ ἣν ᾿Ἐπτίχαρμος ὁ ποιητὴς <ov> πολλῷ πρότερος ὧν Χιωνίδου καὶ Μάγνητος, καὶ τῆς τρωγῳδίας ” Ait hs ΄, , WE yeu) = 35 ἔνιοι τῶν ἐν Πελοποννήσῳ)" ποιούμενοι TA ὀνόματα σημεῖον" αὐτοὶ μὲν γὰρ κώμας τὰς περιοικίδας καλεῖν φασιν, ᾿Αθη- / \ / ς \ > > \ 6 / vatous δὲ δήμους, ὡς κωμῳδοὺς οὐκ ἀπὸ τοῦ κωμάζειν λεχ- θέντας ἀλλὰ τῇ κατὰ κώμας πλάνῃ ἀτιμαζομένους ἐκ τοῦ 1480 ἄστεως, καὶ τὸ ποιεῖν αὐτοὶ μὲν δρᾶν, ᾿Αθηναίους δὲ [4 4 \ \ i al a πράττειν προσαγορεύειν. περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν διαφορῶν 4
/ a -“ καὶ πόσαι καὶ τίνες τῆς μιμήσεως εἰρήσθω ταῦτα.
21. ὁτὲ μὲν... γιγνόμενον fort. leg. <> ὁτὲ μὲν ἀπαγγέλλοντα -ὁτὲ δ᾽ > ἕτερόν τι γιγνόμενον Bywater sec. Gumposch. 28, πάντας] fort. seclu- dendum (Bywater): πάντα I. Casaubon. τοὺς μιμουμένους seclusi. 25. καὶ ἃ add. apogr, 33. οὐ addidi. 36. αὐτοὶ et ᾿Αθηναίους Spengel : οὗτοι et ᾿Αθηναῖοι codd. 1448 Ὁ 1. καὶ τὸ ποιεῖν. . . προσαγορεύειν om. Arabs.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS III. 1—4 13
being the same, and the objects the same, the poet may imitate by narration—in which case he can either take another personality as Homer does, or speak in his own person, unchanged—or he may imitate by making all his actors live and move before us.
These, then, as we said at the beginning, are the three differences which distinguish artistic imitation,— the means, the objects,and the manner. So that from one point of view, Sophocles is an imitator of the same kind as Homer-——for both imitate higher types of character ; from another point of view, of the same kind as Aristo-
phanes— fox hoth.._ imitate PCISONSnACHAGnAC... Loing
Hence, some say, the name of ‘drama’ is given to such 3 poems, as_representin ion. For the same reason the
Dorians claim the invention both of Tragedy and Comedy. The claim to Comedy is put forward by the Megarians,— not only by those of Greece proper, who allege that it originated under their democracy, but also by the Megarians of Sicily ; the poet Epicharmus, who lived not long before Chionides and Magnes, being from their country. Tragedy too is claimed by certain Dorians of the Peloponnese. In each case they appeal to the evidence of language. Villages, they say, are by them called κῶμαι, by the Athenians δῆμοι: and they assume that the name Comedians is derived not from κωμάζειν, ‘to revel, but from the performers wandering about 14480 the villages (κῶμαι), when still excluded from the city. They add also that the Dorian word for ‘ doing’ is δρᾶν, and the Athenian, πράττειν. This may suffice as to the number and nature of the 4
various modes of imitation.
14 IV. 1—8. 1448 Ὁ 4—28
a A “ IV ἐοίκασι δὲ γεννῆσαι μὲν ὅλως THY ποιητικὴν αἰτίαι δύο \ \ Φ ’ὔ / \ rn A 5 τινὲς Kal αὗται φυσικαί. τό τε yap μιμεῖσθαι σύμφυτον 2 lal > , > / > / \ / / τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ἐκ παίδων ἐστί, καὶ τούτῳ διαφέρουσι n Μ 4 μὴ , / 2 Ν \ / τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ὅτι μιμητικώτατόν ἐστι Kal Tas μαθή- σεις ποιεῖται διὰ μιμήσεως τὰς πρώτας, καὶ τὸ χαίρειν τοῖς μιμήμασι πάντας. σημεῖον δὲ τούτου τὸ συμβαῖνον 3 ιν ᾿.4, -“ »” ° A \ > \ lal . lal ͵7 Ν 10 ἐπὶ τῶν ἔργων᾽ ἃ γὰρ αὐτὰ Χυπηρῶς ὁρῶμεν, τούτων τὰς : SES 4 \ 4 > / / a e εἰκόνας τὰς μάλιστα ἠκριβωμένας χαίρομεν θεωροῦντες, οἷον θ / A 6 > rg \ r Μ δὲ 4 ηρίων τε μορφὰς τῶν ἀτιμοτάτων καὶ νεκρῶν. αἴτιον / a / καὶ τούτου, ὅτι μανθάνειν οὐ μόνον τοῖς φιλοσόφοις ἥδιστον a e , > \ a ἀλλὰ Kal τοῖς ἄλλοις ὁμοίως, ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ βραχὺ Kowwvod- > rn ὃ \ \ a , \ > / c aA “
15 σιν αὐτοῦ. διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο χαίρουσι τὰς εἰκόνας ὁρῶντες, ὅτι 5 συμβαίνει θεωροῦντας μανθάνειν καὶ συλλογίζεσθαι τί ἕκα- στον, οἷον ὅτι οὗτος ἐκεῖνος, ἐπεὶ ἐὰν μὴ τύχῃ προεωρακώς,
\ \ οὐχ ἡ μίμημα ποιήσει τὴν ἡδονὴν ἀλλὰ διὰ THY ἀπερ- / γασίαν ἢ τὴν χροιὰν ἢ διὰ τοιαύτην τινὰ ἄλλην αἰτίαν. \ 4 \ » at.) a tal Ν a ς / 20 κατὰ φύσιν δὴ ὄντος ἡμῖν τοῦ μιμεῖσθαι Kal THs ἁρμονίας 6 \ - € lal A ἣν / oe / 7 ε oy καὶ τοῦ ῥυθμοῦ, τὰ yap μέτρα OTL μόρια τῶν ῥυθμῶν > / >’ » n / \ > / \ ἐστι φανερόν, ἐξ ἀρχῆς πεφυκότες Kal αὐτὰ μάλιστα κατὰ \ fal . μικρὸν προάγοντες ἐγέννησαν τὴν ποίησιν ἐκ τῶν αὐτοσχε- διασμάτων. διεσπάσθη δὲ κατὰ τὰ οἰκεῖα ἤθη ἡ ποίησις" 7 ε \ \ / \ \ > a 7 \ 25 οἱ μὲν yap σεμνότεροι τὰς καλὰς ἐμιμοῦντο πράξεις Kal \ n 7 op ὁ 7, \ an + n TAS TOV τοιούτων, οἱ δὲ εὐτελέστεροι τὰς τῶν φαύλων, πρώ- / a A : Tov ψόγους ποιοῦντες, ὥσπερ ἅτεροι ὕμνους Kal ἐγκώμια.
n ἈΝ 5 \ Ὅ / 1) \ », » a a TOV μὲν οὖν πρὸ Opnpou οὐδενὸς ἔχομεν εἰπεῖν τοιοῦτον 8
5. αὗται ΔΡορτ. : αὐταὶ A°. 18. τούτου apogr.: τοῦτο AS, 18. οὐχ 7 Hermann: οὐχὶ codd. 20. δὴ coni. Vahlen (Beitr.): δὲ codd. 22. καὶ αὐτὰ) πρὸς αὐτὰ Ald., Bekker. 27. ἅτεροι Spengel: ἕτεροι
codd,
IV
' ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IV. 1—7 15
Poetry in general seems to have sprung from two causes, each of them lying deep in our nature. First, the 2 instinct of imitation is implanted in man from childhood, one difference between him and other animals being “that he is the most imitative of creatures ; and through imita- tion he acquires his earliest learning. And, indeed, every one feels a natural pleasure in things imitated. There is 3 evidence of this in the effect produced by works of art. Objects which in themselves we view with pain, we de- light to contemplate when reproduced with absolute fidelity: such as the forms of the most ignoble beasts and of dead bodies. The cause of this again is, that to learn is a 4 lively pleasure, not only to philosophers but to men in general; whose capacity, however, of learning is more limited. Thus the reason why men enjoy seeing 5 a likeness is, that in contemplating it they are en- gaged in learning —they reason and infer what each object is: ‘this, they say, ‘is the man.’ For if you happen not to have seen the original, the pleasure will be due not to the imitation as such, but to the execution, the colour- ing, or some such other cause.
Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, 6 there is the instinct for harmony and rhythm, metre being manifestly a species of rhythm. Persons, therefore, with this natural gift little by little improved upon their early efforts, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry. —
Poetry now branched off in two directions, according 7 to the individual character of the writers. The more elevated poets imitated noble actions, and the actions οἵ. good men. The more trivial sort imitated the actions of meaner persons, at first composing satires, as the former
16 IV. 8—12. 1448 Ὁ 29—1449 ἃ 13
Ν ,\ ¢ / > / ποίημα, εἰκὸς δὲ εἶναι πολλούς, ἀπὸ δὲ Ὁ μήρου ἀρξαμένοις e le) > 30 ἔστιν, οἷον ἐκείνου ὁ Mapyirns καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα. ἐν οἷς κα- a s A ee a τὰ τὸ ἁρμόττον ἰαμβεῖον ἦλθε μέτρον, διὸ καὶ ἰαμβεῖον Ka- an a a , / > , e \ λεῖται νῦν, ὅτι ἐν τῷ μέτρῳ τούτῳ ἰάμβιξον ἀλλήλους" Kal 9 BFP an r € \ ς “ ¢ δὲ 5. ἐγένοντο τῶν παλαιῶν οἱ μὲν ἡρωικῶν οἱ δὲ ἰάμβων ποιη- a \ @¢ ταί. ὥσπερ δὲ Kal Ta σπουδαῖα μάλιστα ποιητὴς ᾿“Ομηρος 5 “ / 35 ἦν, μόνος yap οὐχ ὅτι εὖ ἀλλ᾽ [ὅτι] καὶ μιμήσεις δραμα- “ / / τικὰς ἐποίησεν, οὕτως Kal τὰ τῆς κωμῳδίας σχήματα fal / \ \ an πρῶτος ὑπέδειξεν, οὐ ψόγον ἀλλὰ TO γελοῖον δραματο- ef a ΤΑ ποιήσας: ὁ yap Mapyirns ἀνάλογον ἔχει, ὥσπερ ἰλιὰς Ἦν τἀν / \ \ / ef 2 \ 49a καὶ ἡ Ὀδύσσεια πρὸς Tas τραγῳδίας, οὕτω Kal οὗτος πρὸς \ / ’ὔ \ rn δί \ Tas κωμῳδίας. παραφανείσης δὲ THs τραγῳδίας Kai κω- 10 ’, ti, LT ae / \ ,ὔ ε rn \ \ μῳδίας οἱ ἐφ᾽ ἑκατέραν τὴν ποίησιν ὁρμῶντες κατὰ τὴν > / 4 ς \ > \ a >7 ae Jen 4 οἰκείαν φύσιν οἱ μὲν ἀντὶ τῶν ἰάμβων κωμῳδοποιοὶ ἐγέ- 5 vovTo, of δὲ ἀντὶ τῶν ἐπῶν τραγῳδοδιδάσκαλοι διὰ τὸ / / n μείζονα καὶ ἐντιμότερα τὰ σχήματα εἶναι ταῦτα ἐκείνων. \ \ 5 > - a iS ap 4 ς δί a TO μὲν οὖν ἐπισκοπεῖν εἰ ap ἔχει ἤδη ἡ τραγῳδία τοῖς 11 715. ς a x Υ 9. υ > δ N , x \ εἴδεσιν ἱκανῶς ἢ οὔ, αὐτό Te καθ αὑτὸ κρίνεται ἢ [val] / ’ ’ καὶ πρὸς τὰ θέατρα, ἄλλος λόγος. γενομένη <d > οὖν ἀπ᾿ 12 - 4 10 ἀρχῆς αὐτοσχεδιαστική, Kal αὐτὴ Kal ἡ κωμῳδία, Kal ἡ μὲν \ “ / -" ἀπὸ τῶν ἐξαρχόντων τὸν διθύραμβον, ἡ δὲ ἀπὸ τῶν τὰ φαλ- A “ a cal / Mixa ἃ ἔτι Kal viv ἐν πολλαῖς τῶν πόλεων διαμένει νο-
μιζόμενα, κατὰ μικρὸν ηὐξήθη προαγόντων ὅσον ἐγίγνετο
35. alterum ὅτι seclus. Bonitz, quod confirm. Arabs. δραματικὰς Ac: δραματικῶς apogr. 1449 a 7. εἰ dpa ἔχει apogr.: παρέχει A®: Gp’ ἔχει Vahlen. 8. κρίνεται ἢ vat. | καὶ A°: κρίνεται εἶναι καὶ apogr.: κρῖναι καὶ Forchhammer : κρίνεται ἢ [vat.] καὶ Bursian: fort. leg. κρίνεται εἶναι ἢ καὶ. 9. γενομένη οὖν apogr. : γενομένης οὖν AS: γενομένη δ᾽ οὖν Bekker. 10. αὐτοσχεδιαστικὴ apogr., Bekker: αὐτοσχεδιαστικῆς AS. 12. δια- μένει apogr. : διαμένειν ΑΚ, ;
mo) —_ _—
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IV. 7—12 17
did hymns to the gods and the praises of famous men. A poem of the satirical kind cannot indeed be put down 8 to any author earlier than Homer; though many such writers probably there were. But from Homer onward, instances can be cited,—his Margites, for example, and other similar compositions. The iambic metre was here introduced, as best fitted to the subject: hence the measure is still called the iambic or lampooning measure, being that in which the lampoons were written.
Thus the older poets were distinguished as writers 9 either of heroic or of iambic verse. As, in the serious style, Homer is preeminent among poets, standing alone not only in the excellence, but also in the dramatic form of his imitations, so he too first sketched out the main lines of Comedy, by dramatising the ludicrous instead of writing personal satire. His Margites bears the same relation to Comedy that the Iliad and Odyssey do to Tragedy. But when Tragedy and Comedy had once 10 appeared, writers applied themselves to one or other species of poetry, following their native bent. They com- posed Comedies in place of lampoons, and Tragedies in place of Epic poems, the. newer forms of poetry being higher and more highly esteemed than the old.
Whether Tragedy has as yet perfected its proper 11 types or not; and whether it is to be judged in itself, or in relation also to the stage,—this raises another question. Be that as it may, Tragedy—as also Comedy—was at 12 first mere improvisation. The one originated with the leaders of the dithyrambic, the other with those of the phallic songs, which are still in use in many of our cities.
Tragedy advanced by slow degrees; each new element C
18 IV. 12—V. 2. 1449 a 14—37
φανερὸν αὐτῆς, καὶ πολλὰς μεταβολὰς μεταβαλοῦσα ἡ bi > / > \ \ Sd ΄ὔ \ , 1 3
15 τραγῳδία ἐπαύσατο, ἐπεὶ ἔσχε THY αὑτῆς φύσιν. καὶ τό
x ε n n > “.Ἁ > / tal > 4
Te τῶν ὑποκριτῶν πλῆθος ἐξ ἑνὸς eis δύο πρῶτος Αἰσχύ-
λος ἤγαγε καὶ τὰ τοῦ χοροῦ ἠλάττωσε καὶ τὸν λόγον
πρωταγωνιστὴν παρεσκεύασεν, τρεῖς δὲ καὶ σκηνογραφίαν Σοφοκλῆς. ἔτι δὲ τὸ μέγεθος ἐκ μικρῶν μύθων καὶ λέ- 14
20 ἕεως γελοίας διὰ τὸ ἐκ σατυρικοῦ μεταβαλεῖν ὀψὲ ἀπε- σεμνύνθη. τό τε μέτρον ἐκ τετραμέτρου ἰαμβεῖον ἐγένετο" τὸ μὲν γὰρ πρῶτον τετραμέτρῳ ἐχρῶντο διὰ τὸ σατυρικὴν
δυο Ἣν 7 5 \ / / \ / καὶ ὀρχηστικωτέραν εἶναι τὴν ποίησιν, λέξεως δὲ γενομένης αὐτὴ ἡ φύσις τὸ οἰκεῖον μέτρον εὗρε, μάλιστα γὰρ λεκτι-
25 κὸν τῶν μέτρων τὸ ἰαμβεῖόν ἐστιν: σημεῖον δὲ τούτου" πλεῖστα γὰρ ἰαμβεῖα λέγομεν ἐν τῇ διαλέκτῳ τῇ πρὸς ἀλλήλους, ἑξάμετρα δὲ ὀλυγάκις καὶ ἐκβαίνοντες τῆς λεκ- τικῆς ἁρμονίας. ἔτι δὲ ἐπεισοδίων πλήθη. καὶ τὰ ἄλλ᾽ « “ - / ” econ 9.7) U4 ὡς ἕκαστα κοσμηθῆναι λέγεται ἔστω ἡμῖν εἰρημένα" 15
, > 30 πολὺ yap ἂν ἴσως ἔργον εἴη διεξιέναι καθ᾽ ἕκαστον.
ἥν ἡ δὲ κωμῳδία ἐστὶν ὥσπερ εἴπομεν μίμησις φαυ- λοτέρων μέν, οὐ μέντοι κατὰ πᾶσαν κακίαν, ἀλλὰ τοῦ > ΟΣ \ a / \ ay al te eg αἰσχροῦ ἐστι TO γελοῖον μόριον" TO γὰρ γελοῖον ἐστιν ἁμάρ- 7 Ν 9 ERA \ > / τημά TL Kal αἶσχος ἀνώδυνον καὶ οὐ φθαρτικόν, οἷον 7f\ \ a / > / \ ‘a 35 εὐθὺς TO γελοῖον πρόσωπον αἰσχρόν τι Kal διεστραμμένον v > / e \ Ss na / / \ ἄνευ ὀδύνης. αἱ μὲν οὖν τῆς τραγῳδίας μεταβάσεις καὶ 2 δι᾿ ὧν ἐγένοντο οὐ λελήθασιν, ἡ δὲ κωμῳδία διὰ τὸ μὴ 19. <7 λέξις ἐκ:- λέξεως Christ. Omissum vocab. collato Arabe id esse Margoliouth suspic. cuius vice Graeculi ὑψηγορία usurpant. 28. ἄλλα ὡς apogr.: ἄλλως A®: ἄλλα οἷς Hermann. 29. περὶ μὲν οὖν τούτων
τοσαῦτα add, Ald. ante ἔστω. 32. ἀλλὰ «κατὰ τὸ γελοῖον, > τοῦ -- δ᾽ -- αἰσχροῦ Christ.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IV. 12—V. 2 19
that showed itself was in turn developed. Having passed through many changes, it found its natural form, and there it stopped.
Aeschylus first introduced a second actor; he dimin- 13 ished the importance of the Chorus, and assigned the leading part to the dialogue. Sophocles raised the number of actors to three, and added scene-painting. It was not 14 till late that the short plot was discarded for one of greater compass, and the grotesque diction of the earlier satyric form, for the stately manner of Tragedy. The iambic measure then replaced the trochaic tetrameter, which was originally employed when the poetry was of the satyric order, and had greater affinities with dancing. Once dialogue had come in, Nature herself discovered the appropriate measure. Jor the iambic is, of all measures, the most colloquial: we see it in the fact that con- versational speech runs into iambic form more frequently than into any other kind of verse; rarely into hexameters, and only when we drop the colloquial intonation. The number of ‘episodes’ or acts was also increased, and the © other- embellishments added, of which tradition tells. These we need not here discuss; to enter into them in 15 detail would, probably, be tedious.
Comedy is, as we have said, an imitation of characters of a lower type,—not, however, in the full sense of the word bad ; for the Ludicrous is merely a subdivision of the ugly. It may be defined as a defect or ugliness which is not painful or destructive. Thus, for example, the | comic mask is ugly and distorted, but does not cause pain.
The successive changes through which Tragedy passed, 2 and the authors of these changes are not unknown. It
20 V. 2—VI. 2. 1449 a 38—1449 b 24
1449 σπουδάζεσθαι ἐξ ἀρχῆς ἔλαθεν" Kal yap χορὸν κωμῳδῶν ὀψέ ποτε ὁ ἄρχων ἔδωκεν, ἀλλ᾽ ἐθελονταὶ ἦσαν. ἤδη δὲ σχήματά τινα αὐτῆς ἐχούσης οἱ λεγόμενοι αὐτῆς ποιηταὶ μνημονεύονται. τίς δὲ πρόσωπα ἀπέδωκεν ἢ προλόγους 3
5 ἢ πλήθη ὑποκριτῶν καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα, ἠγνόηται. τὸ δὲ μύθους ποιεῖν [Emixappos καὶ Φόρμις] τὸ μὲν ἐξ ἀρχῆς ἐκ Σικελίας ἦλθε, τῶν δὲ ᾿Αθήνησιν Κράτης πρῶτος ἦρξεν ἀφέμενος τῆς ἰαμβικῆς ἰδέας καθόλου ποιεῖν λόγους καὶ
7 ς \ 5 > / a / 7 \ n μύθους. ἡ μὲν οὖν ἐποποιία TH τραγῳδίᾳ μέχρι μὲν --τοῦ 4
10 διὰ λόγου ἐμ -- μέτρου μίμησις εἶναι σπουδαίων ἠκολούθη-
σεν" τῷ δὲ τὸ μέτρον ἁπλοῦν ἔχειν καὶ ἀπαγγελίαν εἶναι, / / » \ Aa / e \ .“ /
ταύτῃ διαφέρουσιν" ἔτι δὲ τῴ μήκει, ἡ μὲν ὅτι μάλιστα πει-
ρᾶται ὑπὸ μίαν περίοδον ἡλίου εἶναι ἢ μικρὸν ἐξαλλάττειν, ἡ
δὲ ἐποποιία ἀόριστος τῷ χρόνῳ, καὶ τούτῳ διαφέρει" καίτοι
15 τὸ πρῶτον ὁμοίως ἐν ταῖς τραγῳδίαις τοῦτο ἐποίουν καὶ ἐν
n » , > ὁ \ \ \ > / \ ,, ", ol τοῖς ἔπεσιν. μέρη d ἐστὶ τὰ μὲν ταὐτά, τὰ δὲ ἴδια τῆς 5
/ / “ \ / 5 / τραγῳδίας. διόπερ ὅστις περὶ τραγῳδίας οἷδε σπουδαίας καὶ φαύλης, οἷδε καὶ περὶ ἐπῶν: ἃ μὲν γὰρ ἐποποιία », ς / an / ἃ Ν , A » / > a ἔχει, ὑπάρχει TH τραγῳδίᾳ, ἃ δὲ αὐτῇ, ob πάντα ἐν TH 20 ἐποποιίᾳ.
VI περὶ οὖν τῆς ἐν ἑξαμέτροις μιμητικῆς Kal περὶ κωμῳδίας ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν, περὶ δὲ τραγῳδίας λέγωμεν > ’ » | > n > / \ / ¢ ἀναλαβόντες αὐτῆς ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων τὸν γινόμενον ὅρον
an > ’ὔ » Φ ,ὔ 7 / / τῆς οὐσίας. ἔστιν οὖν τραγῳδία μίμησις πράξεως σπουδαίας 2 1449 Ὁ 4. προλόγους A®: λόγους Hermann. 6. ᾿Επίχαρμος καὶ Φόρμις seclus. Susemihl. - ἐκεῖθεν γὰρ ἤστην:- ᾿Ἐπίχαρμος καὶ Φόρμις post ἦλθε Bywater, collato Themistio, Or. xxvii. p. 337 A, recte, ut opinor. 9. μέχρι μόνου μέτρου μεγάλου codd.: μέχρι μὲν τοῦ μέτρῳ Tyrwhitt : μέχρι μόνου «τοῦ διὰ λόγου ἐμ: μέτρου μεγάλου Ueberweg. 12. διαφέρει
Hermann, confirmat Arabs. 19. αὐτῆι A°: αὐτὴ apogr. : αὕτη Reiz. 23. ἀναλαβόντες Bernays: ἀπολαβόντες codd.
-
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS V. 2—VI. 2 21
1449 is otherwise with Comedy, which at first was not seriously
VI
treated. It was late before the Archon appointed a comic chorus; the performers were till then voluntary. From the time, however, when Comedy began to assume certain fixed forms, comic poets, distinctively so called, are recorded. Who introduced masks, or prologues, or in- 3 creased the number of actors,—these and other similar details remain unknown. As for the plot, it came originally from Sicily ; but of Athenian writers Crates was the first who, abandoning the ‘iambic’ or lampooning form, gener- alised aa themes and Bie
an 4
Hise aie ae ulated bight a They
differ, in that Epic poetry admits but one kind of metre, a ee eed and is narrative in form. They differ, again, in length :
-..-..- ..Ἡ. --.-.. -..
for for Tragedy endeavours, as far as possible, to confine a itself td a single revolution of the sun, or but slightly to exceed this limit; whereas the Epic action has no limits of time. This, then, is a second point of difference; though at first the same freedoni was admitted in Tragedy as in Epic poetry.
Of their constituent parts some are common to both, 5 some peculiar to Tragedy. Whoever, therefore, knows what is good or bad Tragedy, knows also about Epic poetry: for all the parts of an Epic poem are found in Tragedy, but what belongs to Tragedy is not all found in the Epic poem. ;
Of the poetry which imitates in hexameter verse, and of Comedy; we will speak hereafter. Let us now discuss Tragedy, resuming its formal definition, as resulting from what has been already said.
Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is 2) ca ean
22 VI 2—7. 1449 Ὁ 25—1450 a 10
25 Kal τελείας μέγεθος ἐχούσης, ἡδυσμένῳ λόγῳ χωρὶς ἑκά- - IQA > A / , \ > > > στῳ τῶν εἰδῶν ἐν τοῖς μορίοις, δρώντων καὶ οὐ δι᾿ ἀπαγ- γελίας, δι᾿ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου περαίνουσα τὴν τῶν τοιούτων παθημάτων κάθαρσιν. λέγω δὲ ἡδυσμένον μὲν λόγον τὸν 8 4 e \ \ ς / \ , \ \ \ »" ἔχοντα ῥυθμὸν καὶ ἁρμονίαν καὶ μέλος, τὸ δὲ χωρὶς τοῖς ν \ \ / » , , / “
30 εἴδεσι τὸ διὰ μέτρων ἔνια μόνον περαίνεσθαι καὶ πάλιν ἕτερα διὰ μέλους. ἐπεὶ δὲ πράττοντες ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν, 4 πρῶτον μὲν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἂν εἴη τι μόριον τραγῳδίας ὁ τῆς ὄψεως κόσμος, εἶτα μελοποιία καὶ λέξις, ἐν τούτοις γὰρ
nr \ 7 / \ /, \ 22% \ n ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν. λέγω δὲ λέξιν μὲν αὐτὴν τὴν TOV
35 μέτρων σύνθεσιν, μελοποιίαν δὲ ὃ τὴν δύναμιν φανερὰν ” a > \ / > \ / / \ ἔχει πᾶσαν. ἐπεὶ δὲ πράξεως ἐστὶ μίμησις, πράττεται δὲ 5 ὑπὸ τινῶν πραττόντων, ods ἀνάγκη ποιούς τινας εἶναι κατά τε τὸ ἦθος καὶ τὴν διάνοιαν (διὰ γὰρ τούτων καὶ τὰς
/ 3 /, 7 / \ » ἡ" / r 1450a πράξεις εἶναί φαμεν ποιάς Twas, πέφυκεν δὲ αἰτίας δύο τῶν / 9 / \ 3 \ \ 4 \ πράξεων εἶναι, διάνοιαν καὶ ἦθος, καὶ κατὰ ταύτας καὶ
7, ΑΞ s ΄ Ων Ral ἐᾶι \
τυγχάνουσι Kal ἀποτυγχάνουσι πάντες)" ἔστιν δὴ τῆς μὲν 6
β ε r ς ᾽ὔ / Ν r r \ πράξεως ὁ μῦθος ἡ μίμησις" λέγω yap μῦθον τοῦτον THY 5 σύνθεσιν τῶν πραγμάτων, τὰ δὲ ἤθη, καθ᾽ ὃ ποιούς τινας εἶναί φαμεν τοὺς πράττοντας, διάνοιαν δέ, ἐν ὅσοις λέγον-
> / / Xx A} to 7 , > uA τες ἀποδεικνύασίν τι ἢ Kal ἀποφαίνονται γνώμην. ἀνάγκη 7
οὖν πάσης τραγῳδίας μέρη εἶναι ἕξ, καθ᾽ ἃ ποιά τις ἐστὶν ἡ τραγῳδία" ταῦτα δ᾽ ἐστὶ μῦθος καὶ ἤθη καὶ λέξις καὶ το διάνοια καὶ ὄψις καὶ μελοποιία. οἷς μὲν γὰρ μιμοῦνται, 25. ἑκάστῳ Tyrwhitt: ἑκάστου codd. 28. παθημάτων corr. apogr. : μαθημάτων Α5, 29. μέλος] μέτρον Vettori: καὶ μέλος seclus. Tyr- whitt. 35. μέτρων] ὀνομάτων Hermann, collato 1450 Ὁ 14. 36. πᾶσαν] πᾶσιν Maggi. 88. διὰ γὰρ τούτων. . . πάντες in parenthesi Thurot. 1450 a 1. πέφυκεν δὲ apogr.: πέφυκεν A®. airlas Christ:
αἰτία codd. 3. δὴ Eucken: δὲ codd. 4, τοῦτον] τοῦτο Maggi: seclus. Christ. 5. καθὸ Ac: καθ᾽ ἃ apogr. 8. καθοποία Α“ : καθ᾽ ἃ ποιά apogr.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VI. 2—7 23
serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions. By 3 ‘language embellished, I mean language into which rhythm, ‘harmony,’ and song enter. By ‘the several kinds
in separate parts,’ I mean, that some parts are rendered through the medium of verse alone, others again with the aid of song.
