TRAVELS

THROUGH

ARABIA,

AND OTHER

COUNTRIES IN THE EAST,

' PERFORMED BV

M. NIEBUHR,

KOW A CAPTAIN OF ENGINEERS IN THE SERVICE OF THE KING OF DENMARK.

TRANSLATED INTO ENG LLSH

B Y

ROBERT HERON.

WITH NOTES BY THE TRAl^SLATCil;

JLLUSTRATEX) WirH ENCRAFINGS AND MAFS.

IN TWO VOLUMES-

VOL. 1.

EDINBURGH:

4PEINTED FOR E. MORISON AND SON, BOOKSELLERS, E£RTHj ^. >IUDJF, EDINBURGH ; AND T. VF^KNOE, PIECHIN LANE, LONDON.

Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015

https://archive.org/details/travelsthroughar11nieb

\J. !

PREFACE ir c-x, ;

BY THE

TRANSLATOR

I REMEMBER to have read, with no fmall furprize, of a rhyming Latin poem of con- iiderable length, written by fome Monkifli eompofer of Leonine verfes, in honour of the Virgin Mary, w^hich was made wholly np by the changes rung upon the words of this fingle line.

Tot tibifmit^ virgo^ dotes^ quot fidera ccelo._

My wonder w^as never more highly excited than when, in learning the rules of arith- metic, I found what a variety of changes might be rung upon a few bells ; and for how many years, a company of ten or twelve perfons might dine together, if they fliould not feparate, till they could no longer make a new change of places.

Similar emotions are naturally raifed in the mind, when one connders, how uni-

VoL. L A form

vi

PREFACE.

form are the circumftances of human life, how much alike the organs of our bodies, and the faculties of our minds ; yet, how innumerable the diverfities of the humau charaöer r how few the firft general ele- ments of nature ; yet, how endlefsly varied the forms which this univerfe exhibits ! He who fpends his life without wandering ever more than a few miles from the fpot bf his nativity, or without mingling with any other but the firft circle, whether of courtiers, of cits, or of ruftics, into whoft fociety he has been introduced, can know little of the dignity, of the meannefs, of the capacities of his nature, — and but little of the beavities and the wonders of this great theatre of human exertions* . It is pleafing, indeed, to review the re-, cords of ovir anceftors. The exercife moves TQur affedions to a generous warmth, and enlightens our perfonal experience. But> the nev/ knowledge to be thus acquired, is not confiderable. Children are but the ima- ges of their parents ; and the fame meadow will wear the fame afpedl, next Spring, whic:h it fhewed oil the laft. Tp enlarge,

in

PREFACE.

ill any tonfiderable degree, the extent of our knowledge, we muft change the fcenes and we fhall then fee, how the manners and enjöymerits of man vary w^ith external circumftanees ; and how happily the gene- ral laws of nature, notwlthftanding their fimplicity, apply to an infinite multitude of the minutefl and moft particular cafes.

Hence is travelling fo agreeable ; and hence are the narratives of intelligent tra- vellers fo rich a fund of entertainment and inftrudlion. To wander from city to city, from hill to vale, and from vale to hill ; to fee one new extent of horizon open" upon the eye after another, and landfcape after landfcape, difplay fublimity and beauty in all their varying forms,— affords perhaps the moft delightful, at leaft the mofl im- proving amufement of which the human mind is fufceptible. To fee thefe things through the eyes of another, is indeed much lefs interefting, than wdien we can view them ourfelves. Yet, as a traveller cannot well help throv/ing into his work more of the vivid imagery and colouring of nature, than almofl any different wri~

A 2 ter;—

Viii PREFACE.

ters ; — even in perufing die narrative of ano-* ther's travels, therefore, one may enjoy no fmall fliare of that pleafure, and reap a con- fiderable portion of the inftrudlion, which an adual furvey of the fame fcenes might af- ford.

Who, that has been taught to relifli at all the pleafures of reading, can refrain from enquiring after almoft every new book of travels, the pu»blication of which is an- nounced ? Hardly a fine lady can ftray to France or Italy, after her beauty has withered with her virtue, and her wit has ceafed to be fafliionable ; Scarce can one of thofe travelling governors by trade, to whofe care the finilliing of the education of our young men of fortune^ is fo wifely intruded,— vifit a new fet of inns, or ride another relay of poft horfes, on the con-^ tinent ; Not a half-pay captain attends as toad-eater on fome valetudinary man of for- tune, going abroad for his health : But Tours, and Travels, and Journies, and Let- ters, are the certain fruits of every fucli expedition, and are as certainly bellowed, with wonderful generofity, on the public»

All

IX

All is called for, and eagerly read : And, to fay the truth, almoft all thofe works, how- ever little might be expected from them, when every circumftance is confidered^— • afford more, or lefs, to repay, in a reafon- able way, the expence of the buyer, and the pains of the reader. But, when a man of found fenfe, of real energy and adivicy of mind, acquainted with letters, and not unacquainted with life, — when fuch a man, travelling, notes dovv^n his obfervations, and communicates them to the public ; he confers a favour, fuch as authors have it feldom in their power to give. This fa-- vour will be fo much the greater, if his obfervations have been made with an eye of keen enquiry ; and if he has vifited re- gions where all is peculiar, and but little known.

Having thefe confiderations in my mind, I fliould offer the following Travels to Bri- tifli readers with no fmail pride and confi- dence, if 1 were fure of having arrayed them in a handfome and becoming Engiifii drefs. Mr Niebuhr was the fole farvivor of a party of five Daniih travellers, v/ho, be- lli''''

ing feleded as men eminently qualified to accompliih the feveral purpofes of fuch ari expedition, were feat into the Eaft at the expence of the King of Denmark, to explore the various curiofities of Egypt, but efpe- cially of Arabia. They proceeded firft to E- gypt. After making an excurfion to Mount Sinai, and preparing themfelves, by the ftudy of the Arabic language, for the far- ther profecution of their journey, they fail- ed from Suez, down the Red Sea, to Jidda^ Having landed at Jidda^ they continued their journey fouthward to Mokha ; not w^ithout occafional excurfions to the N. E. into the interior parts of the country. From Mokha, they travelled nearly in a fouth-eaft- ern direction to Sana, the feat of the great- eft prince in Arabia. By the time they had accompliflied this laft journey, and returned to Mokha, two of the party were dead ; and, by the pernicious influence of the climate, by the unfavourablenefs of the oriental mode of living to European confti- tutions, by their inability to relinquifli European habits, and by the fatigue necef- farily attending their inveftigations, th^

health

PREFACE.

xi

health of the furvivors was fo much impair- ed, that they were obliged to refolve upon leaving Arabia with the firft Englifh fliip that failed for Bombay. Mr Niebuhr and another of his companions lived to reach India. This other, after languiihing for a while, at laft died at Bombay.

After this event, Niebuhr remained in the Eaft only till he could find a fit oppor- tunity of returning fafe into Europe, v/itli the colledion of curiofities which was left in his hands.

Such is the outline of thefe Travels. They afford the lateft, and indeed almoft the on- ly topographical account of Arabia, in the hands of the European public. Being the refults of the obfervation, not of one man only, but of a party of travellers, and thofe all well qualified to dired: their attention in a proper line of enquiry; they contain fuch a body of truly valuable information as is to be met with in very few other volumes of travels. Relating to a country famous from the earlieft ages of antiquity ; they are thus rendered peculiarly interefting by the nature of their fubjedl. They throw much

new

xii

PHEFACE.

new light on the hiftorical events, the laws^ the woFihlp, and the cufloms recorded iu the Old Teftament. And I miift, upon the whole, confefs, that I have never be- fore had it in my power to abufe fo good an occaiion of receiving real mental improve- ment with rational amiifement,as that which the tranflating of this work has afforded me.

It would be unfair to negie6l advertifing the reader, that the whole of Mr Niebuhr's account of his travels, and obfervations in Arabia, is not comprized in thefe volumes. Various things feemed to be addreifed fo exclufively to men of erudition, that they could not be expei^ted to win the attention of the public in general, and have therefore been left out.

As to the tranüation ; I cannot indeed fay much for it. I entered upon the taflc with a refolution to perform it carefully, and, as it could not be fappofed very ardu- ous, I might perhaps fecretly flatter myfelf, ably. I was kindly encouraged by fom^e eminent literary characters, to whofe bene- volent notice I have been often much in- debted. But, after I had made confiderable

progrefs

PREFACE.

xiii

progrefs in the work ; I put what I had performed into the hands of one gentleman, for whofe learning, tafle, and judgments I muft ever entertain high deference ; and he, with the hioft candid and obliging cri- ticifm, pointed out feveral blunders, as well of the tranflator as of the printer, which I was furprized to perceive, and cannot yet think of, without lhame. Thefe I have endeavoured, as far as circumftances would permit, to revife and correal ; and I renewed my diligence to guard againft all fuch mif- takes in what then remained to be print- ed.

I have added fome notes : I wifh, they were valuable.

R. HERON

Edinburgh "} Aug. I. 1792. J

li Contents.

CONTENTS,

SECTION I. Voyage from Copenhagen to Alexandria«

Page.

Chap. L — Departure from Copenhagen, - p

Chap. II. — Paflage from Marfeilles to Malta, and

from Malta to Conftantinople, - 13 Chap. III. — Conftantinople, - - 18^

Chap. IV. — Voyage from Conftantinople to Alex- andria, i - - - 24

SECTION II.

Of Egypt in general.

Chap. I. — Of the City of Alexandria, - 32

Chap. II. — Voyage from Alexandria to Rofetta, 40

Chap. IIL — Voy.ige from Rofetta to Cairo, - 42

Chap. IV. — Voyage from Cairo to Damietta, 45

Chap. V. — -Of the ancient Cities of Lower Egypt, 5 1

Chap. VL— Of the City of Cairo, - - 55

Chap. Vli. — ^Of the country immediately around

Cairo, - - - - 63

Chap. VIII. — Of the Mikkias or Nilometer, and of

the rifing of the Nile, - - 66

b a SEC-

xvi

Contents*

SECTION III.

Of the Government, Arts, and Trade of Egypt.

Page

Chap. I. — Of the Nature of the Egyptian Govern-

ment, - ^ _ „ /y^ Chap. II. — Of the Grand Signlor's Officers, - 75 Chap. lit.— Of the Divan, and the Bey, ^ 77 Chap. IV. — Of the Police of the Cities, - 83 Chap. V. — Of the Egyptian Agriculture, - 8(5 Chap. Vl.^Of the Arts of fublimating Sal Ammo- niac, and of hatching Chickens, - 99 Chap. VII. — Of the trade of Egypt, - 94

SECTION IV.

Of the Manners of the Orientals in gene- ral, and particularly of the Egyptians.

Chap 1. — Of the Inhabitants of Cairo and its

Neighbourhood, - - - 1 01

Chap. IL — Of the Copts, , - - 103

Chap. III. — Of the Arabians in Egypt, - 107

Chap. IV. — Of the Drefs of the Men in the Eaft, 1 1 1

Chap, V. — Of the Drefs of the Women, - 116

Chap. VI. — Of the Diverfions of the Orientals, 1 2 1

Chap. VII. — Games in the Eaft - 128

Chap. VIIL— Of the Mufic of the Eaft, - 130

Chap. IX.— Of Dancing, as it is praftifed in the

Eaft, - . - - 137

Chap*

CONTENTS. XVli

Page

Chap. X. — Public Shews of the Eafl, ^ 143

Chap. XI — Marriages of the Egyptians, - 147

SECTION V. Egyptian Antiquities.

Chap. I. — Egyptian Antiquities in general, - 149 Chap II.— Of the Pyramids, - - 153

Chap. III. — Of .the Hieroglyphics, - - 15^

SECTION VI. Journey from Cairo to Suez and Mount Sinai.

Chap. I.- — Preparations for our Departure, - 16^ Chap. II — Voyage from Cairo to Suez, - 17» Chap. IIL— Of the City of Suez, - - 175

Chap. IV. — Particulars concerning the Arabs in

the Neighbourhood of Suez, - 178 Chap. V. — Journey from Suez to Mount Sinai, 182 Chap. VI. — Of Mount Sinai, and the Convent of ^ St Catharine, - - - 191

Chap. VII.— Our Return from Mount Sinai, 196 Chap. VIII. — Of the Mountain of Infciiptions, and

of an Egyptian Burying Place, - 20« Chap. IX.^ — Of fome Cuftoms of the Arabs in the

Defart, - - « - 207

SECTION VIL Voyage from Suez to Jidda and Loheia.

Chap. I. — Departure from Suez^ » - 212

Chap,

CONTENTS.

Page

Chap. II.— Of the Harbour of Tor, - 2 16

Chap. fll. — Voyage from Tor to Jidda, - 218

Chap. IV. — Of Jidda and its Vicinity, - 226

Chap. V. — The Government and Trade of Jidda, 234

Chap. VI. — Voyage from Jidda to Loheia, - 239

SECTION VIII.

Route from Loheia to Beit el Fakih.

Chap. L — Of our ftay at Loheia, - - 246

Chap. IL — Of the City of Loheia, - 252

Chap. in. — Of the Inhabitants of Loheia, - 256

Chap. IV.-— Departure from Loheia, - 26z

Chap. V. — Route by Tehama, - - 265

Chap. VI.— Of the City of Beit el Fakih, - 269

SECTION IX.

Excurüons through the Country about Beit el Fakih.

Chap. I. — Journey to Ghalefka, - - 275

Chap. IL— Return to Beit el Fakih, by the way of

Kodeida, - - - - 279 Chap. III.— Journey to Zebid, - - 281

Chap. IV. — Journey to Kahhme, - 287

Chap. V. — Journey to Coffee Mountains - 28p

SECTION X.

Tourney through the Mountaneous Part of Yemen.

Chap. I.— Departure from Beit el Fakih, - 294

Chap.

CONTENTS.

XIX

Page

Chap. IL— Route by Udden, - - 297

Chap. in. — From Udden to Dfjobla, - 30t

Chap. IV, — Route from Dfjobla, byTses, to H^s, 304

Chap, v.— Return to Beit el Fakih, - 309

SECTION XL

Journey from Beit el Fakih to Mokba.

Chap. I.— 'Route to Mokha, - - 313

Chap. U. — A_rrival at Mokha, - 310

Chap. in. — Difagreeable Incidents at Mokha, 319

Chap. IV Our Stay at Mokha, continued ; and

the Death of Mr Von Haven^ - 3 24

ChaD. V'—< We leave Mokha, - - 327

SECTION XIL

Journey from Mokha to Taoes,

Chap. I. — Our Progrefs to Taoes, - 331

Chap. II. — Of the City of Taoes, - ° 335

Chap. III.— -Late Revolution of Taoes, - 338

Chap, IV.—btay at Taoes, - « -241 Chap, v.— -Departure from Taoes to Sana, »

SECTION XIIL Journey to Sana.

Chap, I. — Route from Taoes to Jerim, Chap. II — Of the City of Jerim, Chap. lO —Death of Mr. Forfkal, Chap. IV.— Route from Jerim to Sana,

35® 35^ 358 360 SEC»

C O N "T E N T S.

SECTION XIV. Our Stay at Sana, in the Iman's CourL

Page

Cliap. I.— Our Arrival at Sana, - »

Cliap. IL-— Our Audience of the Iman, - ^pB

Chap. IIL— Tifit to Vizier Fakih Achmed, 401

Chap. IV. — Of the City of Sana, - - 403

Chap, v.— -Of the Country around Sana, - 407 Chap. VL-— The Pomp of the Iman's Return from

the Mofque, - - - 410

Chap. VlI.~Our Audience of taking leave, 412

Chap. Vin.-— Our Departure from Sana, ^ 415

SECTION XV.

Our Return from Sana to Mokha.

Chap. Route from Sana to Beit el Fakih, 419

Chap. IL^ — Route from Beit el Fakih to Mokha, 4^4

Chap. III.™-Of the City of Mokha, - 426 Chap. IV.— Bombardment of Mokha^ by the

French, - » - - 431

Chiip. V.~Of the Trade of Mokha - 434

NoT^s, - - - - - 439

VOYAGE

VOYAGE TO ARABIA,

AND

r RAVEL 5

In that country, "i^c.

, SECTION I.

VOYAGE FROM COPENHAGEN TO ALEXANDRIA,

Chap. I.

Departure from Copenhagen*

W HEN the gentlemen, who had been appointed to go upon this expedition of obfervation and dif- covery, were all met, we received orders from his Majefty to proceed on board a Ihip of war, com- manded by Mr Fifcher, at prefent a vice-admiral in the Danifh fervice^ who was to carry us to Smyrna* We accordingly embarked, on the 4th of January 1761 ; and, after waiting three days for a fair wind, failed out of the road of Co- penhagen on the 7th of the fame month. Vol. I. A In

10

NIEBüHR*S TRAVELS

In the beginning of our voyage, we had a ftriking proof of the dangers and hardfhips which attend the navigation of the north feas, in confeqiience of the weil winds blowing over them for nine months in the year. We had fet fail on the 7th of January, but were fo toffed by ftorms and contrary winds, that, on the 17th in defpair of being able to gain any port in Norway, we determined to return to Elfineur.

On the 26th of January, we failed from Elfi- neur a fecond time, v^^ith a fair wind, which continued to the end of the month. "W"e paffed the Categat, and advanced a good way through the North fea : But, in the beginning of Febru- ary, the w^eather became again flormy, and the wind contrary. After being tofled for feveral days fucceflively, and feeing no profpecl of a change, we, on the 9th, refolved to return to Elfineur a fecond time, and reached it on the loth. The wind blew with fuch violencCy as to carry us, in thirty hours, as far backwards as we had been able to advance forwards in nine days.

While our fiiip was thus difagreeably tofied, without making way, we were all extremely fea- fick; and efpecially Mr Von Haven, who, find- ing himfelf unable to bear it any longer, ob=- tained permiffion to go by land from Copenha- gen to Marfeilies, at which port our fliip was to touch.

On

IN APvABIA,

On the ipth of February, we failed out of the road of Ellineur a third time, in hopes of finding the winds lefs variable. But hardly had we palTed the Skalen, when a violent weft wind forced us back to Elfineur. We were now very uneafy, confidering, that we had been tolTed upon thofe feas for the fpace of 850 German miles=^, v/ithout advancing more than four miles towards the end of our voyage. But we had reafon to be happy at finding ourfelves fafe at Elfineur : Immedi- ately after our arrival there, fo furious a ftorm arofe, that, although in fome degree flieltered by the coaft, we were obliged to take every pof- fible precaution for the fafety of our fliip, juft as if w^e had been in the open fea. This (lorm a- rofe from the weft, and continued till the 5th of March,

The weather became gradually fiiir and fe- rene ; and, on the loth of March, w^e left Elfi- neur for the laft time. The wind was at firft fo brific, that v/e failed at the rate of two German leagues and a half in the hour. On the 12th it changed ; and from the 19th to the end of March, ftorms and contrary vv inds drove us as far north as to the latitude of 63^, near the coaft of Iceland. On this occafion I remarked, that the motion of a veifel is moft difagreeable im- mediately after a ftorm. In the height of a

B 2 ftorm^

* Or 2,833^ Engliih miles.

12

niebuhr's travels

ftorm, the winds incline the üiip to one iide, and keep it firm ; but, when they are calmed, the fhip naturally feels the impulfe of the waves.

In thefe latitudes, Mr Forfkall made, fome obfervations upon the phofphoric light which the fea has been remarked to exhibit. He per- cieved it to be produced by fmall marine in- fe(fts, chiefly of the Medufa fpecies, with which thofe waters are filled. Thefe infeds long re- tain the power of fhining in the dark. Happening to pour out by night a bucket of fea water, upon which thefe obfervations were made, we faw all the objeds which it tQUched, fparkle inftantly, like itfelf (a).

Spring began to come in, at the end of March, and in the beginning of April we had the fineft weather in the world. But the dead calm which fucceeded fuch a feries of ftorms, detained us in thofe northern regions till the 8th of April. A fair wind then arofe, and carried us fo brifiily for- ward, that, on the 21ft of the month, we arri- ved within light of Cape St Vnicent, which we viewed with no fmall pleafure, as we had now been long out of the fight of land.

After being tolTed in the North fea through a fiorray winter, we entered the Mediterranean in the finefc feafon of the year. Inilead of the wild Hiid bleak mountains of the North, which could

infpire

IN ARABIA, l^C» 13

infpire none but gloomy ideas, we now viewed, with admiration and delight, the rich and fmd- ing landfcapes on the coafts of Africa, and on the fouthern Ihores of Europe. Our voyage through the Mediterranean would have been quite delight- ful, if the frequent calms had not rendered us impatient, and difgufted us no lefs than the ftorms of the North had wearied and diftrefled us.

At laft, after having often tacked about, we arrived, on the 14th of May, in the road of Marfeiiies, and cafl anchor near St Euilace,

Chap. II.

Fajfage from Marfellles to Malta, and from Malta to Cou-^ Jtanim:ple*

The city of Marfellles is fo well known, and has been fo often defcribed, that it is unnecef- fary to fpeak of the beauties of its fituation, or of the multitude of villas all around it (b).

We found the harbour full of fhips belonging to different nations, that durß: not venture out to fea for fear of the Engiifli fleet, under Admi- ral Saunders. Several of them were employed in the Levant trade, on account of French, merchants, and would have been good prizes to the Engiifli.

Mr

14

niebuhr's travels

Mr Von Haven having travelled through Ger- many and France, joined us here. Here alfo wc found three Daniüi merchant fhips, which were to proceed to Smyrna, under the proteclion of our fhip of war.

After viewing all the curiofities of Marfeilles, v/e fet fail on the 3d of J une, in company with the other three Danifh fhips. Although at peace with the Englifh, yet v/e did not think ourfelves fafe from being infulted by the fleets of that nation ; as they infill upon going on board, and examin- ing even neutral vefTels. Our Captain had de- termined not to yield tofuch an infraction of the rights of nations ; and accordingly prepared for inaking a vigorous defence, if any infult of this nature fhould be offered him. As we had expe6l- ed, we fell in with Englifh fliips three differ- ent times ; and they attempted to come on board of us : But our Captain flrenuoufly refufing to fubmit to any fuch indignity, they made off with a bad grace, and fuffered us to continue our route unmxolefled.

On the 14th of June, v/e arrived at Malta» and call anchor in the grand harbour, almofl in the middle of the city Valetta, or rather of the feveral cities of which it is compofed. This ci- ty has a fine appearance, when viewed from the liabour : The houfes, with terraces on their

xoofs^

Foofs, and built againil fleep^ pointed rocks, Iiave quite an oriental afpeil.

Ail the dwelling houfes, as well as the public Buildings, are of hewn iloiie ; which is not fur- frißng^ corßderiog how eafily the materials are •f rcGured. The whole iile is one vafl rock^ co» ¥ered with a very thiii layer of vegetable earth. The rock is calcareous, and fo foft^ that^ when tcikm out of the quarry^ it may be cut almoli like

ood. From this circumftancej. a part of the forti--» Scations of the city have been hewn out in the laatural ftone.

Of the public buildings, tlie moü foperb is St John's church, which enjoys a coiiiiderable ieverjue^,.and is entitled to a lhare of the prices taken by the gallies of the Order. It has thus been enriched with a great nimiber of Yaiuable curiofitieSy. and^ among others^ a hiHre^ with a chain of pure gold^ 500^000 crowns in value"^* The riches of this church are faid to- es-ceed Ihofe of the Kaaba at Mecca, and of the tomb of Mahomet at Medina,

We were fhewn a Terkifhihip of war^ ©f 84 l^-uiis,. which had been feized and brought into- äialta by Chnilian ßaves. The king of France fcon after bought this fliip^ and reiiored it to t$he Grand Sieoior, The Order erjesd the Bac-re readily to this^ becaufe, £nce the coB»r

YSnticFiS

l6 NIEBUHR^S TRAVELS

yenticns entered into hy the kings of France and Naples with the Porte^ the Maltefe iliips have feldom gone out on expeditions a- gainft the Turks, But privateers ft ill go o-ut^ and bring in their prizes to Malta. Thefe Chri- ilian corfairs are commoniy provided with letters or marque from the prince of Monaco, or fome other Italian prince, of whofe exifterxce the Turks are ignorant. And the inhabitants of the £aft hence continue to regard Malta in the fame light in which we coniider Tripoli and Algiers.

Mr For&ali and I went together to view the ifland. It is only five German leagues in length^'% and two and a half in breadthf . The inhabi- tants live under a mild government ; and ac- cordingly cultivate this bare rock with fuck care, that it produces excellent fruits. The old capital, Civita Vecchia, is every day more and more deferted.

Near the city are fome very remarkable cata- combs, or rather fubterraneous dwellings,cut in the rock. They are foextenfive, that it has been found proper to build up the entrances into feveral of the paiTages, to prevent the curious from lohng themfelves. The remains of public halls, and of a miln, which are there obferveable, afford - reafon for thinking, that the iflanders once lived in thefe fubterraneous dwellings, or at leaft retir- ed into them in times of danger (c).

We

* Or i6| Englifh miles,— t 8|- Englifli miles.

(

m ARABIA, "ÜCe

17

We left Pvlalta on the 20th of June, and faw llo land till the ^öth, when we entered the Ar- chipelago. On the third of July, we entered the road of Smyrna, where we ftaid till the loth. A very fevere dyfentery, with which I had been at- tacked, hindered me from feeing the city, other- wife than at a diftance.

On the 13th, we reached the iße of Tenedos, where we found the interpreter of Mr Gcrhler, at that time our ambalTador at the Porte. He brought us orders to quit the fhip^ and repair in a fmall bark to Conftantinople. In this ifle we faw Turks for the firft time ; and their lan- guage and manners appeared to us fo extraordi- nafy, that we began to defpair of eafe or plea-» fure in our intercourfe with the people of the Eaft. A man of diftinclion from the continent^ however, fo far forgot the precepts of the Alco-- ran, when he vifited us, that he feemed to have come on board for no other purpofe than to drink our Captain's wine.

We left the fhip on the 19th of July, but did not land at Conftantinople till the 30th. We went immediately to Pera, where we were re- ceived by Mr Gcehler, and all lodged in his houfe ; a piece of kind attention which contri^ buted greatly to my recovery.

Vol. I

G

Chap,

i8

niebuhr's travels

Chap. IIL

Conßanihiopk»

As we were in hade to reach Egypt, we fei out from Conftantinople immediately after my recovery. I did not, therefore, fee the capital of the Ottoman empire at this time : But, on my return from Arabia, I flaid longer in that city ; and I fhall fet down here a few obferva- tions which I then made, efpecially as they feem to have been overlooked by moil other tra- vellers.

Conftantinople is undeniably a city of very coniiderable extent : Yet Kara-Agadfch, Gala-- ta, Pera, Dolma-Bagdjche, &c. are not to be confidered as fo many fuburbs : They are dif^ tin6l cities, divided by the Gulf from the capi- tal. Ejiib is the only fuburb belonging to it. And if we take in only the city of Conftanti- nople, and this fuburb, it is conftderably infe- rior in extent to either London or Paris. I dürft not meafure it geometrically : but, counting my fteps as I vv^alked round it, I found its circum- ference to be 2600 paces.

Conftantinople appears larger than it really is : for, as the houfes rife upon the fides of hills, they prefent the-mfelves in the form of an am- phitheatre^

IN ARABIA, l^C.

19

phitheatre, and thus appear t© fpread over a wide extent of ground. Towards the fea, how- ever, the city coniifts of new houfes, and is re- ceiving continual additions. Of late, they have even encroached upon the harbour and filled up fome part of it, in order to gain ground for new buildings.

It would be hard to fix the number of the in- habitants : It is ahvays fiiated too high, from a miftake incident to travellers, in eftimating the population of the cities of the Eaft. They re - gard thofe cities as equally populous, in propor- tion to their extent, with thofe of Europe. But the houfes in the Eaft are low. Perfons in eafy circumftances, chufe to have a large area behind their houfes. The palaces of the great, with theirgardens and feraglios, occupy much ground.

It is not lefs a miftake to judge of the popu* lation of thofe cities, by the numbers of people who are conftantly bufy in the ftreets. The jealoufy of the people of the Eaft lenders them un- willing to receive perfons with whom they have bufmefs, in their houfes. On this account, the artifans Vvork without doors, and fpend the whole day in open places. The ftreets are full of joiners, ironmongers, goldfniiths, jewellers, ^c. bufy in the exercife of their feveral trades. Thoufands of workmen come in the mornings, work all the day in the ftreets of Conftantiiiopk^ C 2 and

20

NIEBUHIl's TRAVELS

and return in the evening to their houfes in the cöuntry. If the fame modes of life prevailed in Europe, and the greater number of the artifans and workmen about our great cities lived in the country, thefe would then appear much more po- pulous than at prefent.

Whatever be its population, Conftantinople exhibits a delightful profped. Its harbour, one of the fmell in the world, is always full of vef- fels. The medley of fuperb mofques and pala.. ces, gardens and trees of all forts, which the ci^ ty difplays, appears remarkably llriking to a ftranger. But within, the arrangement and ap- pearance of the city, correfpond not to its fplen- dour when feen from a dillance. The itreets are almoil all narrow, dirty, and irregular ; the houfes are of wood, flight, and ill built, and ap- pear more like coops for birds than dwellings for men. Of the palaces built of llone, nothing

to be feen but the high walls that furround them. In this city, it is equally dangerous to live in ftone and in wooden houfes. In the for» nier, one is liable to be buried in ruins, by earth- quakes; in the latter, to be burnt, by the breaking out of a fire :— Thefe tvv^o fpecies of awful e- vents being equally frequent at Conilantinople.

The feraglio of the Grand Signier is a vafr, but very irregular edifice. I was not permitted to approach farther into it than the cuter court. But, vhat I mw was enough to give me a very

IN ARABIA, ^C,

high idea of the reft. I could learn nothing concerning this gate (porta) of the feraglio, that might ferve to account for the origin of the ve- ry, improper denomination of Ottoman Porte^ which is applied in Europe to the Court of the Grand Signior. Kapu in the Turkifli language, fignifies both a gate and a palace. But, when they fpeak of going to the Porte at Conftanti- nople, the palace of the Grand Vinr is always meant, where all bufinefs is tranfa6led, as well what regards the internal regulation of the em- pire, as the negociations with foreign mini- Hers.

The city is plentifully fupplicd with Vvater^ from thvtt Beuts or refervoirs, htuated at the dif- tance of three German league?. A Beut is a re~ fervoir in a valley, into which water is conducl- ed from the higher grounds circumjacent, and there confined by a ftrong wall. The water col- leded in this manner is conveyed into the town by aqueduds, which have been conftrucled at a vaft expence, in coufequence of the ground be- ing fo unequal. It is not to the Greek empe- rors that the Turks owe thefe noble works. One of them was raifed by Sult^in Mahfnoud ^ and another upon the north ßde, with the bran- ches communicating with it, was but lately con- ilrucled by Sultan Muftapha, who was on the throne when I was at Conftantinople. As this

water

22

niebuhr's travels

water cannot be equally diftributed through the whole city, on account of the inequality of the ground, water-houfes are eilablillied in proper places, from which it is ferved out to every per- fou gratis, Oppoiite to the outer gate of the feraglio, is a houfe fplendidly decorated, where perfons paid by the public, prefent water to the paßengers, in vefiels of gilt copper.

This capital of a great empire is almoil de- fiitute of means of defence. A double wall^ and a ditch nearly filled up, are all its fortifica- tions. The Turks truil for the fecurity of the city to four caftles, built upon the two channels which terminate in the fea of Marmora, and communicating one of them with the Archipe- lago, and the other with the Black Sea. Thofe caftles, known by the name of the Dardanelles, are but of little moment. But the channels are fo narrow and crooked, that a fleet which were to attempt to fail up either, even with the moft favourable wind, could hardly efcape being funk by the difcharge of the batteries. The bed mode of attacking Conftantinople by fea, would be to block up the mouth of the channels, and thus deprive the city of the fupplies of pro- yifions which it receives from the Archipelago.

The city of Galata, fnrrounded with a fi:rong wall, and rifing upon a fieep height over againfl Conftantinople, is extremely populous. All the

Europeaii

iN ARABIA, Wc,

1»

European traders, and many of the Eaftern Chrif- tians live there. Pera is a fuburb to Galata. In it refide the ambafladors of fuch Chriltiaii powers as fend public minillers to the Porte, The deputies which come by turns from Algiers, Tunis, Tripolis, and Ragufa, lodge at Conftan- tinople. But, the Turks confider not thefe de- puties as ambafladors ; nor yet the Kapu Kiajas^ who manage the affairs of the princes of Wala- chia, and Moldavia,

The Sultan has many houfes of pleafure, both in the neighbourhood of the capital, änd on the lliores on the channel of the Black Sea, But the reigning Sultan goes no where but to Ka?'n Agadfch, the gloomy, folitary, fituation of whicli fuits the melancholy complexion of his mind. He is fuiTering the others to fall into ruins : He has caufed feveral of them to be pulled dov/n, and the materials to be employed in building public baths and mofques.

The Greeks have three and twenty churches in Conftantinople, and the Armenians three ; excluflve of thofe which the tv/o nations have in. the fuburbs. A clergyman refides at Pera, on vrhom the Pope confers the pompous title cf Archbiiliop, placing him at the head of a great many imaginary bifliops. By the laws, no ftrange feci is fuflered to build houfes of prayer in the capital. Yet, feveral fedls hold their

meetings

24 ki^ibuhr's travels

meetings therq, without being checked hy Go« vernment.

Chap. IV,

yyage from Conßantlnople to Alexandria,

AssooN as I was fo much recovered as to be able to travel, we prepared tofet out. At Alex- andria we might have ventured to appear in the European drefs ; as the inhabitants of that city are accuftomed to fee a great number of Franks, But, through the reft of Egypt, and in Arabia, our drefs, confifting of fo many pie- ces, and fo different from the beautiful fimplicitj of the eaftern drefs, might have expofed us to inconveniencies. We therefore refolved to af- fume the Turkifli drefs ; and having obtained, by means of Mr Goehler, a paffport from the Sultan, with letters of recommendation, we cm- barked on board a veifel belonging to Dolcigno, We fet fail on the iith of September, and on the 15th' reached the Dardanelles. All veflels leaving Conftantinople are vifited by an officer of the cuftoms, whofe buiinefs is to prevent the defertion of flaves, and the defrauding of the re- venue of the eftabliibed dues.

Durhig

IN ARAL 1 A, ^C.

During the ftay, which, in confequence of this., we were obliged to make before one of the caftles, called Hum. Kalla^ I was confirmed in the opinion which I had before taken up of the inutility of thofe Boghas H{ffar, or Dardanelles. Every thing about them is negleifled : cannons^ of an enormous bore, charged w^ith ftones, lie ufelefs on the ground. But I obferved fome- thing elfe, which w^ould ,ferve to retard a neet advancing to attack Conltantinople ; the fhal- lows between that city and the Dardanelles.

On the 17th of September, we again hoifted our fails, and palling the iiles of the Archipelago, cad anchor on the 2i{l in the harbour of Rhodes. We there fell in with the Captain Pacha, with fome Ihips of war. The iilanders are not fond of being vifited by the imperial fleets ; both be- caufe they are expelled to make prefents to the admiral, and becaufe the failors are infufierably infolent.

We faw an inftance of the fear which thofs undifciplined crews every where infpire. When we landed, we went immediately to the houfe of the Danifh Conful ; but found his doors Üiut, to keep out the failors ; and on account of our Turkiüi drefs, could not obtain admiffion^ till we met with an honefl Capuchin, who knew us for Europeans, and introduced us. The Con- ful fent his interpreter to accompany us in fome

Vol, 1. ' C ^ littk

26

NIEBÜHK^S TRAVELS

little excurfions, which curioüty induced tis to make through the illand,

Th© city of Rhodes ftill exhibits feveral things to remind the traveller that it was once inhabit, ed by the knights of the order of St John, who* upon their expulfion hence by the Turks, were fixed at Malta. It contains a number of noble old buildings, fome of which are decorated with the armorial bearings of fome of the moft ancient families in Europe, But the palace which be- longed to the Grand Mafter of the Order, is now falling into ruins. The Turks negled: the for-= tifications • although they might know their importance, from having befieged the illand fo long before they could make themfelves mafters of it* But^ notwithftanding this negledl^ Rhodes is one of the befl fortified places in the Ottoman empire, and the Turks think it impregnable.

In this city we had the curiofity, for the firft time, to go to dine in a Turkifii inn. Dinner was ferved up to us in the open fiireet, upon a large fiione feat, connected with the kitchen-wall : the meat was in a coarfe, ill-fafliioned, earthen plate ; and we eat it without knife or fork. We had an excellent dinner, and were charged high. We went thence to drink fome wine at a Jew's houfe, who valued himfelf on fupplying it $p all fi:rangers. He had two handfome girls with Mm, whom he called his daughters, and who

fpoke

IN ARABIA, iSc,

^7

fpoke Italian well. Our entertainmtm at his houfe coll us much dearer than oilr Turkifli meal.

There are a great many Greeks in the ifle of Rhodes, but they are not fufFered to live in the city. MelTrs Von Haven and Cramer witnelTed an inftance of the ill treatment which that peo- ple fuffer from their conquerors. My compa- nions had gone with fome Greeks to vifit their biihop, in a village near the city. While they were with him, fome Turkifh nmficians made their appearance, and inlifled upon entertaining the good prelate with mufic, which he had no delire to hear. Although he refufed their con- cert, the muficians would be paid ; and did not retire without infiilting him and his com- pany.

We fet fail early in the morning of the 2 2d of September. Hitherto, we had failed near the coafts, and among iflands ; and it would confequently have been vain to make obfer- vations on the courfe we failed. But, in the open £ea, we had foon an opportunity of remark- ing the ignorance of the Turks in every thing relative to navigation. The mailer of our fhip had compaffes and feveral inflruments, but knew not what ufe to make of them. They were pro- bably apart of the plunder which he had taken in fome Chriftian Ihip : for the Dokignots often

G 2 give

mEBUHR^S TRAVELS

give themfeives out for Algerines, and take Eu- ropean iliips belonging to powers at peace with the Porte. In the courfe of our voyage, our Bolcignot was afraid of being taken himfelf : for it w^as reported that the Maltefe, or rather fome privateers, with letters of marque from fome Italian prince, were at that time fcowring thofe feas. V/e could not have made a glorious defence ; our fhip was a heavy failer, and over- laden, with only a few rufty guns not properly

mounted(DV

Our ikilfül Gaptain held for Alexandria, bj chance. Luckily for us, a very favourable wind fprung up, and carried us ftraight into the har- bour in the day ; otherwife, I know not how we eould have efcaped the greateft dangers. The Ihores of Egypt are fo low, that they cannot be feen from a diftance, and a fliip approaching, without knov^dng her courfe, can hardly fail run a-ground.

Our Captain, his fecretary, and two pilots, fpoke Italian tolerably well. The fecretary had been at Venice, in different other Italian cities^ and yen at Vienna, where he received the folio wing in-= formation. When we afked him. if there were any Pagans in the Turkifh empire, he replied ; ^' No ; but, in Germany and Hungary there

are : they are called Lutherans, and have no f notions of God and his prophets." At ano-

IN ARABIA, Wc.

ther time, when the truth of the Chriftian Re- ligion was mentioned, he rofe in a fury, and ex- claimed : They who believe in any other di- " vinity, but God only, are oxen and alTes." After reafoning fo forcibly, he went off without waiting to hear any reply.

This zealous fecretary was at the fame time Imam, or almoner of the veiTeL The Imam's bufinefs is to dired: the crew in their evening prayers, which the Mahometans perform regu- larly after wafliing. The Imam then fpreads his carpet, kneels with his face tov^^ards Mecca, and mutters his prayers, proflrating himfelf from time to tim.e, and crying Allah Akhar, God is Great. The aifembly repeat his words, and re~ gularly imitate his motions and geftures. One thing effential, is, to put the thumbs behind the ears, to mark the perfecl: abftraclion of the mind from all worldly cares, and the elevation of the folil towards heaven,

Befide this public evening prayer, the Maho- metans are directed by law to fay other prayers, in the courfe of tieir avocations, whenever they find themfelves moil difpoied to the duty. They make no difficulty of difplaying their humility and devotion before fpedators. I was at firil afraid to diilurb them by my prefence, and at- tempted to retire ; but molt of them prefTed me to remain and join them. It is only the info-

lence

/

3^ niebuhr's travels

knee 3f the populace, that hinders Chriftians from entering mofques, or witneffing their ads of devotion.

In our fhip, which was too full, the Muful- man pafTengers were feated on the decks. We had hired the captain's apartment, with ano- ther long room adjoining, in order to feparate ourfelves from the Turks. In a cabin above us were lodged fome flaves intended for the market, girls who had received a good education in the Turkifh mode, arid were deftined for the Haram ©f fome grandee. Mr Forlkal and I, one day, w^hile w^e were in our chamber, overheard a fe- male voice, and fet our heads to the window, to obferve whence it came. Thofe flaves obferving lis to be ftrangers, cried out, and fcolded us. But one of them foothed the reft. We held out to them fruits and fugar ; and they put down their handkerchiefs to receive what they liked. As v/e and they had no common language to converfe in, v/e converfed by ligns. The young- eft addreifed ^ few words to m.e, feverai differ- ent times. To knov/ their purport, we alked the clerk of the fliip, to explain the meaning of a greatmanyTurkifhv/ordsandphrafes,andatlength came to underftand, that the girl had warned us to beware of appealing at the window, except when the crev/ were at prayers. Thofe females became at laft fo familiar v/ith us, as to give us

notice

iN ARABIA, ^C.

notice by knocking at the window, whenever they w^ere alone. This imprudent frolic amuf- ed us a few moments ; but it might have occa- ßoned us much ferious trouble ; and w^e came afterw^ards to underftand, wiiat extreme folly it is to make the llighteft acquaintance with Turk- ifli women.

In the evening of the 2,6th of September, we arrived at Alexandria, and anchored in the great harbour, which Chriftian fliips are not permit^ ted to do ; they are obliged to anchor in the fmall harbour, w^hich is very dangerous. The paßengers w^ent immediately on fliore ; but the ilaves remained till night, and were carried away with the utmoil fecrecy.

Eight of the crew had died fcmewhat fudden- ly in the courfe of the voyage ; v/hich made us afraid that the plague might be among us. Hap« pily our fears proved vain; for our phyfician, who vifited feverai of thofe perfons, w^hile they ■were ill, found no fymptoni of peflilential infec^ tion among them(E).

SECTION

3^

SECTION II.

ÖF EGYPT IN GENERAL.

Ghap. t.

Of the City of Alexandria

Alexandria, or Ecandria, as tlife Turlcs and Arabs call it, is lituate upon a narrow ifthmus, between a peninfula and the walls of the ancient city, and dividing the two harbours. The ground on which the modern city Hands, feems to have arifen out of the waters. Although long fmce diyefled of its ancient fplendour, yet the remains of the magnificent buildings which it once poUeiTed,— palaces, temples, and mofques, ■with a plentiful intermixture of palm-trees,— give this city an afpecl of beauty and dignity 3; when viewed from the harbour.

Its antiquities, and the remains of its ancient fplendour, have been defcribed by fo many tra- vellers, that I fhall barely infert a few remarks which feem to have efcaped the notice of o- thers.

According

IN AkABiA,

33

According to the defcriptions which Greek and Latin v^riters have left of old Alexandria, that citj inuil have been of vafl extent. But its ruins, in their prefent ftate, do not mark its original circumference. The Mahometans ia general, and efpecially the inhabitants of Alex-* andria, break down the fined monuments of an- tiquity, to employ the fragments in the moll wretched flruclures imaginable. Whenever they are at any lofs for materials for building, they fcrupie not to dig up the foundation-ftones of the ancient walls and palaces. If one happens to find a beautiful column in his garden, he will rather make mill-fiones of it, than preferve it.

There fi:ill exifts one noble remain in the city, v\;hich could neither be broken nor carried a- way : — The Oheliß of Cleopatra^ a fingle piece of red granite. Although a part of its bafe be fi,mkinto the earth, it ftill rifes above ground to the height of fixty two feet ; the circumference of the bafe is feven feet and a half. It is infcrib- ed with feme ancient charaders, engraven an inch deep; but the modern Egyptians cannot read them.

Another monument, the famous pillar of Pom-- fey, owes alfo its prefervation to its bulk. It was ereded in ancient Alexandria, but ftands at prefent, at the diilance of a quarter of a league from the New Town. As travellers

Vol. I. D difler

34 NIE.BUHR's TRAVELS'

differ in their accounts of its height, I thought proper to make a careful meafurement of it. The column meafured eighty nine feet, exclu- -live of the bafe, which is five feet high. It con- lifts of three blocks of red granite. Norden law its bafe in a fhattered condition ; but it has been lince repaired, by a perfon of the name of Mohammed FJchurhatfchu There are fome a- mong the Turks, lefs hoilile than the generality to the remains of antiquity(E).

Many catacombs, or fubterranean apartments, cut in the rocks, are to be feen in the neighbour- hood of this city. I examined thofe excava- tions ; there can be no doubt of their having been ufed chiefly as tombs. There are fome, however, which I fhould rather fuppofe to have been granaries. What are called Pompey's baths are likev/ife grottoes cut in the fame rock : which is a foft calcareous flone,like that at Mal- ta, and may be very eaiily wrought. . New Alexandria owes its prefent Hate to the Arabs, who inclofed it with a very thick wall, near fifty feet high. This v/all, which is becom- ing ruinous, and a fmall fort upon the peninfu-. la, with a garrifon of fifty foldiers, are all the means that the city polTeßes for its defence. Eut its Governor depends on the Facha of Kahi-- ra ; and, of confequence, not on the ariilocracy of the Beys but on the Grand Signier.