. Now as tragic imitation implies persons acting, it 4 nocedeanile follows, in the first place, that Scenic equip- ment will be a part of Tragedy. Next, Song and Diction, for these are the means of imitation. By- ‘ Diction’ I mean the mere metrical arrangement of the words: as for ‘Song, it is a term whose full sense is well
understood.
Again, Tragedy is the imitation of an action; and an 5 action implies personal agents, who necessarily possess certain qualities both of character and thought. It is
1450a these that determine the qualities of actions themselves ; these—thought and character—are the two natural causes from which actions spring: on these causes, again, ‘all success or,failure depends. Hence, the Plot is the imita- 6 tion of the action :—for by plot I here mean the arrange-
NR eee
ment of _the ‘incidents. By Character I mean_ that in virtue of which we ascribe certain ‘qualities t to the agents. By Thought, that whereby a statement is proved, or a general truth expressed. Every Tragedy, therefore, must 7 have six parts, which parts determine its quality—
namely, Plot, Character, Diction, Thought, Scenery, Song.
24 VI. 7—13. 1450 a II—35
“ / δύο μέρη ἐστίν, ὡς δὲ μιμοῦνται, ἕν, ἃ δὲ μιμοῦνται, τρία, nr Ὶ / καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐδέν. τούτοις μὲν οὖν ὀλίγου αὐτῶν 8 Lal wn \ «ἅπαντες:-- ὡς εἰπεῖν κέχρηνται τοῖς εἴδεσιν" καὶ yap rn a I ὄψεις ἔχει πᾶν Kal ἦθος καὶ μῦθον καὶ λέξιν καὶ μέλος 15 καὶ διάνοιαν ὡσαύτως. μέγιστον δὲ τούτων ἐστὶν ἡ τῶν 9 \ πραγμάτων σύστασις: ἡ γὰρ τραγῳδία pipnois ἐστιν \ 7 οὐκ ἀνθρώπων ἀλλὰ πράξεως καὶ βίου καὶ εὐδαιμονίας \ ὃ ᾿ e δὲ ἠδ / “we ὃ 7 «καὶ κακοδαιμονίας, ἡ δὲ εὐδαιμονία-- καὶ ἡ κακοδαιμονία » 7 3 \ \ \ , ne > / > ἐν πράξει ἐστὶν καὶ τὸ τέλος πρᾶξίς τις ἐστίν, ov ποι- -eloty ube \ Ν \ "0 ,ὔ i a ὃ 20 oTns* εἰσὶν δὲ κατὰ μὲν τὰ ἤθη ποιοί τινες, κατὰ δὲ τὰς 10 / > / Xx > / » Ψ Φ' τὰν πράξεις εὐδαίμονες ἢ τοὐναντίον. οὔκουν ὅπως τὰ ἤθη μι- μήσωνται πράττουσιν, ἀλλὰ τὰ ἤθη συμπαραλαμβάνουσιν διὰ τὰς πράξεις" ὥστε τὰ πράγματα καὶ ὁ μῦθος τέλος na δί Ν δὲ aN / e 7 5, Ν 11 τῆς τραγῳδίας, τὸ δὲ τέλος μέγιστον ἁπάντων. ἔτι ἄνευ Ν 7 > x / / ν \ > lal / 25 μὲν πράξεως οὐκ ἂν γένοιτο τραγῳδία, ἄνευ δὲ ἠθῶν γέ- >» e \ a 7 n / »/ / voit ἄν. αἱ γὰρ τῶν νέων τῶν πλείστων ἀήθεις τραγῳδίαι εἰσὶν καὶ ὅλως ποιηταὶ πολλοὶ τοιοῦτοι, οἷον καὶ τῶν γρα- n \ 4 φέων Ζεῦξις πρὸς Πολύγνωτον πέπονθεν" ὁ μὲν yap 11ο- 7 \ λύγνωτος ἀγαθὸς ἠθογράφος, ἡ δὲ Ζεύξιδος γραφὴ οὐδὲν 30 ἔχεν ἦθος. ἔτι ἐάν τις ἐφεξῆς θῇ ῥήσεις ἠθικὰς καὶ λέξει 12 / fol καὶ διανοίᾳ εὖ πεποιημένας, ov ποιήσει ὃ ἣν τῆς τραγῳ- / Μ > \ \ - δίας ἔργον, ἀλλὰ πολὺ μᾶλλον ἡ καταδεεστέροις τούτοις 7 δί », δὲ DO. \ ? ᾿ κεχρημένη τραγῳδία, ἔχουσα δὲ μῦθον καὶ. σύστασιν πραγ- bt Ν \ ee \ / δ τῷ μάτων. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις τὰ μέγιστα οἷς ψυχαγωγεῖ ἡ 18 δί an 40 7 > 7 “ “A \ 2 35 τραγῳδία, τοῦ μύθου μέρη ἐστίν, αἵ Te περιπέτειαι καὶ ἀνα-.
12. οὐκ ὀλίγοι αὐτῶν ὡς εἰπεῖν codd.: ὀλίγου αὐτῶν -- ἅπαντες: ὡς εἰπεῖν Bywater: οὐκ ὀλίγοι αὐτῶν «ἀλλὰ πάντες:- ὡς εἰπεῖν Bursian. 18. -- καὶ κακοδαιμονίας... > coni, Vahlen. 22. πράττουσιν] πράττοντας ποιοῦσιν coni. Vahlen. συμπαραλαμβάνουσιν Spengel : συμπεριλαμβάνουσιν Ac, 80. λέξει καὶ διανοίᾳ Vahlen: λέξεις καὶ διανοίας codd. 81. οὐ add. ΔΡορτ. : ‘nequaquam’ Arabs: fort. οὐδαμῶς Margoliouth.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VI. 7—13 25
Two of the parts constitute the means of imitation, one the manner, and three the objects of imitation. And these complete the list. These elements have been employed, 8 we may say, by almost all poets; in fact, every play con- tains Scenic accessories as well as Character, Plot, Diction, Song, and Thought.
But most important of all is the structure of the 9 incidents. For Tragedy i is an imitation, not of men, but of an action and of life, —of happiness and misery ; ; and happiness a1 and misery. “consist. i ἴῃ action, ‘the 16 end of human life_being a mode..of..action, not. ἃ quality. Now the 10 characters of men determine their qualities, but it is by their actions that they are happy or the reverse. Dra- matic action, therefore, is not with a view to the repre- sentation of character: character comes in as 18. subsidiary tg the action. Hence the incidents a1 and th the plot ἃ are_the end of a tragedy; and the end is the chief thing of all. Again, without action there cannot be a tragedy ; ; there 11 may be without character. The tragedies of most of our modern poets fail in the rendering of character; and of poets in general this is often true. It is the same in painting; and here lies the difference between Zeuxis and Polygnotus. Polygnotus delineates character well: the style of Zeuxis is devoid of ethical quality. Again, 12 if you string together a set of speeches expressive of character, and well finished in point of diction and thought, you will not produce the essential tragic effect nearly so well as with a play, which, however deficient in these respects, yet has a plot and artistically constructed incidents. Besides which, the most powerful elements of 13 emotional interest.in.Tragedy—Reversals of Fortune, and_
Ψ ι
26 VI. 14—19. 1450 ἃ 36—1450 b 19
a r n / γνωρίσεις. ἔτι σημεῖον ὅτι καὶ οἱ ἐγχειροῦντες ποιεῖν mpo- 14 n a a Xx \ τερον δύνανται τῇ λέξει Kal τοῖς ἤθεσιν ἀκριβοῦν ἢ τὰ n \ \ πράγματα συνιστάναι, οἷον καὶ oi πρῶτοι ποιηταὶ σχεδὸν \ ς la) n ἅπαντες. ἀρχὴ μὲν οὖν καὶ οἷον ψυχὴ ὁ μῦθος τῆς Tpa- \ 40 γῳδίας, δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἤθη. παραπλήσιον γάρ ἐστιν καὶ 15 - a / an / 1450b ἐπὶ τῆς γραφικῆς" εἰ γάρ τις ἐναλείψειε τοῖς καλλίστοις 7ὔ φαρμάκοις χύδην, οὐκ ἂν ὁμοίως εὐφράνειεν καὶ λευκο- 7 ὌΝ 5, 7 / \ ὃ \ 4 γραφήσας εἰκόνα. ἔστιν Te μίμησις πράξεως καὶ διὰ ταύτην cal a a μάλιστα τῶν πραττόντων. τρίτον δὲ ἡ διάνοια. τοῦτο dé 16 / \ / 5 ἐστιν τὸ λέγειν δύνασθαι τὰ ἐνόντα Kal τὰ ἁρμόττοντα, [4 aA an / n n AA ge a »” ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ PHTOPLKNS Epyov a a / U4 e ἐστίν: of μὲν yap ἀρχαῖοι πολιτικῶς ἐποίουν λέγοντας, οἱ a n \ rn ἃ ei δὲ νῦν ῥητορικῶς. ἔστιν δὲ ἦθος μὲν τὸ τοιοῦτον ὃ δηλοῖ THY 17 / ¢e - rn x προαίρεσιν, ὁποῖά τις ἐν οἷς οὐκ ἔστι δῆλον ἢ Tpoat- n / a / το ρεῖται ἢ φεύγει" διόπερ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἦθος τῶν λόγων ἐν > ὰν + τ a x , ε / οἷς μηδ᾽ ὅλως ἔστιν 6 τι προαιρεῖται ἢ φεύγει ὁ λέγων. ὃ 7 δέ > e > ὃ vA "¢ ς » rx ¢ > 4 ιάνοια δέ, ἐν οἷς ἀποδεικνύουσί TL ὡς ἔστιν ἢ ὡς οὐκ ἔστιν x / . cal / ἢ καθόλου τι ἀποφαίνονται. τέταρτον δὲ [τῶν μὲν λόγων] ἡ 18 7 / λέξις. λέγω δέ, ὥσπερ πρότερον εἴρηται, λέξιν εἶναι τὴν \ “ > / e / a Nee Ye Se). nr > / \ 15 διὰ τῆς ὀνομασίας ἑρμηνείαν, ὃ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμμέτρων καὶ n / \ \ n \ rn ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων ἔχει THY αὐτὴν δύναμιν. τῶν δὲ λοιπῶν 19 A / fal [πέντε] ἡ μελοποιία μέγιστον τῶν ἡδυσμάτων, ἡ δὲ ὄψις Ν / : : a na ψυχαγωγικὸν μέν, ἀτεχνότατον δὲ καὶ ἥκιστα οἰκεῖον τῆς
ποιητικῆς" <lo>ws γὰρ τῆς τραγῳδίας δύναμις καὶ ἄνευ
88, συνιστάναι Thurot: συνίστασθαι codd. 40, παραπλήσιον. .. εἰκόνα supra collocavit post πραγμάτων v. 84 Castelvetro. 1450 Ὁ 3. τε codd.: γὰρ Hermann. 9. ὁποία tis* Bekker, omisso ἐν οἷς οὐκ ἔστι... φεύγει. Sic Margoliouth collato Arabe. Tl. ὅ τι apogr.: 6 τις AS, 13. τῶν μὲν λόγων seclusi. 17. πέντε A®: seclus. Spengel : πέμπτον apogr. 19. ἴσως Meiser: ὡς Αὐ : ἡ apogr.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VI. 14—19 27
Recognition scenes—are parts of the plot. A further 14
proof is, that novices in the art are able to elaborate their diction and ethical portraiture, before they can frame the incidents. It is the same with almost all early poets.
The Plot, th then, | is the first principle, and, as it were, the soul of ‘of the» tragedy : “Character holds the second place.
A similar fact is seen in painting. ~The most beautiful 15
1450 Ὁ colours, laid on confusedly, will not give as much pleasure as the chalk outline of a portrait. Thus Tragedy is the imitation of an action, and of the agents, mainly with a view to the action.
Third in order is the Thought,—+that is, the faculty of 16 saying what is possible and pertinent in given circum- stances. In the case of the dramatic dialogue, this is the function of the political or the rhetorical art: for the older poets make their characters speak the language of civic life; the poets of our time, the language of the rhetoricians, Character is that which reveals moral 17 purpose : it shows what. “kind of things, in cases of doubt,
a man chooses or avoids. A dialogue, therefore, which in no way indicates what the speaker chooses or avoids, is not expressive of character, Thought, on the other hand, is that whereby we prove that something is or is not, or state a general maxim.
Fourth comes the Diction; by which I mean, as has 18 been already said, the expression_of our meaning in words ; and its essence is the same both in verse and prose.
Of the remaining elements Song holds the chief place 19 among the embellishments.
The Scenery has, indeed, an emotional attraction of its
28 VI. 19—VII. 4. 1450 ἢ 20—1451 a I
“ Ν / \ \
20 ἀγῶνος καὶ ὑποκριτῶν ἔστιν, ἔτε δὲ κυριωτέρα περὶ τὴν lal lal Ὁ ἐν nr a
ἀπεργασίαν τῶν ὄψεων ἡ τοῦ σκευοποιοῦ τέχνη τῆς τῶν
ποιητῶν ἐστιν.
,ὔ / nr ,
Vil διωρισμένων δὲ τούτων, λέγωμεν μετὰ ταῦτα ποίαν nr fal A r
τινὰ δεῖ τὴν σύστασιν εἶναι TOV πρωγμάτων, ἐπειδὴ τοῦτο
fal » / / -“ \
25 καὶ πρῶτον καὶ μέγιστον τῆς τραγῳδίας ἐστίν. κεῖται δὴ
- 3 /
ἡμῖν THY τραγῳδίαν τελείας καὶ ὅλης πράξεως εἶναι μί- y
μησιν ἐχούσης τι μέγεθος" ἔστιν γὰρ ὅλον καὶ μηδὲν ἔχον ,ὔ / > \ ἂν > \ \ 7 \
μέγεθος. ὅλον δέ ἐστιν τὸ ἔχον ἀρχὴν Kal μέσον καὶ τε-
ἃ \ 3
λευτήν. ἀρχὴ δέ ἐστιν ὃ αὐτὸ μὲν μὴ ἐξ ἀνάγκης μετ
+ 3 / >. τ an > of / 3 x /
30 ἄλλο ἐστίν, μετ᾽ ἐκεῖνο δ᾽ ἕτερον πέφυκεν εἶναι ἢ γίνεσθαι, τελευτὴ δὲ τοὐναντίον ὃ αὐτὸ μετ᾽ ἄλλο πέφυκεν εἶναι ἢ ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἢ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολύ, μετὰ δὲ τοῦτο ἄλλο οὐδέν,
/ 1, A \ By ν > ΕΖ Ν ΕῚ > - “ μέσον δὲ ὃ καὶ αὐτὸ per ἄλλο καὶ μετ᾽ ἐκεῖνο ἕτερον. ὃ ψῳ .Ὅ \ n 9 / 72» « ,ὔ »
εἴ ἄρα τοὺς συνεστῶτας εὖ μύθους μήθ᾽ ὁπόθεν ἔτυχεν
35 ἄρχεσθαι μήθ᾽ ὅπου ἔτυχε τελευτᾶν, ἀλλὰ κεχρῆσθαι ταῖς
» ͵ ἰδέ 5 δ᾽ 5 \ Ἀ Ν \ a » er εἰρημέναις ἰδέαις. ἔτι δ᾽ ἐπεὶ τὸ καλὸν Kal ζῷον καὶ ἅπαν
" fal / al / πρᾶγμα ὃ συνέστηκεν ἐκ τινῶν οὐ μόνον ταῦτα τεταγμένα
a » > \ \ / ς / \ \ ως \ δεῖ ἔχειν ἀλλὰ Kal μέγεθος ὑπάρχειν μὴ TO τυχόν" TO
Ν Ν 5 / \ / 5 7 x ΕΣ / yap καλὸν ἐν μεγέθει καὶ τάξει ἐστίν, διὸ οὔτε πάμμικρον
Ν / Xo a a \ e θ /, > \ 40 ἄν τι γένοιτο καλὸν ζῴον, συγχεῖται yap ἡ θεωρία ἐγγὺς
rn / τοῦ ἀναισθήτου χρόνου γινομένη, οὔτε παμμέγεθες, οὐ γὰρ.
14618 ἅμα ἡ θεωρία γίνεται ἀλλ᾽ οἴχεται τοῖς θεωροῦσι τὸ ἕν
25. δὴ Bywater: δ᾽ A°. 29. μὴ ἐξ ἀνάγκης codd. : ἐξ ἀνάγκης μὴ Pazzi. 41. χρόνου seclus, Bonitz.
3
4
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VI. 19—VII. 4 29
own, but, of all the parts, it is the least artistic, and con- nected least with poetic theory. For the power of Tragedy, we may be sure, is felt even apart from representation and actors. Besides, the production of scenic effects de- pends more on the art of the stage manager than on that of the poet.
VII These principles being established, let us now discuss the proper structure of the Plot, since this is the first, and also the most important part of Tragedy.
Now, according to our definition, Tragedy is an 2 imitation of an action, that is complete, and whole, and ᾿ of a certain magnitude; for there may be a whole that is‘wanting in magnitude. A whole is s that which has 3 beginning, middle, and end. A beginning is that which does not itself follow anything by causal necessity, but after which something naturally is or comes to be. An end, on the contrary, is that which itself naturally follows some other thing, either by necessity, or in the regular course of events, but has nothing following it. A middle is that which follows something as some other thing follows it. A well constructed plot, therefore, must neither begin nor end at haphazard, but conform to the type here described.
Again, if an object be beautiful—either a living 4 organism or a whole composed of parts—it must not
/
only have its parts in orderly arrangement, it must also be of a certain magnitude. Hence no exceedingly small animal can be beautiful; for the view of it is confused, - the object being seen in an almost imperceptible moment of time. Nor, again, can an animal of vast size be beautiful; for as the eye cannot take it all in at once,
Io
VIIl
20
25
30 VIL 4—VIIL 3. 1451 a 2—25
fol / / Μ καὶ τὸ ὅλον ἐκ τῆς θεωρίας, οἷον εἰ μυρίων σταδίων εἴη fal a cal / » ie: oo ΄“ ζῷον" ὥστε δεῖ καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῶν σωμάτων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν 5
lal \ 3 “ ἕῴων ἔχειν μὲν μέγεθος, τοῦτο δὲ εὐσύνοπτον εἶναι, οὕτω ek 8 n / ΝΜ Ν an nr δὲ > / καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν μύθων ἔχειν μὲν μῆκος, τοῦτο δὲ εὐμνημόνευ- a ε \ rn Tov εἶναι." τοῦ μήκους ὅρος «ὁ: μὲν πρὸς τοὺς ἀγῶνας 6 \ \ yy > - / 3 Ae > \ ΝΜ e \ καὶ τὴν αἴσθησιν οὐ τῆς τέχνης ἐστίν εἰ γὰρ ἔδει ἑκατὸν \ 4 / τραγῳδίας ἀγωνίζεσθαι, πρὸς κλεψύδρας ἂν ἠγωνίζοντο, / ςε \ ὥσπερ ποτὲ Kal ἄλλοτε εἰώθασιν. ὁ δὲ κατ᾽ αὐτὴν THYT / a / Ὁ 34 \ ξε / / a φύσιν τοῦ πράγματος ὅρος, ἀεὶ μὲν ὁ μείζων μέχρι τοῦ \ 4 σύνδηλος εἶναι καλλίων ἐστὶ κατὰ τὸ μέγεθος, ὡς δὲ e n / > n 2 4 46. \ \ > Xd ἁπλῶς διορίσαντας εἰπεῖν, ἐν ὅσῳ μεγέθει κατὰ TO εἰκὸς x \ > lad > a / 7] > > 4 ἢ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον ἐφεξῆς γιγνομένων συμβαίνει εἰς εὐτυχίαν / ἐκ δυστυχίας ἢ ἐξ εὐτυχίας eis δυστυχίαν μεταβάλλειν, e \ a > \ n / - >] > \ ἱκανὸς ὅρος ἐστὶν τοῦ μεγέθους. μῦθος δ᾽ ἐστὶν εἷς δ . οὐχ ὥσπερ τινὲς οἴονται ἐὰν περὶ ἕνα ἦ᾽ πολλὰ γὰρ fal , / καὶ, ἄπειρα τῷ ἑνὶ συμβαίνει, ἐξ ὧν [ἐνίων] οὐδέν ἐστιν ἕν᾽ οὕτως δὲ καὶ πράξεις ἑνὸς πολλαί εἰσιν, ἐξ ὧν ,ὔ > "4 4 an \ / “pe 4 ς μία οὐδεμία γίνεται πρᾶξις. διὸ πάντες ἐοίκασιν ἅμαρ- 2 lal n / / Tavew ὅσοι τῶν ποιητῶν “Hpaxdrnida Ononida καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα ποιήματα πεποιήκασιν" οἴονται γάρ, ἐπεὶ εἷς ἦν ἐξ fol + e > ὁ Ἡρακλῆς, ἕνα καὶ τὸν μῦθον εἶναι προσήκειν. ὁ δ᾽ 8 id Ψ > Ὅμηρος ὥσπερ καὶ τὰ ἄλλα διαφέρει καὶ τοῦτ᾽ ἔοικεν καλῶς ἰδεῖν ἤτοι διὰ τέχνην ἢ διὰ φύσιν" ᾿Οδύσσειαν γὰρ
n > > / [2 id » A / ποιῶν οὐκ ἐποίησεν ἅπαντα ὅσα αὐτῷ συνέβη, οἷον πλη-
1451 a 3. σωμάτων] συστημάτων Bywater. 6. 6 add. Bursian. 8. κλεψύδραν apogr. 9. εἰώθασιν M. Schmidt: ‘sicut solemus dicere etiam aliquo tempore et aliquando’ Arabs: φασιν codd. 17. τῷ ἑνὶ apogr.: τῶι γένει A® (cf. 1447 af 17). “᾿ ἐνίων seclus. Spengel.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VII. 4—VIII. 3 31
1451a the unity and sense of the whole is lost for the spectator. So it would be with a creature.a thousand miles long. As, therefore, in animate bodies and living organisms, a 5 certain magnitude is necessary, and that such as may be easily embraced in one view; so in the plot, a certain length is necessary, and that length one that may be easily embraced by the memory. The limit of length in 6 relation to dramatic competition and sensuous present- ment, is no part of artistic theory. For suppose a hundred tragedies had to be played against one another, the performance would be regulated by the hour-glass,— a method, indeed, that is familiar enough otherwise. But 7 the limit as fixed by the nature of the drama itself is this :—the greater the length, the more beautiful will the piece be in respect of such magnitude, provided that the whole be perspicuous. And as a general rule, the proper magnitude is comprised within such limits, that the sequence of events, according to the law of probability - or necessity, will admit of a change from bad fortune to good, or from good fortune to bad.
VIII Unity of plot does not, as some persons think, consist in the unity of the hero. , For infinitely various are the incidents in one man’s life, which cannot be reduced to unity; and so, too, there are many actions of one man out of which we cannot make one action. Hence the 2 error, a8 it appears, of all poets who have composed a Heracleid, a Theseid, or other poems of the kind. They imagine that as Heracles was one man, the story of Heracles ought also to be a unity. But Homer, as in 3 all else he is of surpassing merit, here too—whether from art or natural genius—seems to have happily dis-
32 VIIL 3—IX. 5. 1451 a 26—1451 Ὁ 11
a a a / γῆναι μὲν ἐν τῷ Παρνασσῷ, μανῆναι δὲ προσποιήσασθαι > Ὁ ἦν Lal a ὑδὲ θ 7 ͵ὔ > Lal ν ἣν ἊΣ ἐν τῷ ἀγερμῷ, ὧν οὐδὲν θατέρου γενομένου ἀναγκαῖον ἦν ἢ \ / ὔ al “ Ζ εἰκὸς θάτερον γενέσθαι, ἀλλὰ περὶ μίαν πρᾶξιν οἵαν λέγο- + ¢ / \ / μεν τὴν Ὀδύσσειαν συνέστησεν, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὴν “Tuid- lal a / 30 δα. χρὴ οὖν καθάπερ καὶ ἐν ταῖς ἄλλαις μιμητικαῖς ἡ μία 4 ,ὔ ARF 2 > Ὁ ὶ Ἃς a 6 b] \ 4 / μίμησις ἑνός ἐστιν οὕτω Kal τὸν μῦθον, ἐπεὶ πράξεως μί- / > n 9 \ re Ὁ. \ \ ΄ μησίς ἐστι, μιᾶς τε εἶναι καὶ ταύτης ὅλης καὶ τὰ μέρη - / συνεστάναι TOV πραγμάτων οὕτως, ὥστε μετατιθεμένου + / a5 / / \ lal \ τινὸς μέρους ἢ ἀφαιρουμένου διαφέρεσθαι καὶ κινεῖσθαι τὸ Σ a / 35 ὅλον᾽ ὃ yap προσὸν ἢ μὴ προσὸν μηδὲν ποιεῖ ἐπίδηλον, 2>O\ / na ef > ’, οὐδὲν μόριον τοῦ ὅλου ἐστίν. - Ν , Ix φανερὸν δὲ ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων καὶ ὅτι ov TO τὰ γενό- / a na . ΕῚ / > BT @ xX / μενα λέγειν, τοῦτο ποιητοῦ ἔργον ἐστίν, ἄλλ, Ola ἂν γένουτο \ \ \ \ \ ἝΞ A \ > a ς A καὶ τὰ δυνατὰ κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς ἢ TO ἀναγκαῖον. ὁ yap 2 e \ ‘of \ > a i / A 1451 b ἱστορικὸς καὶ ὁ ποιητὴς οὐ τῷ ἢ ἔμμετρα λέγειν ἢ ἄμετρα 7 + \ x 4; δ / ; > / an διαφέρουσιν, εἴη yap ἂν τὰ Hpodotov εἰς μέτρα τεθῆναι, ὶ ὑδὲ xn yf e / \ / x »+ / καὶ οὐδὲν ἧττον ἂν εἴη ἱστορία τις μετὰ μέτρου ἢ ἄνευ μέ- / τρων, ἀλλὰ τούτῳ διαφέρει, τῷ τὸν μὲν TA γενόμενα λέ- 5 yeu, τὸν δὲ ola ἂν γένουτο. διὸ καὶ φιλοσοφώτερον καὶ 3 , . . , , σπουδαιότερον ποίησις ἱστορίας ἐστίν᾽ ἡ μὲν yap ποίησις a / / > μᾶλλον τὰ καθόλου, ἡ δ᾽ ἱστορία τὰ Kal ἕκαστον λέγει. » A ’ / n , \ n ” / ἔστιν δὲ καθόλου μέν, TO ποίῳ τὰ ποῖα ἄττα συμβαίνει 4 λέγειν ἢ πράττειν κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς ἢ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον, οὗ στο- ΄ e / PLT > / Ν \ p ὦ το χάζεται ἡ ποίησις ὀνόματα ἐπιτιθεμένη, τὸ δὲ καθ᾽ Exa- fs a στον, τί ᾿Αλκιβιάδης ἔπραξεν ἢ τί ἔπαθεν. ἐπὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς 5
27. ἢν ἢ apogr.: ἣν AS. 28. λέγομεν apogr.: λέγοιμεν AC: ἂν λέγοιμεν Vahlen. 82. καὶ ταύτης] ταύτης καὶ Vahlen. 94. διαφέρεσθαι] διαφθείρεσθαι suspicatur Margoliouth, collato Arabe ‘corrumpatur.’ 35. ποιεῖ, ἐπίδηλον ὡς apogr. 87. οὐ τὸ apogr. : οὕτω Ae, 1451 Ὁ 4. τούτῳ. .. τῷ apogr.: τοῦτο. . . τῶ A®: τοῦτο. . . τὸ Spengel. 10. τὸ apogr.: τὸν AS.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VIII. 3—IX. 4 33
cerned the truth. In composing the Odyssey he did not bring in all the adventures of Odysseus—such as his wound on Parnassus, or his feigned madness at the mustering of the host—incidents between which there was no necessary or probable connexion: but he made the Odyssey, and likewise the Iliad, to centre round an action, that in our sense of the word is one. As there- 4 fore, in the other imitative arts, the imitation is one, when the object imitated is one, so the plot, being an imitation
of an action, must imitate one action and that a whole, the structural union of the parts being such that, if any one of them is displaced or removed, the whole will be disjointed and disturbed. For that which may be present or absent without being: perceived, is not an organic part of the whole.