The

IN ARABIA, v5'f. ~ 35

The fineft building in the city is a mofque, which, in the time of the Greek -empire, was a church dedicated to St Athanafius. It is ve- ry large, and ornamented vvith noble columns. A great number of Greek manufcripts are ftill faid to be preierved within it. But, as no Chrif- tian dare examine any thing within a mofque, I faw only its outfide (f).

The CoUs have a Church dedicated to St

J.

Mark, in w^hich they fhow the tomb of that E- vangelift ; but it has never been opened, lince fome priefts of the Roman Communion made an attempt to carry away the head of the Saint* 1 know not how this tradition is to be reconcil- ed with that of the Venetians, Vv^ho pretend to be in polTeflion of this precious relick. The Catholic priefts, indeed, boaft of having out- witted the Copts and Mahometans, by decollat- ing the Saint, packing up his head properly, and making it pafs for falted pork, that it might not be infpecled by the Officers of the Cuflom^s. The Turks have abfolutely forbidden the exporta- tion of dead bodies or mummies ; fo that it is no eafy matter, in thefedays, to convey the bodies of the ancient inhabitants out of Egypt. How- ever, as the cuftomhoufe of Alexandria is at prefent under the dire(5tion of Jews, we found means to procure one mummy, and carry it on board an Italian vefTel. But wx v>^ere obliged D % to

36

KiEB^UHR's TRAVELS

to return it ; for all the Italian failors threaten- ed to leave the ihip, if the Captain did not fend away that Pagan carcafe, which could not fail to bring fome mifchief upon them.

Alexandria has fallen by degrees from its grandeur, population, and v^^ealth. The filling up of the branch of the Nile, upon which this city ftands, and v^/hich is now no longer naviga- ble» is what has chiefly contributed to its de- cline. It is however cleanfed from time to time, as it fupplies the city with fpft water, which could be no where elfe obtained. The magni- ficent refervoirs of old Alexandria ftill remain ; they vv^ere intended to contain v^ater for the ufe cf the city, through the whole year ; which was received into them at the time of the overflow- ing of the Nile,

This city might be in a more flourifhing con- -dition ; did not difadvantages of all forts concur to deprefs it. Its inhabitants appear to have a natural genius for com^merce ; were it not check- ed by the malignant influence of the Govern- ment. I have no where met with fo many peo- ple who could fpeak the Europeati languages, and even thofe of the North of Europe, corred« ly. The inhabitants of Alexandria are in ufe to enter as failors on board Chriftian fhips ; and when they have feen the world, and learned fome langua^esj they return home, and become

couriers^

IN ARABIA, ^C,

37

«:oiiriers, or interpreters to tlie nations tliey have ferved. The Mabometans have com- monly a great averfion at living among Chrif- tlans, becaafe tliey cannot join in the ceremo. nies of their religion. The modern Egyp- tians, being lefs attached than the other MuM- mans to the peculiarities of their religion and manners, are fitter for commercial intercourfe with the Europeans.

The trade of Alexandria is, notwithilanding» very trifling ; although aim oft all the nations of Egypt have confuls here. But, as m.oil part of thofe articles of traffic which are im.ported into into Egypt, pafs by Alexandria, the cuftoms afford aconfiderable fum to the Sultan annually.

The Arabic is the ordinary language of the rative inhabitants, both here and through ail Egypt. Europeans, unflsiilled in Arabic, fpeak Italian, which is ftill not a little ufed in thefe countries (g).

Several tribes of Vv^andering Arabs are conti- nually roaming about through Lov/ er Egypt ; and often approach near to Alexandria. The inhabitants pay fome contributions. But thofe troops pillage the country, fo that Government is obliged to fend foldiers to reduce them, or drive them into the more remote provinces. Dur- ing our ft ay at Alexandria, fome hundreds of thofe jobbers encamped within a quarter ^of a league

of

3S niesuhr's travels

©f the city. They diftreßed the hiifbandmenj and plundered the travellers.

Thofe Arabs, one day, exhibited a fcene ivhich we could fee from the terrace on the roof of our houfe. According to their cuftom, a great number had flipped into the city, one by one, to avoid frightening the inhabitants. One of their Schiechs, to try fome powder and ball, which he had juft bought in afliop, difcharged his piece againll an oppoiite houfe : The proprietor complaining, the Schiech treated him as he would one of his own fubjeds in the defert. The people of the city gathered round them, and were preparing to revenge the infult offered to their fellow-citizen. Some Arabs ran in to de<= fend their chief ; and the inhabitants gathered in greate r numberson their lide. The quarrel produced a combat, which began with a volley of flones, and ended with the difcharge of guns. The Arabs, at laft, retired out of the city, leav- ing feveral of their number dead, and feveral prifoners. Next day, their camp beiieged the city, and carried away the cattle of the inhabi- tants from the pafcures : But, within two days, peace was reflored, and the booty and prifoners delivered up on both fides.

The excurfions and rudenefs of thefe Arabians were not the only circumftances that obliged me to reprefs my curiofity. The ftupidity and ig- norance

IN ARABIA, 'iSc.

39

norance of the native inhabitants, who viewed my meafuring apparatus with diftruft and fear, were not lefs unfavourable to the fuccefs of my enquiries and obfervations. A Turkifh merchant, obferving me diredl my inftrument towards the city, had the curioiity to look into the giafs, and was furprifed to fee a tower turned uplide down. He immediately fpread a report, that I wi ts come to overturn the city : It was mention- e i to the Governor ; and my janilTary would no longer v^alk out with me, when I propofed car- rying my infcruments with me. Near a village of the Delta, an honell peafant paid great atten- tion to my operations, as I was taking different angles. To fnew him fomething curious, I made him look through the fame glafs. He was greatly alarmed te fee the village, to which he belonged, Handing uplide down. My fervant told him, that Government were offended with that vil- village, and had fent me to deftroy it. He in- fcantly intreated me to wait but a few moments, that he might have time to fave his wife and his cow. He then ran in great hafte tov^ards his houfe ^ and I v/ent again on board my boat.

Chap.

V

iSflEBUHR's TRAV2LS

Chap. II.

^ ''y^-S^ /r^;?? Alexandria io Roßtfa,

The European travellers wlio have vifited E-^ gypt, having generally paffed from Alexandria to Kahira by Rafchid, and upon the Nile ; we were tempted to prefer the way by land. But^ the country being infefted by the wandering A- rabs, as I have already mentioned, we found our defign to be inipradicable. Mr Forilial, v/hen travelling the country upon another occafion, found that our fears h^d not been groundlefs. He was entirely ilripped by thofe Arabs, who, with a generofity very uncommon with them, left him his draw ers.

In winter, the paiTage between Alexandria and Rafchid is fo dangerous, that many vefiel^ are loft in the Boghas^ or mouth of the Nile.. Although that river was not yet greatly fallen, our flat boat was feveral times a-ground. The fl<:ipper excufed thefe accidents, by faying, that the bed of the river changed frequently in thefe parts. The num.ber of lhallows upon the coaft makes the Egyptians very eafy with refpedi: to the approach of hofcile fleets ; and they are fuffering the old forts on the banks of the Nile to fall into ruinsg

After

IN ARABIA, i^C,

4%

After ftruggling with contrary winds, we ar=. rived, on the 2d of November, at Rofetta, as it is called in Europe, or Rafchid, in the lan- guage of the country. This city is of a confme- rable lize, and ftands upon an eminence, whence opens a charming proiped: of the courfe of the Nile, and a part of the Delta. It ferves as a llaple for the trade between Alexandria and Ca- iro^. The boats of the latter city proceed no farther than to Rofetta, where they lade with goods brought by the veiTels of Alexandria, which never advance up the river. For this reafon, the French and Venetian confuls refide at Rofetta, as well as feveral European mer- chants, who m^anage the conveyance of goods |)elonging to their friends.

Near this city are Ihewn what are thought to be the ruins of the ancient Campus, Laft year, twenty beautiful marble columns were dug up there, which have been conveyed to Cairo, What is more certain, is, that in ancient times, and probably even fo late as the lixth century, there was another branch of the Nile, palling by thofe ruins, and difcharging itfelf into the fea, at Abukir. But it is now filled up with fand, which the wind carries about in great quantities in thefe fandy countries.

The Europeans fpeak much of the politenefs of the inhabitants of Rofetta. Our ftay in that

Vol. L E city

* Or Kahira*

4'2 NIEBUHR'S TRAVELS

city miglit, therefore, have been more agreeahle than in any of the other cities of Egypt. But we had no time to lofe, and were in hafte to reach Cairo«

Chap. IIL

Voyage from Rofetta to CairCo

We left Rofetta on the 6th of November, and two days after pafTed Fue, once a comiderable city, and the ftaple of the trade between Alex-' andria and Cairo. ' The canal between Alex= andria and Fue is no longer navigable ; and Fue entirely deferted. ' The Nile carries fo much' of the foil from the lands, that it gradually fills up the canals ; although they are cleanfed from time to time ; but in a fuperficial enough man- ner. The earth taken out of the canals forms thofe mounts which are obferved in the Delta^ änd which appear ftrange in io flat a country as Egypt.

In this feafon, when the country is all ver- dant, it is very pleafant to fail up the Nile. A number of villages are fcattered along each fide of the river. The houfes arc indeed low, and built of unburnt bricks ; but, intermixed as they axe with palm trees^ and pigeon-houfes of a fm«

gular

IM ARABIA, ^ 43

gular form, thej prefent to the eye of the ftran- ■ger, an vincommon and pleanng profpecl. Near feveral cf thefe villages are feen large heaps of the ruins of ancient cities.

The navigation of the Nile would be ilill more agreeable, were it not infefted by pirates- But, when a great number of people are oil board of a veflel, they keep on their guard ; they difcharge a few fnots from time to time, to fhew, that they are provided with fire arms ; this keeps the robbers in awe, and renders the paßage lefs dangerous. There is much m^ore danger in trufting to a Reis, or m-ailer of a vef- fel, with whom you are unacquainted^ who may favour tile robbers, and fhare their plunder^ Whole villages are faid to follov/ this trade ; and for this reaion the boats never ftop in their neighbourhood. The inhabitants on the banks of the Nile are very dexterous in the art of fwimming, v/hich they frequently exercife in fcealing from the boats, if not Vv^ith open force^ jet with a degree of addrefs and audacity wor-- thy of the moil noted pick-pockets.

Some Turks related to me a reccn; inflance of the addrefs and audacity of thofe robbers, or rather thieves. The fervants of a Pacha, newly arriv« ed, caught one of them in the ad, feized himr and brought him before the Pacha. He threat-- ened him with, inflant death but the rogue E -2 ^ af^ed

44

JSflEBUHR's TR AVE is

aiked leave to exhibit one of his tricks ; faying^ that he hoped, his dexterity might procure his pardon. He obtained leave. Then coliedling feveral efFed:s in the tent, he wrapped them up^ coolly, in the mode in which the Egyptians wrap up their clothes when they are to pafs a river. After playing fome time with this par- cel, he put it on his head, threw himfelf into the Nile, and, before the Turks were fo far re- covered from their furprife, as to level their mufquets at him, was fafe on the oppofite bank.

Through all Lower Egypt, I faw no croco- diles in the two great branches of the Nile up which I failed. The Egyptians fancy, that in ihe Mikkias near Cairo, there is a talifman, the virtue of which hinders thofe amphibious ani- mals from defcending lower in the river (h).

On the loth of November, we reached Bidak ; which may be confidered as the Port of Cairo^ as all boats that come by the Nile difcharge their paffengers and cargoes at this place.

«

IN ARABIA, ^C.

45

Chap. IY.

From Cairo to Damietta^

Having, in advancing to Cairo, examined one öf the great branches of the Nile, I was defirous of feeing the other between Cairo and Damiet- ta. The maps of this part of Kgy^t, called, both by the ancients, and by the modern Euro- peans, the Delta, are extremely defedive. I was defirous of fupplying their defeds, and cor- reding their errors. My map of the courfe of the Nile, exhibits my geographical obfervations upon this part of the country, and may at the fame time ferve to dired the reader, who chufes to trace my route with his eye.-

I was prevented by the rains and other eir- cumflances, from accomplifliing my intention, till the month of May, next year. But the de- lay turned out to my advantage. I gained fome knowledge of the language of the country, and became more familiar with the manners of the Eait. Mx Baurenfeind, too, who,

fince

* As this map of the Nile refpeds only a very fmall part öf thefe travels, and does not fecm equal to that lately publiih- ^ by our countryman, IVIj Bruce, I have not inferted it. T.

4.5 - NIEEUHP.'S TRA;v £L3

iince his arrival at Cairo, had Icarce ever goiie abroad^ now deterijiined to acconipary nie.

We fet out from Bulak, on the iil of May 1 762 J failing at firfl: very gently down the Nile. From Cairo to the Delta, the river is very large^ ivith fmall iiles fcattered through it; which, ■when the riter overflows, are often trarifported? by the impetiiofity of the fcream, from one fitu- ation to another. This occafions frequent dif- putes among the villagers on the banks of the river, Biit^ at this time, the Nile was fo low, that our boat was feverai times a-ground. W e might have proceeded v/ith the ftream, in the calm, during night, had we not been afraid of pirates. A north wind blows ufaally through the day, and oppoies the progrefs of boats dov^ii the river. Violent blaits fometimes arife, and 'bear land and dull: before them, darkening the air, and endangering the fafety of the boatSj, which are commonly very indifferent failers.

Ail the villages have, indeed, guards to watch the approach of pirates, and warn paifen- gers. But, thole yery guards often join v^ith ' the inhabitants- of the villages, and fit out barks themfelvey, to plunder thofe whom they Ihould' proted:.

Slfta, at which we arrived on the 3d of May,, is a pretty conüderable village, betvvcen Cairo and Damietta. It is the property of an old

IN ARABIA, l^fC, 47

KifljCir-^Aga, from ConfcanliRople, living at pre- lent in retirement ar Cairo; wlio keeps here a Kahicican, or bailiit. It has three mofques, and ?v church belonging to the Copts, the congrega- tion of which coniifts of three hundred families^ Thofegood people aßied me to fee rieir church : it is ill-built, dirtVj and hung with cobwebs. Dur- ing the public vvorüiip, they ftand, leaning on their ftaves. Tlieir churches are adorned vv'ith bad paintings. I faw one in which Jefus Chriftj and the Eleffed Virgin, with feveral of the Saints, appeared mounted proudly on horfe- back.

We faw, in the courfe of our voyage, feveral boats which w^e fufpecled to belong to pirates : but none of them ventured to attack us. We faw, lihewife, feveral rafts laden v^ith pots and other earthen ware from Upper Egypt. Thofe car- goes of earthen ware are fixed upon very light planks of the timber of the palm tree, joined into a raft, the progrefs of v/hicli is directed by fix or eight men with poles in their h.ai:. lif- ter felling their cargoes at Damietta, they walk home. They defend themfel^xs very dexterouf- ly, wdthilings, againd robbers.

We pafl^ed near by Mapjlira, where St Lewis was made prifoner. It feemed of the fame fize as Damietta, A wall has been built upon the l)ranch of the river near the city, to hinder the

water

48

NIEBUHiR.'s TRAVELS

water from entering the canal that communi- cates with the lake of Babeira, in a larger quan- tity than is requilite for watering the fields of rice, of which a great deal is raifed in this part of the country.

Below Manfura we met twenty boats laden with bee-hives, which they were bringing up to make honey on the banks of the river.

In each boat were two hundred hives, four houfand in all. The Sandyak of Manfura lay in the neighbourhood, with a party of forty Haves and dameftic?, to levy the tax due upon the bees.

On the 5th of May, we arrived at I>amietta. This city is Qt leafl as advantageoully fituated, as Rofetta. The imports from Syria enter at this port ; and it has alfo a great trade in rice, of which there is much raifed in the neighbour- hood. Yet, no Chriftian merchant, or Euro- pean m.onk, refides here ; although there be in Damietta, a confiderable number of Maronites and Armenians, who communicate with the Church of Rome.

A Conful, and French merchants, once refided in Damietta. But, the inhabitants obferving that thofe ftrangers made too free with their women, rofe up in a fury, and malTacred them all. Since that period the King of France has

forbiddei^

IN ARABIA,

49

forbidden Iiis fubjeds not only to fettle in this city J. but even to frequent it. The inhabitants of Damietta are generally reckoned more un- friendly to the Chriilians, than any of the other inhabitants of Egypt. The memory of the Cru- fades, perhaps, keeps up this inveterate averhon. But, as we wore the Turkifli drefs, and fpoke the language of the country tolerably, we had nothing to fear.

In the neighbourhood of this city are many i:ice fields^ But towards the fhore, the ground is covered with. fand,, and confequently barren. To travel by land from Damietta to Rofetta, it is only a journey of a day and a half. But the road is infeiled by robbers, and very dangerous.

As I was fo near the lea, I went to fe^ the Boghas, two German leagues below Damietta. This mouth of the Nile is not lefs dangerous to veßels than that at Rofetta. It w^as formerly defended by a fort ; but the garrifon have been frightened aw^ay by apparitions. I \ifited it in company wath fomxC Mahometans, who faid thei^ prayers very devoutly in that abode of fpirits^ This w^as the only time, I remarked this fpecies of fuperftition among the Mufulmans ^ appari- tions are unknown in Arabia.

The lake of Baheira extends from Damietta to Ghajfa, I fhould have Vv^ifned to fee a lake fo famous am.ong the ancients, and in the coun-

VoL. I. F try

5©

niebühr's travels

try around whofe banks there ftill are fuch mag- nificent remains of a number of great cities, t might have examined, at the fame time, feveral modern cities, well worthy of the notice of the curious ; fuch as Demifchli^ where is a manufac- ture of beautiful ftuffs ; Bilbays ?ind Tafnal, in which are fome noble mi^onuments. But the in- habitants of Baheira being poor, and from their infulated fituation almoft independent, are to be dreaded equally by land and water. They rob. all travellers, without diftinftion. I found it therefore prudent to decline gratifying my cu% riofity.

A number of the villages on the banks of the Nile belong to Beys who relide ^t Cairo. The Copts, who are fecretaries to thofe noblemenj, might have given me information concerning the nature of the tenure, if I had been carried to confult them. In my map of the courfe of the Nile, I haye inferted the names of all the places I faw, far and near, ßut, I have had no, fmall difficulty in writing down thefe names ; both from the diverfity of di^lecjlis in the coun- try, and from the indiftindl pronunciation of thofe from whom I was obliged to alk them.

We left Damietta on the 12th of May ; and ^he wind blew fo^fair, that v/e reached Bulak^ en the I5thc

In ARABIA,

51

Chap. V.

Of the Ancient Cities of Lower Egypt.

Ancient hiftorians and geographers, enume- rate fuch a multitude of cities in Egypt, that it feems to be at prefent quite a defart in com pa- rifon with what it was in the days of antiquity. New cities have indeed arifen, but thefe are mere trifles, compared with the number, the ex- tent, and the magnificence of the ancient. All the remains of monuments referable to the moil remote antiquity, befpeak the hand of a nume- rous and opulent people, who have entirely dif- appeared.

When, however, we refiedl on the revolutions which this country has undergone, and upon the length of time during which it has been under the dominion of ftrangers ; we can no longer be furprized at the decline of its wealth and population. It has been fucceffively fubdu-- ed by the Peril ans, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabians, and the Turks : — has enjoyed no in- terval of tranquillity and freedom 5 but has been conftantly opprelTed and pillaged by the li§u* tenants of a diftant lord. Thofe ufurpers and their fervants having no other views, but to draw F 2 as

52

NIEBUHR's tRAVlir

as large a revenue as poffible from an opulent province, fcarce left the people bare means of fubfiilence. Agriculture wa:s ruined by the mi- feries of the hufbandmen ; and the cities decay- ed with its decline. Even at^prefent, the popu- lation is decreafmg ; and the peafant, although in a fertile country, miferably poor ; for the e^^- adlions of Government, and its officers, leave him nothing to lay out in the improvement and cul- ture of his lands ; while the cities are falling in- to ruins, becaufe the fame unhappy reftraints render it impoffible for the citizens to engage in any lucrative undertaking.

It would be difficult to afcertain the fituatioii of the ancient cities. The places in which they fi:ood are commonly marked by dykes, which had been raifed to ffielter them from inunda- tions. Elevations appear here and there over the plains ; and thofe always contain ruins, which have been gradually covered over by accumula- tions from the river, and by fand depoüted by the v.'inds. The fpots, that either conceal in this manner, or openly difplay remains of ruined ci- ties, are aftonifhingly numerous.

The quantity of thefe ruins would be great- er ilill, if the inhabitants did not carry them, away piecemeal, and employ them in the con- llruclion of new buildings. In fearch of ma- terials for buiidingy they are conilantly turning

over

IN ARABIA, S3

t)ver the ruins ; and they not only dig up the ground, but even riddle the earth taken out, in hopes of finding in it gold or gems. A friend of mine, the lord of a village, near the remains of an ancient city, made me a prefent of the fi- gure of a fcaraboeus, of old Egyptian workman - fhip, which had been found by fome of his pea- fants, in digging up the earth in this manner. It is of burnt clay, covered with a thick coating of varnifli. It is a proof, that thofe people had moulds with which they impreffed particular fi- gures on the clay, before putting it into the fire.

The eaitern part of the Delta, which has been, as yet, but little frequented by the Eu- ropean travellers, is not lefs rich in antiquities than that which is better known. The frequen- cy of robbers, and the loofenefs of the police, in that remote diftrid, deters thp curious.- Yet one might vifit thofe parts without danger, by- accompanying the Copts, of whom great num- bers go every year, in pilgrimage to an ancient church, near Geniiana,

Some Arabs mentioned to Mr Forikal the jQames of feveral of thofe places in which the Jews anciently dwelt, and of which the ruins itill fubfift. Thofe names do, indeed, all indi- cate fomething relative to the fojourning of the Jews in this country. But as the account reftS upon vague tradition, and regards a defpifed

people^

§4 NIEBÜHR^S TRAVELS

people, whofe hiftory is little known, we wem not at the trouble of making farther en-» quiries.

The Egyptians are riot well pteafed to fee Eu- ropeans digging among ruins. They imagine^ that we are fearching for treafures. While 1 was meafuring a fine obelifk, which is fliL llanding entire^ near Mature, the inhabitants gathered rounds and watched my operations a ; a fmall diftance. They imagined that 1 had feme fecret to overturn the pillar, and intended to have their lhare of the riches which they fup- pofed I was to find under its bafe* When they faw that I did not fucceed, according to their ideas, they fufFered me to walk off, without in- fulting me. One might, however, avoid giv- ing umbrage to the people, by obtaining leave from the Lord of the village to have thofe fpots examined, that contain ruins, and employing the jpeafants in the work.