IX . It is, moreover, evident from what has been said, that it is not the function of the poet to relate what has happened, but what may happen,— what is possible according to the law of probability or necessity. The 2
1451p poet and the historian differ not by writing in verse or in prose. The work of Herodotus might be put into verse, and it would still be a species of history, with metre no less than without it. The true difference is that one relates what has happened, the other what may happen. Poetry, therefore, is a more philosophical and 3 a higher thing than history: for poetry tends to express the universal, history the particular. The universal tells 4 us how a person of given character will on occasion speak or act, according to the law of probability or necessity ; and it is this universality at which Poetry aims in giving
expressive names to the characters. The particular is D
34 IX. 5—10. 1451 b 12—37
, ” n δ ͵ ξ ὕ \ \ κωμῳδίας ἤδη τοῦτο δῆλον γέγονεν᾽ συστήσαντες γὰρ TOV Le] \ n > / “ \ / > Ve e μῦθον Sia τῶν εἰκότων οὕτω τὰ τυχόντα ὀνόματα ὕὑποτι- / \ > “ ΟῚ \ \ \ θ᾽ “ θέασιν, καὶ οὐχ ὥσπερ οἱ ἰαμβοποιοὶ περὶ τὸν καθ᾽ ἕκαστον rn n lal / > /
15 ποιοῦσιν. ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς τραγῳδίας τῶν γενομένων ὀνομάτων 6 > ,ὔ “ δ ra 6 , > \ ὃ / \ A ἀντέχονται. αἴτιον δ᾽ ὅτι πιθανόν ἐστι τὸ δυνατόν. τὰ μὲν
3 A / + ’ 3 ὃ 4 \ δὲ οὖν μὴ γενόμενα οὔπω πιστεύομεν εἶναι δυνατά, τὰ δὲ γε- / Ν cA ὃ 7] » \ x > / 5 4 > 4 νόμενα φανερὸν ὅτι δυνατά, od yap ἂν ἐγένετο, εἰ ἣν ἀδύ- > \ > A \ > al δί PF Ν A VaTa. οὗ μὴν ἀλλὰ καὶ EV ταῖς TpaywoLals ἐνίαις μὲν ἕν 7
20 ἢ δύο τῶν γνωρίμων ἐστὶν ὀνομάτων, τὰ δὲ ἄλλα πεποιη- μένα, ἐν ἐνίαις δὲ οὐδ᾽ ἕν, οἷον ἐν τῷ ᾿Αγάθωνος ἄνθει" « ͵7 ὁμοίως γὰρ ἐν τούτῳ τά τε πράγματα καὶ τὰ ὀνόματα πε-
, \ ὑδὲ > / ς ἣν ᾽ > / 2 ποίηται, καὶ οὐδὲν ἧττον εὐφραίνει" ὥστ᾽ οὐ πάντως εἶναι 8 7 nr ὃ δι / 50 \ A e δί ζητητέον τῶν παραδεδομένων μύθων, περὶ οὺς αἱ τραγῳδίαι ᾽ 7] > / θ \ Ν r Lal [οἷ a > \ \ 25 εἰσίν, ἀντέχεσθαι. καὶ yap γέλοϊον τοῦτο ζητεῖν, ἐπεὶ καὶ / , τὰ γνώριμα ὀλίγοις γνώριμά ἐστιν GAN ὅμως εὐφραίνει πάν- δῆ S > 4 <4 A \ n al τας. OndOV οὖν EK τούτων OTL τὸν ποιητὴν μᾶλλον τῶν 9 50 3 ὃ “-“ \ Xx nr / “ \ \ μύθων εἶναι δεῖ ποιητὴν ἢ τῶν μέτρων, ὅσῳ ποιητὴς κατὰ \ / / > lal \ Ν 4 x Μ Ὁ τὴν μίμησίν ἐστιν, μιμεῖται δὲ τὰς πράξεις. κἂν ἄρα συμβῇ ͵ὔ -“" nr 30 γενόμενα ποιεῖν, οὐθὲν ἧττον ποιητής ἐστι TOV γὰρ γενο- / yy ὑδὲ / “ ας Ὁ i x - ak, ᾿ / μένων ἔνια οὐδὲν κωλύει τοιαῦτα εἶναι οἷα ἂν εἰκὸς γενέσθαι \ ὃ \ / 0 θ᾽ Δ» a > rn / > καὶ δυνατὰ γενέσθαι, καθ᾽ ὃ ἐκεῖνος αὐτῶν ποιητής ἐστιν... -“ ” / τῶν δὲ ἄλλων μύθων καὶ πράξεων ai ἐπεισοδιώδεις 10 ἢ / nr εἰσὶν χείρισται. λέγω δ᾽ ἐπεισοδιώδη μῦθον ἐν ᾧ τὰ ἐπεισ- ἠδ > M«M fd + Fk eet > / = lal
35 OOLA μετ΄ ἄλληλα οὔτ᾽ εἰκὸς οὔτ ἀνάγκη εἶναι. τοιαῦται \ an ς \ \ n A lal > > ΄ δὲ ποιοῦνται ὑπὸ μὲν τῶν φαύλων ποιητῶν δι᾽ αὐτούς, c \ δὲ a > θῶ ὃ \ \ e LF > / A ὑπὸ δὲ τῶν ἀγαθῶν διὰ τοὺς ὑποκριτάς" ἀγωνίσματα yap
18. οὕτω] ‘nequaquam’ Arabs: fort. legendum οὐ: cf. 1451 a 37.
ἐπιτιθέασι apogr., Bekker. 14. τὸν A°; τῶν apogr. 19. "ἐν ἐνίαις apogr., Susemihl, 23. [elvac]? Spengel. 32. καὶ -οὐκ ἄλλως :- δυνατὰ Susemihl: καὶ δυνατὰ γενέσθαι seclus. Christ. 98.
ἄλλων Tyrwhitt: ἁπλῶν codd. 37. ὑποκριτὰς AC: κριτὰς apogr.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IX. 5—10 35
ΕἾΩΣ example—what Alcibiades did or suffered. In ὅ Comedy this is now apparent: for here the poet first constructs the plot on the lines of probability, and then assumes any names he pleases ;—unlike the lampooners who write about a particular individual. But tragedians 6 still keep to real names, the reason being that what is possible is credible: what has not happened we do not at once feel sure to be possible: but what has happened is manifestly possible; otherwise it would not have happened. Still there are some tragedies in which one 7 or two names only are well known, the rest being fictitious. In others, none are well known,—as in Agathon’s Flower, where incidents and names alike are fictitious, and yet it pleases. We must not, therefore, ὃ at all costs keep to the received legends, which are the usual subjects of Tragedy. Indeed, it would be absurd to attempt it; for even familiar subjects are familiar only to a few, and yet give pleasure to all. It clearly follows 9 that the poet or ‘maker’ should be the maker of plots rather than of verses; since he is a poet because he imitates, and what he imitates are actions. And if he chances to take an historical subject, he is none the less a poet; for there is no reason why some real events should not have that internal probability or possibility which entitles the author to the name of poet.
Of all plots and actions the epeisodic are the worst. 10 I call a plot ‘epeisodi¢” in which the episodes or acts suc- ceed one another without probable or necessary sequence. — Bad poets compose such pieces by their own fault, good poets, to please the players; for, as they write for competing rivals, they draw out the plot beyond its
36 IX. ro—XI. τ. 1451 Ὁ 38—1452 a 26
Ὁ / , “ ποιοῦντες καὶ παρὰ τὴν δύναμιν παρατείνοντες μῦθον ποὰλ- \ A > \ \ > 1485 λάκις διαστρέφειν ἀναγκάζονται τὸ ἐφεξῆς. ἐπεὶ δὲ οὐ \ nr μόνον τελείας ἐστὶ πράξεως ἡ μίμησις ἀλλὰ καὶ φοβερῶν lal rn / καὶ ἐλεεινῶν, ταῦτα δὲ γίνεται [καὶ] μάλιστα ὅταν γένηται n A \ \ mapa τὴν δόξαν, καὶ μᾶλλον -«-ὅταν-- δι᾽ ἄλληλα" τὸ γὰρ “ nr \ 5 θαυμαστὸν οὕτως ἕξει μᾶλλον ἢ εἰ ἀπὸ TOD αὐτομάτου καὶ a rn \ 4 nr τῆς τύχης, ἐπεὶ Kal τῶν ἀπὸ τύχης ταῦτα θαυμασιώτατα a¢ oe 9.“ , , e ᾿ ξ δοκεῖ ὅσα ὥσπερ ἐπίτηδες φαίνεται γεγονέναι, οἷον ὡς ὁ > \ e » ᾽ὔ > > / Ν ΓΙ rn ἀνδριὰς ὁ τοῦ Μίτυος ἐν "Apye: ἀπέκτεινεν τὸν αἴτιον τοῦ A “ 7 a 2 ee ν \ \ θανάτου τῷ Μίτυι, θεωροῦντε ἐμπεσών᾽ ἔοικε yap τὰ al A 4 10 τοιαῦτα οὐκ εἰκῇ γενέσθαι. ὥστε ἀνάγκη τοὺς τοιούτους εἶναι καλλίους μύθους. Χ εἰσὶ δὲ τῶν μύθων οἱ μὲν ἁπλοῖ οἱ δὲ πεπλεγμένοι, Ν e 7 Φ / e rn 7] > ς / καὶ yap ai πράξεις ὧν μιμήσεις οἱ μῦθοί εἰσιν ὑπάρχου- \ “ fol a ow εὐθὺς οὖσαι τοιαῦται. λέγω δὲ ἁπλῆν μὲν πρᾶξιν ἧς 15 γινομένης ὥσπερ ὥρισται συνεχοῦς καὶ μιᾶς ἄνευ περίπε- , Xx > a ς 7 mr , τείας ἢ ἀναγνωρισμοῦ ἡ μετάβασις γίνεται, πεπλεγμένη des \ A 3 a x , ἂν ..8 - ς δ᾽ ἐστὶν ἧς μετὰ ἀναγνωρισμοῦ ἢ περιπετείας ἢ ἀμφοῖν ἡ / / > a \ a / b 7 A a μετάβασίς ἐστιν. ταῦτα δὲ δεῖ γίνεσθαι ἐξ αὐτῆς τῆς ov- “ 4 [2 an στάσεως τοῦ μύθου, ὥστε ἐκ τῶν προγεγενημένων συμβαίνειν x 3 Lees x \ Ν 95% ’, a ‘ 7 20 ἢ ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἢ κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς γίγνεσθαι ταῦτα" διαφέρει Ἁ \ \ yap πολὺ TO γίγνεσθαι τάδε διὰ τάδε ἢ μετὰ τάδε. 4 δὲ / \ e > \ > ὃ , - ΧΙ ἔστι δὲ περιπέτεια μὲν ἡ εἰς τὸ ἐναντίον τῶν πρατ- / / an τομένων μεταβολή, καθάπερ εἴρηται, καὶ τοῦτο δὲ ὥσπερ , “ποτ S ANS Bg a Ser 2 a 2O/ λέγομεν κατὰ TO εἰκὸς ἢ ἀναγκαῖον᾽ ὥσπερ ἐν τῷ Oidi- \ A \ n 25 ποδι ἐλθὼν ὡς εὐφρανῶν Tov Οἰδίπουν καὶ ἀπαλλάξων τοῦ \ A , , ,ὔ 5 πρὸς τὴν μητέρα φόβου, δηλώσας ὃς ἦν, τοὐναντίον ἐποίησεν 38. παρατείνοντες apogr. : παρατείνάντες A°. 1452 a 3. καὶ seclus. Susemihl. καὶ μάλιστα καὶ μᾶλλον ὅταν γένηται παρὰ τὴν δόξαν codd. : correxit Reiz. 17. δ᾽ ἐστὶν §sSusemihl : δὲ λέξις AC: δέ ἐστιν ἐξ ἧς (h. 6.
δέ Λ΄ εξης) Vahlen: δὲ ἐξ fs vel δὲ πρᾶξις apogr. : δὲ πρᾶξις ἧς Ueberweg. 20. ταῦτα] τἀναντία Bonitz, fort. recte.
3
1452 a
XI
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IX. to—XI. τ 37
capacity, and are often forced to break the natural con- tinuity. But again, Tragedy is an imitation not only of all complete action, but of events terrible and pitiful. Such an effect is best produced when the events come on us by surprise; and the effect is heightened when, at the same time, they follow from one another. The tragic 12 wonder will then be greater than if they happened of themselves or by accident; for even accidents are most striking when they have an air of design. We may instance the statue of Mitys at Argos, which fell upon his murderer while he was looking at it, and killed him. Such events seem not to be due to mere chance. Plots, therefore, constructed on these principles are necessarily the best. Plots are either Simple or Complicated ; for such too, in their very nature, are the actions of which the plots are an imitation. An action which is one and con- 2
tinuous in the sense above defined, I call Simple, when the turning point is reached without Reversal of F ortune or Recognition : Complicated, when it is reached with Reversal of Fortune, or Recognition, or both. These 3 last should arise from the internal structure of the plot, so that what follows should be the necessary or probable result of the preceding action. It makes all the difference whether one event is the consequence of another, or merely subsequent to it.
A Reversal of Fortune is, as we have said, a change by which a train of action produces the opposite of the effect intended; and that, according to our rule of prob- ability or necessity. Thus in the Oedipus, the messenger, hoping to cheer Oedipus, and to free him from his alarms
38 ΧΙ. 1—6. 1452 a 27—1452 Ὁ 13
> fal a ¢ \ > / ς > 4 e \
καὶ ἐν τῷ Λυγκεῖ ὁ μὲν ἀγόμενος ὡς ἀποθανούμενος, ὁ δὲ
_ Δαναὸς ἀκολουθῶν ὡς ἀποκτενῶν, τὸν μὲν συνέβη ἐκ τῶν πεπραγμένων ἀποθανεῖν, τὸν δὲ σωθῆναι. ἀναγνώρισις 2
30 δέ, ὥσπερ καὶ τοὔνομα σημαίνει, ἐξ ἀγνοίας εἰς γνῶσιν
μεταβολὴ ἢ εἰς φιλίαν ἢ εἰς ἔχθραν τῶν πρὸς εὐτυχίαν ἢ
δυστυχίαν ὡρισμένων" καλλίστη δὲ ἀναγνώρισις, ὅταν ἅμα
7 7 4 δεν nr 997 ply εἶ περιπέτειαι γίνωνται, οἷον ἔχει ἡ ἐν τῷ Οἰδίποδι. εἰσὶν μὲν 8 οὖν καὶ ἄλλαι ἀναγνωρίσεις" καὶ γὰρ πρὸς ἄψυχα καὶ τὰ
35 τυχόντα ἔστιν ὡς --ὅ:-περ εἴρηται συμβαίνει, καὶ εἰ πέ-
, x \ / » > 7 οΣ ἌΧ Ὁ ΄ πραγέ TLS ἢ μὴ πέπραγεν ἐστιν ἀναγνωρίσαι" αλλ ἡ μά- Mota τοῦ μύθου καὶ ἡ μάλιστα τῆς πράξεως ἡ εἰρημένη > eR \ 4 > , \ / Xx ἐστίν" ἡ yap τοιαύτη ἀναγνώρισις Kal περιπέτεια ἢ ἔλεον 4
1452 b ἕξει ἢ φόβον, οἵων πράξεων ἡ τραγῳδία μίμησις ὑπόκειται" ἔτι δὲ καὶ τὸ ἀτυχεῖν καὶ τὸ εὐτυχεῖν ἐπὶ τῶν τοιούτων
/ > \ in ees a / A > 2 , συμβήσεται. ἐπεὶ δὴ ἡ ἀναγνώρισις τινῶν ἐστιν ἀναγνώρισις, 5
ε XN / 5% \ “ / Ψ = rn [2 αἱ μὲν θατέρου πρὸς τὸν ἕτερον μόνον, ὅταν ἢ δῆλος ἅτερος 5 τίς ἐστιν, ὁτὲ δὲ ἀμφοτέρους δεῖ ἀναγνωρίσαι, οἷον ἡ μὲν ᾿Ιφιγένεια τῷ ᾿Ορέστῃ ἀνεγνωρίσθη ἐκ τῆς πέμψεως τῆς ἐπιστολῆς, ἐκείνου δὲ πρὸς τὴν ᾿Ιφιγένειαν ἄλλης ἔδει ἀναγνωρίσεως. , δύο μὲν οὖν τοῦ μύθου μέρη περὶ ταῦτ᾽ ἐστί, περιπέτεια 6 το καὶ ἀναγνώρισις, τρίτον δὲ πάθος. τούτων δὲ περιπέτεια μὲν καὶ ἀναγνώρισις εἴρηται, πάθος δέ ἐστι πρᾶξις φθαρτικὴ ἢ > 4 “ > “ lal / \ «ς ὀδυνηρά, οἷον οἵ τε ἐν τῷ φανερῷ θάνατοι καὶ αἱ περιω- δυνίαι καὶ τρώσεις καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα. 33. Fort. οἵαν Bywater. 35. ἔστιν ὡς -«-ὅ:- περ Spengel : ἐστὶν ὥσπερ A°: ἔστιν ὅτε ὥσπερ Ald., Bekker. cuuBalvewapogr. 86. #uhapogr.: εἰ μὴ AS. 38. καὶ περιπέτεια seclus. Susemihl. καὶ -«- μάλιστ᾽ ἐὰν καὶ:- περιπέτεια ἢ ἔλεον coni. Vahlen. 1452 Ὁ 1. σΐων apogr.: οἷον AS. 42. ἔτι δὲ] ἐπειδὴ Susemihl, pos. commate post ὑπόκειται. 3. ἐπεὶ δὴ ἡ] ἐπεὶ δ᾽ ἡ Bekker. 4, ἅτερος Bernays: ἕτερος codd. 7. ἐκείνου Bywater: ἐκείνῳ codd.
9. περὶ seclus. Maggi: περὶ non videtur legisse Arabs (Margoliouth) :. περὶ ταὐτὰ Twining. 12. οἵ re apogr.: ὅτε AS.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XI. 1—6 39
about his mother, reveals his origin, and so produces the opposite effect. Again in the Lynceus, Lynceus is being led out to die, and Danaus goes with him, meaning to slay him; but the outcome of the action is, that Danaus is killed and Lynceus saved.
A Recognition, as the name indicates, is a change 2 from ignorance to knowledge, producing love or hate between the persons destined by the poet for good or bad fortune. The best form of recognition is coincident with a reversal of fortune, as in the Oedipus. There are 3 indeed other forms. Even inanimate things of the most trivial kind may sometimes be objects of recognition. Again, the discovery may be made whether a person has or has not done something. But the form which is most intimately connected with the plot and action is, as we have said, the recognition of persons. This, combined 4 with a reversal of fortune, will produce either pity or
1452 fear; and actions producing these effects are those which, as we have assumed, Tragedy represents. Moreover, fortune or misfortune will depend upon such incidents. Recognition, then, being between persons, it may happen 5 that one person only is recognised by the other—when the latter is already known—or the recognition may need to be on both sides. Thus Iphigenia is revealed to Orestes by the sending of the letter; but another means is required to make Orestes known to Iphigenia.
Two parts, then, of the Plot—Reversal of Fortune and 6 Recognition—turn upon surprises. A third part is the ; Tragic Incident. The two former have been discussed. The Tragic Incident is a destructive or painful action, such as death on the stage, bodily torments, wounds and the like.
;*
40 XII. 1—XIIL 2. 1452 Ὁ 14—35
XII [μέρη δὲ τραγῳδίας οἷς μὲν ὡς εἴδεσι δεῖ χρῆσθαι 15 πρότερον εἴπομεν, κατὰ δὲ τὸ ποσὸν καὶ εἰς ἃ διαιρεῖται κεχωρισμένα τάδε ἐστίν, πρόλογος ἐπεισόδιον ἔξοδος χο- ρικόν, καὶ τούτου τὸ μὲν πάροδος τὸ δὲ στάσιμον" κοινὰ μὲν id / lal ΕΣ \ \ > \ an rn \ / ἁπάντων ταῦτα, ἴδια δὲ τὰ ἀπὸ τῆς σκηνῆς καὶ κόμμοι. ἔστιν δὲ πρόλογος μὲν μέρος ὅλον τραγῳδίας τὸ πρὸ χοροῦ 3 20 παρόδου, ἐπεισόδιον δὲ μέρος ὅλον τραγῳδίας τὸ μεταξὺ ὅλων χορικῶν μελῶν, ἔξοδος δὲ μέρος ὅλον τρωγῳδίας μεθ᾽ ὃ οὐκ ἔστι χοροῦ μέλος, χορικοῦ δὲ πάροδος μὲν ἡ πρώτη λέξις ὅλη χοροῦ, στάσιμον δὲ μέλος χοροῦ τὸ ἄνευ ἀναπαίστου καὶ τροχαίου, κόμμος δὲ θρῆνος κοινὸς χοροῦ καὶ a > \ fol / \ / 2 \ e » 25 -τῶν-:- ἀπὸ σκηνῆς. μέρη δὲ τραγῳδίας οἷς μὲν ὡς εἴδεσι 3 δεῖ χρῆσθαι πρότερον εἴπαμεν, κατὰ δὲ τὸ ποσὸν καὶ εἰς
ἃ a 7 δὰ. ἃ / a διαιρεῖται κεχωρίσμενα ταῦτ éotiv=|
ΧΠῚ ὧν δὲ δεῖ στοχάζεσθαι καὶ ἃ δεῖ εὐλαβεῖσθαι συν- / \ 4 \ / ΝΜ Ν “ / » στάντας τοὺς μύθους Kal πόθεν ἔσται TO THs τραγῳδίας ἔρ- 30 γον, ἐφεξῆς ἂν εἴη λεκτέον τοῖς νῦν εἰρημένοις. ἐπειδὴ οὖν 2 δεῖ τὴν σύνθεσιν εἶναι τῆς καλλίστης Tpayedias μὴ ἁπλῆν ἀλλὰ πεπλεγμένην καὶ ταύτην φοβερῶν καὶ ἐλεεινῶν εἶναι μιμητικήν, τοῦτο γὰρ ἴδιον τῆς τοιαύτης μιμήσεως ἐστίν, a \ n ee " \ 3 a. ΙΝ a πρῶτον μὲν δῆλον ὅτι οὔτε τοὺς ἐπιεικεῖς ἄνδρας δεῖ μετα- 35 βάλλοντας φαίνεσθαι ἐξ εὐτυχίας εἰς δυστυχίαν, οὐ γὰρ 14, Totum hoc cap. seclus. Ritter, recte, ut opinor. 23. ὅλη Westphal : ὅλου AS. 25. τῶν add. Christ praeeunte Ritter. οἷς μὲν ws εἴδεσι
det apogr.: οἷς μὲν δεῖ AS. 28. ὧν apogr. : ws ΑΞ“, 32. πεπλεγ- ᾿ μένην seclus. Susemihl.
«.
SS “πῆρα σεν
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XII. 1—XIII. 2 41
XII [The parts of Tragedy, which must be treated as elements of the whole, have been already mentioned. We now come to the quantitative parts—the separate parts into which Tragedy is divided—namely, Prologos, Episode, Exodos, Choral element ; this last being divided into Parodos and Stasimon. These two are sung by the whole Chorus. The songs of the actors on the stage, and the Commoi, are sung by individuals.
The Prologos is that entire part of a tragedy which 2 precedes the Parodos of the Chorus. The Episode is that entire part of a tragedy which is between whole choral songs. The Exodos is that entire part of a tragedy which has no choral song after it. Of the Choral part the Parodos is the first undivided utterance of the Chorus: the Stasimon is a choral ode without anapaests or, trochees: the Commos is a joint lamentation of chorus and actors. The parts of Tragedy which must be 3 treated as elements of the whole have been already mentioned. The quantitative parts—the separate parts into which it is divided—are here enumerated. | XIII = As the sequel to what has already been said, we must proceed to consider what the poet should aim at, and what he should avoid, in constructing his plots; and by what means Tragedy may best fulfil its function.
A perfect tragedy should, as we have seen, be arranged 2 on the simple, not the complicated,plan. It should, more- over, imitate actions which excite pity and fear, this being the distinctive mark of tragic imitation. It follows plainly, in the first place, that the change of fortune pre-— sented must not be the spectacle of a perfectly good man brought from prosperity to adversity: for this moves
42 XT. 2—6. 1452 Ὁ 36—1453 a 23
a / A \ φοβερὸν οὐδὲ ἐλεεινὸν τοῦτο ἀλλὰ μιαρόν ἐστιν" οὔτε TOUS / \ μοχθηροὺς ἐξ ἀτυχίας εἰς εὐτυχίαν, ἀτραγῳδότατον yap τοῦτ᾽ ἐστὶ πάντων" οὐδὲν γὰρ ἔχει ὧν δεῖ, οὔτε γὰρ φιλάν- / / 1453 θρωπον οὔτε ἐλεεινὸν οὔτε φοβερόν éotiv* οὐδ᾽ ad τὸν σφόδρα \ > > / > / / ἘΞ \ \ \ πονηρὸν ἐξ εὐτυχίας eis δυστυχίαν μεταπίπτειν" TO μὲν γὰρ φιλάνθρωπον ἔχοι ἂν ἡ τοιαύτη σύστασις ἀλλ᾽ οὔτε ἔλεον » / ς τς \ \ Ν > / , > na οὔτε φόβον, ὁ μὲν yap περὶ Tov ἀνάξιόν ἐστιν δυστυχοῦντα, / 5 ὁ δὲ περὶ τὸν ὅμοιον, ἔλεος μὲν περὶ τὸν ἀνάξιον, φόβος δὲ Ν “ [4 BA \ » \ δ Ν περὶ τὸν ὅμοιον, ὥστε οὔτε ἐλεεινὸν οὔτε φοβερὸν ἔσται τὸ a / a συμβαῖνον. ὁ μεταξὺ dpa τούτων λοιπός. ἔστι δὲ τοιοῦτος 3 ε / > “Ὁ 7 \ 4 / \ / ὁ μήτε ἀρετῇ διαφέρων καὶ δικαιοσύνῃ, μήτε διὰ κακίαν καὶ μοχθηρίαν μεταβάλλων εἰς τὴν δυστυχίαν ἀλλὰ OV e / / rn > 4 / ” \ > / το ἁμαρτίαν τινά, Tov ἐν μεγάλῃ δόξῃ ὄντων Kal εὐτυχίᾳ, 50." \ 7 \ e 5 fal 4 fal οἷον Οἰδίπους καὶ Θυέστης καὶ οἱ ἐκ τῶν τοιούτων γενῶν > a ba > / Ψ \ a » “ ἐπιφανεῖς ἄνδρες. ἀνάγκη ἄρα τὸν καλῶς ἔχοντα μῦθον 4 ἁπλοῦν εἶναι μᾶλλον ἢ διπλοῦν, ὥσπερ τινές φασι, καὶ με- ταβάλλειν οὐκ εἰς εὐτυχίαν ἐκ δυστυχίας ἀλλὰ τοὐναντίον 15 ἐξ εὐτυχίας εἰς δυστυχίαν, μὴ διὰ μοχθηρίαν ἀλλὰ δι᾿ ἁμαρτίαν μεγάλην ἢ οἵου εἴρηται ἢ βελτίονος μᾶλλον ἢ / lal lal χείρονος. σημεῖον δὲ καὶ τὸ γιγνόμενον" πρῶτον μὲν yap 5 ε \ \ / 4 > / a \ \ οἱ ποιηταὶ τοὺς τυχόντας μύθους ἀπηρίθμουν, νῦν δὲ περὶ ὀλίγας οἰκίας αἱ [κάλλισται] τραγῳδίαι συντίθενται, οἷον 20 περὶ ᾿Αλκμαίωνα καὶ Οἰδίπουν καὶ ᾿Ορέστην καὶ Μελέα- γρον καὶ Θυέστην καὶ Τήλεφον καὶ ὅσοις ἄλλοις συμβέβηκεν Ε θ - ὃ 1 a A e A 5 \ \ / ἢ παθεῖν δεινὰ ἢ ποιῆσαι. ἡ μὲν οὖν κατὰ THY τέχνην 7 / > MB A / > ’ὔ \ \ καλλίστη τραγῳδία ἐκ ταὐτὴς Ths συστάσεως ἐστί. διὸ καὶ 6 1453 8. 1. αὖ τὸν apogr.: αὖ τὸ AS. 5. ἔλεος μὲν. .. τὸν ὅμοιον seclus.