Different travellers have been at pains to de^ fcribe the äntiquities of the cities of ancient Egypt ; and various men of letters have written dilfertations upon thofe defcriptions, and com- pared them with what is related by the Latin and Greek authors, in order to difcover to what ancient city each particular pile of ruins per- tained. Such inveftigations may be curious^ but, confidering their uncertainty, I would nei»

ther

3N ARABIA, Wc. 55

ther defcend to any fuch details myfeif, nor quote what has been advanced in this way hy others.

€hap. VL

Of the City of Cairo,

In the courfe of the eleven laft centuries, finc^ the conqueft of Egypt by the Arabians, many changes have taken place in the neighbourhood of Cairo, or, as it is called in the language of the country, Kahira, Thofe conquerors demo- lifhed or neglected the cities which they found fubfifting, and built others.

At their entrance into this country, they found, a city on the banks of the Nile, which their writers call Mafr, and which no doubt was th^ Egyptian Babylon of the Greek authors. They became mafters of it by the treafon of Mokati- has. In their Muffulman zeal, abhorring to dwell in the fame city with Chriftians, they fet- tled, by degrees, in the place where their ge-» neral had pitched his camp, and formed a city which they called Foßat.

This city, when it became the capital of Er gypt, was alfo called Mafr ; a name which it lias retained even line e Cairo, priginally only a

fuburbj

5«

NISBUH?.'S TRAVELS

fiiburb, has fupplanted it in the chara^er of capital. Foftat declined,., as Cairo, which was founded in the 358 year of the Hegira, by the general of a Fatimite Caliph I., advanced. The remains of Foilat are known at prefent by the name of Mafr-el-atik, old Mafr. The famous Salah ed din embellilhed the rifing city of Cairo, and inclofed it with walls.

Cairo, in its turn, came to receive the name of Mafr. The Europeans call it Cairo, or Grand Cairo. Although fo modern, it is truly very large. It extends, for an hour's walk, to the foot of the mountain Mokattam^ at the diftance of half a league from the banks of the Nile. From the top of that hill, on which Hands the caftle, the whole city is feen. On the other fides it is furrounded with hillocks formed by the ac« cumulation of the dirt, conveyed out of the city. They are already fo high, that the tops of the buildings in the city can fcarce be feen over them, from the banks of the Nile.

Cairo, although a very great city, is not , fo populous as the cities in Europe, of the fame extent. The capital of Egypt contains large ponds, w^hich, when full, have the appear- ance even of lakes. The mofques occupy large areas. In a quarter which I had occalion to examine particularly, I found the large ftreets divided by a large fpace of ground, laid out in

gardens

IN APvABIA, t^r.

57

gardens, and otherwife. I am induced to tbJnk^ that, in the other quarters, are large unoccupied fpaces ot the fame fort. The houfes in Cairo are not fo high as in the cities of Europe. In ^omc parts, they coniift only of one ftory, and are built of bricks that have been dried in the fun(j),

I have obferved, that travellers ahvays err in eftimating the population of the cities of the Eail : and I may add, that the arrangement of the ftreets of Cairo niuft make that city appear larger than it really is. In feveral quarters there are pretty long wynds, which terminate not in any principal ftreet ; fo that thofe who live at the bottom of them, can converfe from the back parts of their houfes, yet mufl: walk a quarter of a league before they can meet. Such wynds or fanes are, for the moil part, inhabited by artifans, who go out to work m more frequented ftreets, and leasee their wives and children at home. From^ this circumftance, thefe are fo fur- prifed to fee a paifenger, that they naturally fu]3- pofe, that you have loft your way, and tell you, that you cannot pafs there. All the intercourfe is therefore through the principal ftreets ; and thefe are very narrow ; fo that, being continu- ally crowded, they will naturally occafion a ftranger to think the city much more populous than it really is.

Vol. I. G The

58

I^IEBUKH'S TRAVELS

The caftle Handing upon a fteep, infulated rock, between the city and mount Mokattam, was probably ere6led in the days of the Greeks, and might form a part of the Egyptian Babylon, It is at prefent parted into three divißons, which are occupied by the Pacha, the Janiffaries, and the Aflabs. The palace of the Pacha is falling into ruins, and is unworthy of being the dwelling of the Governor of a great province. But the Turkifh Pachas are in general ill lodg- ed. They know all, that they are not to be long in power ; and none cares for making re-- parations to accommodate his fuccelTor.

The quarter of the janilTaries is furrounded with ftrong walls which are flanked with tow- ers, and has more the appearance of a fortrefs. Thofe foldiers accordingly avail themfelves of their fituation in the revolutions which happen fo frequently in Egypt. That body, although paid by the Sultan, are not much attached to their fovereign. Their principal officers have been flaves to the more refpedable inhabitants of Cairo, and are ftill more attached to their old mailers than to the Sovereign of the Turkifh empire. When the Egyptians depofe a Pacha, the janiffaries are commonly ready to drive him out of the palace, if he fails to fet off at the day fixed to him, by the Beys. But the Arabs are

in

IN ARABIA,

59

in little fear of the janiflaries, and rob with con- fidence, clofe by their quarters.

Within this caftle are two monuments, which fome, both Mahometans and Chriftians, fanci- fully afcribe to a patriarch ; the fountain, and palace of Jofeph. The fountain is indeed deep, and cut in the rock ; but nothing extraordinary, when it is conüdered, that the rock is a very foft calcareous ftone. It is not at all comparable to the labours of the ancient Indians, who have cut whole pagodas in the very hardeil rocks.

The pretended palace of Jofeph, is a large building, which ftiil retains fome precious re- mains of its ancient magnificence. In the apart- ment in which a manufadlure of cloth is at pre- fent carried on, the walls are adorned with figures of beautiful Mofaic work, compofed of mother of pearl, precious ilones, and coloured glafs. The ceiling of another chamber contains fine paintings ; in fome places, the names of moil of the ancient monarchs of Egypt are engraven. The caliphs of Egypt appear to have inhabited this palace ; and it is furprifing, that the Pa- cha does not choofe to lodge in it. From a bal- cony in this building, a perfon has a delightful view of Cairo, Bulak, Geeß, and a vafi trad of country extending all the way to the pyramids.

That valuable ftufF of which the Sultan makes an annual prefent to the fanduary of Mecca, is G- 2 fabricated

6o

I>IIEBUHR^S TRAVELS

fabricated in this palace. I alked the diredor of the manufadure, from what Joleph he fuppof- ed the fountain and palace to have taken their denomination ? he anfwered from Salah ed di?t, whofe proper name was Jofeph. This account leems the more probable, as Cairo owes its oth- er embelliüiments to that Caliph. Near this pa- lace are thirty large and beautiful columns of red granite ftill Handing, but unroofed, and de- graded by having a parcel of wretched huts built againft them. In a path cut in the rock^ and leading from one part of the caille to ano- ther, I v/as furprifed to obferve an eagle with a double head, engraven upon a large ftone, and Hill perfeäily difcernible.

The fuburb El Karafe^ at prefent but thinly inhabited^ contains a number of fuperb mofques? which are partly fallen into ruins, with feveral tombs of the ancient fovereigns of this country. The Mahometan women repair in crowds to this place, on pretence of performing their devo- tions, but, in reality, for the pleafure of walk- ing abroad. On the other fide of the caftie^ there is alfo a great number of ruinous mofques, and houfes of prayer, built over the tombs of rich Mahometans, and forming a ilreet three quarters of a German league in length. From the aftoniHiing number of thefe mofques and koufes, it fliould feem that the ancient fove-

vereigns

IN ARABIA, i^C,

6t

reigns of Egypt were not lefs difpofed than the Sultans of Conftantinople, to expend money up- on pious foundations.

Among this multitude of mofques are feme diftinguifhed by beauty and folidity of ftrud:ure« One of thofe, although the feat of an academy, was fo ftrongly and fo advantageouily fituated^ that, in particular infurredions, batteries ufed to be raifed in it, and diredled againft the caftle ; for which reafon the gates have been built up. Thofe mofques have little ornament within : The pavement is covered with mats, feldom with carpets. Nothing appears on the walls, but a few palfages of the Koran, written in golden letters, and a profulion of bad lamps, fufpended horizontally, and intermixed with of- trich eggs, and fome other trifling curiolities.

The Mouritan is a large hofpital for the lick and mad. Thofe of the former clafs are not nume- rous, conüdering the extent of the city. The fick were formerly provided witli every thing that could tend to foothe their diflrefs, not excepting even mufic. From the infufhciency of the funds to fupply fo great an expence, the mufic had been retrenched, but has been fince reftored by the charity of a private perfon. The defcriptiona of Cairo fay much of the large revenues belong- ing to the hofpital, and to many of the mofques. But the fame thing happens here as in other

places :

NIEBUHR^S TRAVELS

places : The adminiftrators of the revenues eil« rich themfelves at the expence of the founda- tions ; fo that new bequefts from the pious are from time to time neceffarj, to prevent them from falling into utter decay.

In this city are a great many kans or oquals^ as they are called in Egypt. Thefe are large and ftrong buildings, confifting of ware-rooms and fmall chambers for the ufe of foreign mer- chants. Here, as well as at Conftantinople, are feveral elegant lioufes, where frefli water is dif-» tributed gratis to paffengers*

The public baths are very numerous. AL though externally very plain buildings, they have liandfome apartments within, paved with marble, and ornamented in the faihion of the country. Several fervants attend, each of whom has his particular taik, in waiting upon and affifting thofe who come to bathe. Strangers are furprif- ed when thofe bathers begin to handle them, and afraid of having their limbs diflocated. But after being a little accuftomed to the ceremony, they find it fufficiently agreeable.

The birkets^ or ponds, formed by the waters of the Nile, which, when it rifes, fills the hol- lows, are very common about and in Cairo. Thofe ponds, or rather marflies^ become mea- dows, every year after the water is evaporated.

This

IN ARABIA, "^C.

63

This viciffitude renders them very agreeable : And the moll confiderable perfons in the coun- try live upon their banks. The palaces of the great are no ornaments to the city ; for nothing about them can be feen but the high v.^alls that furround them.

Chap. VII.

Of the Country immediately around Cairo,

In the neighbourhood of Cairo are feveral re-- markable places : Among others, the three viL lages of Bulak, Foftat, Geefli ; v/hich are all fo near, that they may be reckoned fuburbs to it.

Bulak, which was undoubtedly the Latopolh of the ancient Greeks, is at prefent ^a very con- fiderable town, and the port of Cairo. All goods from Damietta and Rofetta, and all ex- ports from Egypt by the Mediterranean, pafs this way. For this reafon, a large cullom-houfe is eftablifhed here ; and a vaft bazar, or cover- ed market-place, called Kijfarie, Here are al- fo magazines of rice, fait, nitre, and of various productions of Upper Egypt. Here is alfo a houfe belonging to the Sultan, in which is kept the corn that he fends annually to Mecca and Medina.

Toßaty

64

NIEBUHR^S TRAVELS

Foßat^ or Mafr-el-atik, although greatly decay» ed, mayftill be confidered as a town of the middle lize. It has a cuftom-houfe, where the duties on goods from Upper Egypt are paid. In a large fquare,inclofed with a wall, Government ftoreup, in the open air, a confiderable quantity of grain, every year. Some authors fpeak of this as a granary built by the patriarch Jofeph. But the Ivall is plainly of a later date than even the conqueft of Egypt by the Arabians.

The old citadel of Mafr is inhabited, at pre- fent, by none but Chriftians. In it are to bq £een fever al chvirches of the Greeks and Copts^ with a convent of Monks, of the latter nation A grotto, under one of the Coptic churches, is regarded with high veneration, becaufe it is fuppofed to have been the retreat of the Holy Family,, when they fled into Egypt. The Greeks, have a church, famous for a miracle of a Angular mature : Fools recover their wits, upon being "bound to a certain pillar of it.

Between this city and Cairo is an aquedu£t,. which was conilru61ed in the beginning of the fixth century, by Sultan Gari, and conveys wa- ter into the neighbourhood of the caftle. Near the canal is a convent of Dervifes, celebrated for the elegance of the building, and the opulence of the foundation ; and near this convent are large fquares, in which the principal inhabitants

of

IN ARABIA, %SC, 65

bi Cairo, amufe tliemfelves with military exer= cifes.

The fmall village of Geejl? ftands on the fouth-^ ern bank of the Nile, oppofite to Mafr-el-atik» Its origin is unknown. The heights around it, which have no doubt been raifed by the accu- mulation of the dirt from the city, feem to be= fpeak its antiquity. I found nothing remarkable about it, except fome country-houfes belonging to rich inhabitants of Cairo, and fome manu- factories (k),

Matare, a town, or rather village, about two leagues from the capital, is feated nearly on the ruins of the ancient Heliopolis. It is, hov/everp more famous among the Chriftians for a fyco- more, whofe trunk is faid to have afforded a fhel- ter to the Holy Family, in their flight. This fycomore fhould feem to have the power of re~ newing itfelf : for, of the crowds of fiiperftitious perfons who viiit it, each ufuaily cuts off, and carries away a piece. This village w^as former- ly famous for the cultivation of thofe trees which afford Egyptian balfam. But none of them is now to be feen here ; the laft died in the begin- ning of the feventeenth century. The Turks are not a people to reilore fo valuable a plant,

^ Four leagues eaftward from Cairo is Birket^ d-Hadgi, or the pilgrim's pool, a pretty confi- derable lake, which receives its water from the

Vol, I, H Nile,

KIEBUHR^S TRAVELS

'c. Upon its baalis are feveral villages, an J yood many ruinous country -houfes. There

'tiling to render this place remarkable, ex- t at the time of the fetting out of the cara- 1 for Mecca, when the pilgrims encamp near for a few days ; as they do alfo upon their urn. On the 20th of May 1762, two days :re the departure of the caravan, I had the ; jfity to vifit this ca,mp, but found little a- t it worth viewing, I faw indeed a very

jlegant tents ; but every thing elfe üiock- ;/ nally^ diforderiy,. and paltry.

Chap. VIIL

F ihs. MihMaSy or Nilometer, and of the rijing of tldH Nile,

I 77EEN Mafr-el~atik and Geefh^ in the mid-

c: the Nile is the iile of Rodda, which for- . communicated with thofe two cities

: vo bridges of boats, that no longer fubiift. ilourifhing days of FoRat, the illand was

.red with gardens and villas. But lince . 0 has become the capital of Egypt, Mafr- . ; Bulak, and even Birket-el-Hadgi, are . :....rred as fituations for gardens and villas.

This

This iiland fliews, at prefent, nothing remr.iv aoie, except, that on its fouthern extremity fcands a wall, which has been built to breaii force of the current. Upon this extrem ir ilands alfo a moique, in v, hich is the famci. Mikkias or Nilometer. This is well knowr 1 be a bafon having a communication with tl Nile, on the middle of which Hands a ccli::. ■ that ferves to indicate the height of the wa- : of the river. Norden has given a draught ci j liner than the original, which is mouldering ; away ; for the Turks will not lay out the fn: left expence, even upon the moü neceimy :^ pairs.

I know not whether any perfon has yet i:r \ fured the breadth of the Nile. By a geomc : :, cal operation, I found it to be 2946 feet. Vr > . : out knowmg this meafure, one can form no . . of the aftoniihing mais of water which this 1. , . carries down, when in its full height^

The Nile, it is well known, begins eve: ;' ^ 1 to rife about the middle of June, and cont . 1 ; riling 40 or 50 days ; it then falls, by de v till, in the end of May, next year, it is : . lovv^eft. The caufes of its rife are now : , known. During the hot months of the v-: rain falls every day in Hahoefch or Ab}^^: ' and all that rain-water is collecied into the '

niebuhr's travels

which, from its entrance into Egypt, till it reach- es the Tea, runs through a wide vale.

It does not rife alike high through all Egypt« I durit not mtafure it near the Mikkias, but, from obicr nations made at Geefh, I faw, that at Cairo the full 'height is at leaft 24 feet above its ordinary level. At Rofetta and Damietta it is only four feet. But this vaft difference is not furprifirig ; for, at Cairo, the Nile being confin- ed to one channel, between high banks, mull hecelTarily rife to a much greater height than nearer the fea, where it is divided into two ftreams,' after runnlug over fo much barren ground, and forming fo many lakes. The branch upon \^'hich Rofetta ftands, is only 650 feet broad ; and that by Daniietta, not more than

Affoon as the Nile begins to rife, all the ca- nals intended to convey the waters through the country, are fhut and cleanfed. They are kept fhut, however, till the river rife to a certain height which is indicated by the Nilometer in the iile of Rodda, A Shech attends for this pur- pofe, by the Mikkias, and gives notice, from time to time, of the riling of the river, to a number of poor perfons who wait at Foltat for the information, and run inftantly to publifh it in the ftreets of Cairo. They return Very day to Follatj at a certain hour, to learn ' ~^ - ■ from

IN ARABIA, 6f

from the Schech, how many inches the river iias rifen : And its rife is every day proclaimed ir^ public, till it reaches the fixed height, at which the canals are permitted to be unlocked ; the nfual tax is then paid for the waters, to the Sul- tan, and a good year expedled.

The canal at Cairo is firft opened, and then, fucceffively, all the other great canals down to the fea. The inhabitants of no particular dif- tridl dare drav/ off any part of the water of th^ Nile, although it have rifen to the height that beft fuits the inlands ; for this would injure the high- er grounds ; and therefore every body mufl wait till the public order be given out. There are laws in -Egypt, which are ftridly obferved, and which determine the diftribution of the wa- ters, and the time when the large and xmall ca- nals are to be opened.

Between the dyke of the canal of Cairo, and the Nile, a pillar of earth is raifed, nearly of the height to which the waters of the rivers are expedled to rife. This pillar is called j4nes, or the bride, and ferves as a fcrt of Nilometer, for the ufe of the common people. When the wa- ters enter the canal, this bi'ide is carried away by the current. A like cuftom, which prevail- ed among the ancient Egyptians, has fubjeded . them to the imputation of facrificing every year a virgin to the Nile,

The

NIEBUHR^S TRAVELS

The canal is ufually opened with great fefti-. vity, and a concourfe of people. But when we were in Cairo, it was opened without anj parade; for it had been imperfedly cleanfed, and the water did not enter it readily. As this cere- mony has been defcribed by fo many authors^ I fliall not trouble the reader with any account of it.

A piece of fuperftition now prevails in Egypt, of which hiftory makes no mention before the conqueilof the country by the Arabs. Certain wo- men, both Chriftian and Mahometan, pretend to foretell what height the Nile will rifeto, by means of certain rites which they prad:ife. Thefe de- pend upon the popular notion, that, on the night of the 17th or i8th of June, there falls, in Hab-» befch, a drop, in Arabic nokta, into the Nile, which caufes its waters to ferment and fwell. To dif» cover the quantity of this drop, and the force with which it falls, and, of confequence, the height of the river, and the fertility of the lands for the year ; thofe women put a bit of pafte on the roof of the houfe, on the night on which the drop is imagined to fall ; and they draw their prediction from the greater or fmaller increafe of weight, which it receives. It is eafy to ex- plain this experiment : for, in the feafon in which it is performed, there fall regularly hea- vy dews throughout Egypt. A fenfible and

learned

In AR A]^ I A, t^C,

ji

learned Mahometan, who looked upon the pre- di6tions as fooleries, told me, that this vulgar error arofe, like many others, from an ambi- guous expreflion ; Nokta lignifying in Arabic, both a drop and the Wne of the furl's entering the ßgn of Cancer ; at which feafon, the great rains fall in Abyffinia, which occafion the fwel- ling of the Nile.

I have remarked, that the canal of Cairo is cleanfed every year ; and it then ferves as a llreet. But it can never be long ufed as a ftreet ; for it is never cleanfed, till the dyke be ready to be cut down. While the water is running in this canal, the houfes about it are very agree- able ; but, through the reft of the year, it is 9 very uncomfortable neighbourhood. It is al- ways exceedingly filthy. The infufferable fmell, and noxious putridity, which itdiffufes all around, infed the air, and produce epidemic diftempers.

No water fit for drinking is to be had at Cai- ro, unlefs out of the Nile ; from wliich it is brought every day mto the city, in ficins, ^ipon alfes and camels. Under feveral mofques, are large refervoirs, in which water is preferved for the ufe of the public, during the fwell of the Nile ; for the river is then muddy, and its wa- ter thought unwholefome. Indeed the water of the Nile is always fomev/hat muddy \ but, by

rubbings

klfiUHR's TRAVELS

rubbing with bitter almonds, prepared in a par-^ ticular manner, the earthen jars in which it is kept, this water is rendered clear, light, and falutary. The ufe of this water is generalljr thought to be the occafion of a cutaneous erup- tion to which the inhabitants of Cairo are fub- jed:, at a certain feafon in the year. It is trou- blefome, but does not injure the health.

SECTION

!N ARABIA^

73

SECTION III.

OF THE GOVERNMENT, ARTS, AND TRADE OF EGYPT.

Chap. Ic

Of the Nature of the Egyptian GovernmenL

1 HE Turks, as is generally knoivn, conquered Egypt in the beginning of the lixteenth cen- tury, from the Mammelukes ; ia mercenary mili- tia, who had, for fome centuries, ufurped the Government of this province, which Xhtj admi- liiftered by an ele6live chief, with the title of Sultan, This fpecies of Government feems ftill to fublift, juft as much as before the Turkifh conqueft ; and, with all their defpotic pride, they have never attempted to change it,

A form of Government that has prevailed fo long, and which ahaughty, and powerful conque - ror durll not abolifh^ muft have, within itielfy fome principle of ft ability, to maintain it againft revolution. .*It might deferve to be better tuown, and explained by fome intelligent per-.

¥0L, L I fOD^

n

niebühr's travels

fon, who fnouid ftudy it in a long rendence in the country. A traveller like me, who has had only a traniient view of thefe objects, can nei- ther difcern, nor defcribe all the parts of fo ^:ompiex a machine.

I have learned enough, however, to enable Hie to diftinguifh, that this Government is at prefent an ariflocracy, partly civil, partly mili- tary, but chiefly military. Under the protec- tion, rather than the autharity of the Sultan of Conftantinople, a divan, or fovereign counfel, exercifes the fupreme authority, both executive and legiflative. Even the revenue of the Sul- tan is rather a tribute paid to a protedlor, than a tax levied by a fovereign. It is, belides, fo moderate, that the necelTary expences of Govern- ment confume it entirely in Egypt ; and the trunk, in which it is pompoufly conveyed to Conftantinople, generally arrives there empty.

Such a Government muft be frequently dif- turbed by fa6lious infurredlions. Cairo is con- Itantly convulfed by cruel difleniion ; parties are continually j -erring ; and the great retain troops to decide their differences by force of arms.