Ritter, quod non confirm. Arabs (Margoliouth). 19. κάλλισται seclus. ° Christ: Arabs non vertit (Margoliouth).
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIII. 2—6 43
neither pity nor fear; it simply shocks us. Nor, again, that of a bad man passing from adversity to prosperity : for nothing can be more alien to the spirit of Tragedy ; it possesses no single tragic quality; it neither satisfies the moral sense, nor calls forth pity or fear. Nor, ἐν 1468 again, should the downfall of the utter villain be ( exhibited. A plot of this kind would, doubtless, satisfy , the moral sense, but it would inspire neither pity nor | fear; for pity is aroused by unmerited misfortune, fear / by the misfortune of a man like ourselves. Such an / event, therefore, will be neither pitiful nor terrible. \ There remains, then, the character between these two3 | extremes,—that of a man who is not eminently good and just, yet whose misfortune is brought about not by vice or depravity, but by some’error or frailty. He must be one who is highly renowned and prosperous,—a personage like Oedipus, Thyestes, or other illustrious men of such families. A well constructed plot should, therefore, be single, 4 rather than double as some maintain. The change—of fortune should_be|not from bad to good, but, reversely, from good to bad. It should come about as the result : not of vice, but of some great error or frailty, in a character_ a> * either_such as we—haye described, or better rather than worse. The practice of the stage bears out our view. At 5 first the poets recounted any legends-that came in their way. Now, tragedies are founded on the story of a few houses, —on the fortunes of Alcmaeon, Oedipus, Orestes, Mele- ager, Thyestes, Telephus, and those others who have done or suffered something terrible. A tragedy, then, to be perfect according to the rules of art should be of this construction. Hence they are in error who censure 6
44 XIII. 6—XIV. 2. 1453 a 24—1453 Ὁ 10
i Ἐ (ὃ 3» a ἀντ δὺς. DN, oe , “ a οἱ Evpurridn ἐγκαλοῦντες τοῦτ᾽ αὐτὸ ἁμαρτάνουσιν, OTL τοῦτο - a / 25 δρᾷ ἐν ταῖς τραγῳδίαις καὶ πολλαὶ αὐτοῦ eis δυστυχίαν lal rn / lal τελευτῶσιν. τοῦτο yap ἐστιν ὥσπερ εἴρηται ὀρθόν. σημεῖον δὲ μέγιστον" ἐπὶ γὰρ τῶν σκηνῶν καὶ τῶν ἀγώνων τραγι- , ε r 4 na a + Js κώταται αἱ τοιαῦται φαίνονται, dv κατορθωθῶσιν, Kal ὁ Εὐριπίδης εἰ καὶ τὰ ἄλλα μὴ εὖ οἰκονομεῖ ἀλλὰ τρα- , / a lal / / oe , 30 γικώτατός γε τῶν ποιητῶν φαίνεται. δευτέρα δ᾽ ἡ πρώτη 7 / ig \ na ΕῚ ᾿ ς a \ 4 λεγομένη ὑπὸ τινῶν ἐστιν [σύστασις] ἡ διπλῆν τε THY σύστα- σιν ἔχουσα, καθάπερ ἡ Ὀδύσσεια, καὶ τελευτῶσα ἐξ ἐναν- vad a Φ \ τίας τοῖς βελτίοσι καὶ χείροσιν. δοκεῖ δὲ εἶναι πρώτη διὰ \ lal ¥. 5 / ὃ A “ nS ε \ τὴν τῶν θεάτρων ἀσθένειαν" ἀκολουθοῦσι yap οἱ ποιηταὶ > > \ a a - ” \ > “ ς 35 κατ᾽ εὐχὴν ποιοῦντες τοῖς θεαταῖς. ἔστιν δὲ οὐχ αὕτη <> 8 Ἁ an / ἀπὸ τραγῳδίας ἡδονὴ ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον τῆς κωμῳδίας οἰκεία" > tal \ A xX Μ > > al / > / ἐκεῖ γὰρ οἱ ἂν ἔχθιστοι ὦσιν ἐν τῷ μύθῳ, οἷον ᾿Ορέστης \ ’ a / καὶ Αἴγισθος, φίλοι γενόμενοι ἐπὶ τελευτῆς ἐξέρχονται % 552 [4 > \ ς > 3 / καὶ ἀποθνήσκει οὐδεὶς ὑπ᾽ οὐδενός. XIV ἔστιν μὲν οὖν τὸ φοβερὸν καὶ ἐλεεινὸν ἐκ τῆς ὄψεως 7 5, Ν See 4 ϑε - a / lal 1453 b γίγνεσθαι, ἔστιν δὲ καὶ ἐξ αὐτῆς τῆς συστάσεως τῶν πραγ- / a μάτων, ὅπερ ἐστὶ πρότερον καὶ ποιητοῦ ἀμείνονος. δεῖ yap \ oF A, ΠΣ οὖ, Ὁ ) APA \ rn Ψ \ καὶ ἄνευ τοῦ ὁρᾶν οὕτω συνεστάναι τὸν μῦθον, ὥστε τὸν » uA Ν / / \ / \ n~ 5 ἀκούοντα τὰ πράγματα γινόμενα Kal φρίττειν Kal. ἐλεεῖν > an / > & x 7 > ΄ \ a ἐκ TOV συμβαινόντων" ἅπερ ἂν πάθοι τις ἀκούων τὸν τοῦ / a fol n Οἰδίπου μῦθον. τὸ δὲ διὰ τῆς ὄψεως τοῦτο παρασκευά- 2 > ͵ \ , , ΜΓ ee ep ew ἀτεχνότερον καὶ χορηγίας δεόμενόν ἐστιν. οἱ δὲ μὴ TO \ a an , φοβερὸν διὰ τῆς ὄψεως ἀλλὰ τὸ τερατῶδες μόνον παρα- 7, 29\ yes a tes \ 5 10 σκευάζοντες οὐδὲν Tpaywdia κοινωνοῦσιν" οὐ yap πᾶσαν
24. τοῦτ᾽ αὐτὸ Thurot: αὐτοὶ Reiz: τὸ αὐτὸ codd. Vahlen: ‘secludendum coni. Margoliouth collato Arabe. 25. <ai> πολλαὶ Knebel. 31. σύστασις seclus. Twining. 84, θεάτρων A°: θεατῶν apogr. 35. αὕτη <> coni. Vahlen. 37. of ἂν Bonitz: ἂν οἱ codd.: κἂν οἱ Spengel.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIII. 6—XIV. 2 45
Euripides just because he follows this principle in his plays, many of which end unhappily. It is, as we have said, the right ending. The best proof is that on the stage and in dramatic competition, such plays, if they are well represented, are most tragic in their effect ; and Euripides, faulty as he is in the general management of his subject, yet is felt to be the most tragic of poets. In the second rank comes the kind of tragedy which 7 some place first. Like the Odyssey, it has a double thread of plot, and also an opposite catastrophe for the good and for the bad. It is generally thought to be the best owing to the weakness of the spectators; for the poet is guided in what he writes by the wishes of his audience. The pleasure, however, thence derived is not 8 the true tragic pleasure. It is proper rather to Comedy, where those who, in the piece, are the deadliest enemies —like Orestes and Aegisthus—go forth reconciled at last, and no one slays or is slain. xIV Fear and pity may be aroused by the spectacle or 1458? scenic presentment; but they may also result from the inner structure of the piece, which is the better way, _ and indicates a superior poet. For the plot ought to be so constructed that, even without the aid of the eye, any one who is told the incidents will thrill with horror and_pity at the turn of events. This is precisely the impression we should receive from listening to the story of the Oedipus. But to produce this effect by the mere 2 spectacle is a less artistic method, and dependent on extraneous aids. Those who employ spectacular means to create a sense not of the terrible but of the monstrous, are strangers to the purpose of Tragedy; for we must
15
20
25
30
46 XIV. 3—6. 1453 b 11—32
An a ς \ BJ \ / 3 \ \ > / bp] \ δεῖ ζητεῖν ἡδονὴν ἀπὸ τραγῳδίας ἀλλὰ τὴν οἰκείαν. ἐπεὶ δὲ 3 / tal \ τὴν ἀπὸ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου διὰ μιμήσεως δεῖ ἡδονὴν παρα- σκευάζειν τὸν ποιητήν, φανερὸν ὡς τοῦτο ἐν τοῖς πράγμα- > / tal 5 \ Xx Lal > \ / ow ἐμποιητέον. ποῖα οὖν δεινὰ ἢ ποῖα οἰκτρὰ φαίνεται τῶν συμπιπτόντων, λάβωμεν. ἀνάγκη δὴ ἢ φίλων εἶναι πρὸς ἀλλήλους τὰς τοιαύτας πράξεις ἢ ἐχθρῶν ἢ μηδε- Ν / τέρων. ἂν μὲν οὖν ἐχθρὸς ἐχθρόν, οὐδὲν ἐλεεινὸν οὔτε ποιῶν οὔτε μέλλων, πλὴν κατ᾽ αὐτὸ τὸ πάθος" οὐδ᾽ ἂν 7 " ΤῊΝ Pes a , > ͵ \ μηδετέρως ἔχοντες" ὅταν δ᾽ ἐν ταῖς φιλίαις ἐγγένηται τὰ πάθη, οἷον εἰ ἀδελφὸς ἀδελφὸν ἢ υἱὸς πατέρα ἢ μήτηρ υἱὸν ἢ υἱὸς μητέρα ἀποκτείνει ἢ μέλλει ἤ TL ἄλλο τοιοῦτον a a \ δρᾷ, ταῦτα ζητητέον. τοὺς μὲν οὖν παρειλημμένους μύθους 5 λύειν οὐκ ἔστιν, λέγω δὲ οἷον τὴν Κλυταιμνήστραν ἀποθα- νοῦσαν ὑπὸ τοῦ Ὀρέστου καὶ τὴν Ἐιξριφύλην ὑπὸ τοῦ Αλκμαί- pi. \ ee A - \ a / a wvos, αὐτὸν δὲ εὑρίσκειν δεῖ καὶ τοῖς παραδεδομένοις χρῆ- σθαι καλῶς. τὸ δὲ καλῶς τί λέγομεν, εἴπωμεν σαφέστερον. »" \ \ ¢ , \ a “ ε \ ἔστι μὲν yap οὕτω γίνεσθαι THY πρᾶξιν, ὥσπερ οἱ παλαιοὶ 5 ;ὔ 50. 7 \ 4, / +. > 7] ἐποίουν εἰδότας καὶ γυγνώσκοντας, καθάπερ καὶ Evpurridns > / > / \ an \ / ca ἐποίησεν ἀποκτείνουσαν τοὺς παῖδας τὴν Μήδειαν. ἔστιν δὲ na / > a \ a \ / 352) oo πρᾶξαι μέν, ἀγνοοῦντας δὲ πρᾶξαι τὸ δεινόν, εἶθ᾽ ὕστερον ἀναγνωρίσαι τὴν φιλίαν, ὥσπερ ὁ Σοφοκλέους Οἰδίπους"
na \ 5 » n / > > > A a , τοῦτο μὲν οὖν ἔξω τοῦ δράματος, ἐν δ᾽ αὐτῇ. τῇ τραγῳδίᾳ
1453 Ὁ 15. δὴ Spengel: δὲ codd. 17. ἐχθρόν] ἐχθρὸν ἀποκτείνῃ Bekk. praeeunte Pazzi. ἐλεεινὸν} -- φοβερὸν οὐδ᾽ Ξ- ἐλεεινὸν Ueberweg. 20. εἰ ἀδελφὸς Sylburg: ἢ ἀδελφὸς codd. 22. δρᾷ ΔΡορτ. : δρᾶν Α5, 26.
εἴπωμεν apogr.: εἴπομεν AS.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIV. 2—6 47
not demand of Tragedy every kind of pleasure, but only that which is proper to it. And since the pleasure 3 which the poet should afford is that which comes from pity and fear through imitation, it is evident that this quality must be stamped upon the incidents.
~ Let us then determine what are the circumstances which impress us as terrible or pitiful.
Actions capable of this effect must happen between 4 persons who are either friends or enemies or indifferent to one another. If an enemy kills an enemy, there is nothing _ to excite pity either j in the act or the intention, —exeept- = so far as the suffering i in ‘itself i is pitiful, So again with indifferent persons. But when the tragic incident occurs between those who are near or dear to one another— if, for example, a brother kills, or intends to kill, a brother, a son his father, a mother her son, a son his mother, or any other deed of the kind is done—here we have the situations which should be sought for by the poet. He may not indeed destroy the framework of the received 5 legends—the fact, for instance, that Clytemnestra was slain by Orestes and Eriphyle by Alemaeon—but he ought to show invention of his own, and skilfully adapt the tradi- tional material. What is meant by skilfully, let us explain more clearly.
The action may be done willingly and with full 6 knowledge on the part of the agents, in the manner of the older poets. It is thus, in fact, that Euripides makes Medea slay her children. Or, again, the deed of horror may be done, but. done in ignorance, and the tie of kinship or friendship be discovered afterwards: The Oedipus of Sophocles.is an example. Here, indeed,
48 XIV. 6—9. 1453 Ὁ 33—1454 a 13
c.> / C7 ͵7ὔ aA ¢ / Ae! a οἷον ὁ ᾿Αλκμαίων ὁ ᾿Αστυδάμαντος ἢ ὁ Τηλέγονος ὁ ἐν τῷ ’ὔ 5 al » Ν / \ n \ I τραυματίᾳ ᾿Οδυσσεῖ. ἔτι δὲ τρίτον παρὰ ταῦτα τὸ μέλλον- a lol /
35 TA ποιεῖν TL τῶν ἀνηκέστων δι᾽ ἄγνοιαν ἀναγνωρίσαι πρὶν ποιῆσαι. καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐκ ἔστιν ἄλλως. ἢ γὰρ πρᾶξαι > [4 a \ Ἄς 0.7 xX \ Panwa / A Ν \ ἀνάγκη ἢ μὴ καὶ εἰδότας ἢ μὴ εἰδότας. τούτων δὲ τὸ μὲν
, a \ \ a ,ὔ = / \ γινώσκοντα μελλῆσαι Kal μὴ πρᾶξαι χείριστον" TO τε yap \ » \ > / > \ / / ᾽ \ μιαρὸν ἔχει, Kal οὐ τραγικὸν" ἀπαθὲς γάρ. διόπερ οὐδεὶς ae 2 3 a eg. ΄ > > / \ / 1454 a ποιεῖ ὁμοίως, εἰ μὴ ὀλιγάκις, οἷον ἐν ᾿Αντυγόνῃ τὸν Κρέοντα ς a ὁ Αἵμων. τὸ δὲ πρᾶξαι δεύτερον. βέλτιον δὲ τὸ ἀγνοοῦντα \ n / {- 2 z / , Ν Ν μὲν πρᾶξαι, πράξαντα δὲ ἀναγνωρίσαι" τό τε γὰρ μιαρὸν / , , P ov πρόσεστιν Kal ἡ ἀναγνώρισις ἐκπληκτικόν. κράτιστον δὲ \ a / \ Ka > ad , ς / 5 τὸ τελευταῖον, λέγω δὲ οἷον ἐν τῷ Κρεσφόντῃ ἡ Μερόπη \ μέλλει τὸν υἱὸν ἀποκτείνειν, ἀποκτείνει δὲ οὔ, GAN ἀνε- > γνώρισεν, καὶ ἐν τῇ ᾿Ιφιγενείᾳ ἡ ἀδελφὴ τὸν ἀδελφόν, καὶ ad ε Ν \ / / ἐν τῇ Ἑλλῃ ὁ υἱὸς THY μητέρα ἐκδιδόναι μέλλων ἀνεγνώ- ρίσεν. διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο, ὅπερ πάλαι εἴρηται, οὐ περὶ πολλὰ / e / πο Ψ a \ > > \ /
10 γένη αἱ τραγῳδίαι εἰσίν. ζητοῦντες yap οὐκ ἀπὸ τέχνης > δια ΟΝ ΄ 2 Ν a A > a ἀλλ᾽ ἀπὸ τύχης εὗρον TO τοιοῦτον παρασκευάζειν ἐν τοῖς
4 > / 5 ΟΣ, 4 \ Ee > lal μύθοις. ἀναγκάζονται οὖν ἐπὶ ταύτας Tas οἰκίας ἀπαντᾶν
ὅσαις τὰ τοιαῦτα συμβέβηκε πάθη.
33. ὁ ᾿Αλκμαίων ὁ Gryphius: ὁ ᾿Αλκμαίωνος A. 84. τὸ Bonitz: τὸν Αὔ, 1454 a 8. Ἕλλῃ] ᾿Αντιόπῃ Valckenaer.
7
8
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIV. 6—9 49
the incident is outside the drama proper; but cases occur where it falls within the action of the play: we may cite the Alemaeon of Astydamas, or Telegonus in the Wounded Odysseus. Again, there is a third case, where 7 some one is just about to do some irreparable deed through ignorance, and makes the discovery before it is done. These are the only possible ways. For the deed must either be done or not done,—and that wittingly or unwittingly. But of all these ways, to be about to act knowing the consequences, and then not to act, is the worst. It is shocking without being tragic, for no disaster follows. It is, therefore, never, or very rarely, found in poetry. One-instance, however, is in the Antigone, where Haemon intends to kill Creon. The 8 next and better way is that the deed should be perpetrated. Still better, that it should be perpetrated in ignorance, and the discovery made afterwards. There is then nothing to shock us, while the discovery pro- duces a startling effect. But the absolutely best way is 9 the last mentioned. Thus in the Cresphontes, Merope is in the act of putting her son to death, but, recognising who he is, spares his lifes So in the Iphigenia, the sister recognises the brother just in time. Again in the Helle, the son recognises the mother when on the point of giving her up. This, then, is why a few families only, as has been already observed, furnish the subjects of tragedy. It was not art, but happy chance, that led poets by tentative discovery to impress the tragic quality upon their plots. They are compelled, therefore, — to have recourse to those houses in which tragic disasters have occurred.
50 XIV. 9—XV. 6. 1454 a 14—36
n a / περὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς τῶν πραγμάτων συστάσεως Kal ποί- 15 ous τινὰς εἶναι δεῖ τοὺς μύθους εἴρηται ἱκανῶς. tal a XV περὶ δὲ τὰ ἤθη τέτταρά ἐστιν ὧν δεῖ στοχάζεσθαι, ἕν - 3 μὲν καὶ πρῶτον ὅπως χρηστὰ ἧ. ἕξει δὲ ἦθος μὲν ἐὰν Φ ΄ “ Ν ε / ΕΓ. - , ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη ποιῇ φανερὸν ὁ λόγος ἢ ἡ πρᾶξις προαί- / 3 \ δὲ 2\ / 4 δὲ 5 ρεσίν. τινα [ἢ], χρηστὸν δὲ ἐὰν χρηστήν. ἔστιν δὲ ἐν - 7ὔ Le 20 ἑκάστῳ yéver’ Kal yap γυνή ἐστιν χρηστὴ καὶ δοῦλος, ,ὔ »” 4 Ν Ν - \ Ae n καίτοι ye ἴσως τούτων TO μὲν χεῖρον, TO δὲ ὅλως φαῦ- , , , i ms Nov ἐστιν. δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἁρμόττοντα᾽ ἔστιν yap ἀνδρεῖον 2 / 5 > > > ς / \ Ὁ > / μέν τι ἦθος, GAN οὐχ ἁρμόττον γυναικὶ οὕτως ἀνδρείαν Xx \ 5 4 \ Sy ee fal \ “ “ ἢ δεινὴν εἶναι. τρίτον δὲ τὸ ὅμοιον. τοῦτο γὰρ ἕτερον τοῦ 3 / nr 25 χρηστὸν τὸ ἦθος Kal ἁρμόττον ποιῆσαι ὥσπερ εἴρηται. / \ » ε / x \ > 4 / 5 \ τέταρτον δὲ τὸ ὁμαλόν. κἂν yap ἀνώμαλός τις ἢ ὁ τὴν 4 μίμησιν παρέχων καὶ τοιοῦτον ἦθος ὑποτιθείς, ὅμως ὁμα- An “ ἡ λῶς ἀνώμαλον δεῖ εἶναι. ἔστιν δὲ παράδευγμα πονηρίας μὲν ὅ , e , e fel n ἤθους μὴ ἀναγκαίου οἷον ὁ Μενέλαος ὁ ἐν τῷ Ὀρέστῃ, τοῦ n \ , a 30 δὲ ἀπρεποῦς Kal μὴ ἁρμόττοντος 6 τε θρῆνος Ὀδυσσέως ἐν n / <) ἢ n / ten AG -“ » Ae v2 τῇ Σκύλλῃ Kal ἡ THs Μελανίππης ῥῆσις, τοῦ δὲ ἀνωμάλου , 5 \ ἡ ἐν Αὐλίδι Ἰφιγένεια" οὐδὲν yap ἔοικεν ἡ ἱκετεύουσα TH ς / \ δὲ \ > a HO Ὁ iw J ‘al lal 6 ὑστέρᾳ. χρὴ δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἤθεσιν ὥσπερ Kal ἐν τῇ τῶν - Ν a πραγμάτων συστάσει ἀεὶ ζητεῖν ἢ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ τὸ εἰκός, fal a / x a 35 ὥστε τὸν τοιοῦτον τὰ τοιαῦτα λέγειν ἢ πράττειν ἢ ἀναγκαῖον n a / a ἢ εἰκός, καὶ τοῦτο μετὰ τοῦτο γίνεσθαι ἢ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ εἰκός.
19. ἢ secludendum, vel <# τις ἂν--ὀ ἢ coni. Vahlen: -εἥν:- τινα <6>% Bywater: ἢ φυγήν Diintzer: προαίρεσίν τινα, φαῦλον μὲν ἐὰν φαύλη ἢ, χρηστὸν K.7.A. apogr. 23. τι ἦθος Hermann: τὸ ἦθος codd. οὕτως coni. Vahlen, cf. Polit. iii, 4. 1277 Ὁ 20: κα * τω A®: τὸ apogr, 25. ὥσπερ εἴρηται fort. secludendum: ἅπερ εἴρηται Hermann: lacunam
ante ὥσπερ statuit Spengel, quem seq. Susemihl. 29. ἀναγκαίου apogr.; Bywater: ἀναγκαῖον A°: ἀναγκαίας Thurot. οἷον seclus. Εἰ. Miiller, Sus. ed. 1, Christ. 30. <rod> ’Odvecéws Bywater. 31, Exem-
plum τοῦ ἀνομοίου post ῥῆσις intercidisse coni. Vettori ; cf. Susemihl, Christ. 35 et 86. ἣ ἀναγκαῖον Hermann. 36. - ὡς: "καὶ τοῦτο Bywater, fort. recte.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIV. 9—XV. 7 51
Enough has now been said concerning the structure of the incidents, and the proper constitution of the plot.
In respect of Character there’are four things to be aimed at. } First, and most important, it must be good. Now any speech or action that manifests a certain moral purpose will be expressive of character: the character will be good if the purpose is good. This rule applies to persons of every class. Even a woman may be good, and also a slave; though the woman may be said to be an inferior being, and the slave is absolutely bad. The 2 second thing to aim at is propriety. There is a type of manly valour; but for a woman to be valiant in this sense, or terrible, would be inappropriate. Thirdly, ὃ character must be true to life: for this is a distinct thing from goodness and propriety, as here described. The fourth point is consistency: for even though the 4 original character, who suggested the type, be inconsis- tent, still he must be consistently inconsistent. As an 5 example of character needlessly bad, we have Menelaus in the Orestes: of character incongruous and inappro- priate, the lament of Odysseus in the Scylla, and the speech of Melanippe: of inconsistency, the Iphigenia at
Aulis,—for the suppliant Iphigenia in no way resembles her later self.
As in the structure of the plot, so too in the por- 6 traiture of character, the poet should always aim either αὖ the necessary or the probable. Thus a person of a given character should speak or act in a given way, by the rule either of necessity or of probability; just as this event should follow that by necessary or prob- able sequence. It is therefore evident that the un-7
52 XV. 7—XVI. 2. 1454 ἃ 37—1454 Ὁ 21
φανερὸν οὖν ὅτι καὶ τὰς λύσεις τῶν μύθων ἐξ αὐτοῦ δεῖ τοῦ Τ 4 / \ \ “ > a / ᾿ “A 1454b μύθου συμβαίνειν καὶ μὴ ὥσπερ ἐν TH Μηδείᾳ ἀπὸ μη- a a \ / Φ \ χανῆς καὶ ἐν τῇ ᾿Ιλιάδι τὰ περὶ τὸν ἀπόπλουν" ἀλλὰ μη- " / > A oe n 7 aA o \ fal χανῇ χρηστέον ἐπὶ τὰ ἔξω τοῦ δράματος, ἢ ὅσα πρὸ τοῦ 7 Ae γὼ "τ ” 6 δδέ A of ο ἃ γέγονεν ἃ οὐχ οἷόν τε ἄνθρωπον εἰδέναι, ἢ ὅσα ὕστερον ἃ ἧς ΄ τ Pos δ \ > , 5 δεῖται προωγορεύσεως καὶ ἀγγελίας" ἅπαντα γὰρ ἀποδί- -" an ΟῚ Μ \ \ 3 > a / δομεν τοῖς θεοῖς ὁρᾶν. ἄλογον δὲ μηδὲν εἶναι ἐν τοῖς πράγ- na \ lal μασιν, εἰ δὲ μή, ἔξω τῆς τραγῳδίας, οἷον τὸ ἐν τῷ Οἰδίποδι τῷ Σοφοκλέους. ἐπεὶ δὲ μίμησίς ἐστιν ἣ τραγῳδία βεέλτι- 8 - - tal \ ovev «ἢ καθ᾽: ἡμᾶς, δεῖ μιμεῖσθαι τοὺς ἀγαθοὺς eixovoypa- . \ \ 2 al > / \ 297 \ ε , 10 gous’ καὶ yap ἐκεῖνοι ἀποδιδόντες τὴν ἰδίαν μορφὴν ὁμοίους n , ΄ giver ao. \ , ποιοῦντες καλλίους γράφουσιν" οὕτω καὶ τὸν ποιητὴν μιμού- μενον καὶ ὀργίλους καὶ ῥᾳθύμους καὶ τἄλλα τὰ τοιαῦτα ἔχοντας ἐπὶ τῶν ἠθῶν, τοιούτους ὄντας ἐπιεικεῖς ποιεῖν" / [wapddevypa σκληρότητος] οἷον τὸν ᾿Αχιλλέα ᾿Αγάθων καὶ “ a rn a 15° Ὅμηρος. ταῦτα <&)> δεῖ διατηρεῖν καὶ πρὸς τούτοις τὰς 9 \ \ 3 > / > 4 >’ 7 A a. Tapa τὰ ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἀκολουθούσας αἰσθήσεις TH ποιητικῇ Ν Ν ᾽ 3 Ν Μ e 4 / + \ καὶ yap κατ᾽ αὐτὰς ἔστιν ἁμαρτάνειν πολλάκις, εἴρηται δὲ
\ 2. A > a b yi / e - περι αὐτῶν ἐν τοις ἐκδεδομένοις λογοις tKAVDS.
ΧΥΙ ἀναγνώρισις δὲ τί μέν ἐστιν, εἴρηται πρότερον᾽ εἴδη δὲ > / / \ ὙΦ lA \ / 20 δὲ ἀναγνωρίσεως, πρώτη μὲν ἡ ἀτεχνοτάτη Kal ἣ πλείστῃ
al ὃ 9 2 / ς ὃ \ a / 4 \ AM \ χρῶνται ov ἀπορίαν, ἡ διὰ TOV σημείων. τούτων δὲ τὰ μὲν 2
1454 Ὁ 2. ἀπόπλουν apogr.: ἁπλοῦν AS. 7. τὸ vel τῶ apogr.: 7d? Ac; τὰ Ald. 9. ἢ καθ᾽ ἡμᾶς Stahr: ἡμᾶς codd. 14, παρά- δείγμα σκληρότητος seclus. Bywater. 15. δὴ δεῖ Ald., Bekker: δὴ Ac; δεῖ apogr. τὰς παρὰ τὰ Vel τὰ παρὰ τὰς apogr. : τὰς παρὰ τὰς AS. 20, i πλείστῃ apogr. : ἡ πλείστη AS. 21. ἡ apogr.: ἢ Δ9,
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XV. 7—XVI. 2 53
ravelling of the plot, no less than the complication,
1454 must be brought about by the plot itself, and not by Machinery,—as in the Medea, or in the Return of the Greeks in the Iliad. Machinery should be employed only for events external to the drama,—either such as are previous to it and outside the sphere of human knowledge, or subsequent to it and which need to be foretold and.announced; for to the gods we ascribe the power of seeing all things. Within the action there must be nothing irrational. Ifthe irrational cannot be excluded, it should be outside the scope of the tragedy. Such is the irrational element in the Oedipus of Sophocles.
Again, since Tragedy is an imitation of persons who 8 are above the common level; the example of good portrait- painters should be followed. They, while reproducing the distinctive form of the original, make a likeness which is true to life and yet more beautiful. So too the poet, in representing men quick or slow to anger, or with other defects of character, should preserve the type and yet ennoble it. In this way Achilles is portrayed by Agathon and Homer.
‘These are rules the poet should observe. Nor should 9 he neglect those appeals to the senses, which, though not among the essentials, are the concomitants of poetry ; for here too there is much room for error. But of this we have said enough in our published treatises.
XVI What Recognition is has been already explained. We will now enumerate its kinds. First, the least artistic form, which, from poverty of wit, is commonly employed—recognition by signs. Of 2 these some are congenital,—such as ‘ the spear which the
54 XVI. 2—6. 1454 b 22—1455 a 5
/ a °9 K 3 / σύμφυτα, οἷον “ λόγχην ἣν φοροῦσι Τηγενεῖς " ἢ ἀστέρας “ > a / / \ te eg \ ’, οἵους ἐν τῷ Θυέστῃ Καρκίνος, τὰ δὲ ἐπίκτητα, καὶ τούτων \ \ > a ΄ 3 , \ Α΄, iS / \ Ta μὲν ἐν TO σώματι, οἷον oval, τὰ δὲ ἐκτός, τὰ περι- -“ a \ \ 25 δέραια Kal οἷον ἐν τῇ Τυροῖ διὰ τῆς σκάφης. ἔστιν δὲ καὶ 3 fol -“ \ τούτοις χρῆσθαι ἢ βέλτιον ἢ χεῖρον, οἷον ᾿Οδυσσεὺς διὰ » »" / \ -“ r τῆς οὐλῆς ἄλλως ἀνεγνωρίσθη ὑπὸ τῆς τροφοῦ καὶ ἄλλως δια ites ας teee Ἶς ἢν ON τρεῖς " Ψ » ὑπὸ τῶν συβοτῶν᾽ εἰσὶ γὰρ αἱ μὲν πίστεως ἕνεκα ἀτεχνό- Tepat, καὶ αἱ τοιαῦται πᾶσαι, αἱ δὲ ἐκ περιπετείας, ὥσ- 30 περ ἡ ἐν τοῖς Νίπτροις, βελτίους. δεύτεραι δὲ αἱ πεποι- 4 / [4 Ν n nr \ » e » 7 » “ ημέναι ὑπὸ τοῦ ποιητοῦ, διὸ ἄτεχνοι. οἷον ᾿Ορέστης ἐν τῇ Ἴ ’, > , Ὁ Ὀ / Nes / \ \ ὃ \ a φυγενείᾳ ἀνεγνώρισεν ὅτι ᾿Ορέστης᾽ ἐκείνη μὲν yap διὰ τῆς r - e ἐπιστολῆς, ἐκεῖνος δὲ αὐτὸς λέγει ἃ βούλεται ὁ ποιητὴς GAN > € a 4 As 4 a > / ς / b] / 267 οὐχ ὁ μῦθος" διὸ ἐγγύς τι τῆς εἰρημένης ἁμαρτίας ἐστίν, ἐξῆν 35 γὰρ ἂν ἔνια καὶ ἐνεγκεῖν. καὶ ἐν τῷ Σοφοκλέους Τηρεῖ ἡ . n 7 / a τῆς κερκίδος φωνή. ἡ τρίτη Sia μνήμης τῷ αἰσθέσθαι 5 50. e AB / a uA 39 \ \ 14554 TL ἰδόντα, ὥσπερ ἡ ἐν Κυπρίοις τοῖς Δικαιογένους, ἰδὼν yap \ \ 4 τ ee? / > / > 4 τὴν γραφὴν ἔκλαυσεν, καὶ ἡ ἐν ᾿Αλκίνου ἀπολόγῳ, ἀκούων \ n θ a Ἂν θ \ 26 / ὅθ > yap τοῦ κιθαριστοῦ καὶ μνησθεὶς ἐδάκρυσεν, ὅθεν ἀνεγνω- 7 \ a ρίσθησαν. τετάρτη δὲ ἡ ἐκ συλλογισμοῦ, οἷον ἐν XonPopors, 6 [ὦ “ / 5 ὅτι ὅμοιός τις ἐλήλυθεν, ὅμοιος δὲ οὐθεὶς GAN ἢ ὁ "Opécrns,
24. περιδέραια Pazzi et apogr. pauca: περιδέρρεα ΑΘ: περὶ δέραια Ald. 25. οἷον apogr.: of AS. 26. <é> ᾽Οδυσσεὺς Bywater. 31. <é> Ὀρέστης Bywater. 84, διὸ ἐγγύς τι Vahlen: διότι ἐγγὺς AY. 36. ἡ τρίτη Spengel: ἤτοι rye AC: τρίτη ἣ apogr. 1455 a 1. τοῖς. apogr.: τῆς AS, 2. ἀπολόγῳ apogr.: ἀπὸ λόγων AS. 4. “Χοηφόροις Vettori: χλοηφόροις AS.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVI. 2—6 55
earth-born race bear on their bodies, or the stars intro- duced by Carcinus in his Thyestes. Others are acquired after birth; and of these some are bodily marks, as scars; some external tokens, as necklaces, or the little ark in the Tyro by which the discovery is effected. Even 3 these admit of more or less skilful treatment. Thus in the recognition of Odysseus by his scar, the discovery is made in one way by the nurse, in another by the herds- men. This use of tokens for purposes of proof—and, indeed, any formal proof with or without tokens—is an inartistic mode of recognition. A better kind is that which results from the turn of fortune; as in the Bath scene in the Odyssey.
Next come the recognitions invented at will by the 4 poet, and on that account wanting in art. For example, Orestes in the Iphigenia reveals the fact that he is Orestes. She, indeed, makes herself known by the letter ; but he, by speaking himself, and saying what the poet, not what the plot requires. This, therefore, is nearly allied to the fault above mentioned :—for Orestes might as well have brought tokens with him. Another similar instance is the ‘voice of the shuttle’ in the Tereus of Sophocles.
The third form of recognition is when the sight of 5 some object calls up a train of memory: as in the Cyprians of Dicaeogenes, where the hero breaks into tears on seeing a picture; or again in the Lay of Alcinous, where Odysseus, hearing the minstrel play the lyre, recalls the past and weeps; and hence the recognition.
The fourth kind is by process of reasoning. Thus in 6 the Choephori:—‘Some one resembling me has come:
56 XVI. 6—XVIIL τ. 1455 ἃ 6—25
οὗτος ἄρα ἐλήλυθεν. καὶ ἡ ἸΤολυείδου τοῦ σοφιστοῦ περὶ τῆς Ἰφιγενείας" εἰκὸς γὰρ τὸν ᾿Ορέστην συλλογίσασθαι, ὅτι ἥ τ᾽ ἀδελφὴ ἐτύθη καὶ αὐτῷ συμβαίνει θύεσθαι. καὶ ἐν τῷ
Θεοδέκτου Τυδεῖ, ὅτε ἐλθὼν ὡς εὑρήσων υἱὸν αὐτὸς ἀπόλ-
a 7 rn ἈΝ / 10 AvTat. καὶ ἡ ἐν τοῖς Φινείδαις, ἰδοῦσαι yap τὸν τόπον συνε-
15
/ \ e / Ψ > 4 “ > Lal λογίσαντο τὴν εἱμαρμένην ὅτι ἐν τούτῳ εἵμαρτο ἀποθανεῖν αὐταῖς, καὶ γὰρ ἐξετέθησαν ἐνταῦθα. ἔστιν δέ τις καὶ συν- θετὴ ἐκ παραλογισμοῦ τοῦ θατέρου, οἷον ἐν τῷ ᾿Οδυσσεῖ τῷ ψευδαγγέλῳ" ὁ μὲν γὰρ τὸ τόξον ἔφη γνώσεσθαι ὃ οὐχ 4 / Ν / e \ > MA > rn \ 4 ἑωράκει, TO δέ, ὡς δὴ ἐκείνου ἀναγνωριοῦντος διὰ τούτου, > / / lal \ / > s εὐ ἐποίησε παραλογισμόν. πασῶν δὲ βελτίστη ἀναγνώρισις ἡ b] en) a / fol b] / / 9 saree ἐξ αὐτῶν τῶν πραγμάτων Ths ἐκπλήξεως γιγνομένης δι᾽ εἰκό- των, οἷον [6] ἐν τῷ Σοφοκλέους Οἰδίποδι καὶ τῇ ᾿Ιφιγενείᾳ"
ΡΣ A ,, » n / ce A na εἰκὸς yap βούλεσθαι ἐπιθεῖναι γράμματα. ai yap τοιαῦται
, [al ὔ 4 20 μόναι ἄνευ τῶν πεποιημένων σημείων Kal περιδεραίων. δεύ-
XVII
25
τεραι δὲ ai ἐκ συλλογισμοῦ. δεῖ δὲ τοὺς μύθους συνιστάναι καὶ τῇ λέξει συναπερ- H ρ ΄ θ Ψ ΄ “38 , θέ ΟΝ τ \ γάζεσθαι ὅτι μάλιστα πρὸ ὀμμάτων τιθέμενον" οὕτω yap Xx > / ε Cm [2 5 > ΩΝ = ἂν ἐναργέστατα [ὁ] ὁρῶν ὥσπερ Tap’ αὐτοῖς γιγνόμενος τοῖς
, Ὁ ἘΝ \ , ‘ \ aN 6 4 TTPATTOMEVOLS EVPLOKOL TO πρέπον Καὶ 1KLOTA ἂν λανθάνοι
6. Πολυείδου apogr. : Πολυείδους AS, 10. Φινείδαις Reiz: φινίδαις AS. 18, τοῦ θατέρου Bursian, praeeunte Hermann: τοῦ θεάτρου codd. 14, ὁ μὲν apogr. : τὸ μὲν AS, 15. ὡς δὴ Tyrwhitt: ὡς δι᾿ codd. 16,
ἐποίησε Ald., Bekker: ποιῆσαι codd: Locus autem prope desperatus est. ‘Multo plura legisse videtur Arabs quam nostri codices praebent’ (Mar- goliouth). 17. ἐκπλήξεως apogr. : πλήξεως AS, 18. é6seclus. Vahlen. 20. περιδεραίων apogr. (cf. 1454 Ὁ 24), Vahlen ed. 3: dépewy A°: δεραίων. Vahlen ed. 2. 22. συναπεργάζεσθαι] ἀπεργάζεσθαι Susemihl, 24.
. ἐναργέστατα apogr.: évepyéorara A®. ὁ οἵη, Ald.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVI. 6—XVII. 1 57
no one resembles me but Orestes: therefore Orestes has come, Again, there is the discovery made by Iphigenia in the play of Polyeidus the Sophist. It was natural for Orestes to reason thus with himself :—‘ As my sister was sacrificed, so too it is my lot to be sacrificed.’ So, again, in the Tydeus of Theodectes:—‘I came to find my son, and I must perish myself’ So too in the Phineidae: the women, on seeing the place, inferred their fate:—‘ Here we are fated to die, for here we were exposed.’ Again, there is a recognition combined with a 7 false inference on the part of one of the characters, as in the Odysseus Disguised as a Messenger. A man said he would know the bow,—which, however, he had not seen. This remark led Odysseus to imagine that the other would recognise him through the bow, and so suggested a false inference.
But, of all recognitions, the best is that which arises 8 from the incidents themselves, where the startling effect is produced by probable means. Such is that in the Oedipus of Sophocles, and in the Iphigenia; for it was natural that Iphigenia should wish to send a letter by Orestes. These recognitions stand on their own merits, and do not need the aid of tokens invented for the purpose, or necklaces. Next come the recognitions by process of reasoning.
XVII In constructing the plot and working it out with the help of language, the poet should place the scene, as far | as possible, before his eyes. In this way, seeing every- thing with the utmost vividness, as if he were a spectator of the action, he will discover what is in keeping with it, and be most unlikely to overlook inconsistencies.
58 XVII. 1—3. 1455 a 26—1455 b 10
nr , .
[τὸ] τὰ ὑπεναντία. σημεῖον δὲ τούτου ὃ ἐπετιμᾶτο ἹΚαρκίνῳ
nr \ 4: 3 \ ὁ yap ᾿Αμφιάραος ἐξ ἱεροῦ ἀνήει, ὃ μὴ ὁρῶντα [τὸν θεατὴν] ἐλάνθανεν, ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς σκηνῆς ἐξέπεσεν δυσχερα- a “ nr na / νάντων τοῦτο τῶν θεατῶν. ὅσα δὲ δυνατὸν καὶ τοῖς σχή-
Ν fal A
30 μασιν συναπεργαζόμενον. πιθανώτατοι yap ἀπὸ τῆς αὐτῆς 2 val ε / φύσεως οἱ ἐν τοῖς πάθεσίν εἰσιν Kal χειμαίνει ὁ χειμαζόμενος καὶ χαλεπαίνει ὁ ὀργιζόμενος ἀχηθινώτατα. διὸ εὐφυοῦς ἡ 4 3 x a. / \ e \ 5 e δὲ ποιητική ἐστιν ἢ μανικοῦ" τούτων γὰρ οἱ μὲν εὔπλαστοι οἱ δὲ ἐκστατικοί εἰσιν. τούτους τε τοὺς λόγους καὶ τοὺς πεποιημέ- ὃ Cal n / 1455 b vous δεῖ Kal αὐτὸν ποιοῦντα ἐκτίθεσθαι καθόλου, εἶθ᾽ οὕτως ἐπεισοδιοῦν καὶ παρατείνειν. λέγω δὲ οὕτως ἂν θεωρεῖσθαι a / \ τὸ καθόλου, οἷον τῆς ᾿Ιφιγενείας" τυθείσης τινὸς κόρης καὶ ἀφανισθείσης ἀδήλως τοῖς θύσασιν, ἱδρυνθείσης δὲ εἰς ἄλλην , > 2 Ld φ \ / 4 A n Ζ 4
5 χώραν, ἐν 7 νόμος ἣν τοὺς ξένους θύειν TH θεῷ, ταύτην ἔσχε τὴν ἱερωσύνην" χρόνῳ δὲ ὕστερον τῷ ἀδελφῷ συνέβη ἐλθεῖν a e / Ν Ν let 5 a ¢ 6 \ ὃ / > ff ba na τῆς ἱερείας (τὸ δὲ ὅτι ἀνεῖλεν ὁ θεὸς διά τινα αἰτίαν, ἔξω Tod καθόλου [ἐλθεῖν ἐκεῖ], καὶ ἐφ᾽ ὅ τι δέ, ἔξω τοῦ μύθου), ἐλθὼν δὲ καὶ ληφθεὶς θύεσθαι μέλλων ἀνεγνώρισεν, εἴθ᾽ ὡς Kupe-
wf?
/ \ Ν 10 πίδης εἴθ᾽ ὡς ἸΠολύειδος ἐποίησεν, κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς εἰπὼν ὅτι
26. τὸ om. apogr. 27. ἀνήει apogr.: ἂν εἴη A®. ὁρῶντα codd. : ὁρῶντ᾽ ἂν Vahlen. τὸν θεατὴν seclusi: τὸν ποιητὴν Dacier, Susemihl. 80. ἀπ᾽ αὐτῆς τῆς Tyrwhitt: quod si recipimus, legend. of ἐν τοῖς πάθεσίν εἶσιν (v. 31)=of dm’ adr. τῆς φυσ. ἐν τοῖς κ.τ.λ, ᾿ς 84, ἐκστατικοί Vettori: ἐξεταστικοί codd. Huius loci ordo turbatur; et sunt quidem plura huiusmodi in hoe capite. τούτους τε τοὺς vel τούς τε apogr.: τούτους te A® (Vahlen, Christ), sed ne Graece quidem dicitur: τούς τε λόγους καὶ τοὺς παρειλημμένους coni. Vahlen, haud scio an recte, ut sensus sit, ‘even the traditional story, when recast by the poet, should be sketched in its general outline.’ Quod si non receperis, καὶ αὐτὸν ποιοῦντα secludendum esse suspicor tanquam gloss. ad τοὺς πεποιημένους. 1455 b 2. παρατείνειν Vettori: περιτείνειν Α΄, 8. καθόλου] fort. μύθου Vahlen. μύθου] fort. καθόλου Vahlen. Secludendum videtur aut ἐλθεῖν ἐκεῖ (Bekker ed. 8) aut ἔξω rod καθόλου (Diintzer, Susemihl),
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVII. 1—3 59
The need of such a rule is shown by the fault found in Carcinus. Amphiaraus was on his way from the temple. This fact escaped the observation of one who did not see the situation. On the stage, however, the piece failed, the audience being offended at the oversight, Again, the poet should work out his play, to the best of his power, with appropriate gestures; for those who 2 feel emotion are most impressive by force of sympathy. One who is agitated storms, one who is angry rages, with the most lifelike reality. Hence poetry implies either a happy gift of nature or a strain of madness. In the one case a man can take the mould of any character; in the other, he is lifted out of his proper self. The poet, whether he accejts the traditional subjects, or 3 . 1455b invents new ones, should, in shaping them himself, first | sketch the general outline of the play, and then fill in ᾿ the episodes and amplify in detail. The general plan of thedphigenia, for instance, may be thus seen. A young girl is sacrificed; she disappears mysteriously from the eyes of those who sacrificed her; she is transported to another country, where the custom is to offer up all strangers to the goddess. To this ministry she is appointed. Some time later her brother chances to arrive. The fact that the oracle for some reason ordered him to go there, is outside the general plan of the play. The purpose, again, of his coming is outside the action proper. However, he comes, he is seized, and, when on the point of being sacrificed, reveals who he is. The mode of recognition may be either that of Euripides or of Polyeidus, in whose play he exclaims very naturally :—‘So it was not my sister only, but I too,
60 XVIL 3—XVIII. 1. 1455 Ὁ 11—31
‘ \ ” a οὐκ dpa μόνον τὴν ἀδελφὴν ἀλχὰ Kal αὐτὸν ἔδει τυθῆναι, n / \ καὶ ἐντεῦθεν ἡ σωτηρία. μετὰ ταῦτα δὲ ἤδη ὑποθέντα τὰ σ΄ Lal \ ὀνόματα ἐπεισοδιοῦν, ὅπως δὲ ἔσται οἰκεῖα τὰ ἐπεισόδια, 3 / , 9.4 / \ ς οἷον ἐν τῷ ᾿Ορέστῃ ἡ μανία δι᾽ ἧς ἐλήφθη καὶ ἡ σω- n \ 15 τηρία διὰ τῆς καθάρσεως. ἐν μὲν οὖν τοῖς δράμασιν τὰ / / / / a ἐπεισόδια σύντομα, ἡ δ᾽ ἐποποιία τούτοις μηκύνεται. τῆς ἘΣ τὶν ᾿ / yap Ὀδυσσείας μικρὸς ὁ λόγος ἐστίν" ἀποδημοῦντός τινος ἔτη πολλὰ καὶ παραφυλαττομένου ὑπὸ τοῦ Ἰ]οσειδῶνος καὶ LA » » \ a y “ Pes 4 ef \ "4 μόνου ὄντος, ἔτι δὲ τῶν οἴκοι οὕτως ἐχόντων ὥστε τὰ χρή- e \ / > / \ Ν ev > 20 ματα ὑπὸ μνηστήρων ἀναλίσκεσθαι Kal τὸν υἱὸν ἐπιβου- \ ad \ Never Oat, αὐτὸς δὴ ἀφικνεῖται χειμασθεὶς Kal ἀναγνωρίσας \ oN 5 7 53. Ν \ διττὴ \ > 9 \ [τινὰς αὐτὸς] ἐπιθέμενος αὐτὸς μὲν ἐσώθη τοὺς δ᾽ ἐχθροὺς a / διέφθειρε. τὸ μὲν οὖν ἴδιον τοῦτο, τὰ δ᾽ ἄλλα ἐπεισόδια. / \ ; XVIII ἔστι δὲ πάσης τραγῳδίας τὸ μὲν δέσις τὸ δὲ λύσις, 25 τὰ μὲν ἔξωθεν καὶ ἔνια τῶν ἔσωθεν πολλάκις ἡ δέσις, τὸ / δὲ λοιπὸν ἡ λύσις. λέγω δὲ δέσιν μὲν εἶναι τὴν ἀπ᾽ ap- a / 4 fa) / a / > > Φ / χῆς μέχρι τούτου τοῦ μέρους ὃ ἔσχατόν ἐστιν ἐξ οὗ μεταβαί- / / n a a νειν εἰς εὐτυχίαν κ κ, λύσιν δὲ THY ἀπὸ THs ἀρχῆς τῆς μετα- / / , e @& > a a a / βάσεως μέχρι τέλους" ὥσπερ ἐν TH Λυγκεῖ τῷ Θεοδέκτου / a 30 δέσις μὲν τά TE προπεπραγμένα Kal ἡ τοῦ παιδίου λῆψις
καὶ πάλιν ἱ ἡ αὐτῶν δὴ +t «λύσις δ᾽ ἡ-- ἀπὸ τῆς αἰτιάσεως
15. δράμασιν (vel ἄσμασι) apogr.: ἅρμασιν A%, 17. μικρὸς apogr.: μακρὸς A®: ‘sermo non est longus’ Arabs, h., 6. οὐ μακρὸς (Margoliouth). 19. ἔτει apogr.: ἐπεὶ AS, 21. δὴ coni. Vahlen: δὲ codd. 22. τινὰς αὐτὸς seclusi: αὐτὸς seclus. Spengel. 25. πολλάκις post ἔξωθεν collocavit Ueberweg. 28. «ἐκ δυστυχίας συμβαίνει ἢ ἐξ εὐτυχίας εἰς δυστυχίαν :- addenda esse coni. Vahlen. 81. ἡ αὐτῶν δὴ «ἀπαγωγή, λύσις δ᾽ ἡ- coni. Vahlen, δήλωσις pro ἀπαγωγὴ coni. Christ: ‘et raptus infantis, et ea quae patefecit, solutio autem est quod fiebat etc.’ Arabs. De ἡ αὐτῶν δὴ equidem valde dubito,
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVII. 3—XVIII. 1 61
who was doomed to be sacrificed’; and by that remark he is saved.
After this, the names being once assumed, it remains 4 to fill in the episodes. We must see that they are relevant to the action. In the case of Orestes, for example, there is the madness which led to his capture, and his deliverance by means of the purificatory rite. In a drama, the episodes are short, but it is these that 5 give extension to the Epic poem. Thus the story of the Odyssey can be stated briefly. A certain man is absent from home for many years; he is jealously watched by Poseidon, and left desolate. Meanwhile his home is in a wretched plight—suitors are wasting his substance and plotting against his son. At length, tempest-tost, he arrives and reveals who he is; he attacks his enemies, destroys them and is preserved him- self. This is the essence of the plot; the rest is episode.
XVIII kEvery tragedy falls into two parts,—Complication and Unravelling or Dénouwement. Incidents extraneous to the action are frequently combined with a portion of the action proper to form the Complication; the rest is the Unravelling. By the Complication I mean all that comes between the beginning of the action and the part which marks the turning point from bad fortune to good <or good fortune to bad>. The Unravelling is that which comes between the beginning of the change and the end. Thus, in the Lynceus of Theodectes, the Complication consists of the incidents presupposed in the drama, the seizure of the child, and then <the arrest of the parents. The Unravelling> extends from the accusation of murder to the end.
62 XVIII. 2—5. 1455 Ὁ 32—1456 a 17
τοῦ θανάτου μέχρι τοῦ τέλους. τραγῳδίας δὲ εἴδη εἰσὶ τέσ- 2 σαρα, [τοσαῦτα γὰρ καὶ τὰ μέρη ἐλέχθη,] ἡ μὲν πεπλεγ- μένη, ἧς τὸ ὅλον ἐστὶν περιπέτεια καὶ ἀναγνώρισις, <1) δὲ ἁπλῆ,-- ἡ δὲ παθητική, οἷον οἵ τε Αἴαντες καὶ οἱ ᾿Ἰξίονες, 1456 a ἡ δὲ ἠθική, οἷον αἱ Φθιώτιδες καὶ ὁ Πηλεύς. ἱ τὸ δὲ τέταρ- τον onst οἷον ai te Φορκίδες καὶ ἸἹΤρομηθεὺς καὶ ὅσα ἐν ἅδου. μάλιστα μὲν οὖν ἅπαντα δεῖ πειρᾶσθαι ἔχειν, εἰ ὃ δὲ μή, τὰ μέγιστα καὶ πλεῖστα, ἄλλως τε καὶ ὡς νῦν 5 συκοφαντοῦσιν τοὺς ποιητάς" γεγονότων γὰρ καθ᾽ ἕκαστον μέρος ἀγαθῶν ποιητῶν, ἑκάστου τοῦ ἰδίου ἀγαθοῦ ἀξιοῦσι τὸν ἕνα ὑπερβάλλειν. δίκαιον δὲ καὶ τραγῳδίαν ἄλλην καὶ τὴν αὐτὴν λέγειν οὐδεν <i> ἴσως --ὡς-- τῷ μύθῳ" τοῦτο δέ, ὧν ἡ αὐτὴ πλοκὴ καὶ λύσις. πολλοὶ δὲ πλέξαντες εὖ 10 λύουσι κακῶς" δεῖ δὲ ἄμφω ἀεὶ κρατεῖσθαι. χρὴ δὲ ὅπερ 4 εἴρηται πολλάκις μεμνῆσθαι καὶ μὴ ποιεῖν ἐποποιικὸν σύ- στημα τραγῳδίαν. ἐποποιικὸν δὲ λέγω [δὲ] τὸ πολύμυθον, οἷον εἴ τις τὸν τῆς Ιλιάδος ὅλον ποιοῖ μῦθον. ἐκεῖ μὲν γὰρ διὰ τὸ μῆκος λαμβάνει τὰ μέρη τὸ πρέπον μέγεθος, ἐν 15 δὲ τοῖς δράμασι πολὺ παρὰ τὴν ὑπόληψιν ἀποβαίνει. ση- 5 μεῖον δέ, ὅσοι πέρσιν Ἰλίου ὅλην ἐποίησαν καὶ μὴ κατὰ
μέρος ὥσπερ Εὐριπίδης, -«-ἢ-- Νιόβην καὶ μὴ ὥσπερ Αἰ-
88. τοσαῦτα yap... ἐλέχθη seclus. Susemihl ed. 1, τὰ μέρη] τὰ μύθου Sus. ed. 2 sec. Ueberweg. 84. <7 δὲ ἁπλῆ:- cum definitione deesse susp. Vahlen. 1456 8.1. τὸ δὲ τέταρτον éns] τὸ δὲ τερατῶδες Schrader: τὸ δὲ τέταρτον «ἡ ἁπλῆ, οἷον... παρέκβασις δὲ ἣ τερατώ :- δηὴς Ueberweg (οἴ. Susemihl) : τὸ δὲ τέταρτον ὄψις (cf. 1458 a 5) Bywater. Sed τὰ εἴδη in hoc loco eadem utique esse debent quae in xxiv. 1. 4, re apogr. : γε AS. 6. ἑκάστου apogr. : ἕκαστον ΑΞ. 8, οὐδενὶ ἴσως ὡς Bonitz: οὐδὲν ἴσως τῷ codd. τοῦτο] ταὐτὸ Teichmiiller: τούτῳ Bursian. 10. κρατεῖσθαι (cf. Polit. vii. 13. 1331 Ὁ 88) Vahlen, ‘ prensarunt utrumque’ Arabs : κροτεῖσθαι codd. 12, δὲ alterum om, apogr. 17. #add. Vahlen.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVIII. 2—5 63
There are four kinds of Tragedy,—first, the Com- 2 plicated, depending entirely on reversal of fortune and recognition ; next, the Simple; next, the Pathetic (where the motive is passion),—such as the tragedies on Ajax and Ixion; next, the Ethical (where the motives are ethical)—such as the Phthiotides and the Peleus. < We here exclude the supernatural kind >, such as the Phorcides, the Prometheus, and tragedies whose scene is in the lower world. The poet should endeavour, 3 if possible, to combine all poetic merits; or failing that, the greatest number and those the most important; the more so, in face of the cavilling criticism of the day. For whereas there have hitherto been good poets, each in his own branch, the critics now expect one man to surpass all others in their several lines of excellence.
In speaking of a tragedy as the same or different, the best test to take is the plot. Identity exists where the Complication and Unravelling are the same.’ Many poets tie the knot well, but unravel it ill. Both arts, however, should always be mastered.