The mutual jealouiies of the chiefs, feemtobe the only caufes which ftill preferve to the Porte the lhadow of authority over this country, — The members of the arittocracy are all afraid of lofing their inüuence under a reiiding fovereign ;

and

IN ARABIA, y$

and therefore agree in oppoiing the elevation of any of their own body to the fupreme dignity In our own days, Ali-Bey has found how diffi- cult it is to afcend the throne of Egypt, or to maintain one's felf upon it (m).

Chap. IL

Of the Grand Signior^s Officers,

The Grand Signior fends always a Pacha of three tails, to exercife his precarious authority in Egypt, in the characler of Governor. But the Pacha of Cairo, far from enjoying the fanie authority as the other Pachas ' of the Turkifh empire, is entirely dependent on the Egyptian divan. That arillocratical body, regarding the Pacha as their tyrant, frequently depofe him, unlefs he have the addrefs to fuppcrt himfelf by pro- voking and fomenting the contentions of the different parties, favouring each by turns.

During my ftay at Alexandria, the inhabi- tants of Cairo expelled their Pacha. Mufliapha Pacha was at the fame time in Egypt, v/ho had been already twice Grand Vizir, and rcfe, after- wards, a third tim.e to that dirnlty Having been fent by the Sultan to Bjidda^ he had re- I a maine^

1^

NI5,BUHR's TRAVEX.S

mained in Egypt, on pretence of iilnefs. Tiie inhabitants chofe Muftapha their Pacha, and found means to oblige the Sultan, however dif- fatisfied with the eledors, and the perfon whom they had elecled, to confirm their choice. But the new Pacha kept his place only feven months, and was then obliged to yield it to another from Conftantinople. The latter died fuddenly, up- on the arrival of a Kapigi-Bachi, who was fent aft^r him by the Sultan. Thus, in the Ihort time while I was in Egypt, three Governors fuc- ceeded each other rapidly in the Government of that province.

The chief Cadi of Cairo is fucceeded almoll every year, by another from Conftantinople, who is named by the Sultan, on the recommendation of the Mufti.

Except thefe two, tho Sultan appoints no other officers in Egypt, unlefs indiredly. It is true, he feems alfo to difpofe of the poll of Bey^ to which he nominates ; but the Egyptians pro- pofe the candidates ; and he dares not rejedl them; his nomination is therefore mere cere-

IK ARABIA, i^a»

Chap. III.

Of the Divan and the Beys,

The Divan, or fupreme Council, confifls of twen-= ty four Beys, fourteen of the chief officers of the t:roops, and a number of people of the law, or yatlier of the churchi.

The Beys are governors of different diflrids. The offices of Grand Treafurer and Governor of Cairo, are likewife held by members of this body. They entertain guards and bodies of fol- diers, as well for their perfonal fecurity, as to enforce obedience through the diflriä:s under their Government. The name of Bey, ov Beg, denotes a powerful lord, and may perhaps be confidered as nearly fynonymous with prince. Their number is never complete ; v.'hen I was in Egypt, there were,inftead of twenty four, only eighteen. The revenues of the vacant places, "were probably fhared aniong the reft that were filled up.

Like the Mammelukes, who, having been all flaves, chofe their chiefs only from among thofe who had rifen to honour through the path of fer- vitude, the prefent Beys have been almoil all flaves, bought for fifty or not more than an hundred fequins. They are often Chriftian children, from Georgia or Mingrelia. But thefe places have, fo:^-

fome

7^

NJEBÜHR^S TRAVELS

fome time, been conferred likewife on free mi high-born Mahometans. Of the eighteen Beys who were in office when I was in Egypt, only five were of this latter charader ; the other thir- teen v/erc defcended from Chriftian parents, and had been flaves in their youth.

Our furprize at the elevation of fo many flaves will ceafe, when we attend more particularly to the manners of the people of the Eaft. The Mahometans, in general, and efpecially the Egyptians, treat their flaves with great kind- nefs. The Beys, and the principal inhabitants of Cairo, buy many Chrifl:ian children, whom they educate with the fame care as their owi^ children, in every thing neceflary to accomplifli the character of a Mahometan lord. When their education is finiflied, they procure them employments in the army, Thofe emancipated flaves retain the moft lively affedion to the ge- nerous mailers to whom they owe their fortune^ and even their moral exifl:ence. By this mea is it often happens, that a mailer, wben he finds any of his flaves to poflefs extraordinary talents^ and tried fidelity, fpares no pains or expence to raife him to a more confiderable employment than that which he occupies himfelf. Thus the mafter raifes his credit and influence in the ad» miniftration^ by introducing into jt his own crea- tures,

ft

IN ARABIA, ^C. ^1

It may not be improper to mention here fome remarkable inftances of this generofity of mat ters to their flaves. I knew a rich merchant^ who kept only one fervant, and who ufed to ride into the city no better mounted than upon an afs. He had procured to feverai of his flaves diftinguiiiied places in the Egyptian army : And thofe o3icers, although now greatly his fuperiors^ had all imaginable refped: for their old mailer, and were upon all cocafions ready to defend and proted him.

One Hafflin Kiaja, who was content himfelf with the employment of Kiaja, or lieutenant to the Aga of the janiflaries, had advanced feve- rax hi^ flaves to the highefi; offices. His fon Abaerachman Kiaja^ although, like him, only lieutenant to the Aga of the janiflaries, was all- powerful in Egypt when I was there ; not on account of his employment, for it was inconfi- derabje, but becaufe many of the lords of the country owed their fortunes to his family. He was, befldes, very rich ; and, while he com-» manded refpedt, by the number of troops which he maintained, gained the love of the people and of the clergy by the liberality of his pious mor» tifications.

But the mofl; extraordinary infl:ance is that of Ibrahim Kiaja, who was never in any higher employment than the lieutenant to the Aga of

the

NIEBUHR^S TRAVELS

the janiffaries. This man had been flave id Othman Kiaja, who had been himXelf flave to Hajfan Kiaja, mentioned above. Ibrafmn, by means of his Haves, for whom he had obtained the firfl employments, acquired fo great credit^ that he for a long time governed Egypt. The liumber of his creatures is a proof of his influ- ence. In my time, of the eighteen Beys, eight had been his flaves ; and of the feven Agas of the great body of the militia, five were out of his family, and owed to him their liberty and fortunes. Many, alfo, of his old fiaves occupi- ed coniiderable pofts in the army (n).

Among the Beys who held the government of" Egypt, when I was in that country, was one^ who, eveii theii, had begun to diftinguifh him- felf, and has fince made a great figure. This' was the famous Ali Bej^ who had been a Have to Ibraham Kiaja, and had rifen to the em- ployment of Schiech- el-helled, or governor of the capital. After my departure, he was banifhed to Gbajfa, But he returned in the year 1768, put to death four Beys, and compelled the Pa- cha to forbid four others to return, who had faved themfelves by flight. Becoming thus all- powerful, he afpired to the fovereignty of E- gypt. With this view he entered into an al- liance with Schiech Daher, and was«, fome time

after

IN ARABIA, Uc,

81

after, llain in a battle with Bey ^ba Baah, who had formerly been one of his adherents (o).

Next after the Beys, in power and dignity are the principal officers of the forces. Of thefe^ the feven Agas of the feven corps of the militia, have feats in the divan ; as well as their feven Kiajas or lieutenants, for the year when they are in office. The janiflaries have the greateil privileges, but are not the firll in rank among thofe corps.

I could not learn what civil employments con- fer a right to a feat in the divan^ I cannot therefore enumerate the priefts or men of the law v/ho have feats in it.

The members of this arifbocracy are extreme- ly haughty and infolent. In Cairo no Chriftian or Jev/ may appear on horfeback. They ride only alTes, and mufl alight, upon meeting even the moft inconiiderable Egyptian lord. Thofe lords appear ahvays on horfeback, w^ith an info- lent fervant before them, who, with a great ftafF in his hand, warns the riders on affes to fhew the due marks of refpeft to his mailer^ crying out enfä, get down. If the infidel fail to give inllant obedience, he is beaten till he a- light. A French merchant was drubbed on an occaiion of this kind. Our phyfician, too, w-as infulted for being too tardy in alighting from his afs. For this reafon, no European dares walk

Vol. L K- the

82

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the ftreets without having a- perfon to attend him who knows all thofe lords, and can give him notice when they approach. At firft, when I went about in Cairo, I made my janiflary go before, and my fer^^ant follow, both mounted on afles as well as myfelf. But, after having the mortification to fee thefe two MulTulmans re- main upon their beafts, while I was obliged to alight, I determined to walk on foot.

It is true, that in Egypt, thefe diflindions^ between the Mahometans and perfons of other religions, are carried a greater length, than any where elfe through the Eaft. Chriftians and Jews muft alight even before the houfe of the chief Cadi ; before more than a fcore of other houfes in which the magiflrates diftribute jus- tice ; before the gate of the janilTaries ; and be- fore feveral mofques. They are not even fuf- fered to walk by feveral mofques in high vene- ration for their fandity ; or by the quarter El- Karafe, in which are a great many tombs and houfes of prayer ; they are obliged to turn but of their way, to avoid thefe places, as even the ground on which they ftand, is fo facred in the eyes of the people, that they will not fuffer it to be profaned by the feet of infidels.

I know not, if there be a formal prohibition, forbidding Chriftians to appear on horfeback in the ftreets of Cairo. The laft Englifti Conful

appeared

IK ARABIA, l^C,

83

appeared always on horfeback, dreffed like a Mahometan lord. But he was very rich, and gained the efteem of the great by giving them fplendiid entertainments ; and of the common people by diftributing large alms, whenever he appeared in public. The other Confuls never ride on horfeback, except when they go to have ^n audience of the Pacha. As fhey then drefs magnificently, they are expofed to the infults of the people, who think our Ihort dreffes very unbecoming for a perfon of dignity to wear. At other times, thefe Confuls ride modeftly on '4fles, and alight with due humility whenever they meet an Egyptian lord.

Chap. IV.

Of tht Police of the Cities.

In a city, like Cairo, inhabited by a number of petty tyrants, who are ever at variance among themfelves, and feeking each others ruin, and who often proceed to open violence in deter- mining their quarrels, private perfons can never confider themfelves, as in abfolute fecurity. The narrow nefs of the ftreets, and the crowds which are coaftantly preffing through them, are favour- able to diforder. Yet, fewer inftances of rob-

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84

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bery, theft, and murther, are heard of here^ than in the great cities of Europe. A few regula- tions, which are common through all the Eaft, maintain tranquillity, and are nearly as carefully obferved through all the cities of the province^ as in the capital.

The magiflrates contribute to the public fe- curity, by a very prompt adminidration of juf- tice. The Cadi, and a number of other infe- rior judges, difpofed through the different quar- ters of the city, never leave their tribunals, but are continually adive in m.aintaining order, and pacifying the quarrels which arife, each in his own diviiion.

At Cairo, and in all the other cities of the Eaft, every trade has a head, who is intrufled with authority over them, knows every indivi- dual in the body to which he belongs, and is in fome meafare anfwerable for them to Govern- ment. Thofe heads of the trades preferve or- der among the artifans, who are a numerous bo- dy. Even the women of the tov/n, and thieves, have each a head in the fame manner ; not that thief or robber is a profeffion licenfed by law ; but, the head is appointed to facilitate the reco- very of flolen goods. At Tripoli in Barbary, the black il||ves choofe a chief, Vvho is acknow- ledged by t^e regency ; and this is a mean by

wbici^

IN -ARABIA, Uc,

which the revolt or elopement of thofe flaves is often prevented.

The great officers of the police and of judice vilit the different parts of the city, both by night and day, attended by a numerous train, and at feafons Vv^hen they cannot be expeded, in order to infped the markets, and to take up fufpecled perfons. Thofe officers give inftant fentence up- on offenders, and condemn them to the bailina- doe, without any form of procefs ; they will e- ven hang them up if they take them in the ad. The fear of being every moment furprifed by thefe officers, reftrains the people from mutiny or pillage. I have often witnefTed the terror which thofe awful infpeclors infpire. At light of them, my Egyptian fervant, was fo ilruck with fear, that he ran haftily homewards, and I was obliged to ufe force before I could make him turn and proceed.

All the flreets of Cairo have gates which are fliut at night ; but a porter waits to open to thofe who can allege fatisfaclory reafons for paffing fi'om one Hreet to another, and approach with a hght in their hands. The man, for a fmall acknowledgment, opens the gate, but fiops every fufpecled perfon. This regulation pre^ vents noäurnal aifembiies and tumults among the people. It at the fame time foventireiy fe- parates the feveral quarters of the city, that the

Beys

S6

NIEBUHR^S TRAVELS

Beys often contend with open violence, while the other inhabitants know nothing of the matter.

To fupport this eitabiifhment, there is a chamber near each gate, occupied by a guard of janiifaries, who prote^l the porter by night» and, in the day, maintain order in the quarter^ This guard is not relieved : the janiifaries of whom it coniifts are liberally paid by the city ; and they remain in this lucrative office, while their conduct continues to give fatisfadion.

Chap. V\

Of the Egyptian Agrkidiur^,

IIaving had few opportunities of obferving th^ induftry of this people, I fhall have little to fay concerning the ftate of the arts in Egypt, which is not yet very flo^rifliing. But, there are fome which afford articles of trade, and thefe it y/ould be improper to overlook entirely.

Agriculture, the firft and moil important of all arts, is not in a very thriving condition here ; at leaft, if we compare the prefent produce of the lands with what a country of fuch na- tural fertility might be brought, by cultiva- tion, to produce. I have hinted above at the natural caufes of this decline. But the local

circuniflances

IN AISJ^ElAj %J

drcumftances of this fingularly fituat^d country are fuch, that even an unhappy mode of govern- ment, and the mifery of the hulbandman, can- not extinguifli the natural fertility of the foih However ill-cultivated, it fiill continues to compenfate richly the flight labour that is he- flowed upon it, and to repay, with ufury, the trifling expence laid out upon it.

The foil of the Lower Egypt feems to be a fandy earth that has been gradually depofited by the river (p). In a dry and torrid climate, andun- der an unclouded flvy, fuch long feafons of drought as Egypt experiences would render it an arid and barren defert, vv^ere it not for the fertilizing waters of the Nile,

Some deferiptions of Egypt would lead us to think, that the Nile, v/hen it fweils, lays tb^ whole province under Vv^ater. The lands ad-- joining immediately to the banks of the river are indeed laid under water. But the natural inequality of the ground hinders it from over- flowing the interior country. A great part of the lands would therefore remain barren, were not canals and refervoirs formed to receive wa~ ter from the river, when at its greatefl height, which is thus conveyed every where through the fields, and referved for watering them, v» he n Qccaflon requires.

The

18

niebuhr's travels

The befl part, therefore, of Egyptian agri- culture, is the watering of their grounds. The water which the hulbandman needs is often in a canal, much beneath the level of the land which he means to water. The water he muft therefore raife to an equality with the furface of the grounds, and difhribute over them, as it is wanted. The great art of Egyptian hulbandry is thus reduced to the having proper machines for raifing the water, and enough of fmall ca- nals judicioufly difpofed, to diftribute it.

Thofe machines are commonly very limple ; a wheel with buckets forms their whole mecha- nifm. The largeft are moved by oxen ; the fmaller by the ftrength of the arm. It is not eafy to fee how the Egyptians have come to be fo much celebrated for the ingenuity of their iftäjchines. Thefe are not of the invention of the modern Egyptians, but have been ufed for time immemorial, without receiving the ilightell improvement.

Their inftruments of hufbandry are very bad. Their plough, which they call Marha, is no better than that of the Arabians, of which I fliali hereafter have occafion to fpeak. To fmooth the ground, they ufe a tree or a thick plank, drawn by oxen yoked with cords. The driver fits upon this machine ; for the Egyptian pea- fants are not fond of walking.

Ther

Tfiey ufe oxen, as the antients did, to beat but their corn, by trampling upon the Iheaves, änd dragging after them a clunify machine. This machine is not, as in Arabia, a Hone cylin- der ; nor a plank with fharp ftones, as in Syria ; but a foil of fledge, confifting of three rollers fit- ted with irons, which tiirn upon axles. A far- mer choofes out a level fpot in his fields, and has his corn carried thither in Iheaves, upon af- fes or dromedaries. Two oxen are then yoked in a fledge, a drivet gets upon it, and drives them backwards and forwards upon the flieaves, and frefli oxen fucceed in the yoke; from time to time. By this öperatiori the chafi is very much cut down. The whole i§ then winnowed, and the pure grain thus feparated. This mode of threfliing out the corn is tedious and inconve-- tiient ; it defl:roys the chaff, and injures thß quality of the grain,

I faw no wheeled carriages ih Egypt ; every thing is conveyed backwards and forwards 011 camels or afles. When the canal of Cairo was to be cleanfedp a peafant brought two oxen drawing a fort of open tray upon the dry ground^ and when it was filled, led theirl with it to the bank. Within the city, wiiere the bottom of the canal was not dry, the perfons employed in cleanfing it, threw duft from the ftreet, upon the tnire in the canal, and then, with their hands?

Vol, I, L int^

hiebuhr's travels

into panniers upon afles, and thus removed it a proper diftance. Such is the boafted induftrj of the Egyptians.

I have feen neither wind nor water-mill here. A few large mills there are, which are moved by oxen turning a poft that forms the axle-tree of a large wheel. The poorer people have only hand-mills to grind their corn ; and thefe they ufe alfo in breaking the beans with v/hich the aiTes are fed.

Recourfe is had to the impreffion of the ele- ments, in the management of no other machine. Oxen are employed in working the oil-mills? faffron-preßes, 6tc. Among the different manu-» failures of Egypt, that of faffron merits particu- lar notice ; the procefs by which the Egyptians prepare this article gives it a livelier colour than what is made elfewhere.

Chap. VIL

Cff the Arts &f ^tiblimatmg Sal Ammoniac^ and of hatching Chickens.

As Egypt is without wood, its inhabitants are obliged to burn the dung of their domeftic ani- mals. The dung of afles and camels is chiefly

ufed

IN ARABIA,

§1

iifed for fuel, becaufe thefe two fpecies are the moll numerous, and the moll common. Little girls go about, gathering the dung in the ftreets, and upon the highways ; they mix it with cut Itraw ; and of this mixture make cakes, which they place along the walls, or upon the declivi- ty of fome neighbouring eminence, to dry them in the fun.

The lower clafs live ufualh in chambers vaulted with unburnt bricks. In theie cham- bers, thofe cakes are burnt, with a little ftraw intermixed, or inftead of it, (talks of certain plants ; and this both for warming the apart- ments in winter, and for dreliing the viduals. A foot, very rich in falts, is thus produced, which fallens to the roofs of the chambers. It is fold to the merchants, who judge of its quality by its tafte, and employ it in the manufadure of fal- ammoniac. The foot of wood is of a very dif- ferent nature. Sal-ammoniac was long thought to be a production peculiar to Egypt. It was thought that it could be obtained only from camel's dung. But the truth is, that foot is e- qually good for the manufadure of fal-animo- niac, whether prepared from horfe's, afs's,lheep's or camel's dung ; and this fait may be pixpared in any other country, where dung is burnt in- ftead of wood, as well as in Egypt,

L 2 Since

p2

Since the nature and origin of fal-ammoniaq have become better known, feveral authors have defcribed the procefs ufed in Egypt for fubli« mating the foot. It vi^ould be improper to re- peat thofe defcriptions at full length. I lhall only obferve, that this fublimation is perform» ed in large bottles of thick glafs, lhaped like bombs, and put into a furnace which is heated with dung. For three days and three nights, an equal heat is kept up, and that intenfe e- nough to vitrify the potter's earth with which the bottles are coated, to make them reßft the violence of the fire. The furnace is then fuffer- ed to cool, the bottles are broken, and the fal- ammoniac taken out of their necks, into which it has been raifed by fublimation.

Some travellers mention the mode of hatch- ing chickens in ufe here, as a very wonderful invention, and a very ufeful art. But it is much negledled at prefent by the Egyptians, who pro- bably did not find all the advantage in it that is imagined. Unlefs at Cairo there are no fur- iiaces for this purpofe ; thefe belong to the Pa- cha ; they are ufed only in fummer, for the hatching is faid not to fucceed fo well in win- ter. Private perfons indeed carry fome eggs to the furnaces, and pay fo much a-hundred, to a perfon who undertakes to manage the hatching 0f theme The owners mark their eggs ; and

IN ARABIA,

93

the hatcher is obliged to fhew the marks upoa thofe which mifgive in the hatching. But I did not learn that the number of chickens hatch- ed in this way was very conflderable.

There is nothing extraordinary about the fur- nace in which the procefs is perfoimed. The great furnace contains feveral fmaller, arranged in two divilions, where the eggs ly upon ftraw, and are turned feveral times by night, as well as by day. Whatever is peculiar in the con- llrudion of the ovens, is intended folely for the purpofe of keeping a gentle and equal heat« This is efFedied by the circulation of the heatj, through a fort of galleries which run along the openings of the fmaller furnaces. They begin with heating the large oven with fmoke, and the proper degree of heat is kept up, by placing lighted lamps in the galleries. That degree muß: be precifely the fame as in the baths« When the chickens are produced, they are fhut up very clofe in a fquare apartment behde the furnace, where they enjoy the fame degree heat, as if under a hen. Thefe chickens fell ve-. ry low, and are very puny.

What appeared lingular to me about this fur- nace, was its being entirely buried in a fort of hill. The chimnies and fpiracles are holes made in the earth • and when one enters one of thofe furnaces, it is like going into a grotto, I v/as

told

94 NIEBUHR^S TRAVELS

told by perfons of intelligence, that this pofitio|i was indifpeniibly neceilary, in order to the ob- taining of the due degree of heat. -

, Ghap. VII,

Of the Oracle of JSgypt,

Egypt, although fo greatly declined from its an- cient , grandeur, flill affords many produdions which are capital articles in commerce. By its fituation too, it is well fitt^.d to be an empo» rium for foreign merchandife. It has commu- nication by the Red Sea, with Arabia, Perfia^, and the Indies ; by the Nile, upon one lide,, with Nubia and Abyffinia, — and on the other, with Europe, Barbary, Syria, and all the pro- vinces of the Turkifh empire. While thus hap- pily fituated for the advantages of navigation, it lies alfo in the midft of thofe nations who are accuftomed to travel in caravans, and is, of con- fequence, the natural centre of their commerce.

Cairo, by means of thefe circumftances, has become the reiidence of a great number of rich merchants, who carry on trade in a manner very different from that in which it is conducted in Europe. For want of eflabliihments favourable to a regular correfpond^nce of agents, merchants

aro

iis ARABIA, iSci

are obliged to make frequent voyages for the •management of their affairs, or to fend fome of their fervants or flaves to ad: for them.