Again, we should remember what has been often said, 4 and not make a Tragedy into an Epic structure. By an Epic structure I mean oné with a multiplicity of plots: as if, for instance, you were to make a tragedy out of the entire story of the Iliad. In the Epic poem, owing to its length, each part assumes its proper magnitude. In the drama the result is far from the expectation. The proof is that the poets who have dramatised the 5 whole story of the Fall of Troy, instead of selecting portions, like Euripides; or who—unlike Aeschylus—
64 XVIII. 5—XIX. 3. 1456 a 18—1456 Ὁ 3
4 x 39 / x fal > / > \ ΕἿΣ "2 σχύλος, ἢ ἐκπίπτουσιν ἢ κακῶς ἀγωνίζονται, ἐπεὶ καὶ Ayd- ses > , ΕΣ ἐν \ n , \ θων ἐξέπεσεν ἐν τούτῳ μόνῳ ἐν δὲ ταῖς περιπετείαις [Kal 20 ἐν τοῖς ἁπλοῖς πράγμασι] στοχάζεται ὧν βούλονται θαυ- mn 8 \ \ a \ / BA \ μαστῶς" τραγικὸν yap τοῦτο Kal φιλάνθρωπον. ἔστιν δὲ a ef e \ \ \ / rhe nw τοῦτο, ὅταν ὁ σοφὸς μὲν μετὰ πονηρίας δὲ ἐξαπατηθῇ, ὥσπερ ε al an Σίσυφος, καὶ ὁ ἀνδρεῖος μὲν ἄδικος δὲ ἡττηθῇ. ἔστιν δὲ fal r Jee’ “ 3 / 7 8. ἂν \ / τοῦτο εἰκὸς ὥσπερ ᾿Αγάθων λέγει, εἰκὸς yap γίνεσθαι 25 πολλὰ καὶ παρὰ τὸ εἰκός. καὶ τὸν χορὸν δὲ ἕνα δεῖ ὑπολαβεῖν τῶν ὑποκριτῶν καὶ μόριον εἶναι τοῦ ὅλου καὶ συναγωνίζεσθαι μὴ ὥσπερ Ἐὐριπίδῃ ἀλλ᾽ ὥσπερ Σοφοκλεῖ. τοῖς δὲ λοιποῖς τὰ ἀδόμενα <ovdSev> μᾶλλον τοῦ μύθου ἢ / ἄλλης Tpaywdias éotiv’ διὸ ἐμβόλιμα ἄδουσιν πρώτου 30 ἄρξαντος ᾿Αγάθωνος τοῦ τοιούτου. καίτοι τί διαφέρει ἢ / fl ἐμβόλιμα ddew ἢ εἰ ῥῆσιν ἐξ ἄλλου εἰς ἄλλο ἁρμόττοι ἢ ἐπεισόδιον ὅλον; XIX περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν ἄλλων ἤδη εἴρηται, λοιπὸν δὲ περὶ λέξεως καὶ διανοίας εἰπεῖν. τὼ μὲν οὖν περὶ τὴν διάνοιαν ἐν -“ ς n / nr \ ΕΣ a > / 35 τοῖς περὶ ῥητορικῆς κείσθω, τοῦτο γὰρ ἴδιον μᾶλλον ἐκείνης an 068 4 δὲ \ \ ὃ 7 “ “ ς \ τῆς μεθόδου. ἔστι δὲ κατὰ τὴν. διάνοιαν ταῦτα, ὅσα ὑπὸ n / tal a / \ 4 / > τοῦ λόγου δεῖ παρασκευασθῆναι. μέρη δὲ τούτων TO TE ἀπο- δεικνύναι καὶ τὸ λύειν καὶ τὸ πάθη παρασκευάζειν, οἷον / rn 1456 b ἔλεον ἢ φόβον ἢ ὀργὴν καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα, καὶ ere μέγεθος \ / δῆ ἈΝ \ PJ lal 4 > \ καὶ μικρότητας. δῆλον δὲ ὅτι καὶ [ἐν] τοῖς πράγμασιν ἀπὸ
τῶν αὐτῶν ἰδεῶν δεῖ χρῆσθαι, ὅταν ἢ ἐλεεινὰ ἢ δεινὰ ἢ
19. καὶ ἐν... πράγμασι seclus, Susemihl. 20. στοχάζεται Heinsius : στοχάζονται codd. 22. δὲ add. apogr. 24. εἰκὸς} καὶ εἰκὸς Susemihl, qui τραγικὸν. .. φιλάνθρωπον post ἡττηθῇ collocat. 27.
ὥσπερ... . ὥσπερ] ὥσπερ Tap’... ὥσπερ παρὰ Ald., Bekker. 28. ἀδόμενα Maggi, ‘quae canuntur’ Arabs: διδόμενα AS. οὐδὲν add. Vahlen, ‘ nihil .. . aliud amplius’ Arabs: οὐ add. Maggi. 88. ἤδη apogr.: ἠδ᾽ AS. 84. καὶ Hermann: ἢ codd. 1456 Ὁ 2 μικρότητας A®: σμικρότητα apogr. ἐν seclus. Ueberweg (cf. Spengel). ἜὁῥβΧι ἰδεῶν apogr. : εἰδεῶν AS.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVIII. 5—XIX. 3 65
have taken the whole tale of Niobe, either fail utterly or figure badly on the stage. Even Agathon has been known to fail from this one defect. In his reversals of fortune, however, he shows a marvellous skill in the effort to hit the popular taste—to produce a tragic effect that satisfies the moral sense. This effect is 6 produced when the clever rogue, like Sisyphus, is cheated, or the brave villain defeated. Such an event is probable in Agathon’s sense of the word: ‘it is probable, he says, ‘that many things should happen contrary to probability.’
The Chorus too should be regarded as one of the7 actors; it should be an integral part of the whole, and share in the action, in the manner not of Euripides but of Sophocles. As for the later poets, their choral songs pertain as little to the subject of the piece as to that of any other tragedy. They are, therefore, sung as mere interludes,—a practice first begun by Agathon. Yet what difference is there between introducing such choral interludes, and transferring a speech, or even a whole act, from one play to another ?
XIX It remains to speak of the Diction and the Thought, the other parts of Tragedy having been already discussed. Concerning the Thought, we may assume what is said in the Rhetoric; to which inquiry the subject more strictly belongs. Under Thought is included every effect which has to be produced by speech; in particular— 2 proof and refutation; the excitation of the feelings, such © as pity, fear, anger, and the like; the heightening or extenuating of facts. Further, it is evident that the 3 dramatic incidents must be treated from the same points
F
66 XIX. 3—XX. 2. 1456 b 4—28
μεγάλα ἢ εἰκότα δέῃ παρασκευάζειν" πλὴν τοσοῦτον δια- 5 φέρει, ὅτι τὰ μὲν δεῖ φαίνεσθαι ἄνευ διδασκαλίας, τὰ δὲ ἐν τῷ λόγῳ ὑπὸ τοῦ λέγοντος παρασκευάζεσθαι καὶ παρὰ Ν / / / \ x Μ rn / » > τὸν λόγον γίγνεσθαι. τί yap ἂν εἴη TOD λέγοντος ἔργον, εἰ φαίνοιτο ἤδη ἃ δεῖ καὶ μὴ διὰ τὸν λόγον ; τῶν δὲ περὶ τὴν 4 λέξιν ev μέν ἐστιν εἶδος θεωρίας τὰ σχήματα τῆς λέξεως, το ἅ ἐστιν εἰδέναι τῆς ὑποκριτικῆς καὶ τοῦ τὴν τοιαύτην ἔχον- > 4 Δ. \ \ 7 oA / Tos ἀρχιτεκτονικήν, οἷον τί ἐντολὴ Kal τί εὐχὴ Kal διή- 7. ΕΝ \ Εις ye “ἐν γησις καὶ ἀπειλὴ καὶ ἐρώτησις καὶ ἀπόκρισις καὶ εἴ τι Μ' n \ \ \ , a rA >O\ ἄλλο τοιοῦτον. παρὰ γὰρ τὴν τούτων γνῶσιν ἢ ἄγνοιαν οὐδὲν 5 > \ Ἁ > / ,ὔ Ὁ ΔΨ εἰς τὴν ποιητικὴν ἐπιτίμημα φέρεται ὅ τι καὶ ἄξιον σπου- 15 δῆς. τί γὰρ ἄν τις ὑπολάβοι ἡμαρτῆσθαι ἃ ἹΤρωταγόρας > no ” »} > 7 9 lee awe " ἐπιτιμᾷ, ὅτι εὔχεσθαι οἰόμενος ἐπιτάττει εἰπὼν “μῆνιν ἄει- δὲ Ged,” τὸ γὰρ κελεῦσαι φησὶν ποιεῖν τι ἢ μὴ ἐπίταξίς ἐστιν. διὸ παρείσθω ὡς ἄλλης καὶ οὐ τῆς ποιητικῆς ὃν θεώρημα. xx [τῆς δὲ λέξεως ἁπάσης τάδ᾽ ἐστὶ τὰ μέρη, στοιχεῖον συλλαβὴ σύνδεσμος ὄνομα ῥῆμα [ἄρθρον] πτῶσις λόγος. an Ν iD > \ 5» ’ὔ » -“ ἣν στουχεῖον μὲν οὖν ἐστιν φωνὴ ἀδιαίρετος, οὐ πᾶσα δὲ 2 ἀλλ᾽ ἐξ ἧς πέφυκε συνετὴ γίγνεσθαι φωνή" καὶ γὰρ τῶν θηρίων εἰσὶν ἀδιαίρετοι φωναὶ ὧν οὐδεμίαν λέγω στοι- a 4 \ / / a \ ἍΝ \ 25 xelov. ταύτης δὲ μέρη τό Te φωνῆεν καὶ τὸ ἡμίφωνον καὶ 3 ἄφωνον. ἔστιν δὲ φωνῆεν μὲν «τὸ-- ἄνευ προσβολῆς ἔχον \ > / δεν \ \ oN a Ν φωνὴν ἀκουστήν, ἡμίφωνον δὲ τὸ μετὰ προσβολῆς ἔχον φωνὴν ἀκουστήν, οἷον τὸ Σ καὶ τὸ Ῥ, ἄφωνον δὲ τὸ μετὰ 8. φαίνοιτο scripsi: φανοῖτο codd. ἤδη ἃ δεῖ Tyrwhitt: ἤδη Castelvetro : ἤδη δι᾽ αὑτὰ Susemihl: ἡδέα codd. Vahlen ed. 3: ἣ δέοι Vahlen ed. 2. 21. ἄρθρον seclus. Hartung (cf. Susemihl): ante ὄνομα posuit Spengel
(quod confirm. Arabs): σύνδεσμος <> ἄρθρον ὄνομα ῥῆμα Steinthal. 23. συνθετὴ apogr., Arabs ‘ compositae voci.’
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIX. 3—XX. 3 67
of view as the dramatic speeches, when the object is to
1456» evoke the sense of pity, fear, grandeur, or probability.
XxX
The only difference is, that the incidents should speak for themselves without verbal exposition; while the effects aimed at in a speech should be produced by the speaker, and as a result of the speech. For what were the need of a speaker, if the proper impression were at once conveyed, quite apart from what he says ?
Next, as regards Diction. One branch of the4 inquiry treats of the Figures of Speech. But this province of knowledge belongs to the art of Declamation, and to the masters of that science. It includes, for instance,—what is a command, a prayer, a narrative, a threat, a question, an answer; and so forth. To know or 5 not to know these things involves no serious censure upon the poet’s art. For who can admit the fault imputed to Homer by Protagoras,—that in the words, ‘Sing, goddess, of the wrath, he gives a command under the idea that he utters a prayer? For to call on some one to do or not to do is, he says, a command. We may, therefore, pass this over as an inquiry that belongs to another art, not.to poetry.
[Language in general includes the following parts :— the Letter, the Syllable, the Connecting words, the Noun, the Verb, the Inflexion, the Sentence or Phrase.
A Letter is an indivisible sound, yet not every such 2 sound, but only one from which an intelligible sound can be formed. For even brutes utter indivisible sounds, none of which I call a letter. Letters are of three 3 kinds,—-vowels, semi-vowels, and mutes. A vowel is that which without contact of tongue or lip has an
68 XX. 3—8. 1456 Ὁ 29—1457 a το
προσβολῆς καθ᾽ αὑτὸ μὲν οὐδεμίαν ἔχον φωνήν, μετὰ δὲ lol / \ 30 τῶν ἐχόντων τινὰ φωνὴν γινόμενον ἀκουστόν, οἷον τὸ Τ' καὶ fel nr / τὸ A. ταῦτα δὲ διαφέρει σχήμασίν τε τοῦ στόματος Kal 4 τόποις καὶ δασύτητι καὶ ψιλότητι καὶ μήκει καὶ βραχύ-
" \ 2e7 \ ,ὕ eee, ἐν ᾿ \ 4 τητι, ἔτι δὲ ὀξύτητι καὶ βαρύτητι καὶ τῷ μέσῳ" περὶ ὧν καθ᾽ ἕκαστον ἐν τοῖς μετρικοῖς προσήκει θεωρεῖν. συλλαβὴ ὕ
35 δέ ἐστιν φωνὴ ἄσημος συνθετὴ ἐξ ἀφώνου * * καὶ φωνὴν ἔχοντος. καὶ γὰρ τὸ ΤᾺ ἄνευ τοῦ Ῥ συλλαβὴ καὶ μετὰ τοῦ Ῥ, οἷον τὸ TPA. ἀλλὰ καὶ τούτων θεωρῆσαι τὰς δια-
\ a a > / 43 Ἂν ΡΝ φορὰς τῆς μετρικῆς ἐστιν. σύνδεσμος δέ ἐστιν φωνὴ ἄσημος 6 A BA 4 + al \ / \ > / 1461 1) οὔτε κωλύει οὔτε ποιεῖ φωνὴν μίαν σημαντικὴν ἐκ πλειό- νων φωνῶν, πεφυκυῖα [συν]τίθεσθαι καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου" ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος ἣ ἐκ πλειόνων μὲν φω-
- a n - / \ νῶν μιᾶς, σημαντικῶν δέ, ποιεῖν πέφυκεν μίαν σημαντικὴν
un
φωνήν, οἷον τὸ ἀμφί καὶ τὸ περί Kal τὰ ἄλλα" --ἢ-- φωνὴ 7 ἄσημος ἣ λόγου ἀρχὴν ἢ τέλος ἢ διορισμὸν δηλοῖ, ἣν μὴ
ς / > > n / / > ες / » ἁρμόττει ἐν ἀρχῇ λόγου τιθέναι καθ᾽ αὑτήν, οἷον μέν, ἤτοι, δέ. [ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος ἣ οὔτε κωλύει οὔτε ποιεῖ φωνὴν μίαν σημαντικὴν ἐκ πλειόνων φωνῶν πεφυκυῖα τίθεσθαι καὶ
n \ al , 10 ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου.) ὄνομα δέ ἐστι φωνὴ 8
35. Post ἀφώνου intercidisse videtur -- ἢ ἐξ ἀφώνου καὶ ἡμιφώνου:-. Post φωνὴν ἔχοντος coni. Christ <# πλειόνων ἀφώνων καὶ φωνὴν exovros>. 86. καὶ γυρτὸ ΓΑ... τοῦ P] Tyrwhitt: καὶ γὰρ τὸ ΤΡ ἄνευ τοῦ A... μετὰ τοῦ AAS: καὶ γὰρ τὸ ἄνευ τοῦ TP... μετὰ τοῦ ΤῸ M. Schmidt: καὶ γὰρ τὸ TP οὐκ ἔστι συλλαβή, ἀλλὰ μετὰ τοῦ A Margoliouth, collato Arabe, ‘nam Τ' et P sine A non faciunt syllabam, quoniam tantum fiunt syllaba cum A.’ 1457 a 2. πεφυκυῖα τίθεσθαι Winstanley: πεφυκυῖαν συντίθεσθαι codd. 2-8. locus valde perturbatus. In restituendo secutus sum Susemihl (praeeunte Hartung). Ita vulgo legitur: καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου, ἣν μὴ ἁρμόττει (ἣν μὴ ἁρμόττῃ apogr., Bekker) ἐν ἀρχῇ τιθέναι καθ᾽ αὐτόν (αὑτήν Tyrwhitt), οἷον μέν, ἤτοι, δέ (vel δή). ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος ἣ ἐκ πλειόνων μὲν φωνῶν μιᾶς σημαντικῶν (σημαντικὸν Α9) δὲ ποιεῖν πέφυκεν μίαν σημαντικὴν φωνήν. ἄρθρον δ᾽ ἐστὶ φωνὴ ἄσημος, ἣ λόγου ἀρχὴν ἢ τέλος ἢ διορισμὸν δηλοῖ, οἷον τὸ ἀμφί (φ. Κ. τ. AC: φημί Ald., Bekker) καὶ τὸ περί καὶ τὰ ἄλλα. 8-10. ἢ. .. μέσου seclus. Reiz, Hermann.
14572 ©
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XX. 3—8 69
audible sound. A semi-vowel, that which with such contact has an audible sound, as S and R. A mute, that which with such contact has by itself no sound, but joined to a vowel sound becomes audible, as G and D. These are distinguished according to the form 4 assumed by the mouth, and the place where they are produced; according as they are aspirated or smooth, long or short; as they are acute, grave, or of an inter- mediate tone; which inquiry belongs in detail to the metrical treatises.
A Syllable is a non-significant sound, composed of a5 mute and a vowel <or of a mute, a semi-vowel> and a vowel: for GA without R is a syllable, as it also is with R—GRA. But the’ investigation of these differ- ences belongs also to metrical science.
A Connecting word is a non-significant sound, which 6 neither causes nor hinders the union of many sounds into one significant sound; it may be placed at either end or in the middle of a sentence. Or, a non-significant sound, which out of several sounds, each of them signi- ficant, is capable of forming one significant sound—as ἀμφί, περί, and the like. Or, a non-significant sound, 7 which marks the beginning, end, or division of a sentence ; such, however, that it cannot correctly stand by itself at the beginning of a sentence,—as μέν, ἤτοι, δέ.
A Noun is a composite significant sound, not marking 8 time, of which no part is in itself significant; for in double or compound words we do not employ the separate parts as if each were in itself significant. Thus in Theodorus, ‘ god-given, the δῶρον or ‘ gift’ isnot in itself significant.
15
20
25
70 XX. 8—XXI. τ. 1457 ἃ 11—34
, 7 507 > > συνθετὴ σημαντικὴ ἄνευ χρόνου ἧς μέρος οὐδέν ἐστι καθ Lal > ΓΑ ς \ αὑτὸ σημαντικόν" ἐν yap τοῖς διπλοῖς οὐ χρώμεθα ὡς Kat a Lal , \ la) αὐτὸ καθ᾽ αὑτὸ σημαῖνον, οἷον ἐν τῷ Θεοδώρῳ τὸ δῶρον a \ \ \ \ / ov σημαίνει. ῥῆμα δὲ φωνὴ συνθετὴ σημαντικὴ μετὰ χρὸ- , CA Δι F< vou ἧς οὐδὲν μέρος σημαίνει καθ᾽ avo, ὥσπερ Kal ἐπὶ τῶν \ Xx / > / \ ὀνομάτων" τὸ μὲν yap ἄνθρωπος ἢ λευκόν οὐ σημαίνει TO / \ \ \ πότε, TO δὲ βαδίζει ἢ βεβάδικεν προσσημαίνει TO μὲν τὸν / n 3 \ παρόντα χρόνον τὸ δὲ Tov παρεληλυθότα. πτῶσις δ᾽ ἐστὶν eS ὁ vA ec / e \ \ \ \ 4 x / ὀνόματος ἢ ῥήματος ἡ μὲν TO KATA TO τούτου ἢ τούτῳ ση- - a \ \ Xx -“ μαῖνον καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα, ἡ δὲ κατὰ τὸ ἑνὶ ἢ πολλοῖς, οἷον \ / ? ἄνθρωποι ἢ ἄνθρωπος, ἡ δὲ κατὰ Te ὑποκριτικά, οἷον κατ \ > a ἐρώτησιν ἐπίταξιν" τὸ yap <ap > ἐβάδισεν ἢ βάδιζε πτῶσις \ a \ / f \ \ \ ῥήματος κατὲ ταῦτα τὰ εἴδη ἐστίν. λόγος δὲ φωνὴ συνθετὴ Aish lop ͵ 4... eb iy , J eer ΩΝ σημαντικὴ ἧς ἔνια μέρη καθ᾽ αὑτὰ σημαίνει τι᾿ οὐ yap Ὁ / > ε / x > ͵ὔ / e ἅπας λόγος ἐκ ῥημάτων καὶ ὀνομάτων σύγκειται, οἷον ὁ ἄν 3 4 ¢ / > ee / ΕΝ ς 7 3 τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ὁρισμός, ἀλλ᾽ ἐνδέχεται ἄνευ ῥημάτων εἶναι / 7 4 / cal λόγον, μέρος μέντοι ἀεί TL σημαῖνον ἕξει, οἷον ἐν τῴ βαδί- \ / fal ΔΎΣ ζει Κλέων τὸ Κλέων. εἷς δέ ἐστι λόγος δυχῶς, ἢ γὰρ "ὁ ἕν
/ Xx oy τὰ / 7 ς» \ \ σημαίνων, ἢ ὁ ἐκ πλειόνων συνδέσμῳ, οἷον ἡ ᾿Ιλιὰς μὲν
/ ¢ \ a n 30 συνδέσμῳ εἷς, ὁ δὲ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου τῷ Ev σημαίνειν.
XXI
/ \ a a ὀνόματος δὲ εἴδη τὸ μὲν ἁπλοῦν, ἁπλοῦν δὲ λέγω ὃ μὴ ἐκ j tov γῆ, τὸ δὲ διπλοῦν" τού ἐκ 'σημαινόντων σύγκειται, οἷον γῆ, τὸ δὲ διπλοῦν" τούτου δὲ \ \ > 7 \ 2 / \ > 5» fal é τὸ μὲν ἐκ σημαίνοντος καὶ ἀσήμου (πλὴν οὐκ ἐν τῷ
/ / ὀνόματι σημαίνοντος καὶ ἀσήμου), TO δὲ ἐκ σημαινόντων
17. ποτὲ Spengel. βαδίζει apogr.: βαδίζειν ΑΘ, 19. τὸ add. apogr. 22. Gp’ add. Vahlen. βάδιζε apogr.: ἐβάδιζεν Ac. 27. βαδίζει apogr.: βαδίζειν A®: ““ἐν τῷ βαδίζειν, Κλέων ὁ Κλέωνος Susemihl (praeeunte M. Schmidt). 28. τὸ Κλέων Bigg: ὁ Κλέων codd. 29. συνδέσμῳ apogr.: συνδέσμων AS. 80. τῷ apogr.: τὸ Α9, 33. καὶ ἀσήμου seclus. Ussing, commate posito post σημαίνοντος v. 34, (cf. Arabs ‘non tamen indicans in nomine’) ; fort. recte.
12
XXI
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XX. 9—XXI. 1 71
A Verb is a composite significant sound, marking 9 time, in which, as in the noun, no part is in itself signi- ficant. For ‘man, or ‘white’ does not express the idea of ‘when’; but ‘he walks, or ‘he has walked’ does connote time, present or past.
Inflexion belongs both to the noun and verb, and 10 expresses either the relation ‘of, ‘to, or the like; or that of number, whether one or many, as ‘man’ or ‘men’; or the mode of address—a question, it may be, or a command. ‘Did he go?’ and ‘go’ are verbal inflexions of this kind.
A Sentence or Phrase is a composite sound, some of 11 whose parts are in themselves significant; for every such combination of words is not composed of verbs and nouns —the definition of man, for example—but it may dis- pense with the verb. Still it will always have some significant part, as the word ‘Cleon’ in ‘Cleon walks.’ A sentence or phrase may form a unity in two ways,— 12 either as signifying one thing, or as consisting of several parts linked together. Thus the Iliad is one by the linking together of parts, the definition of man by the unity of the thing signified.]
Words are of two kinds, simple and double. By simple I mean those composed of non-significant elements, such as γῆ. By double or compound, those composed either of a significant and non-significant element (though within the whole word this distinction dis- appears), or of elements that are both significant. A word may likewise be triple, quadruple, or multiple in . form, as are most magniloquent compounds, such as Hermo-caico-xanthus.
72 XXI. 1—6. 1457 a 35—1457 Ὁ 22
a cal \ 35 σύγκειται. εἴη δ᾽ ἂν καὶ τριπλοῦν καὶ τετραπλοῦν ὄνομα καὶ an an ¢ oo πολλαπλοῦν, οἷον τὰ πολλὰ τῶν μεγαλείων, οἷον “Eppoxai- a Ἃ 1457p κόξανθος. ἅπαν δὲ ὄνομά ἐστιν ἢ κύριον ἢ γλῶττα ἢ μετα- 2 \ Xx / Xx / x 3 / ; pe 3 φορὰ ἢ κόσμος ἢ πεποιημένον ἢ ἐπεκτεταμένον ἢ ὑφῃρη- μένον ἢ ἐξηλλαγμένον. λέγω δὲ κύριον μὲν ᾧ χρῶνται 8 - Ν “ ἕκαστοι, γλῶτταν δὲ ᾧ ἕτεροι, ὥστε φανερὸν ὅτι καὶ γχῶτ-
Ν 7 9 \ \ > AOR \ a > a "k ταν Kab KupLov elvat δυνατὸν TO AUTO, μὴ τοις AUTOLS δέ
ut
/ an fal TO yap σίγυνον Κυπρίοις μὲν κύριον, ἡμῖν δὲ γλῶττα. με- 4 4 / \ xX \ nr ταφορὰ δέ ἐστιν ὀνόματος ἀλλοτρίου ἐπιφορὰ ἢ ἀπὸ TOD / > _® 3 x 3 \ an by, > eS ἈΝ / Δ» Ν lol ΕΣ γένους ἐπὶ εἶδος ἢ ἀπὸ τοῦ εἴδους ἐπὶ τὸ γένος ἢ ἀπὸ TOD εἴ- Ν Sous ἐπὶ εἶδος ἢ κατὰ τὸ ἀνάλογον. λέγω δὲ ἀπὸ γένους μὲν 5 ΦΌΌΥΑΙ 75 e ς rn δέ [2 δ᾽ [τ .?? \ \ e -“ > 10 ἐπὶ εἶδος, οἷον “νηῦς δέ μοι ἥδ᾽ ἕστηκεν" τὸ γὰρ ὁρμεῖν ἐστιν 75» ἑστάναι τι. ἀπ᾽ εἴδους δὲ ἐπὶ γένος, ““ἦ δὴ μυρί᾽ ᾿Οδυσσεὺς Ν / rn ἐσθλὰ ἔοργεν"" τὸ yap μυρίον πολύ <Ti> ἐστιν, ᾧ νῦν ἀντὶ τοῦ πολλοῦ κέχρηται. ἀπ᾽ εἴδους δὲ ἐπὶ εἶδος οἷον “χαλκῷ » \ \ > 4 » \ ce \ > / an > rn ἀπὸ ψυχὴν aptcas καὶ “ ταμὼν ἀτειρέι χαλκῷ. ἐνταῦθα \ / nr Ν \ a / 15 γὰρ TO μὲν ἀρύσαι ταμεῖν, TO δὲ ταμεῖν ἀρύσαι εἴρηκεν" Ν a , Ν ἄμφω γὰρ ἀφελεῖν τί ἐστιν. τὸ δὲ ἀνάλογον λέγω, ὅταν 6 ς , \ rn Ν ὁμοίως ἔχῃ τὸ δεύτερον πρὸς τὸ πρῶτον καὶ τὸ τέταρτον Ν Ν / ὃ 5 ΠῚ \ > \ nr ὃ , Ν / x πρὸς τὸ τρίτον" ἐρεῖ yap ἀντὶ τοῦ δευτέρου τὸ τέταρτον ἢ > \ fa! 7 Ν 7 | a a / > > ἀντὶ τοῦ τετάρτου τὸ δεύτερον, καὶ ἐνίοτε προστιθέασιν ἀνθ᾽ / \ [2 ε 20 οὗ λέγει πρὸς ὅ ἐστι. λέγω δὲ οἷον ὁμοίως ἔχει φιάλη πρὸς / \ a Διόνυσον καὶ ἀσπὶς πρὸς " Apn’ ἐρεῖ τοίνυν τὴν φιάλην ἀσπίδα
Διονύσου καὶ τὴν ἀσπίδα φιάλην "Άρεως. ἢ ὃ γῆρας πρὸς
ι
36. μεγαλείων ὡς Winstanley: μεγαλείων οἷον Bekker ed. 3: μεγαλείων ὧν © Vahlen: μεγαλιωτῶν codd. 1457 Ὁ 2. ἀφῃρημένον Spengel (cf. 1458 8 1). 8. 7d om. apogr. 12. τί add. Twining.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXI. 2—6 73
1457p Every word is common or proper, strange, meta- 2 phorical, ornamental, newly-coined, extended, contracted, or altered.
By a common or proper word I mean one which is 3 in general use among a people; by a strange word, one which is in use in another country. Plainly, therefore, the same word may be at once strange and common, but not in relation to the same people. The word ciyuvor, ‘lance, is to the Cyprians a common word but to us a strange one.