This inconvenience is, however, in part, com« penfated by a cuftom generally prevalent through the JGaft. Merchants from the fame country^ and often fuch as deal in the fame forts of goods lodge all in the fame kan, or earavanferai, fo that you can eafil/ learn where to find what- you want. A conilderable number of couriers^ alwavs attend to guide or dire<5t enquirers upon fuch occaaons.

Staying fo Ihort a time as I did in Egypt, I liad not enough of opportunities to become fuf- iicieatly acquainted with the nature of the E« gyptian trade. But a very intelligent French merchant favoured me with the communication of fome important facts concerning both the fo- reign and internal trade of this province.

I mull firft obferve, that feveral branches of the internal trade, thofe of leather, rice, and fienna, have greatly decayed, by the imprudent condud of Government. Ibrahim Kiaja, who for ten years governed almoft all Egypt, thought fit to farm out the duties upon thefe branches. The farmers have raifed the duties to fo high a rate, that the articles upon which they are paid are no longer faleable.

Raw

Raw hides are ftill a confiderable objecl Iti the Egyptian trade : about 80,000 hides of buf- faioes, camels, cows, and oxen, are exported yearly. Near 10,000 go to Marfeilles, and a Hill greater number to Italy. The buffaloes hides being thicker and heavier than the others, are chiefly tranfported to Syria. As the paftures of Lower Egypt are excellent, the hides of its cattle, in coiifequence of their being fo well fed, are of the very beft quality for leather. A pro- digious quantity of thofe cattle are killed in the months of the facrifices, that is, while the piL grims are aSembled at their devotions at Mecca.

1, 8 00,000 pound weight of faffron is annually prepared in Egypt. The greater part of it goes to Marfeilles and Italy ; the reft to Syria and Arabia. The beft faffron grows in the vicinity of Cairo ; that of Upper Egypt is not reckoned fo good.

The exportation both of lint aüd linen- cloth is an important article in this trade. They arc exported to Syria, Arabia, Turkey, and even to Marfeilles and Leghorn. What cotton re- mains, after the home-confunipt is fupplied^, goes to France and Italy. But this is not much^ however, for no cotton grows except in Lower Egypt. There is even fugar produced here, the «anes growing in Upper Egypt ; but it is fo

IN ARABIA, l^C^

92

|)repared, that they cannot fell it fo cheap the American fugars.

Were the trade in rice under no rellraint, a confiderable quantity might be exported. But, for the exportation of this article, the ports of Jgypt are fluU, and therefore the Europeans dare not carry off any of it, unlefs by Damiettaa The Americans arc even faid to have brought rice hither, for fome time, from Carolina : And if this be fo, there can be no better proof of the aftonifliing decline of agriculture in Egypl^>

Sal ammoniac, yellow wax, and fenna, whiclx come, in part, from Upper Egypt, are articles that can never contribute greatly to increafe the opulence of a country. The adminiftration ap- pear to gain more by thefe articles than the tra^ ders ; for the duties charged upon them are in no j uft proportion to their value.^

In exchange for thefe commodities, with which Egypt fupplies oth^r nations, its inhabi- tants need various articles that are imported from other countries. The French export at leaft 800 bales a- year of cloth of Lapguedoc to Egypt ; for even the very (ervants make a point of having a new fuit every year, to wear at the feaft of Beiram, The Emir-Hadgi of the Mec- ca caravan ufes no fewer than feventy bales him- felf ; for he is obliged to make prefents of fuits #f clothes to the Arabs, who meet the caravan

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upon their journey, as well as to a number of perfons at Mecca. The Egyptians never drefs in filk ; when, by any accident, it happens that they do, they prefer the rich ftuifs of the iile of Scio to the manufadures of France and Italy.

Venice and Marfeilies difpofe of more than a thoufand bales of paper in Egypt, every year • one part of it intended for the confumpt of E- gypt, the other for Arabia. All the writing- paper muft be glazed : for the people of the Eaft ufe reeds and very thick ink, in writing, A great quantity of paper is ufed in windows ; for, in this hot country, panes of glafs are fel- dorn to be feen

The Europeans likewife import cochineal in- to Egypt, 80 barrels of which are ufed there^ and 200 fent to India. Were not the induitry of the Dutch fo well known, it might appear furprifing that the Egyptians Ihould be reduced to the neceffity of fupplying themfelves with fpiceries from European merchants, from w^hom they purchafe pepper, cloves, ginger, 8ce. It is more natural to fee Egypt receive from us the produdions of thofe arts in which we excel^^ fuch as needles, cutlery ware, lead, mercury &c.

Coffee is an article that is both confumed in the country, and conveyed through it. As this is the favourite beverage of the Turks, they are

deiiroug

IN ARABIA, i^C.

99

defirous of having it in the mod genuine purity^ The importation of American, and the expor- tation of Arabian coffee, are equally forbidden. But thefe prohibitions are eluded, by means of prefents to the great, and to the officers of the cufloms ; fo that the Europeans procure, every year a conliderable quantity of their Levant cof- fee out of Egypt. But a A^ery fmail quantity^ indeed, of the ifland coffee is ufed, and folely in mixture with that of Yemen. It is not long lince coffee from Martinico was the only fort drunk in Upper Egypt ; but it became dear during the lad Wctr. The Egyptians then re- folved to bring good coffee from Arabia, by the way of CaJ/lir, and they have it at prefent for ä reafonable price ; whereas that of the Weft In- dies was fold exorbitantly high.

Gum-arabic is one of the mofl confiderable ar- ticles of commerce that pafs through Egypt. Every year, in the month of Odober, two or three fmall caravans of the Arabs, from the neighbourhood of Par and Mount Sinai, arrive with about 70,000 pound w^eight of the gum. Thofe Arabs are very much in the w^ay of de- bafing their goods with an intermixture of ex- traneous matters ; and yet oblige the Mahome- tan merchants to take them without any exa« mination of their quality. Out of an averfion to cities, or probably to avoid coi'poral punifhment

M 2 for

io6 Niebühr's travels

for their frauds and robberies, thefe ArabiäM never enter Cairo. They encamp at half a league's diftance from the walls. The mer- chants are obliged to go out to them, in order to tranfad for the purchafe of the gum. The Arabs don't take money, but clothes, and fuch other things as they ftand in need of in the de- fert.

A great many caravans arrive from different parts of Africa, in the months of June and July, with three different forts of this fame gum. A quantity comes alfo from Habbefch, by the way of Djidda and Suez, which, though inferior in qua- lity, palfes all into Europe, which receives an- nually 500,000 pound weight of this article.

Thofe African caravans bring, at the fame time, feveral other commodities ; flaves, ivory otlrich- feathers, tamarinds, and gold duft. They take, in exchange, Egyptian cloth, falfe pearls coral, arms, and even full fuits of clothes, which the inhabitants of Cairo make up, according ta their tafte. This is what has, of late, increaf- ed the demand for broad-cloth in Egypt.

SECTION

In ÄRABIAj ^C,

SECTION I¥.

Olr THE MANNERS OF THE ORIENTALS IN GENE- RAL, AN© PARTICULARLY OF THE EGYPTIANS^

Chap. I.

Of the Inhabitants of Cairo and its Neighhourhocdo

A.RABS arid Turks from all the provinces is the Ottoman empire, form the moft numerous part of the inhabitants of Cairo. There are al« fo Magrehbins^ or Arabs from Barbary, other AfricanSj Perüans, and Tartars ; All thefe are Mahometans, and moll of them attached to the fed of Schafei,

After the Mahometans, the Copts are the next irx numbers. They occupy whole quarters of the city, and very large ftreets. They have a great many churches, both in the capital, and at Mafr-el-atik in its vicinity. Their patriarch alfo refides at Cairo,-

KIEBUHr's TRÄYEtS

The Jews are the moil numerous clafs, next after the Mahometans and the Copts. Some Pharifees or Talmudifts, relide here, as well as Karaites, who, though not numerous, have a fy- nagogue of their own. The Talmudills are nu-= merous and powerfuL They have long farmed all the cuftoms ; an undertaking which brings them both wealth and credit. In the republican Government of Egypt, they find it eafier to gain Heady protectors, than in the other provinces of Turkey, where all depends upon the caprice of a j^acha who knows not how foon he may lofe his place, or of the fuperintendant of the cuf- toms who refides in Conilantinople. One proof of the confequence which the Jews enjoy under the ariflocracy of Cairo, is, that tile offices of the cuitoms are Ihut upon their fabbath, and no goods can pafs on that day, although belonging to Chriftians or MuiTiilmans.

The Greeks have only two churches in Cairo, in one of which the fervice is performed by the patriarch of Alexandria, and in the other by the bifhop of Mount Sinai. The Armenians, who are not numerous, have only one church, but that a handfome one. From Europe here are feveral French and Italian merchants, but no Dutchmen ; yet the Dutch have a Conful here, as well as France and Venice.

IN ARABIA, '(Je.

203

If Cairo come ever to want European mer- chants, yet it is not probable, that it will be without eccleßaflics of the Pvoman Communion. lleve are Jefuits, Capuchins, Cordeliers, and Fa- thers of the Society for the propagation cf the Chriftian Faith. Thefe monks are all eager to make profelytes, and fometimes fucceed fo far as to convert fome fchifmatic Chriftian of the Eaft, The Government readily tolerates thefe m.odera apoftles, on account of the profits which they derive from the quarrels which the converfions produce between the apoilate, and the members of the Communion which he forfakes. The Pa- cha is often not content with fining the contend- ing parties, but examines the affair to the bot- tom, and exacts confiderable funis from the monks befides.

The neighbourhood of Cairo is partly inha- bited by Copts, but chiefly by Arabs, wandering or fettled. Thefe deferve to be more particular- ly confidered.

Chap. IL

Of the Copts.

If an ancient origin, and illuflrious anceflors could confer merit, the Copts would be an high-.

104

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ly eftimable people They are defcended fron^ the ancient Egyptians ; and the Turks, upoi^ this account, call them, in derilion, the pofte^ lity of Pharaoh. But their uncouth figure, thei^ ftupidity, ignorance, and wretchednefs, do little credit to the fovereigns of ancient Egypt.

They have lived for 20Q0 years under the dor minion of different foreign conquerors, and hav^ experienced many vicifiitudes. of fortune. They have loft their manners, their language, their re- ligion, and almoft their exiftence. They are reduced to a fmaU number, in comparifon of th? Arabs, who have poured like a flood over this country. Of the diminution of the numbers of the Copts fome idea may be formed from the re- dudion of the number of their biihops, Thej were feventy in number, at the period of th^ Arabian conqueft. They are now only twelve, and moft of thefe fettled in Upper Egypt, t^ which the ancient i^habitants feem to have re- tired from the centre of the conq^eä.

The Egyptians have been always diftinguifli-, <?d as a melancholy, conceited, and fuperftitious, race. Their pofterity rnaintain with the fame pbftinacy, the opinions which they were com^ pelled by the Greeks to adopt. The Copts have an inflirmountable averfion to the Romifh Church. Their patriarch is at the fame tim«

heai

IN ARABIA, Wc, 105

tead of the Abyffinian Church, whither he fends a bifliop to govern the clergy.

It would be a matter of lingular importance to recover the knowledge of the ancient Coptic^ the Rifan Pharaoun, or language of Pharaoh. In Egypt, we fee, even on the mummies, al- phabetical infcriptions, which are very different from the hieroglyphics, and, ifdecyphered, might throw light upon the ancient hiftory of Egypt, and help to an explanation of the hieroglyphics. But this language of the ancient Egyptians feems to be. entirely loft. The Ptolomies were at pains to fubftitute the Greek, inftead of the ancien^ language of their new fubjeds. The Greek em- perors of Conftantinople forbade the ufe of the Coptic in eonverfation, under pain of death ; and obliged the Egytians to adopt the Greek, inftead of the Pharaonic alphabet. Hence the modern Coptic, in which thefe people have their verfion of the Holy Scriptures, is a mixture of Greek and old Egyptian. The Sultans of Egypt effaced the remains of this language, thus cor- j.upted, by forbidding it to be fpoken, under the fame penalty, and introducing, in its room, the Arabic, which is the prefent language of the Copts. The liturgy is ftill read in the modern Coptic ; but the people underftand it not, till explained from an old Arabic tranflation, that is written befide the text. Even the priefts un-

VoL. I. N derftand

io6 niebuhr's travels

derfland not the language of their Scriptures^ and can fcarce read the charaders.

Mr Forikal became acquainted with a Copt, named Ibrahirn Ennafch^ a man of learning and poliflied manners, whofe employment was in copying the books of the liturgy ; by which he earned at the rate of half-a- crown in three days. My friend faw, in the hands of this Egyptian? a dictionary of a great many genuine old Coptic words, with their explanations in Arabic. He was alfo informed by Ibrahim Ennafch, that there Hill are, in feveral convents in Upper E- gypt, a good number of Coptic books ; but his informer knew nothing of their nature or con- tents. The clergy conceal thefe books with great care, for fear, as they fay, left the Catholics carry them off, and, after faliifyjing their con- tents, print them in Europe. Thus they have hitherto remained unknown. If thofe ecclefiaf- tics could be perfuaded that we are not all of the fame party as the Pope, and were at the fame time gratified with fomething to alleviate their extreme poverty, copies of the books in this hidden literary treafure might fiirely be ob- tained o

Gha^.

If>T AkABtA, "^C,

107

Chap. III.

Of the Arabians in Egypt,

The Arabians appear to have conquered and fettled in Egypt, at feveral different periods, very diftant from one another. Veiliges may flill be traced which prove their ancient refi- dence in this country. The fhepherd-kings, w^hofe memory was in abhorrence among the Egyptians, mufl have been leaders of troops of wandering Arabs.

But, whatever may have paiTed in thofe re- mote ages, lince Egypt was conquered by the Saracens, the greater part of its inhabitants have been Arabs. Of thefe, fome are fettled in the cities ; others live in the villages, and culti- vate the ground ; and the reft wander through the country with their cattle, and encamp in tents.

When I come to fpeak of the Arabian nation in general, I fliall then have occaüon to fpeak of its different branches, their manners and cuf- toms : Here I fhall only mention fome particu- lars relative to the Egyptian branch,

N 3 The

I08 NIEBUHR's TRAVELS

The Arabian inhabitants of the cities of this province have nothing peculiar to diftinguifh them from thofe in the other cities of the Eaft or in Arabia, in particular. And the Arabian, peafant of Egypt equally refembles the other peafants of the Eaft. Yet, the pofterity of ftran= gers fettling in Egypt are thought to degenerate, Arabian horfes, too, lofe their ftrength and met- tle here. Egyptian peafant is a denomination of contempt through Arabia.

The Bedouins, or wandering Arabs, being free, almoft independent, and rather tributary allies, than fubjeds of the Egyptian Govern- ment, are the moft remarkable branch of the nation. They are divided into tribes, govern- ed by hereditary chiefs, called Scbiecbs, and thefe fubordinate to a great Schiech, who has authority over feveral tribes^ Upon paying a certain tribute to Government, the Bedouins ar^ permitted to feed their flocks through the rich pafturage -grounds of Egypt. But they frequent- ly abufe this per million, and pillage, without diftindion, as well the hufbandmen in the dif- tricls in which they encamp, as thofe travel- lers who have the misfortune to fall into their hands. They are ready, too, to take part in the dilTeniions which frequently arife in this mili- tary republic. When Government attempts to punilh them, or to conftrain them to their du-

7'. /( ■(/.

I

EN ARABIA, l^C,

ty, they either defend themfelves by force, of retire into the defarts till their mifdemeanours be forgotten.

They are almoft always on horfeback, and armed with a lance,— at leaft the more conlide- rable among them,— and ranging from place to place : The care of their cattle, and excurfions for robbery or amufement, are all their employ- ment.

Independence renders them haughty and in- folent ; and their idle, unfettled way of life^ with the poverty w^hich naturally attends it^ probably infpire that fpirit of theft and robbery by which they are fo much diftinguifhed. I have already had occafion to mention fome inflances of their propenfity to infefl the country and in- fult paflengers. Mr Forlkal and I had a new proof of it in an excurfion which we made to the Pyramids. Setting out from Geefli, we met two Bedouins on horfeback, whom we hir- ed to guide and efcort us. Juft as we reached the foot of the Pyramids, we obferved an Arab riding up to us at full gallop. He v/as a young Schiech, and behaved at firfl: to us with great civility : But he foon changed his tone, threat- ened us with his lance, and ordered us to give him money, before we quitted the fpot« Upon Mr Forlkal's refufing to comply with fo infolent a demand, the Schiech feized his turban, and

held

110 NiEBUHR^S TRÄ-^Etl

held his piftol to my breaft, when I offered to defend my friend. The two Bedouins, our guides, made no attempt to interpofe, either out of refped to the Schiech, or from natural per- fidy. We were at laft obliged to gratify the robber. We returned another time better at- tended. But this did not hinder the Arabs from gathering about us, and Healing whatever they could lay their hands on, unobferved.

The Arabic language has, from the circum" fiances here enumerated, become the language of Egypt : But, Jn the mouths of the Egyptians, and thofe vagabond Bedouins, it difplays little of its genuine purity. Mr Forlkal left a long lift of words ufed at Cairo, which differ entire- ly from the words expreffive of the fame ideas in the diale6l of Yemen. The laft, being the dialed: of a province fhut up in a manner from ftrangers, and therefore not liable to be debafed by any mfuiion of foreign idioms, is to be re- garded as the teft of the other dialedls. That of Egypt is contaminated with forms of expref- 11 o a i'rom all the diverfity of languages which the viciilitudes of its fortune and the diverfity of its inhabitants have occafionally introduced into that country.

Chap.

IN ARABIA, t^C,

Chap. IV,

Of the Drefs of the Men in the Eaß.

There is little diverfity in the manners and cuf- toms of many of the Mahometan nations in the Eaft. Wherefore, to avoid repeating afterwards what I am ta mention here, I fliail explain at fome length whatever is common to ail thofe nations, and which will therefore refer to the Egyptians among others.

We have feveral good defcriptions of the drefs of the people of the Eaft, with fuitable engrav- ings accompanying them. Thofe in RulTel's defcription of Aleppo, are the beft and the lat- eft. Yet, upon a comparifon of the plates in Ruflel's work, with the drefs at prefent worn through the Ottoman empire and in Egypt, a great difterence may be perceived. What hap- pens in Europe, happens likewife in Turkey ; fafliions change ; and the drefs of the great, and of the capital are imitated through the pro- vinces.

The drefs of the Eaftern nations, fome pecu- liar cities amonr' Thi:h we obfervedwith particu- lar attention, >^ .i L apted to their climate and manners. As tney are accuftomed to fit crofs-

legged,

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legged, they wear their clothes very wide. - And being obliged to exprefs their refped for holy places, and for the apartments of the great, by leaving their flioes at the gate, they find it me- ceflary to drefs fo as that they may fiiffer no in- convenience from the want, .of them. In many countries of the Eaft, the climate is very un> equal, with fudden variations from heat to cold. The inhabitants of fuch countries are obliged to clothe themfelves warmer, than we fhould think necelTary, and to wear feveral pieces of drefs, one over another, which they may lay alide and re- fume, as the temperature of the air varies.

The Turks, who fet the falhion to a great part of the Eaft, wear a fliirt with very wide fieeves, and, under it, linen drawers joining ftock- ings of the fame ftuff, over which they put upon their feet teiliks, which are a fort of very thin flippers. Above thefe ftockings, drawers, and fhirt, they put on a fchakfchir, or large red breeches, to v/hich are fewed other flippers, or meßs, as thin as the firft. Above the fchakfchir, they wear an enteri, or vefl, which falls under the knees ; and over the whole, a caftan or robe, reaching down to the feet. That it may not incommode them in walking, they take up a part of the caftan by means of a broad girdle ; in which is fixed the Canjar, or poignard, which the Turks eonftantly wear. Over the caftan,

they

IN ARAEIA, i^.

"3

they put on a great coat with very fliort lleeves, which for winter is lined with furs, but is with» out them when intended to be worn in the o- ther feafons of the year. They often cover, all thefe pieces of drefs with another peilice or b^^ ?iifch, or furtout of thick cloth.

Such a quantity of clothes would be too ex- penflve for the common people, and inconveni- ent for them to Vv^ear at their work. They are content with the breeches, the enteri, and the benifcb. The peafant wears only the Ihirt and drawers. A drefs confifting of fo many differ- ent pieces is not convenient for travelling. Up- on a journey, therefore, the Turks carry a large blue bag in which they put up their long clothes. They wrap their feet in pieces of cloth, and put on wide boots ; and although this mode of dref- ling the legs and feet be not the moll conveni- ent for walking, yet it is v/armerthan our flock- ings.

The drefs of the Chriflians in the Eaft is near- ly the fame as that of the Turks. Only they are prohibited the uie of bright -coloured fluffs. They may not Vv^ear boots of yellow leather. And they mufl: ufe dark colours in painting their houfes. European Chriflians are allowed to wear yellow leather, and clothes of any colour, except green, which, rather by cuflom than by

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NIEBUHR^S TRAVELS

law, is referved for the peculiar ufe of Muflul- mans.

All the inhabitants of the Eaft, except fomc Mahometan clergy, of the orders of the Dervifes and Snatons, fhave their heads, referving only a fmall tuft of their hair. This cuftom has been blamed by fome perfons in Europe, as rendering apoplexies more frequent among us than they were among our forefathers y but it appears not to produce any fuch efFeds among the Turks, for they are not fubjed to apoplexy. They per« haps guard againft it, by covering their heads better than we. Their lhaved heads feem to require a warmer covering, at leaft, and indeed they wrap it up to a degree that feems to us very unfuitable to the warmth of the climate. Nei- ther do they uncover it in expreflion of refpecl our mode of falutation feems to them very ab- furd and ridiculous.

Through the Eaft there prevails a great varie- ty of modes in covering the head ; which, at firft, feems inconfiftent with the conftancy in fuch matters for which thefe people are diftin- guifhed. This diverlity, however, depends not on faftiion. Differences in the head-drefs ferve as diftindive marks of the nation, the condition, and the employment of the perfons who wear them. They even ferve as livery to fervants ; -each clafs wear a particular form of bonnet,

correfp ending

IN ARABIA, ^r. 115

eorrefpo. ding to the nature of their bufinefs. It is very convenient to find among perfons with whom one is unacquainted, fuch external marks indicating their refpeäive conditions.

Thefe various head-drelTes, which the Euro- peans confound under the general name of Tur- ban, may be all reduced to three forts. The firß is a very high cloth bonnet lined with cot- ton, and wrapped round upon the under part with a piece of w^hite mufiin. This head-drefs, which is called the Kaouk, is nothing but the Turcoman bonnet, with fome ornaments, and is therefore to be confidered as a Turkifh piece of drefs. The fecond is a cloth bonnet, fmaller, and much lower than the former ; it is alfo wrapped upon the under part with a piece of li- nen, and then receives the name of jafch or tur- han ; this is the national head-drefs of the Ara- bians, and by them the fafhion has been com- municated through the reft of Afia. The third is alfo a bonnet; of cloth, lined with cotton, of various heights in the crown j but inftead of be- ing wrapped with linen, bordered with a piece of lambfkin. It is called Kalpak, and is of Tar- tar origin, aUhough now worn by many of th« Chriftians in the Eaft,

All the great men in Turkey, wear the Kamk of yellovv cloth, with a piece of fine white muf- lin wrapped round it. The Schenffs, or defcen-

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niebuhr's travels

dents of Mahomet, although in little eftimation, and fcarcelj ever admitted to any public em- ployments, diftinguifh themfelves by a piece of green linen, rolled round their turbans, or Ka- ouks. The Copts, and fuch Chriftians as ufe not the Kalpak, wear a piece of linen ftriped blue and white round their Kaoiik, which is common- ly niade of red cloth. They are imitated in this faftiion by fuch Europeans as alTume the drefs of the country. Even the clergy wear it, as well as others ; except the cordeliers and capu- chins. Thefe lafl wear, through the whole Eaft, the dirty tattered drefs of their orders, which is very difgufting to the Mahometans, who confi- der neatnefs and cleanlinefs as parts of religious duty.

Chap. V

Of the Drefs of the W omen.

It is more difficult for a traveller to become ac- quainted with the drefs of the women than with that of the miCn in the Eaft. So far from being permitted to enter the harem, a ftranger muft not even fee a Mahometan lady in her own houfe.

It is impoffible to obferve their drefs, when one meets them in the ftreet ; for the MulTuL

mans

IN ARABIA,

117

maris think it extreme indifcretioDj or even an in- fult, to look with an eye of curiofity upon a vv^o- man in the ftreet. Befides, they wrap them- felves fo <:lofely up, when they go abroad, that it would be vain to attempt to diftinguifli the different parts of their drefs. At Conftantinople, when they appear in the flreet, they have fo much white linen about them, that nothing but the eyes of the walking mummies can be feen. At Cairo, they conceal the head, and a part of the body, with a large black veil ; and their rich habits are covered with a fort of large wrapper of plain linen, which they put off, when they enter the apartments of their friends.

As I never had any opportunity of feeing a lady of diftinclion, I muft confefs my igno- rance upon this head, and refer the reader to Lady Mary V/ortley Montague's admira- ble Letters. She was admitted into many ha- reans, and had opportunities of feeing women of rank in full drefs. She has been fiifpecled of exaggerating the beauty, magnificence and politenefs of the ladies of the Eaft. But I know, from what I have feen and heard, that her defcriptions are true. She has indeed con- fined herfelf chiefly to what merited praife about thofe ladies, while other travellers have fpoken only of their defe6ls. But, whatever may be faid of the truth of her relation, I can only fp^^k

of

fiebuhr's travels

of the drefs of the lower claffes of women, and make fome general remarks.

All the women in the Eall wear drawers? even where the men do not wear breeches. The poorer fort wear nothing but tbofe drawers, and a long blue fhirt. But, although in this man- ner half-naked, they all, without exception^ wear veilss

The veil feems to be the moft important piece of their drefs : their chief care is always to hide their face. There have been many inflances of women, who, upon being furprifed naked, ea- gerly covered their faces, without Ihewing any concern about their other charms. The Egyp- tian peafants never give their daughters fhirts till they are eight years of age. We often faw little girls running about quite naked, and gaz* ing at us as we palTed : None, however, had her face uncovered ; but all wore vails. The veilj fo indifpenfible a piece of drefs with the female fex, is a long, triangular piece of linen cloth, fixed to the head, and falling down before, fo as to cover the whole face, except the eyes.

In fome provinces, efpecially in Syria, the women vv^ear a fort of filver or lackered hatj Ihaped like a cone, a platter, or fome other fan- taitic form. The Arabian women, in Egypt and in the defert, wear a number of fingular or- raafnents ; large metal rings in their ears or no-

- ;fe^, 'y

IN ARABIA, 119

l*es ; others, of the fame kind, upon their legs, immediately above the ancle, and upon their arms, as bracelets ; on their lingers, fmall ring^ of little value ; pieces of coral hung about their faces ; and necklaces of all forts. They fome- times hang fmall bells to the trelTes of their hair ; and the young girls fix them to their feet. Some fancy themfelves highly adorned by the impreflion of indelible blue marks, by punc- tures upon the dieeks, the chin, and the other parts of the body. Some paint their hands yel- low, and their nails red, fancying thefe whim- lical colourings irrefiftible charms.

The drefs of the Greek women is not materi- ally different fram that of the Turkifli. As Eu- ropeans occafionally marry wives out of Greek fa- milies, we have frequent opportunities of feeing in what manner they drefs ; and, by this meanSj, we are enabled to form fome idea of the Maho- metan women of rank.

All the Greek ladies wear drawers reaching to their feet ; the lower part of their drefs is in^ deed nearly the fame as that of the men ; and they walk, like them, in large flippers. Over the drawers, they wear a iliirt of fine linen, and, over it, a vefi, bound with a girdle of confide- rable breadth. Over the veil is a habit, or pel- lice with fliort lleeves, not ftretching more than a fpan under the fhoulder. The head-drefs va- ries

I20

ni^buhr's travels

ries with the caprice of fafhion ; and they are, if poffible, more attentive to it than even our Eu- ropean ladies. Nay, fome of thefe head-dref- fes appeared to me more elegant than thofe worn in Europe ; their drefs has at leafl fomething' more rich and fplendid in its appearance. But, to view thofe Eaftern beauties with admiration, we mull fee them on their fophas ; v/hen they move, their graces difappear. Being accuftom- ed to lit crofs-legged, and to vv^ear a fort of thin leather boots, in wide flippers, they walk very aukwardly. European ladies, living in Tur- key, ufe Ihoes, even though dreifed, in other refpefe, like the women of the Eaft. But it is eafy to diftinguiih, by their walking, whether they are accuftomed to lit crofs-legged, or con- tinue to ufe chairs. At Conftantinople, the la- dies have carriages, but feldom ufe them. The Turkiüi carriages refemble ours externally, on- ly they are without doors, and have wooden blinds inflead of fafhes of giafs ; you enter by a ladder placed to the back of the carriage. With- in, inftead of feats, are carpets, on which the Turks fquat themfelves.

As carriages of all kinds are unknown at Ca- iro, women of the highefl rank, as well as thofe of the lower clalTes, are obliged to ride upon aifes. Out of refped to the fex, the wives of

Jews

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121

Jews and Chriftians are fuifered to ride on, with- out alighting, as they pafs the Egyptian nobles.

■Chap. VL

Of the Dlverßons of the Orientals,

It may appear trifling to defcend to a detail of the arts by which a people have contrived to while away the leifure hours that hang heavy on their hands : Yet are thefe arts expreffive of the chara6ler and manners of a nation. The nature of the amufements followed in any country can never be a matter of indiiFernce to an obferver, who wiflies to fludy the character of its inhabi- tants. Befides, what renders the amufements of the Eaft peculiarly interefting, thtfe are all of ancient origin, and an acquaintance with them clears up fome difficulties concerning old cuf- toms.

The climate, culloms, and government, con» fpire to give the manners of the Orientals a me- lancholy caft. Their ferioufnefs is encreafed by the wantof focial intercourfe, from which they arc fecluded by means of that jealoufy which hinders them from admitting one another into their houfes^ They are fllent, becauie, when fhut up with their women, where they have few topics for coiiverfa-

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IN ARABIA, WC^

tion, they unavoidably acquire habits of taci* turnity. As power is confined to a few hands^i and induftry oppreffed by Government, the fub- jeds of the Eaftern defpots naturally become gloomy and languid for want of employment ; and the more fo, for their being unacquainted •with letters, or with the fine arts, which afford the bell relief from the tcsdium of fuch a life. The exactions of Government render fortune fo precarious, as to bewilder the people in endlefs fpeculations about their interefts, and to render them more attached to bufinefs than to plea- fure.

The amufements of nations in fuch circum- fiances muft be very different from thofe of a people among whom the idle and opulent foirm a nuoierous clafs ; v/here the women lead the fa- fhion, and give the tone to manners and conver- fation, while all the v/orld are obliged to bend to their whimfies and humours. In Europe, all the pleafures of fociety are marked with the foft- nefs and domeftic, fedentary life of the fex ; and the men are daily adopting more entirely the a- mufements of the women. But, in the Eafl, a- niufements take their cafl more from the tran-» fadions of publiq life, and have fomething more mafculine and aufi:ere in them. The ignorance of the Orientals, indeed, leaves them a relifh for very infipid diverfions.

, In

IN ÄkABlA, l^C. 113

In the evening, the great generally fliüt them- felves up in their harem. We know not what pafles in thefe folitary retreats : But, as the wo-- men of the Eaft are exceflively ignorant, and merely great children, it is very probable that the amufements of the harem are extremely chil- difh* Some hints which have occafionally efca- fed from huibands of my acquaintance confirm #ne irt this opinion.

The OJmanliy or Turks of diftindion, who are ilill attached to the ancient military inftitu- tions of the nation, amufe themfelves chiefly with equeflrian exercifes. The principal inha- bitants of Cairo meet twice a- week in a large fquare, called Maßabe, with a number of atten- dants on horfeback. In this fquare they play at Gerid ; which confifts in running, by two and two. With the ftirrups loofe, purfuing one ano- ther, and tolling ftaves four feet long : thefe they throw with fuch force, that if any one be not upon his guard, he is in danger of having ä leg or an arm broken. Others, while riding at full gallop, throw balls into a pot placed upon a heap of fand. Others, again, üioot the bow ; an exercife in fuch repute, that pillars are ered:- ed in honour of thofe who exhibit extraordinary proofs of ftrength or dexterity in launching the arrows,

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When the JSIile is at its greateft height, the great about Cairo divert themfelves in little boats fplendidly decked out, upon the Birkets in the middle of the city. Upon this occafiony they regale the inhabitants with mufic, and often with fire- works.

A man originally from Tripoli in Barbary in- formed me, that the Pacha of that city ufed fometimes to erecl two fcaffolds, with cords run- ning between them, and upon thefe miniature models of ihips of war, armed with cannons of a fize in proportion to that of the veflel. Thofe veffels, thus fufpended in the air, and command- ed by naval officers, who direded the evolutions and the fire of the fmall artillery, prefented no unentertaining reprefentation of a fea fight. The captain whofe veiTel firft fuffered confider- able damage was confidered as conquered. But this diverfion often ended in ferious quar reis among th^e commanders, and was therefore aboliflied.

The fervants of the Egyptian nobles exercife themfelves on foot, in throwing, one againil a- nother, flaves five or fix feet long ; and thus learn to throw the Gerid, when on horfeback» The common people and peafants divert them- felves with cudgel-playing. Gladiators, by pro- fefTion there are, too, who exhibit in public. But ftaves are their only weapons ; and a fmall

cuihoin

IN ARABIA, ^C. 125

cuiliion faftened under the left arm, ferves them as a "buckler.

Through the villages, the young people a- mufe themfelves at diverfions much the fame as feveral of thofe which are pradtifed in Europe. They run, leap, play at the ball, fometimes at odds and evens, and at tolling a number of fmall Hones into the air, and receiving them again in- to the hand*

It is natural for a people who live in feclufion from fociety, and infubjeäiionto arbitrary autho- rity, to be fond of public feftivals. Thefe are celebrated in Egypt with much pomp and ce-- remony, particularly the feftival upon the de- parture of the pilgrims for Mecca, of which fe- veral authors have given a defcription. The o- ther feafts, befide this, are numerous : Each mofque celebrates a feaft in honour of its found- er ; upon occafion of which there is a proceffion of perfons of all ranks ; and the people are per- mitted to divert themfelves in an adjoining fquare. The Copts have their feafts, as vv^ell as the Ma- hometans, and contribute, by their ceremonies, to the general amufement.

Thefe fellivals are fometimes celebrated by night. The ftreets are then illuminated by the blaze of refinous wood in a chaffing difli, held up on a long pole. They ufe alfo another more luminous flambeau, which is a machine confift-

ing

NlE^UHR^S TRAVELS

ing of divers pieces of light wood, to which äfi hung a number of fmall lamps, and the whole carried on a pole, as the former. When thefe feftivals are celebrated by day, the people divert themfelves upon fwings, and with other fimilar amufements.

In Egypt, Syria, and Arabia, the favourite a- mufement of perfons in any degree above the very loweft claffes, is, to fpend the evening in a public cofFee-houfe, where they hear muficians^ lingers, and tale-tellers, who frequent thofe hou- fe^ in order to earn a trifle by the exercife of their refpedlive arts. In thofe places of public amufement, the Orientals maintain a profound filence, and often fit whole evenings without ut- tering a word. They prefer converfing with their pipe ; and its narcotic fumes feem very fit to allay the ferment of their boiling blood. Without recurring to a phyfical reafon, it would be hard to account for the general relifti which thefe people have for tobacco ; by fmoking, they divert the fpleen and languor which hang about them, and bring themfelves, in a flight degree, into the fame ftate of fpirits which the opium-eaters obtain from that drug. Tobacco ferves them inftead of ftrong liquors, which they are forbidden to ufe.

This fondnefs for tobacco has rendered them Very nice, wich refpedt to the form and materials

of

NIEBUHR'S TRAVJItS

öf their pipes. Thofe ufed by the common peo- ple, have the bole of burnt clay, with a reed for a ftalk. Perfons of condition have their pipes made of fome more precious matter, and more or- namented. They cover the ftalk with a piece of cloth which they v/et, when the heat is exceffive, in order to cool the fmoke, as they inhale it. Over great part of Afia, the Perfian pipe is ufed, which^ by palling the fmoke through water, renders it milder, and more agreeable to thofc who fwal- low it. In Egypt, this Perfian pipe is nothing but a cocoa nutftiell, half filled with water, with two ftalks, one communicating with the bole, the other entering the mouth of the perfon who fmokes. J[erim-Kan, the prefent Schah in the fouth of Perfia, feems to diftinguifii himfelf at this amufement ; for the pipe that is mofi: in fafhion, is called, after him, a Kerirn-Kan.

Smoking with the Perfian pipe ferves to warm a perfon upon occafion, as well as to amufe. The fmoke inhaled from it enters the lungs, and thus communicates through the whole body a gentle heat. In a voyage upon the Euphrates, which I performed in winter, the boatmen were often obliged to go into the water, to fet the boat a-flo?t. As they dürft not drink brandy to üive themfelves from fuffiring by the cold, I could not do them a greater pleafure, than by giving them ^ pipe of tobacco in this way.

Chap.

128

IN ARABIA, Cfr.

Chap. Vit

^ Games in the' Eaß.

The Koran prohibits playing for money ; and for this reafon the Orientals feidom play at any game of chance. The Mahometans have therefore the happinefs of never being forced, as vi^e are in Eu- rope, to engage, out of politenefs, in an infipid amufement, vi^hich waftes the body, by agitating the nnfocial and' malignant paffions ; blunts the powers of the mind, by fixing its attention upon ä few unmeaning combinations ; and chills the focial ardour of the heart, by the conteft of va- mty and intereft among the players.

However, as there are in all countries giddy and thouglitlefs perfons, I have feen Mahome- ' tans, who might poffibly be feduced by the ex- ample of the Europeans, play, although at a pid- dling game, when they were not with their wo„ men. They know nothing of our cards ; but at Bombay, I met with four Arabian merchants, ¥/ha played with Chinefe cards, fo large and thick, that not one of the four but had enough to do with both hands. Some young Mahome- ^an merchants, whom I furprifed playing at Bombay, concealed their game with an appear- ance

IN'aRABIA, ^'€k ' 129

ance of anxiety^ till thej learned that I was an European. The Greeks are too poliflied, not to imitate our manners ; they fhew themfelves good Ghriftians, by playing with our cards, and a deep game too.

The inhabitants of the Eaft have^ however, fome games, more fuitable to their fedentary life, and fplenetic humour, at which they play with-» out keermefs, and merely to fill up the vacant hours. Such are chefs, draughts, tridlrac. The Arabic names of thefe games, and their antiqui- ty prove them to have been originally introduc- ed from the Eaft into Europe. If the Mahome« tans fhew any degree of paffion for any one game, it is for chefs, at which they fpend, fome- times, whole days without interruption. But thofe who enter into the game with this, keen- nefs and ferioufnefs, are reckoned dull by their companions. Inftead of wooden chefs-boards, they ufe a white linen cloth, with pieces of a different colour fewed upon it. When the game is ended, the cloth is wrapped up, with the vic- tors and the vanquiflied, amicably mixed with- in it.

They have another game, which is played up- on boards, marked with two fquares, one with- jn another, and thefe divided diagonally,— with Hones or fhells of different colours. This game has found its way into Europe, where we fee

Vol. I. people

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people play at it with black and white beaiis, There are many others, which, being lefs di- verfified or ingenious, have not yet reached us. Such are the Mankale^ which bears fome refemblance to chefs ; and Tahuk Buk, in which being a mixture of hazard, it bears fome refem- blance to back-gammon. The hazard depends upon the play of four broad fticks, half white half black ; and the fides, thus differently co- loured, determine, by their combinations, the movement of the pieces upon the board.

A more ancient game is ftill in ufe among the inhabitants of the Eaft. The Arabs call it Lai el Kab ; it is played with fmall bones of fheep ör goats ; and the value of the feveral ftrokes in the progrefs of game is determined by the ap- pearance of one or another of the fides of the bone above. The elder Greek and Latin authors fpeak of this gam.e, which muß: have given riib l-o the ufe of the dice.

Chap. VIIl.

Of the Mujic of the Eaß.

Among the Turks and Arabs, a man of rank would think it a difgrace to learn mufic. A cer- tain aufterity ia their manners, too, renders this

people

IN ARABIA, ^r.

131

people infenfible to the charms of harmony. The contempt in which the art is held, extends to its profeffbrs ; and muficians are accordingly little efteemed and ill paid. An art thus defpifed by the great, cherifhed or admired hy no connoiu feurs, and not fitted to condu6l either to fam.e or fortune, cannot make rapid advances.

The mufic of the £aft, which is thus negle^l- ed, is not of the fame charader as ours. It is grave and fimple, without any complexity of modulation. The fingers, to gratify the nation- al tafte, are obliged to fing flow, that the fenfe of the words may underfi:ood. I have heard feveraf Schiechs fing fome pafiages from the Al- coran, in an eafy, natural key. There was fome- ^hing pleafingly afiedling and folemn in thofe pieces of mufic, joined with the words that ac- companied them. In my voyage up the Nile, I joined wit^ the failor§ in fin ging amorous fongs, by alternate 'couplets, in which they com- pared their miftrefies to the cucumbers of Damaf- cus, and the eyes of the gazelle ; and praifed their beautiful yellow hands, and red nails. This chorus of fingers afforded us no fmall entertain- ment.

Airs of that fimplicity are eanly learned by heart. The Orientals, accordingly, ufe no notes?^ but fing by the ear. I was told, in fome pro- vinces of Turkey, that there were in Confi:anti-

Q^2 nople

13^ NIEBUHR^S TRAVELS

nople great muficians, who employed fecrec ligns in reeolleding tunes. But, having made enquiry concerning this, upon my return to that capital, I could find nobody that had the llight- eil idea of mufical notes ; not even the dervifes of the order of Merlavi, who are, however, ef= teemed the heil muficians among the Turks.

At Bagdad, and at Conitantinopie, I affifted in fome concerts, which, though not to be compared to thofe of Europe, were not ill form- ed to pleafe an ear unaccuftomed to the intrica- qies of the mufical art. What is mofl difagree-. able, at firfl, is to hear all the infiruments play in unifon ; unlefs it happen, that one or another take the fancy to play a continued hafs, by mak- ing an inceiTant repetition.

If the mufic of the Eafl be not to the tafle of the Europeans, ours is not lefs difagreable to them, MrBaurenfiend and I often played upon the violin before Arabs of diflindion, who came to fee us. Although they did not openly or directly exprefs their difapprobation of our mufic, yet they faid enough to let us underfland that it was not a- greeable to them, and that they preferred their- own country mufic, as more mafculinc, and con^ fequently more excellent. As we were return- ing home in the dark one evening, during our flay at Cairo, from aflifling at a concert with fome European merchants^ we overheard an E°

gyptiap

IN ARABIA, ^ 133

gyptian voice fmging, and accompanied with a flute. One of our fervantSj enchanted with the found, exclaimed, My God I how^ fine ! God

blefs you I" We were furprifed^ and aiked him what he thought of our concert ? " Your

mulic," replied he, is wild and difagree-^ * ■ able ; and no man of fenfe or gravity can take " pleafure in it."

It fhould feem, from the fimple conflrudion of their mufical inftruments, as well as from va- rious other circumftances, that thofe are of a very ancient origin, and have been tranfmitted down, without undergoing any remarkable teration. Several of them are likewife common among the inhabitants of the illes in the Archi- pelago ; as are alfo three different forts, with three or four wires, called by the Greeks, Icitali^ Semari, and Baglama ; and by the Arabians, diflinguifhed by the Generic name of Tambiiray which is common to all mufical inftruments with w^ires. The Greeks have a bow^ inftrument with three catgut firings, upon which they play wdth an wooden bow, fitted with horfe's hair, to which they give the neceflary tenfion in play- ing, by prefhng it w^ith the little finger ; it is called the Lyra, Thefe inftruments are always accompanied with the voice.

Some bow- inftruments belong in a peculiar manner, to the Arabs ; fuch as the S einenge, a

fort

134 niebuhr's travels

fort of bad violin, joined with a drum, lu body is commonly a cocoa nut-fliell, with a piece of Ikin extended upon it ; three firings of catgut, and fometimes of horfe hair, are fitted to it ; and it is played with a bow, not lefs auk- ward in its form than the Greek Lyra. The Semenge is the inftrument of thofe wandering mulicians who accompany the dancing women. The Arabs give the name of marahha, to another violin, with a firing of horfe's hair, and a Ikin ftretched upon the body of the inftrument. This violin makes a very fuitable accompani- ment to the fhrill voices of the common fingers in the coffee- houfes. I faw, at Bafra, another violin, not unlike the Marabha with one firing, too, and covered with fkin, like the drunij,. and ufed in the fame way. At Bagdad I heard the drum beat in the European fafhion ; a lady at Alexandria put on fib/er nails, and beat it with her fingers.