Metaphor is the application of an alien name by 4 transference either from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or by analogy, that is, proportion. Thus from genus to species, as: ‘There 5 stands my ship’; for to be at anchor is a species of standing. From species to genus, as: ‘Verily ten thousand noble deeds hath Odysseus wrought’; for ten thousand is a species of large number, and is here used for a large number generally. From species to species, as: ‘Drew away the life with the blade of bronze, and ‘Cleft the water with the vessel of unyielding bronze.’ Here ἀρύσαι, ‘to draw away, is used for ταμεῖν, ‘to cleave, and rapety again for dptcar,—each being a species of taking away. Analogy or proportion is when the 6 second term is to the first as the fourth to the third. We may then use the fourth for the second, or the second for the fourth. Sometimes too we qualify the metaphor by adding the term to which the proper word is relative. Thus the cup is to Dionysus as the shield to Ares. The cup may, therefore, be called ‘the shield of Dionysus, and the shield ‘the cup of Ares.’ Or, again,
74 XXI. 6—12. 1457 Ὁ 23—1458 a τὸ
A tal ΄ a βίον, καὶ ἑσπέρα πρὸς ἡμέραν᾽ ἐρεῖ τοίνυν τὴν ἑσπέραν γῆ-
pas ἡμέρας καὶ τὸ γῆρας ἑσπέραν βίου ἤ, ὥσπερ Ἐ)μμπεδοκλῆς,
,ὔ n > / 25 δυσμὰς βίου. ἐνίοις δ᾽ οὐκ ἔστιν ὄνομα κείμενον τῶν ἀνά- 7
35 1458 a
10
> \ ἈΝ λογον, ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲν ἧττον ὁμοίως λεχθήσεται" οἷον τὸ τὸν , n καρπὸν μὲν ἀφιέναι σπείρειν, TO δὲ τὴν φλόγα ἀπὸ τοῦ ἔχ 7 eae A os > ε / 4 n \ \ 4 \ ἡλίου ἀνώνυμον" GAN ὁμοίως ἔχει τοῦτο πρὸς TOV ἥλιον καὶ Ν / Ν \ / \ ; “cc 7 / τὸσπείρειν πρὸς TOV καρπόν, διὸ εἴρηται “σπείρων θεοκτίσταν / nr nm cal Lol φλόγα." ἔστι δὲ τῷ τρόπῳ τούτῳ τῆς μεταφορᾶς χρῆσθαι / a a καὶ ἄλλως, προσαγορεύσαντα TO ἀλλότριον ἀποφῆσαι TOV οἰκείων τι, οἷον εἰ τὴν ἀσπίδα εἴποι φιάλην μὴ "Ἄρεως ἀλλ᾽ ἄοινον. πεποιημένον δ᾽ ἐστὶν ὃ ὅλως μὴ καλούμενον ὑπὸ τινῶν te ’ὔ ε / a \ 54 39 n αὐτὸς τίθεται ὁ ποιητής, δοκεῖ yap ἔνια εἶναι τοιαῦτα, οἷον τὰ κέρατα ἐρνύγας καὶ τὸν ἱερέα ἀρητῆρα. ἐπεκτεταμένον ΡΝ ~ 32 / Ν \ 2\ / / δέ ἐστιν ἢ ἀφῃρημένον τὸ μὲν ἐὰν φωνήεντι μακροτέρῳ κε- χρημένον ἢ τοῦ οἰκείου ἢ συλλαβῇ ἐμβεβλημένῃ, τὸ δὲ ἂν » / > > n > / \ Ν , ἀφηρημένον τι ἢ αὐτοῦ, ἐπεκτεταμένον μὲν οἷον τὸ πόλεως πόληος καὶ τὸ Πηλέος -Πηλῆος καὶ τὸ Πηλείδου-:- IIn- ληιάδεω, ἀφῃρημένον δὲ οἷον τὸ κρῖ καὶ τὸ δῶ καὶ “ pia 37) γίνεται ἀμφοτέρων oy. ἐξηλλαγμένον δ᾽ ἐστὶν ὅταν n>? 7 Ν \ / \ \ “Ὁ Ν τοῦ ὀνομαζομένου τὸ μὲν καταλείπῃ τὸ δὲ ποιῇ, οἷον τὸ ” rn / “ δεξιτερὸν κατὰ μαζόν ᾿ ἀντὶ τοῦ δεξιόν. » A \ a > /, \ Ἀ »” . Ἂν \ / \ [αὐτῶν δὲ τῶν ὀνομάτων τὰ μὲν ἄρρενα Ta δὲ θήλεα τὰ
\ ΕΟ ς Ν Ὁ A > \ Ἀ \ δὲ μεταξύ, ἄρρενα μὲν ὅσα τελευτᾷ εἰς τὸ Ν καὶ P καὶ > καὶ
24, ἡμέρας... . δυσμὰς} apogr.: ἡμέρας } ὥσπερ Ἐμπεδοκλῆς καὶ τὸ γῆρας ἑσπέραν βίου ἢ δυσμὰς βίου AS Vahlen. 25. τῶν A°: τὸ apogr., Bekker. 29.
-“«-τὸν agiévra> τὸν κάρπον Castelvetro. 82. ἀλλ᾽ ἄοινον Vettori: ἄλλα οἴνου codd. 1458 ἃ 1. κεχρημένος Hermann. 4, ἸΠηλῆος καὶ τὸ Πηλείδου add. M. Schmidt. 6. ὄψ Vettori: ὀης ΑΘ (ἢ. 6. ὀπς vel
ὀΨ1:). 10. καὶ = apogr., Maggi: om. A°.
8
9
10
12
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXI. 6—12 75
as old age is to life, so is evening today. Evening may therefore be called ‘the old age of the day,’ and old age, ‘the evening of life’ or, in the phrase of Empedocles, ‘life’s setting sun.’ In some cases one of the terms of 7 the proportion has no specific name; still, the metaphor may be used. For instance, to scatter seed is called sowing: but the action of the sun in scattering his rays is nameless. Still this action bears to the sun the same relation that sowing does to him who scatters the grain. Hence the expression of the poet, ‘sowing the god- created light.’ There is another way in which this kind 8 of metaphor may be employed. We may apply an alien term, and then deny οἵ that term one of its proper attributes ; as if we were to call the shield, not ‘the cup of Ares, but ‘the wineless cup.’
A newly-coined word is one which has never yet 9 been in use, but is invented by the poet himself. Some such words there appear to be: as ἐρνύγες, ‘sprouters, for κέρατα, ‘horns, and ἀρητήρ, ‘supplicator, for ἱερεύς,
‘ priest.’
1458a A word is extended when its own vowel is exchanged 10 for a longer one, or when a syllable is inserted. <A word is contracted when some part of it is removed. Instances of extension 818,---πόληος for πόλεως, Πηλῆος for Πηλέος, and Πηληιάδεω for ΠΠηλείδου : of contrac- tion,—x«pi, δῶ, and dy, as in pia γίνεται ἀμφοτέρων dy.
An altered word is one in which part of the ordinary 11 form is left unchanged, and part is re-cast; as in de&-. Tepov κατὰ μαζόν, δεξιτερόν is for δεξιόν.
[Nouns in themselves are either masculine, feminine, 12 or neuter. Masculine are such as end in ν, p, s, or in
76 ΧΧΙ. 12—XXII. 3. 1458 a 11—33
» / \ f ὅσα ἐκ τούτου σύγκειται, ταῦτα δ᾽ ἐστὶν δύο, Ψ καὶ ἘΞ, θήλεα an > δὲ ὅσα ἐκ τῶν φωνηέντων εἴς τε TA ἀεὶ μακρά, οἷον εἰς H a / καὶ Q, καὶ τῶν ἐπεκτεινομένων eis A* ὥστε ἴσα συμβαίνει Ν Ν πλήθει εἰς ὅσα τὰ ἄρρενα καὶ τὰ θήλεα. τὸ γὰρ Ψ καὶ τὸ Ξ fol A > 15 ταὐτά ἐστιν. εἰς δὲ ἄφωνον οὐδὲν ὄνομα τελευτᾷ, οὐδὲ εἰς - / UA φωνῆεν βραχύ. εἰς δὲ τὸ 1 τρία μόνον, μέλι κόμμι πέπερι. \ a eis δὲ τὸ T πέντε. τὰ δὲ μεταξὺ eis ταῦτα καὶ N καὶ >.] \ a XXIT λέξεως δὲ ἀρετὴ σαφῆ καὶ μὴ ταπεινὴν εἶναι. σα- : ΄ \ 5 3 Ἐς n 7 > ΄ 2 \ φεστάτη μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ἡ EK τῶν κυρίων ὀνομάτων, ἀλλὰ ee aD / rn 20 ταπεινή. παράδειγμα δὲ ἡ Κλεοφῶντος ποίησις καὶ ἡ Σθενέλου. σεμνὴ δὲ καὶ ἐξαλλάττουσα τὸ ἰδιωτικὸν ἡ τοῖς ξενικοῖς κεχρημένη. ἕενικὸν δὲ λέγω γλῶτταν καὶ μετα- \ ἈΦ / \ a \ Ἂν 4 4 > 2 φορὰν καὶ ἐπέκτασιν καὶ πᾶν TO Tapa TO κύριον. ἀλλ᾽ av 2 [2 “ “ 7 ΕΥ̓ Ν Ψ Xx Tis ἅμα ἅπαντα τοιαῦτα ποιήσῃ, ἢ αἴνυγμα ἔσται ἢ βαρβα- ott n \ 25 pioyos’ ἂν μὲν οὖν ἐκ μεταφορῶν, αἴνιγμα, ἐὰν δὲ ἐκ a Fe led , Ἀπ 297 “ ἈΝ ΤᾺ γλωττῶν, βαρβαρισμός" αἰνίγματός τε γὰρ ἰδέα αὕτη ἐστί, τὸ λέγοντα ὑπάρχοντα ἀδύνατα συνάψαι. κατὰ μὲν οὖν τὴν τῶν «ἄλλων:- ὀνομάτων σύνθεσιν οὐχ οἷόν τε τοῦτο fol > 4 ποιῆσαι, κατὰ δὲ THY μεταφορὰν ἐνδέχεται, οἷον “ἄνδρ᾽ εἶδον \ \ pee EY / 3» Ν \ a > a 30 πυρὶ χαλκὸν ἐπ᾽ ἀνέρι κολλήσαντα,᾽ Kal τὰ τοιαῦτα. ἐκ TOV n / a an UA \ γλωττῶν βαρβαρισμός. δεῖ dpa κεκρᾶσθαί πως τούτοις" τὸ 3 \ \ V2 Ν 7 \ / e “Ὁ μὲν γὰρ μὴ ἰδιωτικὸν ποιήσει μηδὲ ταπεινόν, οἷον ἡ γλῶττα
/ καὶ ἡ μεταφορὰ καὶ ὁ κόσμος Kal τἄλλα τὰ εἰρημένα
14. πλήθει apogr. : πλήθη AS. 15. ante ταὐτὰ add. τῷ = Tyrwhitt. 17. post πέντε add. apogr. τὸ πῶυ τὸ νᾶπυ τὸ γόνυ τὸ δόρυ τὸ ἄστυ. 24. τις ἅπαντα vel τις ἅμα ἅπαντα apogr.: ἂν ἅπαντα ΑΞ“, ποιήσῃ apogr. : ποιῆσαι AS, 28, ἄλλων coni. Margoliouth, collato Arabe ‘reliqua nomina’: κυρίων Tyrwhitt. 31. κεκρᾶσθαι Maggi 6 cod. Lampridii ef. Arabs ‘si miscentur haec’: κεκρίσθαι ceteri codd.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXI. 12—XXII. 3 77
some letter compounded with s,—these being two, w and ξ. Feminine, such as end in vowels that are always long, as ἡ and w, and—of vowels that admit of lengthen- ing—those in a. Thus the number of letters in which nouns masculine and feminine end is the same; for ψ' and ξ are equivalent to endings in 5s. No noun ends in a mute or a vowel short by nature. Three only end in ε, ---μέλι, κόμμι, πέπερι: five end in v. Neuter nouns end in these two latter vowels; also in ν and ¢.]
XXII The perfection of style is to be clear without being mean. The style which uses only common or proper words | is in the highest degree clear; at the same time it is mean :—witness the poetry of Cleophon and of Sthenelus. That diction, on the other hand, is lofty and raised above the commonplace which employs unusual words. By unusual, [ mean words rare or strange, metaphorical, ex- tended,—anything, in short, that differs from the normal idiom. Yet a style wholly composed of such words is 2 either a riddle or a jargon; a riddle, if it consists of metaphors; a jargon, if it consists of rare or strange words. For the essence of a riddle is to express true facts under impossible combinations. Now this cannot be done by any arrangement of ordinary words, but by the use of metaphor it can. Such is the riddle:— A man I saw who on another man had glued the bronze by aid of fire, and others of the same kind. A diction that is made up of rare or strange terms is a jargon. <A 3 certain infusion, therefore, of these elements is necessary to style; for the rare or strange word, the metaphorical, the ornamental, and the other kinds above mentioned, will raise it above the commonplace and mean, while the
σ'
ο
78 XXII. 4—7. 1458 ἃ 34—1458 Ὁ 21
εἴδη, TO δὲ κύριον THY σαφήνειαν. οὐκ ἐλάχιστον δὲ μέρος 4
a \ \ > \ συμβάλλεται εἰς TO σαφὲς τῆς λέξεως Kal μὴ ἰδιωτικὸν lal > / ai ἐπεκτάσεις καὶ ἀποκοπαὶ καὶ ἐξαλλαγαὶ τῶν ὀνομά- » x \ 4 \ Tov: διὰ μὲν yap TO ἄλλως ἔχειν ἢ ὡς TO κύριον, παρὰ Ν > \ / \ \ ἰδ \ / ὃ \ δὲ \
TO εἰωθὸς γιγνόμενον, TO μὴ ἰδιωτικὸν ποιήσει, διὰ δὲ TO KoL- val nan? , ἈΝ \. ἢν Ψ > > n , νωνεῖν Tod εἰωθότος τὸ σαφὲς ἔσται. ὥστε οὐκ ὀρθῶς ψέγου-
ς» a a tA / al / σιν οἱ ἐπιτιμῶντες TO τοιούτῳ τρόπῳ τῆς διαλέκτου Kal δια- rn \ "4 > 7 ε > - ς κωμῳδοῦντες τὸν ποιητήν, οἷον Ἐϊκλείδης ὁ ἀρχαῖος, ὡς π- / ς / ΄ ῥάδιον ποιεῖν, εἴ τις δώσει ἐκτείνειν ἐφ᾽ ὁπόσον βούλεται, fal 7 9. ἰαμβοποιήσας ἐν αὐτῇ τῇ λέξει. ““Ἐπιχάρην εἶδον Mapa- n > > bY \ 7 θῶνάδε βαδίζοντα," καὶ “οὐκ ἄν γ᾽ ἐράμενος τὸν ἐκείνου ἐλ- / 3» Ν \ 5 / / , Ψ a λέβορον.᾽ τὸ μὲν οὖν φαίνεσθαί πως χρώμενον τούτῳ τῷ / lal Ν \ / \ ς 7 > a τρόπῳ γελοῖον, TO δὲ μέτρον κοινὸν ἁπάντων ἐστὶ τῶν με- ρῶν’ καὶ γὰρ μεταφοραῖς καὶ γλώτταις καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις yy /, > an > / ; a. \ lal \ εἴδεσι χρώμενος ἀπρεπῶς καὶ ἐπίτηδες ἐπὶ τὰ γελοῖα τὸ ΩΝ Τ > A \ ee / “ ΄Ζ αὐτὸ ἂν ἀπεργάσαιτο. τὸ δὲ ἁρμόττον ὅσον διαφέρει ἐπὶ a > n / > / n 4 > 4 τῶν ἐπῶν θεωρείσθω ἐντιθεμένων τῶν <KUpimy> ὀνομάτων > \ / pas eae. “Ὁ , \ a ee es n εἰς TO μέτρον. καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς γλώττης δὲ Kal ἐπὶ τῶν peTa- φορῶν καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἰδεῶν μετατιθεὶς ἄν τις τὰ / - Bee ἃ My [ἢ > an / \ >. κύρια ὀνόματα κατίδοι ὅτι ἀληθῆ λέγομεν" οἷον τὸ αὐτὸ / tal , ποιήσαντος ἰαμβεῖον Αἰσχύλου καὶ Ἐὐριπίδου, ἕν δὲ μόνον
” / > Ν / > / lal \ ὄνομα μεταθέντος, ἀντὶ [κυρίου] εἰωθότος γλῶτταν, τὸ
1458 b 1. συμβάλλεται A: συμβάλλονται apogr. 9. Ἐπιχάρην Bursian praeeunte Tyrwhitt (Ἠπιχάρην) : fre χάριν AS. 10. ἄν γ᾽ épdwevos apogr.: ἂν γεράμενος Α΄ : γευσάμενος Tyrwhitt. 11. πως] ἀπρεπῶς Twining: πάντως Hermann. 15. ἁρμόττον apogr. :
ἁρμόττοντος Ae, 16. ἐπῶν] ἐπεκτάσεων Tyrwhitt. κυρίων coni. Vahlen.
21. μεταθέντος Ald.: μετατιθέντος ΑΞ, κυρίου secludendum coni. Vahlen : κυρίου <xal> εἰωθότος Heinsius.
ὄ
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXII. 4—7 79
use of proper words will make it perspicuous. But 4 1458» nothing contributes more to produce a clearness of diction that is remote from commonness than the exten- sion, contraction, and alteration of words. For by deviating in exceptional cases from the normal idiom, the language will gain distinction; while, at the same time, the partial conformity with usage will give per-, , spicuity. The critics, therefore, are in error who censure 5 these licenses of speech, and hold the author up to ridicule. Thus Eucleides, the elder, declared that it would be an easy matter to be a poet if you might lengthen syllables at will. His travesty consisted in the mere form of the verse, for example: Ἐπιχάρην εἶδον Μαραθῶνάδε βαδίζοντα, or, ' οὐκ ἄν γ᾽ ἐράμενος τὸν ἐκείνου ἐλλέβορον. To employ such lengthening at all obtrusively is gro- 6 tesque. Here, as in all modes of poetic diction, there must be moderation. Even metaphors, rare or strange words, or any similar forms of speech, would produce the like effect if used without propriety, and with the express purpose of being ludicrous. How great a differ- 7 ence is made by the appropriate use of lengthening, may be seen in Epic poetry by the insertion of ordinary forms in the verse. So, again, if we take a rare or strange word, a metaphor, or any similar mode of expression, and replace it by the common or proper word, the truth of our observation will be manifest. For example, Aeschylus and Euripides each composed the same iambic ᾿ line. But the alteration of a single word by Euripides, who employed the rarer term instead of the ordinary
80 XXII. 7—10. 1458 Ὁ 22—1459 ἃ 9
> / ? / Ν \ μὲν φαίνεται καλὸν τὸ δ᾽ εὐτελές. Αἰσχύλος μὲν yap ἐν τῷ Φιλοκτήτῃ ἐποίησε ἐν τῷ Φιλοκτήτῃ ἐποίησ: / / φαγέδαινα <8> ἥ μου σάρκας ἐσθίει ποδός, n / \ 25 ὁ δὲ ἀντὶ τοῦ ἐσθίει τὸ θοινᾶται μετέθηκεν. καὶ Ν / νῦν δέ μ᾽ ἐὼν ὀλίγος Te Kal οὐτιδανὸς Kal ἀεικής,ἷ 7 \ εἴ τις λέγοι TA κύρια μετατιθεὶς ον δι σν, ὍΝ / \ > \ > ὃ 4». νῦν δέ μ᾽ ἐὼν μικρός τε καὶ ἀσθενικὸς καὶ ἀειδής Ν καὶ / > 2 , θ Ν 5. 7 7 2 30 δίφρον [τ᾽] ἀεικέλιον καταθεὶς ὀλύγην τε τράπεζαν, / \ \ / / δίφρον μοχθηρὸν καταθεὶς μικράν τε τράπεζαν. / / καὶ τὸ “ἠιόνες Boowaw”® ἠιόνες κράζουσιν. ἔτι δὲ ᾿Αριφρά- \ \ 2 ᾽ὃ “ ἃ ὃ Ν x by > fal Sns τοὺς τρωγῳδοὺς ἐκωμῴδει, ὅτι ἃ οὐδεὶς ἂν εἴποι ἐν TH “ Ν BA sa \ διαλέκτῳ τούτοις χρῶνται, οἷον τὸ δωμάτων ἄπο ἀλλὰ μὴ / \ / 35 ἀπὸ δωμάτων, καὶ τὸ σέθεν Kal τὸ ἐγὼ δέ νιν, Kal τὸ 1459 ᾿Αχιλλέως πέρι ἀλλὰ μὴ περὶ ᾿Αχιλλέως, καὶ ὅσα ἄλλα fa) \ \ a / a \ \ τοιαῦτα. Sia yap TO μὴ εἶναι ἐν τοῖς κυρίοις ποιεῖ TO μὴ ἐδ \ 3 a 7 [4 \ a ἀπ fee δὲ ‘A ἰδιωτικὸν ἐν τῇ λέξει ἅπαντα τὰ τοιαῦτα᾽ ἐκεῖνος δὲ τοῦτο > / 4 δὲ / \ ‘Ne 4 lal > / / ἠγνόει. ἔστιν δὲ μέγα μὲν TO ἑκάστῳ τῶν εἰρημένων πρεπόν-
τως χρῆσθαι, καὶ διπλοῖς ὀνόμασι καὶ γλώτταις, πολὺ δὲ
uw
/ a >
μέγιστον TO μεταφορικὸν εἶναι. μόνον γὰρ τοῦτο οὔτε παρ a / al ἐς \
ἄλλου ἔστι λαβεῖν edpvias τε σημεῖόν éoTL’ TO yap εὖ
/ \ \o lal > al . es / \
μεταφέρειν τὸ τὸ ὅμοιον θεωρεῖν ἐστιν. τῶν δ᾽ ὀνομάτων τὰ
μὲν διπλᾶ μάλιστα ἁρμόττει τοῖς διθυράμβοις, αἱ δὲ γλῶτ-
1 Odyss. ix. 515, νῦν δέ μ᾽ ἐὼν ὀλίγος τε καὶ οὐτιδανὸς καὶ ἄκικυς. 2 Odyss. xx. 259, δίφρον ἀεικέλιον καταθεὶς ὀλίγην τε τράπεζαν. 5. Tliad xvii. 265.
24. δ᾽ (vel 7’) add. Ritter. φαγέδαιν᾽ det Nauck. 26. ἀεικής Cas-
telvetro (var. lec. Odyss. 1. ¢.), Arabs ‘ut non conveniat’: ἀειδής codd. : ἄκικυς Odyss. 1. ¢. 80. τ᾽ ἀεικέλιον codd. : τ᾽ αἰκέλιον Vahlen : τε seclus. Susemihl ed. 1. 89, εἴποι apogr.: elm. AS. 1459
8, 4. τὸ apogr. : τῶι AS.
8
10
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXII. 7—10 81
one, makes one verse appear beautiful and the other trivial. Aeschylus in his Philoctetes says: φαγέδαινα «δ᾽: ἥ μου σάρκας ἐσθίει ποδός"
Euripides substitutes θοινᾶται ‘feasts on’ for ἐσθίει ‘feeds on.’ Again, in the line,
νῦν δέ μ᾽ ἐὼν ὀλίγος Te Kal οὐτιδανὸς Kal ἀεικής, the difference will be felt if we substitute the common words,
νῦν δέ μ᾽ ἐὼν μικρός τε καὶ ἀσθενικὸς καὶ ἀειδής. Or, if for the line,
δίφρον [τ᾽] ἀεικέλιον καταθεὶς ὀλίγην τε τράπεζαν, we read,
is μοχθηρὸν καταθεὶς μικράν τε τράπεζαν. Or, for ἠιόνες βοόωσιν, ἠιόνες κράζουσιν.
Again, Ariphrades ridiculed the tragedians for using 8 phrases which no one would employ in ordinary speech : for example, δωμάτων ἄπο instead of ἀπὸ δωμάτων,
1496 σέθεν, ἐγὼ δέ νιν, “AxirAréws πέρι instead of περὶ ᾿Αχιλλέως, and the like. It is precisely because such phrases are not part of the common idiom that they give distinction to the style. This, however, he failed to see.
It is a great matter to observe propriety in these 9
several modes of expression—compound words, rare or strange words, and so forth. But the greatest thing by far is to have a genius for metaphor. This alone cannot be had from another; it is the mark of a gifted nature, —for to make good metaphors implies an eye for resemblances. : Of the various kinds of words, the compound are 10 best adapted to dithyrambs, rare words to heroic poetry, G
82 XXII. ro—XXIIL. 3. 1459 a 10—33
Lal ς a ε \ \ a > / >
10 Tat τοῖς ἡρωικοῖς, at δὲ μεταφοραὶ τοῖς ἰαμβείοις. καὶ ἐν
\ -“ lal 7 -“
μὲν τοῖς ἡρωικοῖς ἅπαντα χρήσιμα τὰ εἰρημένα, ἐν δὲ τοῖς
ἰαμβείοις διὰ τὸ ὅτε μάλιστα λέξιν μιμεῖσθαι ταῦτα ap-
/ nr > / “ ΕΝ > “ / /
μόττει TOV ὀνομάτων ὅσοις κἂν ἐν [ὅσοις] λόγοις τις χρή- av a a +. ey \ \ pel
caito’ ἔστι δὲ τὰ τοιαῦτα τὸ κύριον Kal μεταφορὰ καὶ κόσμος.
15. περὶ μὲν οὖν τραγῳδίας καὶ τῆς ἐν τῷ πράττειν μιμή-
σεως ἔστω ἡμῖν ἱκανὰ τὰ εἰρημένα.
ΧΧΙΠ περὶ δὲ τῆς διηγηματικῆς καὶ ἑν -«ἣ-- μέτρῳ μιμητικῆς, Ὁ n \ if. / 3 a , / ὅτι δεῖ τοὺς μύθους καθάπερ ἐν ταῖς τραγῳδίαις συνεστάναι ὃ Ν \ / a ὅλ, \ / »,
ραματικοὺς καὶ περὶ μίαν πρᾶξιν ὅλην καὶ τελείαν, ἔχου- 20 σαν ἀρχὴν καὶ μέσα καὶ τέλος, ἵν᾽ ὥσπερ EGov ev ὅλον lal \ > / 75) / n Ἂ \ 455€ / e / \ ποιῇ τὴν οἰκείαν ἡδονήν, δῆλον" Kal μὴ ὁμοίας ἱστορίας τὰς 7 > > > / > \ lal / -“ συνήθεις εἶναι, ἐν αἷς ἀνάγκη οὐχὶ μιᾶς πράξεως ποιεῖσθαι > Ν / δήλωσιν ἀλλ᾽ ἑνὸς χρόνου, ὅσα ἐν τούτῳ συνέβη περὶ ἕνα ἢ πλείους, ὧν ἕκαστον ὡς ἔτυχεν ἔχει πρὸς ἄλληλα. ὥσπερ 3 / al 25 yap κατὰ τοὺς αὐτοὺς χρόνους ἥ τ᾽ ἐν Σαλαμῖνι ἐγένετο ναυμαχία καὶ ἡ ἐν Σικελίᾳ Καρχηδονίων μάχη οὐδὲν \ \ \ a Cal πρὸς TO αὐτὸ συντείνουσαι τέλος, οὕτω καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἐφεξῆς / χρόνοις ἐνίοτε γίνεται θάτερον μετὰ θάτερον, ἐξ ὧν ν οὐδὲν γίνεται τέλος. σχεδὸν δὲ οἱ πολλοὶ τῶν ποιητῶν τοῦτο a / 4 30 δρῶσι. διό, ὥσπερ εἴπομεν ἤδη, Kal ταύτῃ θεσπέσιος- ἂν 3 / a Ν \ ΜΝ' a Ν ἈΝ / φανείη “Ὅμηρος παρὰ τοὺς ἄλλους, τῷ μηδὲ τὸν πόλεμον , " ᾿ \ uty > n a. ¢. ᾿ καίπερ ἔχοντα ἀρχὴν καὶ τέλος ἐπιχειρῆσαι ποιεῖν ὅλον λίαν γὰρ ἂν μέγας καὶ οὐκ εὐσύνοπτος ἔμελλεν ἔσεσθαι,
18. κἂν Harles: καὶ codd. ὅσοις om. Ald. 17. ἑνὶ (vel ἐν ἑνὶ) μέτρῳ conieci (cf. 1449 Ὁ 11, 1459 Ὁ 33): ἐν ἑξαμέτρῳ Heinsius: ἐν μέτρῳ codd. 18. συνεστάναι coni. Vahlen: συνιστάναι codd. 21. ἱστορίας τὰς συνήθεις codd. : ἱστορίαις τὰς cvvbéces-Dacier, fort. recte. 26. ναυμαχία apogr. : vatpaxos ΑΞ. 28. μετὰ θάτερον Hermann: μετὰ θατέρου codd. 31. τῷ apogr. : τὸ AS, 33. μέγα (rec. corr. μέγας)... εὐσύνοπτος. ..
μετριάζοντα A°: μέγα. .. εὐσύνοπτον. . . μετρίαζον posito commate post ἔσεσθαι Bursian.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXII. ro—XXIII. 3 83
metaphors to iambic. In heroic poetry, indeed, all these varieties are serviceable. But in iambic verse, which reproduces, as far as may be, familiar speech, the most appropriate words are those which belong to conver- sational idiom. These are,—the common or proper, the metaphorical, the ornamental.
Concerning Tragedy and imitation by means of action, this may suffice.
XXIII = As to that poetic imitation which is narrative in form and employs a single metre, the plot manifestly ought to be constructed on dramatic principles. It should have for its subject a single action, whole and complete, with a beginning, a middle, and an end. It will thus resemble a living organism, and produce its proper pleasure. Herein it differs from the ordinary histories, which of necessity present not a single action, but a single period, and all that happened within that period to one person or to many, little connected together as the events may be. For as the sea-fight at Salamis 2 and the battle with the Carthaginians in Sicily took place at the same time, but did not tend to one result, so in the sequence of events, one thing sometimes follows another, and yet the two may not work up to any common end. Such is the practice, we may say, of most poets. Here again, then, as has been already 3 observed, the transcendent excellence of Homer is manifest. He never attempts to make the whole war of Troy the subject of his poem, though that war had a beginning and an end. It would have been too vast a theme, and not easily embraced in a single view. If, again, he had kept it within moderate limits, it must
84 XXIII. 3—XXIV. 3. 1459 a 34—1459 Ὁ 20
a a lal ἢ τῷ μεγέθει μετριάζοντα καταπεπλεγμένον τῇ ποικιλίᾳ. 35 νῦν δ᾽ ἕν μέρος ἀπολαβὼν ἐπεισοδίοις κέχρηται αὐτῶν πολλοῖς, οἷον νεῶν καταλόγῳ καὶ ἄλλοις ἐπεισοδίοις, οἷς διαλαμβάνει τὴν ποίησιν. οἱ δ᾽ ἄλλοι περὶ ἕνα ποιοῦσι “ / \ / a n ¢ 1459b Kal περὶ ἕνα χρόνον Kai μίαν πρᾶξιν πολυμερῆ, οἷον ὁ τὰ Κύπρια ποιήσας καὶ τὴν μικρὰν ᾿Ιλιάδα. τοιγαροῦν ἐκ 4 μὲν Ἰλιάδος καὶ ᾿Οδυσσείας μία τραγῳδία ποιεῖται éxa- τέρας ἢ δύο μόναι, ἐκ δὲ Κυπρίων πολλαὶ καὶ τῆς μι- 5 κρᾶς Ἰλιάδος [πλέον] ὀκτώ, οἷον ὅπλων κρίσις, Φιλοκτή- της, Νεοπτόλεμος, Εὐρύπυλος, πτωχεία, Λάκαιναι, Ἰλίου πέρσις καὶ ἀπόπλους [καὶ Σίνων καὶ Τρῳάδες]. XXIV ἔτι δὲ [ἔτι δὲ] τὰ εἴδη ταὐτὰ δεῖ ἔχειν τὴν ἐποποιίαν τῇ τραγῳδίᾳ, ἢ γὰρ ἁπλῆν ἢ πεπλεγμένην ἢ ἠθικὴν ἢ παθη- το τικήν' καὶ τὰ μέρη ἔξω μελοποιίας καὶ ὄψεως ταὐτά" καὶ γὰρ περιπετειῶν δεῖ καὶ ἀναγνωρίσεων καὶ πα- θημάτων. ἔτι τὰς διανοίας καὶ τὴν λέξιν ἔχειν καλῶς. οἷς 3 ¢ “ 7 Ν an ε - \ ἅπασιν “Ὅμηρος κέχρηται καὶ πρῶτος καὶ ἱκανῶς. Kal yap \ a 4 EN 4 / ς Ale. Ὁ νι a καὶ τῶν ποιημάτων ἑκάτερον συνέστηκεν ἡ μὲν Tuas ἁπλοῦν 15 καὶ παθητικόν, ἡ δὲ ᾿Οδύσσεια πεπλεγμένον (ἀναγνώρισις γὰρ διόλου) καὶ ἠθική. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις λέξει καὶ διανοίᾳ πάντα ὑπερβέβληκεν. διαφέρει δὲ κατά τε τῆς συστάσεως 3 τὸ μῆκος ἡ ἐποποιία καὶ τὸ μέτρον. τοῦ μὲν οὖν μήκους ὅρος ε δ τι φῦς , . o/ \ n a Walt: \ ἱκανὸς ὁ εἰρημένος" δύνασθαι yap δεῖ συνορᾶσθαι τὴν ἀρχὴν
\ , 2 a rn / 20 καὶ TO τέλος. εἴη δ᾽ ἂν τοῦτο, εἰ τῶν μὲν ἀρχαίων ἐλάτ-
35. αὐτῶν] seclus. Christ: αὐτοῦ Heinsius. 36. οἷς apogr.: dls pr. ΑΘ et ceteri codd. 1459 Ὁ 2. Κύπρια Tyrwhitt: κυπρικὰ A°. 5. πλέον et καὶ Σίνων καὶ Tpwddes seclus. Hermann. 8. δεῖ apogr. : δὴ AS. 13. ἱκανῶς apogr.: ἱκανὸς ΑΚ, 15. ἀναγνωρίσεις Christ. 16. δὲ apogr. : γὰρ AS. 17. πάντας Ald.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXIII. 3—XXIV. 3 85
have been complicated by the variety of the incidents. As it is, he selects a single portion, and admits many episodes from the general story of the war—-such as the Catalogue of the ships and others—thus diversifying 1459» the poem. All other poets take a single hero, a single period, or an action single indeed, but with a multi- plicity of parts. Thus did the author of the Cypria and of the Little Iliad. For this reason the Iliad and the 4 Odyssey each furnish the subject of one tragedy, or, at most, of two; while the Cypria furnishes many, and the Little Iliad eight—-the Award of the Arms, the Philoctetes, the Neoptolemus, Eurypylus, the Mendicant ᾿ Odysseus, the Laconian Women, the Fall of Ilium, the Departure of the Fleet.
XXIV Again, Epic poetry must have the same species as Tragedy: it must be simple, complicated, ‘ethical, or ‘pathetic.’ The parts also, with the exception of song and scenery, are the same; for it requires reversals of fortune, recognitions, and tragic incidents. Moreover, the thoughts and the diction must be artistic. In all 2 these respects Homer is our earliest and sufficient model. Indeed each of his poems has a twofold character. The Iliad is at once simple and ‘pathetic, and the Odyssey complicated (for recognition scenes run through it), and at the same time ‘ethical, Moreover, in diction and thought he is unequalled.
Epie poetry differs from Tragedy in the scale on3 | which it is constructed, and in its metre. As regards scale or length, we have already laid down an adequate limit. We must be able to embrace in a single view the beginning and the end; which might be done if the scale
86 XXIV. 3—7. 1459 Ὁ 21—1460a 5
e / 3 Ν \ \ a lal “ τους αἱ συστάσεις εἶεν, πρὸς δὲ τὸ πλῆθος τραγῳδιῶν τῶν > / > / / / ” \ Ν Ν εἰς μίαν ἀκρόασιν τιθεμένων παρήκοιεν. ἔχει δὲ πρὸς τὸ 4 > 7 θ \ , δ ’ e > , ἴδ ὃ \ ἐπεκτείνεσθαι τὸ μέγεθος πολύ τι ἡ ἐποποιία ἴδιον διὰ Ν > Ν “Ὁ δί \ > δέ θ ov / τὸ ἐν μὲν TH τραγῳδίᾳ μὴ ἐνδέχεσθαι ἅμα πραττόμενα lal \ an an lal 25 πολλὰ μέρη μιμεῖσθαι ἀλλὰ TO ἐπὶ τῆς σκηνῆς καὶ TOV ΄ n / / > δὲ a 3 / 8 \ Ν ὃ / ὑποκριτῶν μέρος μόνον" ἐν δὲ τῇ ἐποποιίᾳ διὰ τὸ διήγησιν 3 », \ / ef al / © 4? 2 εἶναι ἔστι πολλὰ μέρη ἅμα ποιεῖν περαινόμενα, VP ὧν > / Ν » e n "A 4 ef ων Ὁ οἰκείων ὄντων αὔξεται ὁ τοῦ ποιήματος ὄγκος. ὥστε τοῦτ » \ 93> \ > / \ Ἂν / \ ἔχει TO ἀγαθὸν εἰς μεγαλοπρέπειαν Kal TO μεταβάλλειν τὸν ᾽ ΄ A: Ss a 2 s 2 ὔ - \ \ 30 ἀκούοντα καὶ ἐπεισοδιοῦν ἀνομοίοις ἐπεισοδίοις" τὸ γὰρ 5 “ \ a > / tal \ / \ \ ὅμοιον ταχὺ πληροῦν ἐκπίπτειν ποιεῖ τὰς τραγῳδίας. TO δὲ μέτρον τὸ ἡρωικὸν ἀπὸ τῆς πείρας ἥρμοκεν. εἰ γάρ τις ἐν 5», / \ / a a ἄλλῳ τινὶ μέτρῳ διηγηματικὴν μίμησιν ποιοῖτο ἢ ἐν πολλοῖς, Ν ἀπρεπὲς ἂν φαίνοιτο" τὸ γὰρ ἡρωικὸν στασιμώτατον καὶ 35 ὀγκωδέστατον τῶν μέτρων ἐστίν (διὸ καὶ γχώττας καὶ μετα- \ 9 ΄ ᾿ ἀν τ \ , ς φορᾶς δέχεται μάλιστα" περιττὴ γὰρ καὶ <TavTy> ἡ διηγη- \ , [al ” \ Ν - \ / ματικὴ μίμησις TOV ἄλλων). TO δὲ ἰαμβεῖον Kal τετράμετρον \ \ \ \ > / Ν \ / » ἊΨ, ἐπ 1460 a κινητικὰ καὶ τὸ μὲν ὀρχηστικόν, τὸ δὲ πρακτικόν. ἔτι δὲ ἀτο- 6 , > / > / Ψ Ν > \ πώτερον, EL μυιγνύοι τις αὐτά, ὥσπερ Χαιρήμων. διὸ οὐδεὶς \ 7 5 Μ- , xX μ᾿ eo: 7 > ome - μακρὰν σύστασιν ἐν ἄλλῳ πεποίηκεν ἢ τῷ ἡρῴφ, GAX ὧσ- yy pe Ὁ , 7 ps / 2 Aa περ εἴπομεν αὐτὴ ἡ φύσις διδάσκει TO ἁρμόττον αὐτῇ [δι-]
5 αἱρεῖσθαι. “Ὅμηρος δὲ ἄλλα τε πολλὰ ἄξιος ἐπαινεῖσθαι καὶ Τ
86. καὶ codd.: καὶ ταύτῃ Twining: κἀν ταύταις Bywater. 37. μίμησις apogr.: κίνησις A. 1460 al. κινητικὰ καὶ Vahlen: κινητικαὶ AS, 2. μιγνύοι Ald.: μιγνύει apogr. : μηγνύη AS (fuit μη, et ἡ extre- mum in litura corr.), cf. Arabs ‘si quis nesciret’ ἢ. e. ef μὴ γνοίη (Mar- goliouth). 4, αὐτῇ apogr.: αὐτὴ ΑΚ. 5. αἱρεῖσθαι Bonitz : διαιρεῖσθαι A,
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXIV. 3—6 87
of the whole were reduced as compared with that of the ancient Epic, and the poem made equal in length to the tragedies, taken collectively, which are exhibited at one sitting.
Epic poetry has, however, a great—-a special— 4 capacity for enlarging its dimensions, and we can see the reason. In Tragedy we cannot imitate several actions carried on at one and the same time. We must confine ourselves to the action on the stage and the part taken by the players. But in Epic poetry, owing to the narrative form, many events simultaneously transacted can be represented; and these, if relevant to the subject, add mass and dignity to the poem. This particular merit conduces to grandeur of effect; it also serves to divert the mind of the hearer and to relieve the story with varying episodes. For sameness of incident soon produces satiety, and makes tragedies fail on the stage.
As for the metre, the heroic has proved its fitness by 5 the test of experience. If a narrative poem in any other metre were now composed, it would be found incongruous. For the heroic of all measures is the stateliest and the most. imposing; and hence it most readily admits rare words and metaphors; as indeed the narrative mode of imitation is in this respect singular. On the other hand, the iambic and the _ trochaic
1460 a tetrameter are stirring measures, the latter being suited to dancing, the former to action. Still more absurd 6 would it be to mix together different metres, as was done by Chaeremon. Hence no one has ever composed a poem on a great scale in any other than heroic verse. Nature herself, as we have said, teaches the choice of the proper measure.
88 XXIV. 7—10. 1460 a 6—26
rn - rad lal - > / δὴ καὶ ὅτι μόνος τῶν ποιητῶν οὐκ ἀγνοεῖ ὃ δεῖ ποιεῖν αὐτόν. a \ , , > Tet ty) αὐτὸν yap δεῖ τὸν ποιητὴν ἐλάχιστα λέγειν" οὐ γάρ ἐστι fel 5 Μ' \ \ > φῇ κατὰ ταῦτα μιμητής. οἱ μὲν οὖν ἄλλοι αὐτοὶ μὲν δι᾽ ὅλου n Wc. ἢ δ OX BRP ἀγωνίζονται, μιμοῦνται δὲ ὀλέγα Kal ὀλυγάκις" ὁ δὲ ὀλίγα Υ̓͂ x a A + 10 φροιμιασάμενος εὐθὺς εἰσάγει ἄνδρα ἢ γυναῖκα ἢ ἄλλο τι [ἦθος] καὶ οὐδέν᾽ ἀήθη ἀλλ᾽ ἔχοντα ἤθη. δεῖ μὲν οὖν ἐν ταῖς 8 -“ / a / 3 τραγῳδίαις ποιεῖν TO θαυμαστόν, μᾶλλον δ᾽ ἐνδέχεται ἐν - 4 A Ν τῇ ἐποποιίᾳ τὸ ἄλογον, δι᾽ ὃ συμβαίνει μάλιστα τὸ θαυ- ͵ \ ‘ees > \ , rag Sey A } μαστόν, διὰ TO μὴ ὁρᾶν εἰς τὸν πράττοντα᾽ ἐπεὶ τὰ περ 7 a a e 15 τὴν Exropos δίωξιν ἐπὶ σκηνῆς ὄντα γελοῖα ἂν φανείη, οἱ \ ς “ \ > / e \ > / > \ al μὲν ἑστῶτες καὶ ov διώκοντες, ὁ δὲ ἀνανεύων, ἐν δὲ τοῖς 4 al ἔπεσιν λανθάνει. τὸ δὲ θαυμαστὸν ἡδύ" σημεῖον δέ' πάντες / yap προστιθέντες ἀπαγγέλλουσιν ὡς χαριζόμενοι. δεδίδαχεν 9 δὲ μάλιστα“Ομηρος καὶ τοὺς ἄλλους ψευδῆ λέγειν ὡς δεῖ. 4 \ n / ΝΜ Ν 4 Ὁ 20 ἔστι δὲ τοῦτο παραλογισμός. οἴονται γὰρ ἄνθρωποι, ὅταν λν \ Oo HX / / > \ of 4 τουδὶ ὄντος τοδὶ ἢ ἢ γινομένου γίνηται, εἰ τὸ ὕστερον ἔστιν, / “ “ καὶ τὸ πρότερον εἶναι ἢ γίνεσθαι" τοῦτο δέ ἐστι ψεῦδος. διὸ δή, ἂν τὸ πρῶτον ψεῦδος, ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ τούτου ὄντος ἀνάνγκ bf} εἶναι ἢ γενέσθαι [ἢ] προσθεῖναι" διὰ yap τὸ τοῦτο εἰδέναι ἢ fal \ Ἂς n 25 ἀληθὲς ὄν, παραλογίζεται ἡμῶν ἡ ψυχὴ καὶ TO πρῶτον ὡς
ὄν. παράδειγμα δὲ τούτου ἐκ τῶν Νίπτρων. προαιρεῖσθαί 10
11. ἦθος om. Reiz: legerat Arabs: εἶδος Bursian. οὐδέν᾽ ἀήθη apogr. : οὐδένα ἤθη ΑΞ, ἔχοντα ἦθος coni. Christ. Post οὖν add. <xat ἐν τοῖς ἔπεσιν xal>
Christ, fort. recte. 13. ἄλογον Vettori: ἀνάλογον codd. δι᾽ ὃ Vettori :
διὸ codd. 14, ἐπεὶ τὰ apogr. : ἔπειτα τὰ AS 21. ἦ ἢ apogr. : ἣν AS,
rec. corr. ἢ. 22. γενέσθαι coni. Christ. 23. δή] de? Bonitz, Christ.
ἄλλου δὲ A®; ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ rec. corr. : ἄλλο δὲ cod. Robortelli, Bonitz: ἄλλο. δ᾽ ὃ Vahlen: ἄλλο, ὃ Christ. 24. ἢ seclus. Bonitz, Christ: 7 Vahlen.
26. τούτου Robortelli: τοῦτο ΑΞ : τούτων apogr.
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXIV. 7—9 89
Homer, admirable in all respects, has the special merit 7 of being the only poet who appreciates the part he should take himself. The poet in his own person should speak as little as possible; it is not this that makes him an imitator. Other poets appear them- selves upon the scene throughout, and imitate but little and rarely. Homer, after a few prefatory words, at once brings in a man, or woman, or other personage; none of them wanting in characteristic qualities, but each with a character of his own.
The element of the wonderful is admitted in Tragedy. 8 The irrational, on which the wonderful depends for its chief effects, has wider scope in Epic poetry, because there the person acting is not seen. ‘Thus, the pursuit of Hector would be ludicrous if placed upon the stage—the Greeks standing still and not joining in the pursuit, and Achilles beckoning to them to keep back. But in the Epic poem the absurdity is unnoticed. Now the wonderful is pleasing: as may be inferred from the fact that, in telling a story, every one adds something startling of his own, knowing that his hearers like it, It is Homer 9 who has taught other poets the true art of fiction. The secret of it lies in a fallacy. For, assuming that if one thing is or becomes, a second is or becomes, men imagine that, if the second is, the first likewise is or becomes. But this is a false inference. Hence, where the first thing is untrue, it is quite unnecessary, provided the second be true, to add that the first is or has become. For the mind, knowing the second to be true, falsely infers the truth of the first. There is an example of this in the book of the Odyssey containing the Bath Scene.
90 XXIV. 1o—XXV. 2. 1460 a 27—1460 Ὁ 11
/ a Xx / e / τε δεῖ ἀδύνατα εἰκότα μᾶλλον ἢ δυνατὰ ἀπίθανα" τούς τε γ lal / \ λόγους μὴ συνίστασθαι ἐκ μερῶν ἀλόγων, ἀλλὰ μάλιστα rn 4 “ μὲν μηδὲν ἔχειν ἄλογον, εἰ δὲ μή, ἔξω τοῦ μυθεύματος, ὥσ- " ς > \ \ 30 περ Οἰδίπους τὸ μὴ εἰδέναι πῶς ὁ Λάιος ἀπέθανεν, ἀλλὰ μὴ Φ an / “ ΠΝ 7 e \ / > ΄ ἐν τῷ δράματι, ὥσπερ ἐν ᾿Ηλέκτρᾳ οἱ τὰ ἸΠύθια ἀπαγγέλλον- a oe / \ . τες, ἢ ἐν Μυσοῖς ὁ ἄφωνος ἐκ Τεγέας eis τὴν Μυσίαν ἥκων. ¢ nr n rn ὥστε TO λέγειν ὅτι ἀνήρητο ἂν ὁ μῦθος γελοῖον" ἐξ ἀρχῆς “ ,ὔ 2 yap ov δεῖ συνίστασθαι τοιούτους" ἂν δὲ θῇ καὶ φαίνηται 35 εὐλογωτέρως, ἐνδέχεσθαι καὶ ἄτοπον --ὄν:- " ἐπεὶ καὶ τὰ ἐν Ὀδυσσείᾳ ἄλογα τὰ περὶ τὴν ἔκθεσιν ὡς οὐκ ἂν ἣν ἀνεκτὰ “" fa \ A “ \ 1460 δῆλον ἂν γένοιτο, εἰ αὐτὰ φαῦλος ποιητὴς ποιήσειε" νῦν δὲ a a e \ / uA τοῖς ἄλλοις ἀγαθοῖς ὁ ποιητὴς ἀφανίζει ἡδύνων TO ἄτοπον. na a a a / τῇ δὲ λέξει δεῖ διαπονεῖν ἐν τοῖς ἀργοῖς μέρεσιν καὶ μήτε 11 > a 7, ne κὰ ΄ \ , ea ἠθικοῖς μήτε διανοητικοῖς᾽ ἀποκρύπτει yap πάλιν ἡ λίαν 7ὔ 5 λαμπρὰ λέξις τά τε ἤθη καὶ τὰς διανοίας. ‘ / ΧΧΥ περὶ δὲ προβλημάτων Kal λύσεων, ex πόσων TE Kal 7ὔ, 5. ο 3 ΦῸΣ ἃ a / 7K / 5 \ ποίων εἰδῶν ἐστιν, ὧδ᾽ ἂν θεωροῦσιν γένοιτ᾽ ἂν φανερόν. ἐπεὶ \ « γάρ ἐστι μιμητὴς ὁ ποιητὴς ὡσπερανεὶ ζωγράφος ἤ τις ἄλλος 5 / > / al a ” \ > \ Ψ εἰκονοποιός, ἀνάγκη μιμεῖσθαι τριῶν ὄντων τὸν ἀριθμὸν ἕν eat 4 Xx \ 3 Ἂν x Φ», \ a x e 10 TL ἀεί, ἢ γὰρ ola ἦν ἢ ἔστιν, ἢ οἷά φασιν καὶ δοκεῖ, ἢ οἷα
a fal / εἶναι δεῖ. ταῦτα δ᾽ ἐξαγγέλλεται λέξει <1) κυρίοις ὀνόμασιν:- 2
80. <é> Οἰδίπους Bywater. 35. ἀποδέχεσθαι apogr. ὄν addidi. 1460 Ὁ 1 ποιήσειε Heinsius: ποιήσει codd. : ἐποίησεν Spengel. 5. Te apogr. : δὲ A® 7. ποίων εἰδῶν apogr. : ποίων ἂν εἰδῶν AS. 9. τὸν ἀριθμὸν vel τῷ ἀριθμῷ ἀρορτ. : τῶν ἀριθμῶν Ae. 10. ἢ ofa apogr. : οἷα A. 11. ἢ κυρίοις ὀνόμασιν coni. Vahlen. ,
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXIV. 1o—XXV. 1 91
Accordingly, the poet should prefer probable im-10 ~ possibilities to improbable possibilities. The tragic plot must not consist of incidents which the reason rejects. ~ These incidents should, if possible, be excluded; or, at least, they should be outside the action of the play. Such, in the Oedipus, is the ignorance of the hero as to the manner of Laius’ death. The irrational parts should not be within the drama,—as in the Electra, the messenger’s account of the Pythian games; or, in the Mysians, the man who comes from Tegea to Mysia without speaking. The plea that otherwise the plot would have been ruined, is ridiculous. Such a plot should not in the first instance be constructed. But once it has been framed and an air of likelihood imparted to it, the absurdity itself should be tolerated. Take the irrational incidents connected with the landing on Ithaca in the Odyssey. How intolerable they might have been would be
1460» apparent if an inferior poet were to treat the subject. As it is, the absurdity is veiled by the poetic charm with which the poet invests it.
The diction should be elaborated in the pauses of the 11 action, where there is no expression of character or thought. On the other hand, character and thought are merely obscured by a diction that is over brilliant.
XXV With respect to critical difficulties and their solutions, the number and nature of the sources from which they may be drawn may be thus exhibited.
The poet being an imitator, like a painter or any other artist, must of necessity imitate one of three objects,—things as they were or are, things as they are said or thought to be, or things as they ought to be.
15
20
25
30
92 XXYV. 2—6. 1460 Ὁ 12—33
Kal γλώτταις καὶ μεταφοραῖς" καὶ πολλὰ πάθη τῆς λέξεως > / / a al cal ἈΝ \ / 3 ἐστί, δίδομεν γὰρ ταῦτα τοῖς ποιηταῖς. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις οὐχ 8 ἡ αὐτὴ ὀρθότης ἐστὶν τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ τῆς ποιητικῆς οὐδὲ ἄλλης τέχνης καὶ ποιητικῆς. αὐτῆς δὲ τῆς ποιητικῆς διττὴ ἁμαρτία, ἡ μὲν γὰρ καθ᾽ αὑτήν, ἡ δὲ κατὰ συμβεβηκός. εἰ Ν , : } / 0 \ 3 06 δὲ 5 μὲν γάρ -«τι-- προείλετο μιμήσασθαι «μὴ ὀρθῶς δὲ ἐμι- / ᾽ > / 7. A id ε ἄς » \ ὃ \ μήσατο Ov> ἀδυναμίαν, αὐτῆς ἡ ἁμαρτία" εἰ δὲ -«διὰ-- τὸ προελέσθαι μὴ ὀρθῶς, ἀλλὰ τὸν ἵππον --ἅμ᾽-- ἄμφω τὰ δεξιὰ προβεβληκότα ἢ τὸ καθ᾽ ἑκάστην τέχνην ἁμάρτημα οἷον τὸ κατ᾽ ἰατρικὴν ἢ ἄλλην τέχνην [ἢ ἀδύνατα πεποίηται) e a > pe / “ al » Vee J / > lal ὁποιανοῦν, ov καθ᾽ ἑαυτήν. ὥστε δεῖ τὰ ἐπιτιμήματα ἐν τοῖς / 2 / 2 a 4 a \ 5. προβλήμασιν ἐκ τούτων ἐπισκοποῦντα λύειν. πρῶτον μὲν εἰ πρὸς αὐτὴν τὴν τέχνην ἀδύνατα πεποίηται, ἡμάρτηται, ἀλλ᾽ ὀρθῶς ἔχει, εἰ τυγχάνει τοῦ τέλους τοῦ αὑτῆς (τὸ γὰρ }- ΕΙΣ > ov > 4, XK > \ x © τέλος εἴρηται), εἰ οὕτως ἐκπληκτικώτερον ἢ αὐτὸ ἢ ἄλλο fal / / Ξε ad δί > / \ ποιεῖ μέρος. παράδειγμα ἡ ToD” Exropos δίωξις. εἰ μέντοι TO τέλος ἢ μᾶλλον ἢ --μὴ-- ἧττον ἐνεδέχετο ὑπάρχειν καὶ κατὰ \ \ 4 / € a > > ᾿ ὙΦΑ͂ ὃ a Ν τὴν περὶ τούτων τέχνην, [ἡμαρτῆσθαι] οὐκ ὀρθῶς" δεῖ γὰρ ΙΧ / an ¢ A 4 / > \ εἰ ἐνδέχεται ὅλως μηδαμῇ ἡμαρτῆσθαι. ἔτι ποτέρων ἐστὶ τὸ ἁμάρτημα, τῶν κατὰ τὴν τέχνην ἢ κατ᾽ ἄλλο συμβεβη- Kos ; ἔλαττον γὰρ εἰ μὴ ἤδει ὅτι ἔλαφος θήλεια κέρατα
οὐκ ἔχει ἢ εἰ ἀμιμήτως ἔγραψεν. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις ἐὰν 6
17. τι δ 14]. μὴ ὀρθῶς... dv’ addidi: post μιμήσασθαι coni. Vahlen ὀρθῶς, ἥμαρτε δ᾽ ἐν τῷ μιμήσασθαι δι΄. 18. εἰ apogr.: ἢ 45, διὰ add. Ueber- weg. 19. ἅμ᾽ add. Vahlen. 21. ἢ ἀδύνατα πεποίηται seclus. Diintzer : τέχνην ὁποιανοῦν [ἢ] ἀδύνατα πεποίηται Christ. 28. εἶ] τὰ ΑΞ“, εἰ sup. scr. τὰ πρὸς αὐτὴν τὴν τέχνην " plerique edd. 24, εἰ add. Vahlen ante ἀδύνατα. 26. εἴρηται] εὕρηται Heinsius: τηρεῖται M. Schmidt. 28. ἢ μὴ ἧττον Ueberweg, ἧττον Α΄: ἢ ἧττον rec. Αὔ, Vahlen. 29, ἡμαρτῆσθαι seclus,