The Egyptians are fond of noify mufical in- ftruments ; but the inhabitants towards the foutb. of Africa, feem to prefer a fofter fpecies of mu- fic. In the hands of a Barbaric or native of the kingdom of Bongola, I faw a fort of harp that afforded a very pleafing found. The body of the inflrument was a piece of wood of an oval form, hollowed, with a piece of fkin ftretched upon it, and mounted with five catgut firings,

with

IN ARABIA, ÜC,

^3S

with a turning handle, to which thefe were fix- ed, and by which the inftrument was tuned. It is played either by pinching the chords with the fingers, or by touching them with a piece of raw leather, in the fhape of a bow. My Bar* hari acquaintance danced while he played. This inflrument feemed not unlike to David's harp. The Barbari call it KuJJir ; the Arabs, Hamhura,

Among the wind inftruments is the true Tur- kifh flute, called Salojnanie^ and in ufe among the 7urcoma7i fliepherds. It is entirely open^ and without any reed, fo that to wind it is no cafy matter. This is the favourite inftrument of the Merlam dervifes, who, as they ufe mußc in their adls of religious worfhip, are the beft muficians in the Eaft, and excel efpecially in. playing on the flute. It is made either of a reed, or of a piece of fine wood. I faw a peafant at Cairo having Pa7i*s flute^ made of feveral differ- ent pieces of reed. /

The Sumara is a fort of flute with two pipes, one of which, the fhorter, is ufed for playing airs, and the longer, in a continued bafs ; juft like the long pipe in the Bulgarian bagpipe- They have a bagpipe in Egypt, called Sunmra el Kurbe ; but this is not equal to the Bulgarian bagpipe, which affords the fineft munc I heard in Turkey. It is true, alfo, that the Bulgarian

fliepherds

niebuhVs travels

fliepherds have already fome tafle for the mufic of Europe.

The Afiatics are fond of accompanying their dancing and fmging with the found of tambou- rines, in order the better to mark the meafure. Thefe are of different forts ; either circular pieces of wood, or earthen pots made for the purpafe, covered with fl^in, and founded with the fingers. The moil elegant tambourine is the Dö/^ to which the women dance in the ha- rams. The cailanet is to be reckoned among thefe muiical inftruments ; it is carried by the -public dancing girls ; beggars, too, and fome or- ders of mendicant Mahometan prieils, carry dif- ferent horns and drums, which they found when they aik alms*

The military mufic of the Turks is beginning to be known in Europe. That which is to be heard through the Eaft, however, affords noth- ing but an unpleafant, jarring noife, and would be entirely unworthy of notice, did it not ferve to mark the diftindions of ranü. A Pacha of three tails is preceded by a greater variety of mu=^ iical inftruments, playing martial mufic, than a a nobleman of inferior rank dares ufe, fo that a perfon's employment may be known by the mu- fic which goes before him. The principal in- ftruments ufed in thofe martial concerts, are a fort of trumpet exceedingly noify, which is cal- led

IN ARABIA, i^C.

^37

led in Egypt Surma : the Tabbel, or great Tiir- kifhtabour, which is held horizontally, and ftruck upon both fides ; a hautboy of an acute found, and another that founds not unlike our baifoon, Laßlv, they have plates of fonorous metal, which, they flrikc one againft another, to mark the ca- dence (r).

Chap. IX.

Of Dancings as it is pracijfed in the ElxJ}.

A refpeclable Mahometan, who fliould indulge in dancing, would difgrace himfelf in the cfti- mation of his countrymen. The women, how- ever, -value themfelves upon excellence in this exercife, and practife it without fcruple, reckoning it their duty to contribute to the pleafures of their hufbands, by every little art in their power. When by themfelves, too, ,in an affembly confiding, only of women, on oc- cafion of a marriage, or any other fol emni ty, they vie no lefs than before their hufbands, in dan- cing.

A perfon from Tripoli related to me in what manner the- women oftbat city amufc \ '\ ' upon feftive occafions, and, I have i,! ' to believe^ that the fame cuH"^' -'^ • .... tike in. Vol. I. R. Ä'fuke^

138

niebuhr's travels

Turkey and Arabia ; however, I do not pretend to be abfolutely certain ; for it is impoffible to meet with an eye-witnefs of thofe amufements. My Tripoli acquaintance had his information from his wife, who ingenuoufly told liim what- ever he aiked.

No woman would prefume to appear in an af- fembly, if Ihe were not handfome and magnifi- cently dreiTed. If the entertainment happens to be in the houfe of a family of rank, fifty of the greateil beauties in the city affemble, alj dreiTed out in great fplendour. In their train^ they bring their handfomefl ilaves, who attend in a feparate room, to take care of the coffers containing their raiftrefTes clothes. After the ladies have been feated for fome time, and have been ferved with refrefliments, young girls are called in, to divert the company with vocal and inftrumental muiic. The moil difdnguifhed lady in the company then rifes, dances for a few minutes, and paffes into the next apartment, where her Ilaves are in waiting to change herdrefs. She lays all afide, even her flippers embroidered with gold and fiiver, and retains only her head- drefs and bracelets, which are richly ornament- ed with jewels. In the mean time, the reil dance, and in their turns leave the room to change their drefs ; and this is fucceflively repeated, fo longj that a lady will fometimes change her drefg

ten

IN ARABIA, ^C. 139

teil times in one night ; and put on fo many different fuits, every one richer than another. They drive all to command admiration ; and their endeavours end, as among us^ in jealoufies and grudges.

The Greek women have fo fully adopted this piece of Eaftern luxury, that they change their drefs on the flighteft occafions. An European fettled at Conftantinople, told me, that he had feen a Greek lady, the wife of one of his friends, whom he vifited, put on five different dreifes^ in the fpace of two hours. Thefe inftances prove the power of inftind:, and the uniformity of the character of the fex, all over the world.

The men difdain to pradife this exercife, but amufe themfelves fometimes with feeing dancing girls exhibit, who go about, and dance for hire, either in places of public refort, or in private houfes upon feilive occalions. Thofe dancers are called, at Conftantinople, Tfchingane or gyp- fies, and at Cairo, Gbaße. They are young mar- ried, or unmarried women, belonging to a fepa- rate and defpifed clafs of the lower people, who intermarry only among themfelves. Their pa- rents are commonly farriers by trade. They are attended only by one man, who plays on the femenge, and fometimes by an old woman, who plays on the tambourine, and appears to watch over their conducl ; they are faid, however, not

R 2 to

14©

HIEBUHR's TRAT£LS

to be of the moft demure and rigid virtue. Yet 110 married Mahometan incurs any obloquy by carrying them to dance in his houfe ; and they go wherever they are well paid. But an un- married Mahometan dares not invite them to his houfe ; and we never met with any of them in the houfes of any of the French merchants, who, by a regulation of their fovereign, are all reftri<^ed to celibacy.

At firft, we never faw them but by accident, and in a public houfe without the city ; but, to- wards the conclufion of our Hay in Egypt, we had better opportunities of gratifying our curi- ofity. A great part of the houfes in which the Europeans live, Hand along the great canal which pafles through Cairo : and thofe Gbaß accordingly derive their bell profits from dancing oppolite to thefe houfes in the canal, when it is dry, before the opening^ of the dyke. At that period,, we made fometimes one troop, fometimes ano- ther dance before us. We needed fuch amufe- ments to divert the gloomy ideas which the prof- ped: of our departure raifed in our minds. Yet, however much difpofed to receive entertain- ment, they did not pleafe us at firft ; their vo- cal and inftrumental mufic we thought horrible, and their perfons appeared difguftingly ngiy, with their yellow hands, fpotted faces, abfurd orna- meßts, and hair larded with {linking pomatum.

But,.

IN ARABIA, E^^i

But, by degrees, we learned to endure them, and for want of better, began to fancy fome cf them pretty, to imagine their voices agreeable^ their movements graceful, though indecent^ and their miific not abfolutely intolerable.

There is nothing peculiar in the drefs of thefe women ; when dancing, they throw up theiF Teils, and leave them to float on their fiioulders^ They wear a petticoat reaching fcarcely under the knee, open behind, and fixed by a broad- girdle with two large buttons. As they were defcribed to me, the Tfchingane dance at Con- ftantinople, juft like Gbaße at Cairo. Mr Baw^ renfiend made a drawing of a party of the lat- ter, with the man who plays to them upon the femenge, and the old woman who beats the tam^ bourine.

The Ghriftians in the Eall have different fpe, cies of dancing and muiic, according as they be- long to one or another nation. At Mojul, I fav>;" Jacobites and Neftorians dance at one of thei^ feftivals. None of them all are either fo fond of dancing, or dance well as the Greeks. They dance round in a ring, with fo me pretty woman leading the dance. The Wallaehians and Bul- garians have likewife their national dances ; but theirs are not equal to thofe of the Greeks.

It is always prudent to accommodate one's felf to the manners and opinions of the country

in

KIEBUHR^S TRAVELS.

in which one lives. The Europeans at Conßaü» tinople obferve not this rule. They divert them, felves in the capital of the Ottoman empire, as they would at Paris or London. They have nei- ther play nor opera, but they often give m.afked balls at Pera and Galata. The Mahometans have an averfion for thefe amufements ; and, as none but the very lowed among them dance? they extend their contempt to dancers in gene- ral, whoni they look upon as perfons of no mo- tals or education. The promifcuous dancing of the two fexes, which they mentioned to me with horror^ renders our balls abfolutely deteftable in their eyes. The Europeans, who live among Mahometans, would be more beloved and re- fpedled, if they did not vilify themfelves in the ^yes of the Orientals, by amufements which they might eafily fpare.

An anecdote was told me of a Turk, who, upon his return from Italy, where he had feen the Carnival, imagined that the Ghriftians be- came mad at a certain feafon of the year ; and re- covered their wits by putting aihes on their heads. This ftory, whether true or fid:ion, is to be found in Montefquieu's Perfian Tales.

Chap.

IN ARABIA, <^C> 143

Chap. X

Public Shews cf the Eaß.

We did not expe£l to fee a play in Egypt : Bat there was in Cairo a numerous company of play- ers, Mahometans, Chriftians, and Jews, at the time of our arrival in that city. Their appear- ance befpoke their poverty. They played their pieces, v/herever they were invited, for a mo- derate hire. They exhibited in the open air. The court of the houfe was their theatre ; and a fcreen concealed them from the audience, when they changed their drefles. Several European merchants had lived long at Cairo without fee- ing an Egyptian play ; and we therefore invited the company to the houfe of a married Italian : But we Vv^ere not much gratified either by the muiic or the players.

The piece was in Arabic, I was not then fufficiently mafter of this language to underfiand the dialogue ; but the fable was explained to me. The principal characler was a female ; but was acled.by a man in v/oman's drefs, v/lio had much to do to hide his beard, Tiiis heroine en- ticed all travellers into her tent; and, after rob- ing them of their purfes, caufed them to be

beaiejj

t44

niebühr's travels

beaten ofE She had already plundered a good ■maojj when a young merchant, weary of the infipid repetition of the fame tricks,., exprefied aloud his difapprobation of the piece. The o=- therfpedators.toiliew that their delicacy was not inferior to his, joined fiis expreffion of difappro-. BatioD^ and obliged the players to Hop, although the piece was not more than half done.

If few plays are reprefented in Cairo, pop- pet-fhews arCj however, very common, and are to be met with through all the ilreets. This exhibition is reprefented upon a very narrow Hage, a fort of box which a iingle perfon can •eaßly carry about, and into which the perfomi- er goes. He fends forward his figores throogli holes in the coffer, and makes them perform the ixeceiTary movements by iiieaos of wires paffing through the grooves in the lid of the box. With an inftrument in his mouth, he gives his voice a ihrillnefs anfwerable to the lize of the fi- gures. The whole together might merit atten^ tiODj were not the pieces, which the tafte of the fpedlators in Cairo requires to be performed^ ab- folutely execrable. The puppets begin by pay- ing compliments, quarrel by degrees^ and end with beating; one another^

The magic lanthorn is a favourite amufement in the Eaft. I was notj however, fond of fucli entertainments ; as their fcope was always to

IN ARABIA, ^r.

^urn the drefs and manners of the Europeans in^ to ridicule.

Jugglers are to be feen in all the more public ilreets ; who amufe the people bv tricks that are thought wonderful in Egypt, but would not be reckoned fo in Europe. One of thofe feilov/s drew great admiration by means of an intermit-^ ting fountain, the fecret of which is not under- •fto®d in thofe countries^ and which appeared therefore to flop and flow at his pleafure. Thofe jugglers are paid by a voluntary contribution of the fpeclators, but that fo moderate, that they can fcarce live by their profeffion.

Monkies, drelTed up like human beings, con^- tribute like wife to the amufement of the popu- lace. They are of that fpecies which abound in the foreft of Yemen, and difcover extraordinary intelligence and docility. This animal feems naturally fond of dancing. A captain, in the fervice of the Eaft India Company, informed me, that he had often made his drums enter ruinous pagodas, where monkies were the fole inhabitants ; and that, at the found of the mar- tial mulic, even the mothers, with the young in their arms, left their holes, and fome hundreds of thefe animals \^)^ould join at once in a dance. The long robes w^orn in the Eaft would be an incommodious drefs for monkies : they are there- fore clothed like Europeans ; a quftom which

^OL.L S encreafe^

146

NIEBÜHP?S TRAVELS

encreafes the contempt with which the Orient ak are otherwife fufficiently difpofed to regard our manners : A monkey, with his tail, appears to them no unfit reprefentation of an European with his hea^ uncovered, wearing a fword in a hori- zontal pofition, the end of which appears be= hind, ilTuing from beneath his clothes^ and in all other refpeds in full drefs.

Thofe who lead about beafts for exhibition, have often like wife affes and Iheep, whom they have taught to perform certain little diverting tricks. Another thing, at which we were at firft not a little furprifed, was to fee ferpents dance. But, upon becoming better acquainted with the inilinds of this animal, our aftonilh- ment ceafed. The ferpent feems to have a na- tural tafte for founds ; at the beat of the drum^^ it raifes its head, and ere6ls its body, makings at the fame time, a certain movement which is called its dancing.

I faw a man of a lingular character, who ex- hibited himfelffor a Ihew in theitreets of Cairo. He was a beggar, who, to move compaffion, dif- played a huge chain, which he pretended to have borne in captivity at Malta. He enume-- rated, in a piteous tone of voice, what miferies he had fufiered in llavery among the barbarous Europeans. What he complained moll of, and what feemed to excite the greateft horror in

his

IN ARABIA, ^C.

his hearers, was, that he had been obliged to keep fwine, and to fleep at night in the fame fty with thofe impure animals. People of fenfe, in- deed, heard him with indignation; but his nar^ rative failed not to infpire the populace with Vxh- horrence for the Chriflians.

Chap. XL

Zlarr'm^s of the Egyptians.

The fecrecy which is obferved with refpecPc to every thing "^hat paffes in the harems, or regards the women, rendered it impoffible for me to ob- tain particular information concerning the cere- monies of marriage among the Egyptians. I can only defcribe what I faw in a public pro- ceffion at Cairo, on the occaiion of a mafriage. Mr Baurenfeind made a drawing of the pro-> ceffion.

• The bride, clofely covered from head to foot, walked under a canopy borne by four men, be- tween two women, who conduced her. Seve- ral Haves walked before, fome playing on the tambourine, others bearing fly-flaps, and others fprinkling fcented waters. She was followed b7 a number of v/omen, and by fome muficians,

S 2 riding

NIEBUHR'S TRAVEiS

riding upon afles. A number of fervants atten-. ded 5 and, as they pafled on, performed feats of llrength and agility. All the women in the pro- ceffion cried inceflantly, Ln, Lu, Lu ; an ex- clamation exprellive of joy, among the Maho^ metans. If the procellion take place at night, flaves attend with flambeaus.

We met, one day, an Arab bride near Alexan-^ dria. She rode upon a camel, and behind he^ followed her dowry in cattle and furniture. The proceflion marched on flowly, and flopped fome^ times, to difplay itfelf. As it proceeded, mufic played, guns were fired, and the women raifei continued ihouts of joy.

SECTION

IN. ARABIA, ^.C»

MS

SECTION \\

EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES»,

Chap. L

Egyptian Antiquities in General,

Of all countries in the known world, Egypt prefents to curious obfervation the greateft num-^ ber of monuments of remote antiquity. Vari- ous caufes concur to give this country the ad-, vantage in this refped: over every other part of the globe.

A potent, rich, and enlightened people, are naturally led to leave fome marks of their exif- tence, and fome proofs of their profperous con- dition that may defcend to the lateft poflerity. We know, by the unanimous teftimony of the ancients, that the Egyptians have been, frgm time immemorial, a polifhed and and flourifhing 5iation, before the comparatively recent period

whicii

15.0 NIEBUHR^S TRAVELS

which we regard as the asra of ancient hiftory* Three thoufand years have elapfed, lince the me- mory of the authors of many of the celebrated works in Egypt, was lofl from among the tradi- tions of prieits. So ancient a people mufl un- doubtedly have had a great fhare in the firft po- pulation, and the civilization of the fouth of Eu- rope. All hillorians agree concerning the fplen- did exploits of the ancient Egyptians ; and of fuch a people there cannot but remain fome vef- tiges in the country which they inhabited.

It is true, that we have many decilive proofs of the exiftence of other nations in the remote ages of antiquity J, as powerful as the Egyptians, and even more enlightened. Yet, of thofe nations^, no veftige remains ; their buildings, and other public works, are totally effaced. The country which they cultivated and embellifhed, is, at prefent, a barren defart, defliitute of every re- main that might n^iark its ancient ftate, and in- habited, or rather ravaged, by wandering barba- rians (s).

Some phyfical caufe muft, therefore, have con- tributed to the prefervation of the antiquities of Egypt. Such a caufe is difcernible in the na- ture of the climate and of the foil. The air is dry ; rain feldom falls, and froft is unknown. Wet and cold, therefore, whofedeflrudive agency

waftes.

IN APvABIA, i^C.

Waftes away, even the moll folid works of human conftrudion, have here no influence.

The foil of Egypt, too, might furniih the in- habitants with the molt durable materials fot building. Through Lower Egypt, and in the rifing ground on its confines, calcareous ftones are found, of a particular fpecies and full of fmall cavities. But, of thefe, no building, except the pyramids, has been conftruded. In Upper E- gypt, again, where the furface is unequal and e- levated, are granites of all colours, the hardelt known. The ranges of mountains are compof- ed of granite ; and it was therefore eafy for the Egyptians to employ in their buildings large malTes of ftone, of a nature the moll proper to refill the influence of all unfriendly agency, whether phyfical or moral. The modern inha- bitants of Egypt cannot break a column of gra- nite, to employ it in building a cottage, as thofe of other countries break pillars of marble, for fi- milar purpofes.

Befides, the ancient Egyptians appear to have fpared no expence or pains, in order to confer durability on the works which they reared* Their pieces of fculpture are all faiiant, and all of a fize and folidity, unufual in the buildings of the other nations of antiquity. The infcrip- tions, although on fo hard a fpecies of ilone, are

fo

^5^

isriEBUHR's TRAVILS

lb deeply engraven, that the authors muii cef- tainly have intended them never to be effaced.

Upper Egypt being more elevated than the Löwer, mull have been firft inhabited. It feems to have been the principal feat of the ancient Pharaohs, who were fo powerful and magnificent; for in it are the moil numerous and moll fuperb monuments of antiquity ' ^ be found. Many travellers ha » - .efcribed thefe intereiting ruins. Pococke and Norden are the moll eminent. They have carried their refearches fartheft, and have given the moil exa6l and particular defcrip- tions*

I had not great opportunity of examining the curious antiquities of Egypt. All that I could bring away, was a few of the figures that were vv^orfhipped as idols, of bronze and burnt clay : and thefe do no credit to either the tafie or the ikill of the Egyptian artifts. In general, it ap- pears, that this nation never excelled in the arts of defign. Their paintings are remarkable for nothing but glaring colours ; and their fculpture is equally faulty in the defign^ and in the fi« gures*

Chap.

ilf ARABIA, l^a

Chap. Ii»

t/:e Pyramidso

. Of the antiquitie| of Egypt, the moft aftonifli^ iüg, are, doubtlefs, me Pyramkl'^, The eye, if not pleafed, is at leaft lingulariy ftruck by the appearance of thofe enormous malTes.

The three principal pyramids are feen from Cairo ; and every ftranger who arrives in that capital is tempted to approach and examine them. We have a number of defcriptions of thefe pyramids already, and I fliall not encrcafe the number. I fnall only mention fome obferva- tions in which I am obliged to differ from thofe who have gone before me.

The pyramids ftand upon the firfl hill between Cairo and the weftern bank of the Nile, In go- ing thither from Gee/b, \yq pafs a confiderable arm of that river, over two beautiful bridges^ conüfting each often arches. Between the two » bridges is a long dyke, of fubftantial mafon-- work. Several travellers reprefent the bridges as works of the ancients. But the Arabic in- fcriptions upon them, prove them to have been built by the Mahometans.

Vol. I, T ' The

^54

niebuhr's travels

The travelier is aftoniflied, and feelä his ima- gination in fome meafure expanded, when he arrives at the foot of thofe prodigious maffes. It is from this circumilance, I fuppofe, that the pyramids are thought much higher, on a firil view, than they actually are. My firfl care was to meafure them. This I performed with all the exadlnefs poiiible, amongft a crowd of jea- lous and troublefome Arabs, by whom I was furrounded ; and found the iargeft and fore- mofl pyramid to be four hundred and forty feet. I was furprifed to find the refult of my meafure- ment fo different from what many other travel- levs had given out to be the height of this pyra- mid ; and was for fome time uneafy about com- municating it to the public. Upon my return to Europe, I found in the Defer iption of the plains of Beliopolis and Memphis hy Mr Fonnnont, the following paiTage : " Lord Charlemont, wha arrived in Egypt, while I was there, told me,, that he had meafured the height of the fore^ mofc pyramid, and aiTured me, that it was on- ly four hundred and forty four feet." The agreement of this meafurement with my own, rendered me lefs doubtful of the corre61;nefs of my operations.

Thofe enormous maffes are built of foft cal- - careous flone, of the fame nature as the rock on which they ftand. it is prefumeable, then,

that

IN ARABIA, i^C.

^55

that all the polifhed ilone has been talcen from the fame place, and wrought at fmall expence. The fondnefs for the marvellous, therefore, fo common to travellers, has caufed them to mag- nify the expence and labour which thofe moun- tains of hewn Hone muft have coil. With the help of natural philofophy and natural hiftory» w^onders of all kinds are reduced to their true value.

To enhance the high ideas w^hich they hold out, of the magnificence of thofe monuments ; various writers reprefent the pyramids as having been once coated upon the outfide with marble. But, of this, I could not, by any pains, difcover the ilightefl vefcige. Befide the third pyramid, indeed, fome pieces of granite are to be feen ; but thefe are neither large, nor numerous enough, to afford reafon for fuppofing, that even one py- ramid could be covered w^ith them. Thofe blocks might perhaps ferve as ornaments, and might poffibly bear the infcriptions, of which none are, at prefent, difcernible on the pyra^ mids.

I entered the foremofc pyramid, and examin- ed the large chamber, with the coffer in it, of which all travellers fpeak. But 1 did not fee the fecond chamber, which was difcovered im- mediately after our departure, by Mr Davifon, who had accompanied Mr Montague into E-

T 2 gypt'